LECTURE 2 NEUTRAL pH ALTERATION: FROM DIAGENESIS TO. HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION TO CONTACT METAMORPHISM 1, CHARACTERISTICS OF NEUTRAL pH ALTERATION IN PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS. + Pervasive, dominant alteration ype + Temperature range - ambient to p400'e: + Depths of occurrence - surface to 3000 m; + Occurs throughout the stratigraphic sequence in the ‘wells, affecting volcanics, cale- alkaline intrusives and sedi- mentary rocks: + Morethan secondary minerals have been identified, 28 of which are relatively common, cation aluminosilicates are dominant; + Origin of 2 ee pect pee ted pera raftomsteescss f se ‘nosey coke ! panel More conmon ee miner + Thema zones defined by the 2 indiana sole mrest © pets Snocteincyeed thes aan, Secie ine ite cy ace wherein montmorillonite and + Oretextur tie relos ary wid Tan incressing temperature and depth Figure 24). cross- section in Tongonan, the Philippines, shows the disti- bution of mineral zones with temperature (Figure 25); = Less common, found spora- ically and often lithologi- ally controlled (occur where basalt, diabase and andesite byaloclastites are present) are clay zones consisting mainly ofthe Mg- clays vermiculite and chlorite, and interlayering between the two minerals (Figures 26 and 27). Figure 24: Variations in smectite ratios with ‘increase in temperature as indicated by changes in .4(001) spacing with temperature (Reyes, 1984) wosiguionmedurs 26GENESIS TO “METAMORPHISM. rmectiteilite ratios with indicated by changes in verature (Reyes, 1984) Lecture 2 a Neutral pH alteration Figure 25: Cross section of mineral zones and sub-zones and stable measured ‘temperature isotherms in Tongonan, the Philippines (Reyes, 1990) * Origin of altering fluids is meteoric, although some components may be magmatic, Magmatic ‘components in terms of 8D and 60 range from zero to 40% (Figure 2); Mineralogy and mineral associations are the basis for most ofthe uses of petrology inthe exploration and development of geothermal systems (refer to Lecture 1); + Thermal flucuations can be adduced from mineralogy and fluid inclusion data. Cooling may be indicated by the retrogradation of epidote, amphibole. biotite (to chiorite) and illite to lower ‘empersture minerals, intense pitting in epidote, cold water incursion (see Lecture |), reappearance ‘of opal at depth, etc. Heating may be observed in the conversion of smectite toile, vermiculite to chlorite, opal to quartz, tourmaline to andalusite; * Oretextures and common ote elements: brecciaton, open-space filling: Cu, Pb, Za, Sb, As, Ag, He, Tau. Figure 26: Changes in Mg-rich lays with depth and temperature in ‘Bac-Man wells, the Philippines. Verm= Vermiculite, Ch= Chlorite, ‘Sw= Swelling, Sm= Smectite (Reyes, 1984)‘Neutral pH alteration 28 Lecture 2 2. ALTERATION TYPES ae FE) percanicares | onan suicares ‘eur aleraton anges fiom io fenersie aroermal 0 aga Telvarirnal o comet meer ‘hie later often cos ase inamaie, eon by eal pH waters inserainly of-reshffin ofl ‘ments into new minerals (Figure 28); “Te orock emt alessio PR feeltaton at <220C, Z Propylitesraoncharacersed Bek- a Dy tsence of thle and epidote a il ce oemnines Be Sexotte-cerlte a 8035 r oot by wey phoiaat SE cenbonge a 2330°C (asi hones aes slighty Figure 27: Juntapositon of wo types of cay Ease tales Peeples n Mahagao, the Pasipins ‘Types of alteration affected by (Reyes, unpublished results) ‘uence wae and rota wigs fier aioe Baile ltertion awe = Phylie aeration at 200 mv, = Bic aiationa>220°C {ppm ofmcacomatinn found iepaitippinepectberme) an 2 Fmerasomatin asssied Sah te pfow of 180 Yenc” wales penctie Tones, fen sompmicd ty hydrolytic. atack ‘owe by eoposton of flowed by sermon OF re 78: Neural pH ateaion ofen involves esting scalar in vans twee PT alment ne ciginal rock to fom new erin divas preceded by the ake New Zoaland (Reyes, 1999) Gisstuon of peer erout composes sek pasate _ mest components Sh Remand itsaon of plaice. Abies only presi in A andorra >200°C _Suseand ene 2 iceapead and Me baring nner ae highly varied. Tei pevalnse oe rahe amndnne of eoragnesian phe andes TOE, inthe PRP On may ep gochuricl Gaited with the api exralsation a ae ae gore and vermlitegeur, whileaeinaiesreol ofall gh rac waters ae ply ae y rok xng with eal i Fae te eC and n>270', Mg pains ino a phosphate miner, ian A Lecture 2 3. CASE ‘The Tongor Sambelorar Cooling aa superpositic ‘han “equi ‘Within Mat near the mai waters intra Figure 29: Ch= Chloé Hya= Hyal Do=ELecture 2 2 ce i 8 wilson ere | ion of two types of clay ‘agnao, the Philippines bilished results) on often involves reshutfling ck to form new minerals in 4 (Reyes etal, 1994) se. Albite is only precipitated in highly varied. Their prevalence fang inthe andesitc host roeks;, ed with the rapid neutralisation ‘occur, while actinlitetremoite ‘zoek or mixing with neutral pL ttions into a phosphate mineral, Leenure 2 29 Neutral pH alteration 3. CASE STUDY: NEUTRAL pH ALTERATION IN TONGONAN, THE PHILIPPINES ‘The Tongonan geothermal system consists of four sectors: Maiaa-Sambaloran, Malitbog, Mamban and Mehenagdong. Prograde alteration zones are associated with the active hydrothermal system in Mahigo- Sambaloran and Mahenagdong (Figures 25 and 29). Cooling and several alteration events had occurred in Malitbog and Mamban, as indicated by the ‘superposition of the smectite over the illite zone and the occurrence ofthe top of the illite zone at lower than “equilibrium” temperatures. As much as 250 m uplift probably occurred in Malitbog and Mamban. ‘Within Mahiao-Sambaloran and Mahanagdong, anhydrite is abundant in hotter portions of the system, near the main upflow zone while calite occupies the cooler peripheral and shallowerregions, Where cold ‘waters intrude, calite becomes dominant over anhydrite, such as in Malitbog and Mamiban (Figure 30). ora = NETERTION yea gones -q— SD NORE ROCTATED NER ZONES 5 Rl e15/2 15/6 fra lel lex s SECT = Figure 29: Temperature ranges of mineral zones and sub-zones in Tongonan. I-Sm= Ilite-smectite, Che Chlorte, Peh~ Prehnite, O= Opal, Cr= Cristobalite, Trié= Tridymite, Ab= Albite, Ad=Adulara, yee Hyalophane, Lau» Laumontite, Wai Wairakite, Clz= Clinozbisite, Tit Titanite, Cm= Caleite, Do= Dolomite, Ah= Anhydrite, Rr= Rutile, Py= Pyrite, Cpy= Chaleopyrte, Sl~ Sphalerite, Gal= Galena. Quarzis often present from 180"C (Reyes et al, 1988 and 1990) EXITSNeutral pH alteration 30 Figure 30: Distribution of anhydrite and calcite in Tongonen, the Philippines (Reves, 1990) ae WL alll ‘SW-TRENDING FAULTS NS-TRENDING FAULTS NW-TRENDING FAULTS NE-TRENDING FAULTS 5 Ineeny 230 MPa Figure 31: Permeable faults in Tongonan, the Philippines (Reyes at al, 1990) Lecture 2 se Cooling in a geothermal system may be caused by (1) structurally-controlled incursionof cold groundwater into the system, (2) thermal decline of the beat source ‘with time and (3) shifting of the focus of fluid flow in response to renewed intrusion. Cooling and heating trends ‘can be used to define the Inydrology ofa system. These aze based on 2 comparison between hydrothermal ‘mineral occurrences, fluid inclusion homogenisation results and measured well remnperatares, Relict alteration atthe surface of Malitbog and Mamban indieate cooling by as much as 250°C while no cooling is ‘observed in Mahiao-Sambalocan. Apparent heating trends observed in some wells are caused by poor permecbility, enabling smectite and low-temperatute zeolites 10 persist at >200°C. True heating trends are observed in wells located within the main upfow: Faults are the major sources of permeability in Philippine systems. The presence of faults aloag a well are based on combined ‘evidences from petrographic observations, drilling parameters such as drilling losses, blind drilling and bit walks and well measurements indicative of permeability From detailed petological studies and comparison with well measurements, it was found that in Tongonan, the northeast trending faults are the most permeable whilst the least permeable are the E-W striking ones (Figure 31). 4. DIAGENESIS AND HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION Studies on alteration in ahydrocarbon-bearing sedimentary basin are based onthe premise that diagenesis {sa low-temperature type of hydrothermal alteration, wherein fluids and temperature play major roles in mineral precipitation, dissolution and transformation. Thus, petrological principles gained from hydrothermal studies can be extended to understanding hydrocarbon reservoirs. Like hydrott flow and inf hhydrotherma Inthe study + ‘modes of mis reflected lig inclusion det (PIXE) analy Figure 32 she from initial ar ofsilice-samr the formation ‘racnues and Tat ‘Time span fo ‘Main faetors mineral form: ‘Aleration yp Pressure cond (Alteration oF ¢ material [Blemental mol Factors ace {mineralogy wiLecture 2 Cooling in @ geothermal system may be caused by (1) structurally-controlled incursionofcold groundwater into the system, (2) thermal ecline of the heat source ‘with time and (3) shifting of the foeus of fluid flow in response to renewed intrusion. Cooling. and heating trends can be used t© define the hydrology of a system. These are based on a comparison between hydrothermal mineral occurrences, fluid inclusion homogenisation results and measured well temperatures. Relic alteration athe surface of Malitbog and Mambsn indicate cooling by as much as 250°C while no cooling is ‘Mahiao-Sambaloran. Apparent 4s observed in some wells are ‘poor permeability, enabling 4 low-temperature zeolites 10 200°C. True heating trends are ‘wells located within the main I80°C, affects the type of [minerals deposited; but often | minerals deposited and their ckenges in temperature with compositions ‘depth are very gradual and variations in temperature narrow ‘Geothermal gradients [100°Cram ‘Geochemical graient | Very gradual affected more by _| May be very siep especially im ‘the basin histo than the present | rugged country; affected to large fopogranh degree by topography ‘Time span for alteration © [May take tens of milions of | May take days to as ong as is oocur ears ifetime (0.1 to 1.Oma) Main fasion affeting Kinetic factors (ydrostatic | Near-equilbxium conditions mineral formation gradient affects mineral sssociation/assemblages) Alieration pe Rock-dominated "Ranges from rook to fi \dominated ‘rescue conditions [Pressure in the sedimentary basic [Mostly unimportant affects absolute ges pressures and ‘this in tum affects the type of mineral assemblages formed “Slieration o carbonaceous |Important under redox eonditions | Merely gets cooked and oes not ‘material and during deearboxyiation {participate in morgane mineral | processes, Alteration affects CO; | deposition above about 120°C “generation in the system ‘Blemenial mobility during [Subtle Drasic changes observable aeration Factors affecting variations in [Redox conditions, fluid acidity, See Lecture | and 2 notes ‘mineralogy withdepth | as contents. porosityNeutral pH alteration 2 Lecture? ‘Apar from chaleedonie quartz andilitic clays other authigeni minerals, occuring es replacement phases for as cementing material, include siderite, ankerite, dolomite, kaolinite, pyrite, goethite and minor caleite. Siderte and Fe- bearing dolomite and ankerite are prevalent, reflecting the overall redox condition ofthe system, wherein the oxidation of hydrocarbon gases and decarboxylation generated CO, that in tum promoted siderite deposition. As temperature decreased and as CO, was used up, solutions became ‘slightly acid, resulting in the kaolinisation of iltc clays and muscovite fragments and the precipitation of kaolinite aggregates. As the acid solutions were nevtralised by interaction with rock and more CO, is produced by the system, calcite was deposited. Porosity and permeability had been diminished by diagenetic eactions (Figure 22). Enews rence ae oe | \ea [Ell me i | i ] 1 3 i o 5 We i i add |r . : | nl ai yep’ PPL i Ts u | a3 Figure 32: Paragenesis in # New Zealand hydrocarbon system that atained maximum temperatures of about 150°C; estimated fluid compositions are based on fluid inclusion studies whilst temperatures ‘ae based on fluid inclusion data, well measurements and authigenic mineral associations ‘Reyes, 1998) ACID A’ ZONE 1. OccuRR ‘Acid alteration Smet fen nar Foms con Sharp bout Some sal Cecursas« Temperate Often foun Often asso: hid domi