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    Fundamental of IC engines

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    41 views80 pages

    Fundamentals of Ic Engines by H.N.Gupta

    Uploaded by

    zanibab
    Fundamental of IC engines

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Ree eM eT po Ce Lm INTERNAL BURY E TO SES zi ie a = H.N. Gupta FUNDAMENTALS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, Second Edition HIN, Gupta © 2019 ty PI Lowering Private Lined, DetN. AN ngs resend, Mo part of his Boek may bo awd ny fo key mirmeeash © ary oer mean, wi pas fn Wom tha publisher (SBN-978-#1-209-4690-2 ‘The expect rights of this book are vested salsy wilh the publisher Finh Printing (Second Esition) January, 2013 Publined by Asoke K Ghosh, FH Leaering Priva Industrial Estate, Dalhit10082 and Printed Py, Bo) HIDE, Kurdi-t21028, Sonspal, Haryars. Lined, Rinjbins Heuco, 111, Pataran| wal Siactie Press. Plat No. 2. Phaca IV Contents Profce 1, Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 1-50. LI AnOverviow 1 1.2 Historical Development 2 1.3 Moder Developments 3 LA Engine Classifications 4 LS Clascification of Reciprocating Engines by Application & 1.6 Classifications of Engines by Cylinder Arrangement — 6 LT Engine Compavesis 9 18 Basie Terminoloxy 14 LO Fur-stroke Spark-ignition Engine 15 LIN Walvestiming of Foursstrake SI Engine 17 110. Malet Valve 78 L102 Eslunst Valve 18 LIL Faur-stroke Compression Ignition (C1) Engines 1 LI Comparison of St and CI Engines 24 LIS Two-stroke Engines 21 LL} Comparison of Four-stroks and Two-stroke Engines 23 LIS Geometry of Reciprocating Engine 24 L1G Engine Performance Parameters TG. Feel Power 2? 116.2 Incsated Powertip) 27 L1G Brake Power (hp) 28 L164) Friction Power (ip) 9 L163 Indated Thermal Eficieney (,) 29 1166 Broke Thesmal Efficiency 13) 29 L1G Mechanical EMfciency (7) 29 L1G Combustion Efficiency (p) 30 1169 Relate Eficiency or EMfckeney Ratio (7g) 30 116.10 YolumetieEfisieney (7) 30 LIG.U1 Indiated Mean Eiective Pressure timep of ig) FF iv Contents LIGI2 Brake Mean Etfestive Presen L161 Spovitie Fuel Co 116.14 Spesisio Power, Onupat per Displacement, Engine Spe Engine Spevifie Weight 33 LIGIS AinFuel and FueléAur Ratios 33 Review Questiome 47 Problems 48 hmep oF pa) 32 mmption (sft) 3 Air-Standard Cycles and Their Analysis, s1109 21 Introduction 51 2.2 Air-standard Cyele $7 23° CamolCyele $2 24° Stirling Cyele 55 25 EriessomCycle 37 26 Lenoir Cycle 59 27 Oto Cyele or Constant Volume Cyele Gl Diesel Cycle 65 Dual Combustion Cycle i 2.10 Comparison of Oo, Diesel anvé Dual Combustion Cycles 7 2M Atkinson Cyele 75 212 Miller Cycle 78 2.13 Brayton Cycle 8/ Review Questions — 106 Prabiems — 107 Reactive Systems 3.1 Intreduetion 40 3.2 Properties of Air 140 3.3. Combustion with Air 1 34 Equivalence Ratio 113 3.5. Enthalpy of Formation — [22 3.6 First Law Analysis for Steady-State Reacting Systems 123 3.7. Enihalpy of Combustion, Iniernal Energy’ of Combustion and Heating Values 128 3.8 Adiabatic Combustion Termperatore 34 3.9 Dissociation 14 3.10 Chemical Equilibrium 43 Review Questions 150 Problems —1SE Fuel-Air Cycles and Their Analysis 154-193, 4.1 Introduction 154 42° Fucl-AirCycle 154 43. Factors Affecting the Fuel-Air Cycle 155 431 Composition of Cyber tases 155 432 Varition of Specie Heats 156 Contents ¥ a4 as 433° Effeo of Dissociation 158 434 Eile of Number of Moleeuiles 160 Eifeet of Engine Variables on the Performance of Fuel Equilibrium Charts 176 451 Unbumed Mistore Charis 176 452 Bumed Mistue Charts Ja 458 Relation between Unburned and Bumned Matures 186 ir Cycles 16 Review Questions — 191 Probiems 192 The Actual Cycle 194-208, SL Introduction — 194 5.2. Difference between the Actual cycle and the Fucl-Air Cycle 194 521 Leakage 195 322 Limporlect Mixing af Fuel and Air 195 523 Progressive uming 196 S24 Buran Time Loows 198 5.25 Heat Losses to the Cylinder Walls 197 526° Eshaust Blowdawn Lass 197 527 Flual Friston 199 528 Gas Exchange or Pumping Loss 199 5.3 Effect of Engine Variables on Flame Speed 199 56 37 38 Review Questions — 208 Combustion in Spark-tg 61 6.2 S41 FuoliAir Ratio 204 532 Ie Pressure 200 533° Engine Speed — 200 5a 535 20) Effect of Spark-Timing on the Actusl Cycle of S1 Engines 208 Power and Efficiency of the Aciual Cycle 2d 551 Effet af Compression Ratio 532 Eifeet of Fool/Ais Rati 205 Frictional Losses 203 ‘The Actual Cycle of Compressionsignition Engines 206 Actual and Fuel-Air Cycles of CL Engines 207 jon Engines 209-283 Introduction 209 Normal Combustion 202 621 of Combusioon in St Engine 210 622° Plame Speed Pattern 212 623 Finite eal Release Model lar Combustion Process of SI Engine 2/3 624 Presse and Temperature Variaion as @ Function of Crank Angle 245 625 Fflect af Spark Timing on Indicator Disgram 2/6 626 [lect of Fuel/Aie Ratio on Indicator Diagram 206 Contents 63 6a 68 66 67 68 69 6.1n 6 6.12. 63. 614 6s 6.16 Factors Aecting Ignition Lag. 247 G31 Nature Fuel and AinFvel Ratio 207 632 Initio Tesperatue and Presstse 278 633 Compesicn Ratio 278 634 SputkTuming 208 635 Turbulence and Engine Sposd 218 634 Plectrode Gap of Spark Plog 248 Factors Affecting Combustion in Spark-ignition Engines 22 GAL Composition of the Mixture 219 642 Load 379 643 Compression Rate 219 Ad Speed 220 GAS Turbulsnoe and Shape of Coenbustion Chatnbse 220 646 Spark Mug Position 227 Cyclic Variation = 22/ Rate of Pressure Rise 222 Abnormal Combustion—Autoignition and Detonation 225 Detrimental Effects of Knocking 224 ‘Thoories of Knocking 225 Effect of Engine Vatiables oa Kaock 226 GOL Tempecature, Pressure and Density Factors 226 6102 Time Factors 238 6103 Composition Factors 129 G04 Efe of Design 257 Detection of Knocking 232 Uncontrolled Combustion — 233 G21 Preignit 3 G22 Runmon Surface Egnition — 234 642.3 Runaway Surface Ignition 234 GIA Wild ing 234 6123 Rumble 234 Combustion Chambers for Spark-igni Engines 235 6.3L Basie Reguiements of Good Combstioa Chitber 236 Combustion Chamber Design Principles 237 Combustion Chamber Optimization Procedure 238 GISL Gecmatrie Considerations — 238 6.15.2 Considerations for Cyche Varations 235 618.3 Consideration for Proper Turbulence 259 ‘Types of Combustion Chamber 259 6161 Thead Type Combustion Chamber 258 6.162 ahead Type or Side Valve Combustion Chamber 239 6163 Ricardo Tesbulent Head Side Valve Combustion Chnmnber 20 6164 Ovethead-valve of (head Type Combustion Chamber 242 6163. F-hend Type Combustion Chamber 248 6166 Henuspheneal Combastion Chamber" 243 6.167 Piston Cavity Coavbustion Chamber 244 Contents vit 6.168 Combustion Chamber with a Pr-chamber for Lean Burn Engine 245 6169 Fuse Treads 296 6.17 Getane Requirement 26 Review Questions 250 Pravilems 283 Combustion in Compression-lgnition Engines 254-283 FA Introduction 254 7.2 Air Motion in CLEngines 255 73° Spray Structure 256 74° Stages of Combustion 259 7.3 Heat Release Rate 26 7.6 Air/Fuel Ratio in C1-Engines 262 7.7 Influence of Various Factors on Delay Period 263 78 Combustion Kaock ia Cl Engines 267 7.9 Comparison of Knock in SI and CL Engines 27 7.10 Methods.of Conteolling Knosk in CI Engines 277 7.1 Combustion Chamber for CI Engines 272 TILL Combustion Chamber Characteristics 272 7AL2 Classification of CI Engine Combustion Chambers 272 7.12 Direct Injection (DI) Engines or Open combustion Chamber Engines 273 TAL Semiguieseent of Low Swiel Open Chamber 2 7122 Maun Sil Open Chataber 274 723 Hig Swirl Open Chamber CMY ye) 274 7.13 Inditect-injection (IDI) Engines or Divided Combustion Chamber Engines 275 TARL Swittor Turbulent Chamber 278 2182 Procombustins Chassbar 277 TARA AinColle 277 TARA Energy Cello 278 7.14 Comparison of Characteristics of Combustion Chambers of CI Engine 279 7S Staring Methods and Aids 27? Review Questions 282 Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines 2S4-317 B.A Introduction 284 8.2. Classification of Fuels 284 83. Solid Fucls 285 AB] Bric Description of Solid Fuels 285 422 UseoF Solid Fuss in IC Engines 284 8a Liquid Fuols 286 $41 Patrols Fuels Petra = ook +okeum= ol) 286 AA2 Refining Prosess af Petroleum 259 843 Petolcun-based Liquid Fuels 22/ 8.5 Liquid Alternative Fuels 292 ASL Bewal 292 ASE Aleohol 292 Comants AS% Biodiesel 295 54 Emulsiied Diesel Fuel 204 M35 Aceime 294 KS Diethyl Ether 294 37 Yagelable Oils "294 8.6 Gascous Alternative F RL Natural as R62 Liguilied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 295 realucer Gas 246 Ras CoalGax 286 Res Hydrogen 206 Re Hythone 297 6? Dimethyl Biber 298 KG Biogas 298 8.7 Characteristics of $1 Engine Fucls 2918 AL olotlity of Ligusd Fucls 29% R32 Ellect of Volttlty on the Performance af RPS Sulphur Content 304 R34 Gum Deposits 308 ATS Carburetor Detergent Adiiiwes 304 KG Aatiknock Qualys 8.8 Characteristics af Cl Engine Fuels 305 R81 Taration Quality 305 1 Engines 30 RS2 Yolatehty 306 RSS Viseity 306 R84 Specific Gravity 307 BSS Corsiom and Wear 305 RSG Tandling Fase 09 AS? Sofeny 309 ASS Cleanliness 309 8.9 Kewek Rating of Fuels 3/0 891 Knock Rating of SI Engine Fusis 340 92 Knock Rating of CI Engine Fuels 313 Review Questions 315 Carburettors and Fuel Injection in SI Engines 318-369 9.1 Entreduction 3/8 9.2 Limite of Flammabiligy 348° 93 Steady-ranning Misture Requirements 3/9 9.31 Mestuse Requirements for Masimuns Power 319 9.32 Mosture Requiremcots for Minimum Specific Fuel Consumption — 320 9.33 Moxture Requirements for Vonous Guiputs 320 5.34 Mexture Requirements far Ming. Cruising and igh Power 320 9.4 Transient Requirements 323 O41 Stating and Warmup Requirements $23 242 Avgeleration Requirement 423 9.5. Mixture Requirements in a Multi-cylinder Engine 323 10, Coments ie 9.6 Carburetior Requirements 324 2.7 ASimple Carburetor 324 9.8 Calculation of the Air/Fuel Ratio For a Simple Carburetior 326 9.9 Air/Fuel Ratio Neglecting the Compressibility of Air 3 9.10 Comments on Aix'Fucl Ratio Supplied by a Simple Carburetior 32? 9.11 Deficiencies of the Elementary Carburettar $30 9.12 Essential Parts of a Modem Carburcttor 330 Choke 330 Main Metering Syslem 337 Ting System 334 Accelerating Sysiem 536 Beamomizer System and Power System 336 9126 Amtipercolatoe Valve 337 9.13 Types of Carburetiors 337 2131 Down-couht, Upsiaught and Heeizonal- draught Carburetors 837 9132 Concentnc and Hesenins Carkuctars 335° 9133 Muli-venter Carburstior 339 9.14 Problems Associnted with Carburcttors 352 SAKE ee Formation 552 5.142 Vapour Lock in Fuel Systems 352 9.184 Hackfining or Popping inthe Carburetor 333 9.13 Carburetor Drawbacks 353 9.16 Fucl-lnicction Systems in SI Engines 353 016.1 Single-Poimt Injection (SPE) 354 5.162 Multi-Poine Fuel {injection 385 9463 Continous Injection System 355 9.164 Timed Injection System (TIS) 9.163 Dineet Injection 480 9.17 Mechanical Fuel-Injection Systems 356 ATL Continuous Inpection System with Mechanical Control 356 9172 Tamed Injection System with Mechanical Ceatol 357 9.18 Electronic Fuel-Injection Systems (EFls) 359 9181 Single-point Thott Kody Injection with Fleciromie Cominol 359 9182 Multipoint Por Injection with Mectaic Conteal 359° 9.19 Advantages of the Multi-point Fucl-injection System 342 9.201 Disadvantages of the Multi-point Fueleinjection System 363 9.21 Gasoline Direst Injection 344 Review Questions 367 Problems 368 CI Engines: Fuel-Injection System IL Introduction — 370 12 Requirements af Injection Sesieme 37 scion Systeins 37 W3L Airainjection System — 377 1032 Ainkessour Soldsinjection System 372 _Contents uw 10.34 Individual Pump System or the Divided Fuclfeed Device 373 10.34 Unit Inston System or the Undivided Fuel-fied Device 73 W135 The Distniotor System 375 1036 Commmen-rail System 376 W4 Fuel-iniection Pumps 377 WAL Tiel ec Jerk Type Fuclinjestion Puonp 377 W042 Dhsisbutor Type Fuelinjecion Pump 582 WS Fuol Injector 38 15. Foebinjootion Moder 384 1152 Febanjootion Nozate 388 10.6 Types of Nozzles #43 Wi6.1 Pintle Nace 386 1162 Single-hole Uifice) Naeale 387 1163 Muli-chole Nazele 388 Wid Pitau Nezzle 588 10.7 Unit Injector 3.9 107.1 Mechaicully Operated Unit tnjestor 389 10.72 Electrically Controlled Unit Injector Ststem 390° WR CL Engine Governors 3#2 109 Spray Characteristics 393 19.1 Spray Formation 393 1092 Atemization 393 1093 Penstation S98 1094 Dispersion 395 10,10 Rate of Fuel Injection in CL Engines 395 10,11 Fueling Hydraulics 396 WALL Feel Compressibily 394 TOAL2 Pressure Wives in Fuel Lines 392 Review Questions — 408 Prrbicms — 409 ‘Two-Stroke Engines 411-439 LL Introduction —4/P 11.2 Classification of Two-strake Engines 4/7 113 Scavenging Arrangements 4/2 M31 Retwrvflaw Scavnging JZ 1132 Uniflow Scavenging Jl Hd Scavenging Process 415 HLS Seavenging Parameters #46 11.6 Ideal Models for Seavenging Process 42 116.1 Penfct Displacement Model 422 11.62 Complete Mixing Mosel 427 1.63 Shortcireuting 425 117 Relationship of Scavenging Ratio and Scavenging Effiicney 423 U8 Measurement of Scavenging EMficieney 423 MRL Troces Gat Method 424 1182 Gasscampling Methed 424 19. Flowsthrowgh Ports 25 110 Radenaey Effect 428 ULL Scavenging Pumps 429 LL12 Advantages and Disndvantages of Two-stroke Engines LL13 Comparison af Two-strake SI and CI Engines #3) Review Questions 437 Problems — 438 12, Ignition Systems 121 Introduction — 410 12.2 Ignition System Requirements 440) 123 Batters-ignition System — 42 1231 Batley M2 1232 Ignition Switch 443 1233) Ballast Resistor 43 1234 Ignition Coil 443 T2385 Contact Breaker Points 44¥ 1236 Condenser 443 1237) Diewibutor 45 124 Firing Order 46 125 Dwell Angle 447 126 Spark Plays ust 126.1 Requarements of a God Spark Plog 449 Fae! 26.3 Spatk-Plog Heat Range 4 12.7 Magneto-ignition System — 451 12.8 Comparison of Battery and Magneto-jgnition Systems 12.9 Problems Associated with Conventional Ignition Systems 12.10 Electronic-ignition Systems 453, IDT0L Transistorizd-enil Ignition (TED Syst 12102 Capaeitivedischange Ignition (CDI) 12.11 Factors Affecting Spark-advanee 436 12 Spark-advance Mechanisms 457 ID1D1 Centrifipalsavanee: Mechanism 457 12122 Vieumendvance Mechanism 458 Review Questions — 459 a3 13.1 Inweduction 460 13.2 Components of Engine Friction 400 121 Rubbing Losses 460 122 Pumping Lasses 460 23 ary Component Losses 46 iction Work — 46/ i Affecting the Establish of Spake 449 em 135 Contents xt 430 440-459 st $52 460-492 it Contents [34h Some More Components of Engine Friction 462 135. Friction Mean Effective Pressure 462 13.6 Mecha Bal tied 1363 Rolling Friction 46¥ 164 Dry Freon —46e 13.7 Mechanical Fraction in Major Engine Companenis 464 TEL Piston Assembly Friction — 46 132° Beanag Friction d6S 133 Vahe Train Friction J67 13% Blowby Losses 467 139 Effect of Engine Variables on Friction #67 13.10 Side Thrust on the Piston 469 13.11 Lubrication 477 13.12 Funetions of a Lubricant 474 13.13 Lubrication Principles #72 1 Hdeodynomie Larbrieation (Full Filme Thick Filmy 472 Lubniestion (Thun Film) 473 13.133 Mised-film Lubrication (Portal Film) 47 13.14 Bearings Lubrication 474 ILL Rosating Journal Bearings 474 1.12 Oveillaing Journal Bearings 477 WHS Reciprocating Bewinge 477 BMS Gear Teoh 475 13.15 Properties of Lubricants 475 IBASL Viscosity 475° 152 Viscosity Index 478 BASS Poa Pout 472 115A Flash and Fire Points 479 TABS Stabshiy 429 B56 Cilaess 47 TBF Comasivenes 479 BASS Detergeney 180 D189 Foaming 180 16 Additives for Lubricants 480 IB.17 SAE Viscosity Number 482 13.18 Lubricating Systems 483 TB IK] Patrol Lubrication System 488 TIRE Wet-surmp Lubnestion System £85 13183 Dry-sunp Lubrication System 485 13.19 Crankease Veutilation 487 TRI Open PCV System 487 13192 Closed PCV System 487 13.20 Engine Performance and Lubrication 458 Review Questions — 491 63 Contents 14, Heat Transfer in Engines and Cooling Systems 493-520 M.A Introduction 493 14.2. Necessity of Engine Cooling 493 143 Disadvantages ef Oversooting — 424 LM Engine Temperature Distribution 494 LS Engine Warm-up 495 14.6 Gas Temperature Variation 496 LM.7 Hat Transfer Considerations 97 171 Condustion 497 122 Convection 497 1473. Radiation 499 148 Heat Transfer in Intake System 3000 149 Feat Transfer ia Combustion Chambers S00 14.10 Heat Transl in Exhaust System S02 LM.11 Piston Cooling 502 14.12 Valve Cooling $03 14.13 Effect of Operating Variables on Heat Transfer 04 LUIS Misture Strength 308 IAB2 Compression Ratio 308 118 Spork Taming 6 118A Engine Sine 300 1135 Engine Speed $07 11186 Load Say 1137 fet Temperstune S08 Coolant Temperature S08 3.9 Lngine Matenals S08 SIO Knock S09 3.11 Swirl and Sowsch $09 14.14 Cooling Systems 549 L415 Air-cooled System — 309 LIS Cooling Fins $90 14.16 Liquid-eooled Systems 517 T4161 Dineet ot Non-return Syssem 517 14162 Thermosyphon or Natural Circulation System 54 14163 Feeeed ot Pap Circulation Sistem 5 14164 Pressure Cooling System 514 14.163 Evaporative Cooling System 375 14.17 Comparison of sir- and Ligquid-Cooling Systems S16 TIT Adkwntages ofthe Aiecooling System 576 HITZ Disadvaniages ofthe Aic-sooling System 516 HITS Adhontages ofthe Layuid-cooling System 5U7 HIT Disadvanlages of the Liguid-enoling Sputem 597 LM.18 Madern Cooling Caneepts 317 14.19 Adiabatic Engines 3/9 Review Quesiiome 519 xiv Comants 18. Air Capacity and Supercharging S21-S85 ISL Introduction 528 15.2. Effeet of Air Capacity on Indiewied Power 524 183 deal Air Capacity $22 Volumewiic Efficiency 523 Effect of Variables on Volumetric Efficiency $24 ISL Fuel 524 1552. Heat Transfer im the [nlake Ststem $25 15540 Yahetnertop 525 15540 Viscous Drag and Restrictions 525 1555 Timing of fntake ValeeClosing 524 1556 Intake Tuning $26 1557 Exhaust Residual 526 1558 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) 527 15. Supercharsing — 327 1561. Uses of Supstsharged Engines 527 1562. Faviors which Increase the Peer Chalpul by Supercharging — 525 Methods of Supercharging 528 157.1 Mechanical Supersharging 528 1572 Terbooharging 528 1573 Pressure Wise Superarging 50 15.8 Thermodynamic Cycle with Supercharsing $20 15.9 Superchasging of Sparkignition Engine 533 8,10 Supersharging of Compression-ignition Engine 334 ES.11 Advantages of Supercharging over High Compression 15.12 Effects of Supercharging $34 15121 Power Output 836 15122 Fuel Consumption 534 15123, Mechani Is? S34 536 336 13 Supereharsing Limits 536 STR Superchorging Litt of 15132 Seperchargng Limit of Cl Engines Modifications for Supercharging IS Types of Supercharger 339 15151 Rots Blower 538 15152 VoneBlower 539 15153 Cevirifye! Compresor 539 15,16 Turbocharger Controle. 40 15161 The Wisepnts 340 15.162 Vanuie Turbine Geometry 540 15163 Varnbie Nozzle Turbine 540 Review Questions Problems 384 37 Contents 16, Engine Testing and Performance 556-601 a 6.1 Introduction 556 16,2 Measurement of Brake Power 556 1521 Proay’Brake 536 1622 Rope Brake 557 1625 Hydraulic Dyssmomeler 558 1624 Edy Current Dynamometer 559 1625 Snsinging Feld IC Dyauimonneter 560 163 Indicated Power 561 163.1 Muchsnisil Indicator S61 1632 lustre euise $63 1633 Willows Line Maths 368 1634 the Morse Test 566 1635 Motoring Test 567 Wb Fuck Consumption 56 1641 Gruvimerio Fusl-slow Measurement 548 1642 Volkimetnc Type Flowmetere $68 W643 Rovner 579 16.5 Measurement of Air Flow Rate 370 1651 Airbow and Qifise Method 570 1652 Viscous Flowmeter 572 16.6 Speed Measurement 372 16,7 Spatk-timing Measurement $73 16.8 Combustion Photography and Flame Speed Detection $73 169 Performance Characteristics 57d 165.1 Yurioble Spead Chaeoeteristies 574 1692 Constant Sper Charueterisies 576 1693 Peafortaanes Maps 379 16.10 Heat Balance Sheet $8 Review Questions — 599 Problems — 600 Exhaust Emissions 602-624 TTA Inteoduction 602 17.2 Measurement of Exhaust Emissions 603 1721 Nan-chspersive Infra-red (NDIR) Analyzer 603 1222 Pame-ionization Detector (EID) 608 17.23 Chemiluminescence Analyzers (CLA) 608 1224 Osygen Analyzer 607 173 Measurement of Particulates 608 ITA Measurement of Exhaust Smoke 60 ITAL Harnilgs Smoke-mster #03 1742 Bosch Smoke-meler 609 VDE Gas Chromatography — 609 xvi Contents 17.6 Pollutant Formation — 610 I76.. Hydrosarbons (HC) 610 Carbon Mowoside (CO) 61 (Ovides of Nitrogen (NO) 642 Pasticolates 623 i164 wr ne the Exhaust of SI Engine 6/5 ne lhe Exhaust of SI Engine 616 17.10 Effect of Operating Variables om C1 Engine Exhaust Emission ITAL Control of Exhaust Emissions 6/7 ITH Catalytic Converters 617 17113 Partie Review Questions 18, Alternative Pot Engines INL Steatified-charge Engine 625 18.2 Wankel Engine 627 183. Freespiston Engine 629 IB Stirling Engine 63/ 18.3. Variable Compression Rati (VCR) Engine 635 186 Dual-fucl Engines 637 18.7 Multicfuel Engines 63% 187.1 Suitably of Cuber Engines az Mulkifuel Unite 60 18.8 Homogencous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) Engines Review Questions — 642 Bibliography index Effect of Operating. Variables on SI Engine Exhaust Emissions Design and Operating Variables that Decrease HIC Concentration from 63 Design and Operating, Variables that Reduce NO, Concentration from 616 625-643 oto 643-050 651-658 Preface ‘The overwhelming response to the first edition ofthe book and recent developments in the field of Internal Combustion Engines prompted me to revise the book, The second edition retains the objectives of the previous edition, presenting basic concepts of IC Engines. The book is simple, cay to understand and comprehensive in its coverage. Many chapters have been updated and new sostions have besa introduced in the second cdiica. Geometry of reciprocating. engine and engine performance parameters, such as power, efficiency, mean effective pressure and fucl consumption, are included in Chapter 1. Various air-standard cycles. such as Carnot, Stirling. Ericsson, Lenoir, Miller and Braylon cycles, are covered ia Chapter 2. These topics will provide undergraduate students with necessary background knowledge. Chaptcr 6 includes a section on finite heat release model for SI engines. Bascd on this simple mathematical model, a basi computer program for the engine can be developed. Chapter ® discusses some more alternative fuels for 1C enuines, such as biodiesel, hythane, dintethy! ether and biogas, Chapter‘? is updated to include the latest advances in fuel-inieetion system in ST engines. Gasotine dines injestion (GDN cngine i also included. In Chapter 10, faelsinjection pump and unit injector are discuseed in mare detail, Crankease ventilation and supercharger controls are dealt in Chaplets 1 and 13, respectively. A now section on homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCED cngine is included in Chapter 18. Neve problems kave been added to several chapters and some additional examples are also included ‘The author hopes that this new edition will continue to sceve well atthe undergraduate Level and thatthe advanced topics will prove useful to students a the postgradaate level Constructive criticism and suggestions for improvement of the book will be highly appreciated LN. Gupta Fang gl comm Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 141 AN OVERVIEW “An eagine 15 addevice which transforms the chemical energy of a fucl into thermal energy and uses this cnergy to produce mechanical work. Engines normally convert thermal energy into mechs cal work and, therefore, they are ealled heat engines, When fuel bums in the presence of ate splenic air. tremendous amount of heat energy 1s released. The products of combustion attain & very high temperaiure..A heat engine convens the released heat energy into useful work with the help of a working (uid, jeat engines are broadly classified fa) External Ce nestEC Engines) tb) Intemat Co wwines (IC Engines) In extemal combustion engines, presence of air takes place outside the engine eylinder, The heat encrgy released from the fuel is utilized to raise the high: pressure steam ina boiler from water, Steam is a working fuid, whieh enters into the eylinder af a sicam engine 1 perform mechanical work, Here, the products of combustion of fuel do wot inte the engine cylinder and hence they de wot form the working fuk, ‘The steam turbine in x steam power plant is anoser example of an external combustion. engine May be called an inlermitlent external combustion engine apd the steari uous external com ne. A closed cycle gas turbine plant is y the air fs a working substance whi completes a thermodynamic cyele, It receives heat from products of combustion of fuel in a heat exchanger and rejects heat from another hemt exchanger to the surroundings. Here also the prod ucts of combustion do-not enter into the turbine. Stirling engine is also an external combustion In internal combustion engines, either the combustion of the fuel takes place inside the engine ‘cylinder or the products of combustion enter into the cylinder as a Working fluid. In reciprocating ‘shaving cylinder and pision, the combustion of the fuel takes place inside the cylinder and toe called intermittent intemal combustion engines, In an open oyele gas turbine ‘of combustion of fuel enter into the gas turbine and Work is obtained in the form of rotation of the turbine shaft. Sucit a turbine is an example of 2 eantinuous bustion et 2. Furdamentsls of Inter! Combustion Engines ‘The inwermittent internal combustion eagines ate most popular because of thelr use as the primemover in motoe vehicles, and usually these egies ane reciprocating engines. The recipra- eating engine mechanism consists of apistan whieh movesin a ey linder and forms a movable gas- 2k seal, By means of a connecting Fox snd a crankshaft arrangement, the reeipructting motion of the piston is converted to rotary motion al the crankshaft ‘The steam turbine plant is the most popular cntinuous external combustion engine used! far large slectrie power generation, The essential eompensnts are Boiler, steam turbine, conienser, and fed pump. ‘The main advantages of an intemal combustion engine over an extemal Combustion engine ane: fa) Greater mechanical simplicity (b) Higher power output per u condenser, and feed pump (c) Lower initial cost (@) Higher brake thermal efficiency as only a smi dissipated to the cooling system, ‘The advantages of intemal combustion engine accrue from the fact that they work at an average temperuiure which Is much below the maximum temperature of the working Nuk i the eyele. T ction of heat energy af the Fu isaalvantageor the intemal combusdion engine over the external-combussion e fa) The JC engines cannot use solid fuels which are cheaper: Only liquid oF gascous tuels af Liven specifications ean be efficiently used, The ely more expensive. th) ‘The IC engines are not self-starting wher fe a high-starting torque. (6) The intermittent IC engines have reciprocating paris and hence they are susceptible 1 tbe problems of vibration, a ralary intermittent internal combustion engine. Jet engines and rackets are sl: combustio cs. They fall under the category of rotary continuous internal com= This book deals with the intermittent atzmal combustion enghses, mainly of 1 lype and thus excludes the gas turbine. Reeipmacating IC engines are used bw aut mobiles, motoreyeles and seootwrs, power boats, ships, locomadives, and small sirceaft, Due to. scarcity of electric power, the use af [C engines a8 a portable power output unit has gained tremendous momentum. ‘These engines are also used in farm tractors, lawnmowers and in many other devices. 1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT The first IC engine for commercial use was developed by a Frenchman, J.B. Lenoir (1822 1900) in the year 1860, Coal gns and air misture were drawn inte the engine cylinder during the first-half of the piston sivoks., AL this point the charge-was ignited by a spark, This caused rise in pressure and the burned gases, the so-called products af combustion, delivered power to the piston for the sceand-hal of the stroke.Oa the fetum stroke, the gases were diselarged from the cylinder. The return stroke was possible hy using a large flywheel which stored energy during the Introduction to Internal Combintion Enginar 3 pow ase of a sieam engine, By the year 1865 about 5000 engines were built in sizes up 10 6 hp providing efficiency, however, not exceeding 5 per cent, but it was hetter than the efficiency af a small steam engine of those times. Nicolaus.‘ Otto (1832-1891) and Eugen Langen (1833-1895) developed a free piston engine in 1867 in Germany. Ai-fuel mixture was taken in a cylindge and ignited by a pas flame during the early part of the outward stoke to accelerate a thee piston, and a Vacuum was thus generated ka the eyliader: The piston was brought inward by aimospheric pressure acting an the piston fom the other side. During the inward steoke the burned gas was exhausted through # slide valve, The piston rox! was connected by a ratehet and a rick and pinion device to the flywheel mounted on the output shaft. The inertia of the flywheel moved the piston aurwards and induced a fresh charge through a slide valve to repeat the cyele, The thermal efficiency of this engine was found to be 11 per cont. In 1862, Alphonse Beau de Rochas (1815-1893), a Frenchman, described the principles af four-stroke angular velocity (rad/s) 18 = engine speed (RPM) T= torque (Nm) +4 ® LLU 14 rake pours develpedin emul nde eng: Intreduation to Intarnal Combustion Engines 29 Iikere aren eylindcrs, the bp in Eq, (1.18) is not multiplied by the number of cylinders as it isdone inthe case of ip. Figure 1.1 shows bp developed in a mulicylinder engine. It is produced al the crankshaft. The crankshaft isa single shaft which gcts power from all Uwe eylinders, The torque T and engine speed N are measured at the erankchat No load on the caine implies that there is wo useful pawer output from the crankshaft, The bp i zero and all the ip is equal tothe friction power. At half Toad, bp ix reduced tohalf the value of bp produced at full load, 1.16.4 Friction Power (fp) ‘The difference between the ip and the bp is the friction power (fp), and il is the power required to overcome the frictional resistance of the engine paris, including power absorbed by aux ‘components, fp ip~ bp (119) At rere bp, al the same speed the engine develops just enough power tn overcome frictional resistance und drives engine accessories. 1.16.5 Indicated Thermal Efficiency (n) This the ratio of ip to fuel power. It may alsa be defined as the ratio of work offone cyele tothe heat supplted by the fuel in that eyele: 20) where W = work of one eyele 0, heat supplied by fel in the cyele ‘The typical value of fis in the range of 35-45%, 4.46.6 Brake Thermal Efficiency (75) Itis the ratio of bp to fuel power. It may also be called overall efficiency of the engine bp My at Usually engines have brake thermal efficiency about 30% Some large, slow Cl engines can have higher brake thermal effisiency. 1.16.7 Mechanical Efficiency (7) Is the ratio of bp to ip Me » i (1.22) ip Mechanical efficieney’ usually lies between 80 and 90%, 30 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines 4.16.8 Combustion Efficiency (12) ‘The time available for the sombustion process af an engine eyele is very short. All the fel mol- ceules may not find oxygen molecules. or the local temperature may aot favour the reaction. Consequently, a small fraction of fucl does not react and goes out with the exhaust flow. A combustion efficicney’ aceounts forthe fraction of fuel which burts, The typical value of 1 is in the range af 0.95 — 0.98, a. 7, OW (123) m heat supplied to the gas.per unit time o, en, (dy and 1h, (1.23) 1.16.9 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (1.) Its the ratio of thermal efficiency of actual cycle tothe airestandard efficiency of ideal cyele, It indicates the degree of development of the engine. thermal ency of the actual cycle ali-standard efficiency oF kdeal eycle The (1.26) 1.16.10 Volumetric Efficiency (n,) ‘The power output of an IC engine depends upon the amount of air which ean be induced into the eylinder. More air means more fucl can be burnt and more energy can be converted inie output power. The intake system (the air filter carburettor and throttle plate (SI engine). intake manifold. intake valve) restricts the amount of air which an engine of given displacement can ideally induct ‘olomeiric efficiency is the paramcter used to measure the effeetivencss ofa four-stroke engine’s induction process. It is the ratio of volume of air-induced por eycle measured at the free air delivered (FAD) conditions (at atmospheric pressure and teiperaturc) to the swept Volume of the cylinder a aay may also he defined as the mass of air actually induced inside the eylinder per evele to the mass of air which could be present ideally in the swept volume al atmospheric conditions, cn Hit Mon PLR AMD) (128 Intradustion to Internal Combustion Enginee 31 Am, )uquar = Mass of air that actually entered into the cylinder per cycle on joa = Py Ve = ideal mass of air in the swept volume al atmospheric conditions ‘actual mass flow rate of air into the eylinder Gi. Qaey = ileal mass flow rate of air= yo ¥, (VED Pi, = density of air at almospheric conditions N= engine speed Typical maximum valucs of volumetric efficteney for nuturally aspirated engines at wide open throttle (WOT) are in the range of 80-90%. It reduces to much lower values as the throttle is closed. The volumewic efficiency for CLengines is lite figher than that for SI engines. 1.16.11 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (imep oF p.) Pressure in the cylinder of an engine continuously changes ducing the eyele, An average or mean clfective pressure isthe height ofa reetangle having the same length and atea as the eycle plostod fon a pV diageam. Tihs is shown for an Onto eycle an Figure 1.15 Po > Figure 18 nics maanetistepreture anp-Velagram, ‘The rectangle ABCDA fas the same length as the cycle 12341, and area ABCDA is equal to area 1241, Then the indicated mean effective pressure. pis the height AB of the rectangle. Area of the cycle 12341 of area ARCDA represents the indicated work done in a cycle, W, «ay 1p Hsddefined as that part of the mean effective pressure acting on the pistons which woul measured bp, There is no contribution of this mean effective pressure wnerans friction is computed by measuring the brake power. 32_Fundementals of Internal Combustion Engines Pa bANn bp for two-stroke engine «say Pood 10 and bp. for four-stroke engine (aly Po tANn aN ‘60 or 120 60) For a given engine, stroke length L, area of eross section A and the nuntber of cylinders 1 remain . Poa = (1.32) ‘The brake mean sffective pressure is proportional to the torque and independent of the engine: speed. The hmep is a useful criterion for compariag eagle peetormans Typ of bmep for naturally aspirated SI engines are in bar. For Cl engines, typical maximum values are-7.0-.0 bar for naturally aspirated engines and 10,0-12.0 bar For turboch is, The maximum bmep of good engine designs is well established. It isa mexsure of effectiveness with which the engine designer has used the swept volume. range 85-105 ‘The difference between imep and binep is called the friction mean effective pressure (tmep). fimep = imep = bmep 33) 1.46.13 Specific Fuel Consumption (sie) This the mass flow rate of fuel consumed per unit power eurpur, It measures how economically an engine is using the fuel supplied to prosluce power, tig ste power whe sity = mass flow rate of fuel (kgth) Pawar is im KW and ste is in kp/k WH. Brake power sives brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) and indicated power gives indi- cated specific Fuct consumption (iste). pete= "Zand iste = op ip “The ralio of nfe to bsfe gives mechanical efficiency. Me tp _ iste ip bste (1-35) Por given fuel consumption, bsfe is greater than isfe. Low valves of sfe are desirable. For SL engines, typical lowest value of bsfe is about (27 kerk Wh. For CLengines, the best value is lower. Intreduation to Intarnal Combustion Ergnes 33 1.46.14 Specific Power, Output per Displacement, Engine Specific Volume: and Engine Specific Weight ‘Those parameters ate important in transportation, where keeping weight tw a minirnum is necessary Specific power isthe poser per unit piston area, K-measures the effectiveness with which the Piston area is used, regandless of the evlinder size, Specific power, SP= (1.36 Output per displacement indicates the effectivencss of power oulpul from the given sive af the engine Output per displacement, O1 (ary Engine specific volume indicaes the effectiveness with which sngine space is lilized, Nis the reciprocal of output per displacement. Engine specific volume, ESV = (38) ane specific weight indicates the relative ccanomy with which materials are used pine weight Engine specific weight, ESW = (139) bp where A, = piston face area of all pistons V,,_, =total displaced or swept volun all eslinders or engine capacity 4146.15 Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios ‘Aituel ratio (AUP) is the ratio of air mass flow rate st, to the fuel mass flow rate si, (FIA) ratios the reciprocal of air/fuel ratio, (any Ainfusl ratio (A/F) = Puelénie ratio (FA) ~ (aly ‘The normal operating range for a conventional SI-engine using gasoline as afvel is 12 SAF < 1861056 F/A 0.083), For Cl engine with diesel fuel, itis 18 =: A/F $70 (0.014 = FIA $0,056), En A3Tspark-ignition V6 engine operates on a four-stroke cycle at 3000 rpm. The ‘compeessinn ratio ig %0, the length of the connecting rod is 17,2 em and engine is square, At this speed, combustion ends at 20" aTDC. 34_Furdementals of Internal Combustion Engines Determine: fa) The eylinder bore and the stroke lent (b) ‘The average piston speed (e) The elearanee volume of one eylinder (@) The distance the piston travels fram TDC at the end of combustion fe) The volume in the combustion chamber at the «nd of combustion (1) The piston speed and acceleration at the end of combustion Solution. fa) Since the engine is square, L= d. Swept volume per eylinger tb) Average piston speed, Bems] Ans. (©) Compression ratio, oa 2005 _ 62.510%m' = [65cm] Am oy = 4.308200 + f(172)" — 043) 5in20" 1.18em Intreduation to Intarnsl Combustion Ergnes 38 Adem] Ans. wo x afsne + sin20] z 3000 = 2e xx 4.3 sin 20° 4 wo ( mis] Ans, ‘Acceleration, dy =F of coe + eos = 570.6 emis ‘a footcjon) + 3 BESO) 4.af cos20°+ 7 cos 40° 172 [4301 Ans. = 480,075 emis 36 _Furdementals of Internal Combustion Engines AAsix-cylinder, four-strake CE engine with [0 em bore ane [2 erm stroke runs at he compression rauo-is 18. The engine is connected eo a dynamometer whieh gives & brake output torque reading of 300 N-m., Air enters inder at 0.9 bar aml 39°C and the anical efficiency of the engine ix 85%. The engine is running with an air-fuel ratio 20 Heating value of the fuel is 42,000 ki/ky. Combustion efficiency is 98%, Standand density of air is 1.181 kgf’. Calculate: (3) brake power, fi} indicated power, fii) brake mean effective pres sure, (iv) indicated mean effective pressure, (x) friction mean effective pressure, (vi) power lost to friction, (vill brake Work per unit mass of aie la the cylinder, (vil) Brake specific power, (is) dicated thermal efficieney, (xiv) volumetric effleieney and (609) brake speeifie fuel consumptio Solution: 2nNT (0) Brake power, 60 300 = 6283010" W 60. = (@2R3KW] Ans, TRODEW] Ans, Gi) Indicated power, LAN a 120 12003063. 835c10" 1x10? Nin? aT bar] Ams. 0.12% 0.10) «20006 iv) imep, py, SST [Fao ha] Ams, (9) fimep = Pg, ~ Pr =7.85-0.67=[L1sbar] Ans. (i) Frietion power. fp =ip—bp =73.92—82.83=| Ans. Intraduation to Intarnal Combustion Ergnes 37 (ui) Brake work from one eylinder ia ane cycle, W, 6.67 x x TA0.10)* HO12 = 0.629 x1 =0.629k Swept volume, ¥, = © (0.10940.12) = 084282210"! (Clearance volume. 0.942510 as. Vignc= total cylindce volume = V+ F = (0.9425 + Onss4) x 10 9969 10 Mass of air in one cylinder per cycle 0.055420 10 » Vpn WORE 0.9 10" 30.9060 x 10"? 37K (004 Brake specific work por unit mass of ait, We 0629 W025 10 ky 0629 _ Ams. i, L002 «107 Iii) Brake spoeific powcr, bn sr Piston fase area, Fania 2 = 0.10)" <6 =0015 rm *10.10¥ p= 0283 _[rasskwin] Ans. ‘Doise 38 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines ix) Brake ompat per displacement, opp = PP. vie 62.83 Li ci'ew) © 09825 KID? XH TLITRWA] Ans. (x) Engine specific volume, ¥, gy = tts bp DO URW] Ans. ‘mass of fel in one cylinder for ene excle, miy = 2 : of fuel lindo fi ole, hy = 5 = ROME S10" e501 x10" ke 20 ‘The rate of fue Mow into: the engine is given by P0050 Kgs] Ans. (si) Brake thermal effcieney, —__tr__ fm, HOVE, - 62.85 =0.3035=(30.5%] Ans, (0.00501 «-42,n00%0.98 Ii) dicated theron elfciensy A 0.305 Ny W858 fis] Ans, (xiv) Volumetric efficiency. Intradustion to Internal Combustion Expres 39 pps is the standard air density which is equal to 1181 kgf Loox” LISTxA.942510 a Ans. (ev) Drake specific fuel eunsmption bofo= SE bp 2.00501 3600 2.8% (AST kghWh] Ane. FETTER) A owo-cylinder, fourstroke gas engine has a bore of 350 mm and a stake af 575 mm. At 250 rpm, the torque developed is 5.0 KNm, The airffucl ratio is 7:1 by volume, The estimated! volumetric efficteney is 8S% sind the ealorifie value of the: coal gas Hs 16,800 kim’ Sato: fa) bp on tr vhptm be TAN = Os er aus7sx T0038)" «25042 S.68har] Ans. (d) Swept volume per eylinder, ‘Volumetric Volume airinduced, —V, = 7, XV, = 0.8920,05532 = 0.04702 m'Veyele ‘Aarffuol ratimby volume = 7:1 40 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines o.or702 on ota y, = 12-82 gear Heat supplied by the fuel, Oy 0.00672 250 x2 16,800 10 = 4704 is Brake thermal eificieney 1% mechanical effizieney ig 85%, ealorifie value of fuel ig 44 M Ikg and density af 6 1.1K kg/m’, Determine the enwine speed, ‘olution: Swept volume, V,= 2000 c= Volume of air taken in per eye te : F, = 08 x 2000 = 1600 ee Mass of air, it, = Ay ¥, = LBL 1600 10° ke O10 ke Mass of fel, a, 7 3 5 =1.26x10% ke se bd6 2010" sca = = 1.0510 20N kai 120 120 Indicated power, Indicated thermal efficiency Intraduation to Intarnal Combustion Engines 41 ip LxCV 70.59 03544, 000 70.59 105 10" 20.35 x 4,000 . 7 Fy Lass 10°* x. SR65RPM] Ans. aa A34, fourestroke, four-cylinder Cl engine running. at 30M rpm produces 48 kW of brake power. Brake thermal efficiency is 30% and the calorific value of fuel is 42.000 kl/kg. Assume density of air al ambient condition as 1.181 kg/m’, air-fucl ratio 20:1 and mechanical efficiency 03 Caleatate: (i) Rate of fut flow into-the engine (kg/s) fii) Rate of air flow into the engine (hy/s) (ii) Mass rate of exhaust flow thy’s) Gx) Brake oupat per displacement (kW/) (8) Broke specific fuel consumption (ke/kWh) (vi) Indicated thermal efficiency (vii) Volumetric efficioney (iil) Brake mean effective pressure (bard bo 8 mecv 03420000 © LUO kels| Ams, ti) Moar 1x10” kefs| Ams. x10” ky's] Ams. Ans. 42_Furdementals of Internal Combustion Engines (8) Brake specific fuel consumption BA b107 3000 D286 kgkWh] Ans. ip Pe 38 ip= 8 ow oy pRB ad = Pecy-——_® _. 9375 « H]am. ii, BSIx 0” x42,000 0a MOS (itadacet (i, Ysa ‘Total swept volume = 3% 10° mn? Mass of air inthis volume, 404 ges =P HO? 5 (oii) Yolumetri etfictency, Rate of mass of wit, (hy hae Jaa = SEBO 10 kes s0.01x10? 886x107 903=[90.3%)] Ans. [6a bar] Ans. Intradustion to Internal Combustion Ergnes 43 A four-cylinder, fourstroke SL engine Maving compression ratio delivers a broke power of 40 AV at 4000 opm. The air fact rai is 18:1 and the calorific value of ful is 4 Mlikg. Volumetric eiciency is 90% and brake thermal efficiency is 32 square and the ratio is 1,1 (fd = 1,1), Density of air is 1,18] kg/m’, Determir 2) Enpine capacity fem!) wb) we Soutien: fa) te we fips aga cto kas qaty obs an0 Aci, 1592880107 =12.6200"y sig pe clinder = ZOO” 965, 10> tg ria, per cylinder =m, 120 Mass of ie per eylinder per cy 120th pe eee | M1065 4109 5 05 104 . mo 000 Ideal mass of air per eylinder per cycle. am, _ 0.319510 ™ 08 (mac 355x107 ky Swept volume, VY, Dae * Pa 355% 10? x ABE= 019% 107m? 19610 76 em'] Ams. Engine capactt 44 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines 0) VG dba Fd? UL Ud) 419 . pated sos rxIL d=[Tiben] Ans. Lele Lix7.86=[8.65en] Ans. DEN (e) Average piston speed, 7, = __ DecthoB6S x 4000 . i, 133 mi] ° . oo vay. " A «a) 7 HAY feetem'] ans, ob on Consider two engines with the following det Engine 1; Six eylinder, four-stroke St engine, indicated power is GIMWV, averane piston speed is 12 mis Engine?; ‘Two-cybinder, ewo-stoke SI engine, inficated power is 12 KW Assume the indicted mean efTective pressure of both the engines to be the same, Ratio of bore of engines | and 2 = 2-I. Determine the average piston speed of engine 2 Solution Pe AN n For four-stroke engine, ip=“"——— For two-stroke ening, Average piston speed, 7, Intradustion to Internal Combustion Ergnes 48 (2) 2a) am two-stroke SI engine operates at 600 pm with a ‘volumetric efficiency of 0.88, The engine is square (bore = stroke}. The fuel-air ratio 80,067 anc density of aie is 11ST kglm’. Determine fa) Average piston speed (mis) th) Flow rate-of air into the engine ékg/s) (6) Flow rate of fust into the engine (kg/s) (G) Fuel input for one yele tkyscyeley Solutions = 248 cm 0248 m LW “Average piston speed, = == age piston speed. iy =F = PALO 6000 FER] Am (6) Actual volume of air per cycle, V, =V, 39, = 12K 0.85 20m’ 18112510 = LIM6 x 1 kgleycle 7 ugg #80 2ingercHtt* kgls) Amv. ce) thy = agai = 0.067 12.146 210 = [0.807 110 keys} 46 Furdementals of Internal Combustion Engines (a) Bip = my 8 sn, BD Miliy _ 620.807 110 ad ‘6000 Ans. An S| engine develops indicated power af $0 kW at full load. [ts brake thermal effickancy i 30% and brake spaciic fuel cansumpeion is 0.286 kgrkWh. At 75% of load, i has a mechanical efficiency of 70%. Assuming constant frictional lasses, euleulate brake power, friction power, mechanical efficiency. iieated thermal effiiency and indicated specific Fuel consumption, so, caleulawe mechanical eficioncy at hal loa Solution: Ls\ bp a ful load = x RW bp at 755 of load = 0.750 kW ipa 754 of load = (0.75x + fph kW 0.75 O7sc+ i 03 fp ALTS¢ I . 0.751 = 0.525 Ss . fp= 223! Co s2nde ° Pe oF Ie semains constant al toads “At full load, ip= bp + fp e+ 082ide= 59 sh 4 bp=37.4KW] Ans, Ip= 0.3214 x 37.84 =| ZIGEW] Ans. (or tp = ip— bp = 50 37.84 = 12.10 kW) 0.7508=[5.68%] Ans. =0.396=[3965] Ams. Indicated specific Fuel cansumption, isfe = bsfe xm, 286 «0.7568 = [D216 kaKWh] Ans, 37.84 Attalf toad, bp= 9S = 182 kW fp= 12.16 kW ML ey 1B. 1 15, 16, 17. . How are the reciprocating (C - Derive expressions to evaluate instantaneous piston displacement, cylinder volume, Intradustion to Internal Combustion Ergnes_ 47 bp 15.92 . ee Ans. Sp fp 89241216 ty REVIEW QUESTIONS Define aca engine, How are heat engines classified? ‘What da you understand by an external combustion engine? G type of the engine. ‘What do you understand by an internal combustion engin type of engine. Distinguish between internal combustion and extemal combustion engines. What are the relative merits andl demerits of Internal combustion engines ever the extemal combustion Distinguish between i types of engines. some examples of this five some examples af this enmitient and eontinuous IC engines. Give some examples of these Give an aceount of historical dev Give an account of the modern develnpment of IC How ave the reciprocating IC engines classified? Briefly describe the each type How are the reciprocating IC engines classified according to their applications? Mi the predominant type of engines wsed in each case agines classified according to cylinder arrangem describe the each type with the help OF suitable diagrams, Describe the funetions of impartant engine components in a four-stroke IC engine. Also mention the materials used for these engine components. 2 Briefly Define swepl volume, elearinee volume, compression n 0 andl mean piston spect. Describe with the help of diagrams, the working principle of the: four-stroke SI engine Describe the valve timing of a four-stroke SI engine. Draw the p-V diagram and vulve {ming diagram for an SH engine, Describe the working principle of the four-siruke CT engine, Mention the typical values af valve timings for a four-stroke Cl engine. Distinguish borween spark-ignition and comprcssion-iga Describe a two-stroke SI engine with the help of a diagram. What modifications are re quired for the wo-strake Cl engine engines, . Distinguish between four-stroke and two-stroke IC engines, Mention their relative merits and demerits, Draw the p-V diagram and the typical valve-timing diagram for a swo-strake 1C ‘What are the major pollutants tram the exhaust of SI and CLengines? eine. ston, speed and acceleration with respect to crank angle. Define the following power terms used in LC. Engines: fuel pow and fricthon power. dicated power, brake 4B Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines 23, 2. 2, Li 13 Define the following efficiency terms wsed in ILC, Engines: indicated thermal eificiency, bbrake thermal efficiency, mechanical efficiency, combustion efficiency, relative efficiency and volumetric efficiency Explain the following terms used in LC. Engines: indicated mean effective pressure, brake mean effective pressure, brake specific fuel consumption and indicated specific fuel consumption. Define the following terms and give their significances: specific power. output per displacement, specific volume and specific weight PROBLEMS A316 engine opcrating on a four-stroke cycle worn out after 161,004 km. The average speed aver its lifetime was 410 kmh at an engine speed of 2000 rpm, Calculate: (a) How ttany revolutions has the engine experienced? (b) How many intake strokes have occurred in one cycle’? (s) How many spark plug. firings have oscurred in the entire engine? [Ams, (a) 48 > 107 (b) 24 x 10" fe) 144 x 10) 2 A four-cylinder, 2 F engine operates on a four-stroke eyele at 3000 spn, The compression ratio is 9:1, The stroke to bore ratio is 1.1:1 and comecting rod length is 18cm, Caleutate: (a) Clearance volume of one evlinder (b} Bore and siroke (c) Average piston speed (d) Piston speed when crank angle @= 60* aTDC [Ans, (a) 62.5 om (by 833 om, 9.17 cm (@) 9.17 amis (dy 14.1 as] ‘An SI_V6 engine with 8 cm bore and 9 cm siroke operaies an a four-strake eycle at 35(KP pm. The compression ratios 9.2 and the length of the connecting rods is 17 em. At this speed, the combustion completes at 22* aTDC, The engine is soanccted to a dyaantometer which gives a brake ouipat torque reading of 210 Nam, Air enters the cylinders at 0 KPa and 57°C, and the mechanical efficiency’ of the engine is 85%, Caleulate (a) The distance that the piston tavels frem TDC at the en! of combustion (b} The piston speed at the end of eambustion (c) The volume in the combustion chamber at the end of combustion (d) The brake poser (€) The indicated power (E) The brake mean effective pressure (g) The indicaicd mean effective pressure (b) The friction mean effective pressure 41) The power lost te friction [ans, (a) 0.41 om, (b) 7.7 mis, (@) 75.8 em’, (4) 77 BW, (6) 90.6 KYW, 40) 9.72 bar. (2) 11-44 bar, th) 1.72 bar, Gi) 136 kW] Intreduetion to Intarnal Combustion Engines 49 14 The bore and stroke of a fourreylinder fourstroke engine are 90 mm and 100 mm, respectively; and the torque measured is 120 N-n, Calculate the brake mean effective pressure. [Ams, 5.93 bar] 1.5 A four-stroke single evlinder squire CI engine has indicated thermal efficiency of 33% and ils mechanical efficiency is 80%, The rale of fic! consumption is 24 kth. The engine is running at a speed of 1800 rpm, Mean piston speed is 12 m/s. Calorfic value of facl is 42,000 kd/ke. Determine the brake specific fuel consumption and the brake mean cffeetive pressure developed by the engine Ans, 0.306 kg/kWh, 6.93 bar] 1.6 AV6 four-stroke $1 engine is required 1o wive 190 kW at 4500 rpm, The brake thermal cfficicncy is 32%, The aisucl ratio is 12.5: 1 and the volumetric efficiency at this spocd is G6i%4 IE the strokerbore ratio is 0.8, detcrmine the engine displacement required and the dimensions of the bors and stroke, The calarifie value of the ful is 44.200 ki?ky and the {ce air conditions arc 1.013 bar and 15°C. [Ans. 5371, 112.5 mm, 90 mm] 1.7 Asix-oylindor, 4.2! square St engine operates on a four-stroke eyole at 2400 ypm. st this condition, 900 J of indicated work per cyele per evlinder is produced. Mechanical cfficioncy of the engine is 65%. Calculate Gi) indicated mean effective pressure i) brake mean effective pressure (Gi) friction mean effective pressure (iv) brake power 6) torque (04) specific power (sii) output per displacement (i) specific volume and (ix) power fost to fiction. Ams, (i) 12.86 bas, (ii) 8.36 bar, (ii) 4.5 bar, tiv) 7.22 RW. (x) 279.4 Nm, (vi) L161 KWieme, (vit) 0.01672 KWo’, (ill) 59.8 emrW, (ix) 37.8 KAW] 1.8 A 2/ four-stroke fourscylinder CI engine operating at 2800 rpin produces 52 KW of brake power, ir-uel ratio is 20:1 and volumedre efficiency ofthe engine is 90%, Tako density af air as 1.181 kg’, Calculate (a) Mass raie of air Mony inio the engine (kgs) (b) Brake specific fuel consumption the/kWh) (e) Mass rate of exhaust low (ke'h) (d) Brake output per displacement Wi) [Ans. (2) 000996 kas, (6) O77 keskWh, (c) 187.5 hos, Cd) 26 RW 1.9 A 10 cm single evlinder wwe-steoke over-square ST engine operates at 6500 apm with a ‘volumetric efficieney of 0.82. The over-square ratio is 11 (04), The air-tuel ratio is 14.71, The ambient conditions are 1.013 bar and 25°C Calcot: (a) Average piston speed (mst (b) Flow rate of air into the engine (ky!s) 50_Furdementals of Internal Combustion Engines 10 n (e) Flow rate of ts (a) Fuel inp mio the engine thg/s) or one eycle tkgleyele) [ma a) 4.75 ms dh) 1.052 > 10 kets, fe) 0.07156 10 kas, (4) 0.60006 kefeyere) A three-eylinder, fourstroke cycle SI engine having ore 68.5 mim and stroke 72.0 mri runs a1 3000 ppm with airtel ratio 15:1 and develops indicated mean effective pressure 10 bat, Calorie value of fuel is 44,000 kWvkg, Mechanical efficiency is 0.85, combustion efficiency is 0.97 and volumetric efficiency is. Density of air iy 1.18 kg/m’, Determine (a) Engine capacity (em) (bp Indicated power 1k) (e) Rate of airflow into the engine thes) (a). Heat supplied by fuel (kbs) (e) Brake thermal efficiency (8) Brake specific fuel consumption ik gikWh) [ns. (a) 797 cm? ¢h) 19.9 KW ke) 21.16 > 1 kps 4a) 60.21 Klis te) 28.07% (f) 0.3005 kphWhn} power of SO KW at full load at a certain speed. has ‘mechanical efficieney of BO. Assuming that the frictional foxses remain constant far the riven speed at all Foads, ealeulste mechanical efficiency at three-fourths Hoa, Half Wo ant quarter lov [Ams. 75%, 66.7%, 50% An develops an ica Air-Standard Cycles and Their Analysis 2.4 INTRODUCTION In intemal combustion engines, the conversion of heat energy into mechanical work is a compl cated process. As the working fluid passes through the engine and combustion of fucl takes plac ‘complicated chemical sand physical ehanges eccur, Frietiow and heat transfer between the gases and cylinder Walls in actual engines. make the analysis more complicated. To examine al these changes quantitatively and to account for all the variables, creates «-very complex problem. ‘The usual method of approset is through the use of certain theoretical approximations. The two commonly employed approximations of an actual engine ia order of their inereasing accu (a) the ait-standard cyete and (b) t They give an insigh tant parateters that influence engine perform I the air-staneard cycle the working fluid is assumed to be air, The valbesof the specific heat fair are assumed to be constant at all femperatures. This kdsal cyele represents the upper limita the performance, which an engine may theoretically attain, One step closer to the conditions existing im the actual air cycle. This eycle considers the effect af ‘aniation of specific Neat with temperatur issociation of some of the lighter molecules that ovcur at high temperatures. The analysis of the fucl-air eyele is presented in Chapter 4. 2.2 AIR-STANDARD CYCLE ‘The anal of the ait-standard cys! based upon the following assumptions 1. The working fluid in the engine is always an ideal gas, namely pare air with constant specific heats ‘A fixed mass of airs taken asthe working fluid throughout the entire cycle, The eycle is considered elosed With the same ait semaining. i the cylinder to espeat the eyele. The wake and exhaust processes are not considered 4. The combustion process is replaved by a heat 4 ‘The eyele is completed hy hes rejection fo the surrowning wali th pressure correspond to initial conditions, This fs fn comtrast 10 the ex processes im an actual enn 5. All the processes that constitite the cycle are reversible emperature and ust andl imtake 52_Fundamentas of Internal Combustion Engines 6, The compression and expansion processes are reversible adiabatic 7. The working mediuin does not undergo any chentical change throughout the ¢ycle, 8. The operation of the engine is frictionless Because of the above simplified assumptions, the peak temperature, the pressure, the work output, and the thermal efficiency ealeulated by the analysis of an air-standard evele are higher than those found in an actual engine. However. the analysis shows the relative effects of the principal variables, suchas compression ratio, inlet pressure, inlet temperature, cic. on the engine performance. In the present chapter the Following air-standard cycles are described and their work ouipat, thermal efficiency, and mean effective pressure are evaluated fa) Otto exele tb) Diesel cycle (e) Dual combustion evele (d) Atkinson ‘Tho furs twee eyolos are particularly relevant 1o the reciprocating internal combustion engine and the fourths one és relevant tea combination of engine and turbine, Some shortcomings of Ukese ideal cycles are obvious, but these cycles give a valuable insight into real effects and possibilities. 28 CARNOT CYCLE This cycle was first proposed by a French engincer Sadi Carnot in 1824. The Camot eycle is composed of four reversible processes, two isothermal and two adiabatic, [tis the most efficient eysle operating. between fwro specified temperature limits, An engine operating om this cycle is called the Carnot heat engine. It isa theoretical heat engine. ‘The ‘working of this engine can be understood by considering a piston—cylinder device as shoun in Figure 2.1. The cylinder wall is insulaicd. The cylinder bead is such that its insulation may be removed tw allow the heat exchange with reservoirs during isothermal processes and insulation may be bought back during reversible adiabatic peccesses, w—o ine Hex ii Tp i reservoir |r,]Ou, 3 Le io {ay Proce I~ 2 (aterm (Proves 2 3a -@) we Cott ii 5 ' reserve [7,] Q1 He 3 ba) ee ‘sing if 3 i (Process 3— 4 (isothermal 4a) Process 4~ | tadiahaticy Figure21 Wofingernopl of omatengne AirStandard Cycles and Their Analysis 53 ‘The p-V and T-s dtagrams of this eycl respectively are shown in Figure 2% ¢a) and Figure 2.2(b), @) p= ¥dingram (6) F~sdiagram Figure 22. Curate ‘The Camotengine operates on the follow ing principles: Process 1-2 (reversible isathermal expansion): ‘The gas is initially contained in a cylindge ata wmperature 7, and te cylinder head is bu close contact with a hot 4eservoie (source), whiel is also at the temperature Ty, The eas pressure at state 1 is higher than that of surrounding, the gus expands slowly and work icone by the gas on the surroundings, As soom.ts the temperature of the gas drops by an infinitesimal amount 47, some hheat is transferred from the reservoir inws the gas, raising gas temperature to Ty, Thus, the gas perature 1s constant, Process 2-3 (reversible adiabatic expansion): At state 2, hot reservoir is removed and insulation is placed on the eylinder head so that the system becomes adiabatic, Th: ics to expan, The work is further done on the surroundings. ‘The temperature drops from Ty % Ty. No heat ansfer occurs during this process Process 3-4 (reversible bothermal compression}: At state 3, the insulation at the eylinder head is removed, The cylinder head is brought in contact ‘with a sink at temperature T;, The piston is pushed inward by an external force, Now the work is done on the gas by surroundings. As the gas is compressed. its temperature rises, &s soon as the ‘temperature rises by am infinitesimal amount dT. heat is transferred from the pas tthe sink and the ‘as temperature drops back to 7,, Thus, the teruperature durlap this process is kept eonstaat. Process del (reversible adiabatic compression): "AL state 4. sink is removed and insulation is placed back on the eylinder head. The compression {ollows the reversible adiabatic process. The temperature of the gas rises from T), 10 Ty. No heat transfer occurs during this prucess. Thus Ue syele is eormpleted, 54 Fundementls of Intersal Combustion Engines ‘Thermal efficiency of a cycle, work done _ heat supplied-heat rejected heat supplied heat supplied In the Camot cycle, there is mo heat wansfer during the processes 2-% and 4-1 as d soversible adiabatic processes. Heat is supplied onl during Uke coastanl tsinperatute process |-2 and rejected during the constant emperatuce process 3-4 4 : 0, =m RTy ln a @ in ae H ¥, sn p= mT, In > 2, z ea (ay = Op _ ORT ~T, yin, 1V,) ; . 2, mT, Intl!) es ‘Thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycte can alse be evaluated from 7—s diagram, @,=T(s-4) 2.6) Op = Ts —5= Fils, - 9) 27 = On Ty - TM) Ty -B yt = Ov ve _ an = a (2.8) 2, Ty (2-5) th ty ‘The net work output of the cycle ts given by the area 12341. The gross work output during: expansion is the area [23BA1. The work of compression is the area 143BA1. The ratio of the net ‘work eutpat to the grass work output is called the work ratio, The Camot cycle has-abigh thermal atio but a low work eatio. network output ‘gross swork output oh Index Abscaption, 258) ASTM listo test, 258 ‘Accelerating system, 336 ‘Atkinson evel, 75 ‘Asecleration. 303, 323 ‘Atounzation, 393 Aseassusy ork, 161 ‘Autoignition, 223 ‘Acetone, 284 ‘Aviary Actual ele, eMieseney of, 204 sie value, 332 Adiives ‘camparentJasses, 461 ‘ester pressure, 481 por carbusstar, 384 tevimpove ectane no, 310 far bicamts, 480 Adihatc ‘Hack suetion cootrol, 334 ‘oumbustion temperature, 134 ‘Bocktiring. 953 cennines. S18 ‘Billa resist 443, Advorption chromatography, 6 Batley 442 AMerburning, 212, 250 ‘After-injection, 258 ‘Rearing friction, $65 Aur capasiy, S21 ‘Air ee, 25 Biodiesel, 293 A, properties of, 110 Biogas, 298 Aiea, 33 Blowty loesos, 07 relative, (18 Blowdown, Aube, $70, sxngle 416 Aicel,277 peri, 416 Aut-cooled system, $09 process. 16) ‘Airinjstion yee, 371 [Roandary lubrication, 473 Aurless injeetion system, 372 [Brake mean effective presse, 31 ‘Airstandandeyele, SL Brake power, 28 ‘Air-standaed effisetes 62,66, 78,77 Broke thermal eisensy; 29 ‘Alea, 292 Bagion eyele, £1 ‘Alkylation, 290 ‘Briquetted coal, 285 Anticoresinen, 81 ‘Bumed mistureetars, 186 ‘Antitoam agents, 482 ‘Buming time loss, 195 Aabocidunis, 41 Antipercolatar valve, 937 ‘Avmatiss, 288 ‘Galerifis vale, 38 ‘Aesnaieation, 291 ‘Carbs wamescide, 611 652 boden Carbon reside, 808 Carburetion, 1 Carburetor, 324 ceameenisc, 398 scomsruction and operation, 324 dtergentaditives. 36 slownalraught, 337 strawsbowks, 383 cesensre, 13 clernemtary, 824 hdcontal draught, 337 Fooding, 337 ieing, 303 ‘mathernatical analysis, 26-829, rmovlan pasts, 330 pevdlems, 352 Fexquiremenis, 24 pats, 337 Cami evele, 52 (Cataltte somvurters, 817 (Centrifugal afsance mcm, 457 (Centrtal cnnpresson, $39 Cetane number, 263, 51 CChangein etalpy, 124 (Charcal, 285 Charge amplifies, 564 Chemical equilibrium, 143 (Chemluminescean analyzer, 608 bok, 330 Clengine ‘setual eyele, 206 Fie ejection esteem requirements, 370 ‘governors, 302 (Cleanliness, 309 Closed system, 135 ccomsant pressure, 135, ‘const volume, 135 {Cloud point, 30° Coal gas. 296 Coal, 285 Coke, 285 GoM starting, 32, 305. (Commfustian charnser, 235, baste requirements, 236 tutheund type, 242 desig principles, 237 hnaisperial. 285, Tigh sil, 274 meson snl 274 Malype, 274 cpeienzation pense, 238 sum guiewant, 278 types af. 238 swegeshaped. 213 ‘Combustion eficeney, ‘Combustoe ibaa, 223 wwithaie. 111 ‘mine allowable oxygen, 112 incomplete, 112 feternal ener of, 128 nema, 308 Aesock. 267 phouography, 378 fo Slonginc. 21) stages 210, 259 nscontrood, 238,260 ‘Comypeating jel, 332 “Compassion ignition engine, 254 ‘Compression rao, 6, 6,69, 161, 265, 305 lft of, 204 Iighes set carb, 635 Comdenser, 83 Coodoxton, 497 (Constant speed characte, 576 Constant volase cle, 61 Consampli loop. 577 ‘Coat Ear pia, 4 Convection, 497 Coola fins, $10 (Contingent, $0 evaporative, 313 roern concep, 517 peesie, St eee, 308 Comrasiveness, 429 Graeae ventilation 487 lel PCV sytem, 487 open PCW syste 187 rink cise seomprssion, 21 atta, 308 senvenged engines 1 ‘cricing, 250) rising ngs, 22 Cato ti 05. 69 Gylicraration, 221 yizaion, 291 (Cinder srrngements 6 a8 Index 653 Cylinder, ‘xddtiooal Bingo, $88 senses, composition of. 155 yt Bearings, 475 Data sequistion, $65 recorder, 868 Delay perie, 259,263, 268, Delivery rain, $l Design adaperating esiablex $1 engines 615.6) Devergency. 480 Deiergestdispersast, 480 Diooiation, 223 hooey, 226 Dies! evele, 68, 71 inex, 314 oils, 231 Diethytecher, 284 Digital volimeter, 5st Dietz ener, 29% Diolefins. 288 Dinext inyetton. 27.35% Discharze eellicenls, 425 Dispersion, 395 Dissoesaton, 141 degree of, KI ellet of, 158 Distnbutr, 445 stem, 378 Divided fel-faad device, 373 Deleuonie FFE stem, 359 Dap size, 265 ual combastien eye. 68.71 Dus fue engines 637 Dvlancle. 447 Dynaswanstee ‘ey current, $59 Isis, $88 singing field, 50 eamomirer system, 936, Eicieney ratio. 3 leetromic indiester, 368 auissevty $01 Fase diesel acl, 294 ndans, 223 Endotbermic reactions, 110, nergy cell, 278 Engine variables, 161,199 lle of 16] ot ative, 487 ‘wv hast transfer, 50 Engine warmup. 49S rage loesifictions, 4 ccmponents cohng. 493 ‘stoic developenent,2 ‘modern developments, ‘modificalsons Horsuperchanging, $37 performance and lubrication, 48% ouginess. 308 see, 200 spss, 200 lurmperatune dettbution, 498 Aerminology, 14 aah 06 cennbusting, 28 formation, 122 proxuts, 122 eostants, 122 Fatropy change, 180) ‘quilts sit distin lest, 300 bars, 176 ssunstia, EH [Equivalence ratio, 113, 162 Eviescon eyele, $3 ihaned, 295 Evaporation loss, $02, Eakoust blown las, 197 Exhaust gnscalocimeter, 82 ‘Eads gas recitation (FIR), 267, 527 shout ‘enision, 12 ‘control of 617 lest of saribles, 613,615 measurement, eat est, 326 ‘Bxethermic reactions, 110 External combustion cagines, Fn 14 Fewdhack eonlrol, 362 head, 263 Finisbod blended pecduets, 291 Fina heat release mel. 215 Fire pin, 36, 47 Firing onder, 46 First law analy, 123, Flas spssd lelsctor, $73 spocd pater, 212 lemperatute, 14 travel distance, 228 Flamesoniratina detecive. 605 Flammabiity limi, 318 ‘los point 309479 lo throagh pers, 428 Fearing 480 Forved circulation system, 512 Fourstoke, 15, 12 Fraetiealgistlistan, 289 Free-piston engine, 429 Friction dy. fl 199 ‘ui i, 488 losses, 208 ‘mean effective presse 462 rnsehansal, 463 poi ik, 463 Piston assembly, 464 power, 2 rolling, 464 uo injector, it, 384 Fol ois, 291 ool pomes, 27 Fut Fart engines, 905 ccompressbaiy, 388 ‘consumption, 568 How muster, $68 electronic timing sytem, $69 heels rating, 310 sensttiy) 111 Far Shengives, 298 tia ratio, 33,200 cffect om inicatoe digg, 216 cellect om imep, 108 efecto sumer ofmoleeules, 160 Pook-atreyele, 154 FFuclinjoston pumps, 377 dlelivervebharacteristics, 380 lstrittar ype, 382 jeek ype, 377 ‘Poet jection system foe Cl engine, 370 ‘cena tl system, 976 cleetronscally crated. 380 FFokinjection ysiems for Stengine, 351 ‘advantazes, 362 ‘sentirueas injection, 356 since event injechion, 385 slisadvantages, 303 ‘losin, 359 ‘oat ine tgdaues, 36 Foals, 284 szniknock quality. 901 characteristics, 24 luni iestions, 284 ‘gaseous, 295 anlling.ose, 309) ‘iss chromatograpiy, 609 ‘Gas exchange bss, 189 ‘Gasaine detect emestioa CHD1), 36 ‘Gas temperate variation, 486 ‘Gasatine, 291 Gacssimpliag method 42 Gear teth, 47 Gomscty of reviproeating engine, 21 ‘Gravimetric Fiel-flow measaremeat, 568 ‘Gu dees, 3H ‘et lance sce, SH eatengines ext fax, sa ‘Meat losses to eyinder walls, 197 ‘est release rate, 261 Heat transfer, 495 in combustzan chamber. 58h in exhausl stern, 5D jn amake syscm, SO ‘esting vabues, 130 ‘higher heating yates, 13 lower bear vals, 130 ‘Momogencows charge compression ignition (HCCI) ‘engines 610, ‘omeycomb substrate, 621 ot starting, 302 yuraulic shear, 463 ‘Miatoearben emissions, 616, 611 Index 655 Hydrocarboos, 610) Hiydcogen. 296 Hydrogenation, 290 Hothane, 97 {ce formation, 352 Ming range, 321 system, 364 ition nil 3 dehy, 224 delay period. 289 Jag, 211,217 quality of fie, 253, 308 sve, 413 ste, HA ‘copsetive discharge, 455. lestonie, 453 suite, 150 ising, 42 Inpertst ming, 195 improvers, 48] Indicates mcan efostive pressure, 31 Indicated power, 27, 561 Indicated thermal elicieney.29 Indirecanjection engines, 275 Inaiviguol pump sestem, 373 Inilamsnabity Ken, 262 Injection pressure, 285. Injectontiming, 264 Inet presse, 200 Incake tuning $26 Iniernal camustioe engines, | Isenirapic compression facta, 18 anerication, 291 Isomers, 287 ‘oiling, 477 routing. £28 Keeney fect, 428 Kerasene, 291 Kaock, 224 ‘camparisoa in Ind Cl engines, 270 rows to sola, 271 Kaveking, detecion of 232 Leakage, 195 ‘Lean hun, 245, ‘Lean lame regio, 257 [Lean flame-oat region, 257 Lanett svete, $9 Lhasa, 239 Liquid cooked system, $11 ‘Liga Fuels, 286 ‘noo-petroleam based, 292 ‘petroleum based, 291 Liquiicd pestoteum gas, 295, LeJoteanse EFL eystem. 360 ‘Long trig economy, 308 Low swirl. 273 Lalhrcating ils, 292 Lateicating systems, 483 sleysump, 493 splash and pressure, 488 swelsusyp, 15 [Laban 471 earings 44 Iydradynamic, 472 principles, 472 six fen, 473, ‘Las petro-anjetion system. 348, Lakncant Tinstions of a, 471 properties of, 78 stability of, 479 ‘Mableton, 328 Mase tactic burl, 203 ‘Maximus beaketoeque, 216 ‘Mean effective pressure, 6, 68, 30,78 Measurement of, aie Bow rate, S70 Uae power, 357 olindsr pressure, $62 ‘evhanst see, 6218 particulates, 68 Maclin efioney, 29) ‘Mechanical iniestoe, 361 elenng pin, 333, Methane. 297 ‘Methanol, 299 Millerevele, 8 sue requireents, 319, 323 Morse les, 366 Motoring tes. 567 ‘Malti-cslnderengsns, 323 6546 laden ‘Mules engines. 639 ‘Molaiole moze, 38 ‘Mulkipoiat port spect, 355, 359 Nanhthenes, 28% [Natural sirculstion system, $11 tural was, 208 [Non-dispensiveinsfore analy, 618 aneretare ster, SU] Nusselt number, 438 Octane autabee. 310 ‘olor method 310 research method, 31 (Octane reguizements, 246 Ones, 479, 482 Olefin 287 ‘Open chamber, 273, te exele, 61, 71 Cmpur per igplacemem, 33 ‘verenokng 484 (Overhead valve, 242 Osidatioa catalysts, 619 Odes of sitozen, 612 ‘Ovadizang nd reeing eanveries 618 (Ovpdzing eonverter, 61 ogygen analyzer, 607 Parattins, 287 articulate traps, 23 Partition chromaograpy, 609 Peat, 285 Penciativo, 393 Performance characteristics, S74 Peronnanee cmap, 579 Perfoeenanwe nner, 312 Petrol Iubriation ster, 483. eteolcuns els, 286 Photon of tight, ns Pievo-clectrie ranaiueets, 564 FPntsascnzzle, 38 Pintle nove, 386 Pastoo cavity, 204 Piston cooing, $2 FPascon displocer system, 633 Planck's constant, 606 Plungers, 380 Pollutant farmstion, 610 Polymerization, 290 Posttve gns exchange work, 528 ostiznitce, 235 Pour print, 309,479 depeessors, 481 Power system, 335 Power, 208 ‘Proll urine, 408 Precamber, 245, ‘Pre-combustoe chaser, 277 Preignition, 288 Pressure feed sven, 184 Pressureratio, 63, 69 Pressure trunslcers, 64 Pressure waves fie lines, 397 Producer gn5,296 Progressive burning, 195 Prony brake, $86 Pubverizad coal, 285 Pramping work, 46 Rosinion, 409 ‘Rusia, 313 ‘ates injection, 265 ‘Mecarde turbot head, 240 ‘Reciprocating earings, 177 edhction catalyst, 61 ‘Refiaiag process, 259 ‘Reforming, 291 Read vapour pressure born, 301 Relativeefficiensy, 30 ‘Residual gas, 178,20 Restricted ait-beed system, 333, ‘Reynolds number, 49% ‘Road sctise number, 11 ‘Rous blower, 338 Rope brake, 357 Foeameser, 310 Rotary encoder, 563 ‘Rubbing fiction work, 461 ‘ubbing loses, 4160) Rumble, 24 ‘Rust abit. 182 SAL visosity umnber, 482 Safety, 308 Scavenging angle. 416. srrangerens 12

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