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    Visual WM

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    Object and Spatial Visual Working Memory Activate Separate Neural Systems in Human Cortex Human and nonhuman primate visual systems ar 1d spatial information processing pathways. In the macaqu ithas bbeen shown that these pathways project to separate areas’in the frontal lobe and that the ventral and dorsal frontal areas are, respec tively, involved in working memory for objects and spatial locations. A positron emission tomography (PET) study was done to determine if 2 similar anatomical segregation exists in humans for object and spe- working memory. Face working memory demonstrated sig- nificant increases in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), relative to location working memory, in fusiform, parahippocampal, inferior fron- ntrior cingulate cortices, and in right thalamus and midline cerebellum. Location working memory demonstrated significant in- perior and frontal sulcus. Our results show that the neural systems involved in working memory for faces. ‘and for spatial locaton are functionally segregated, with diffrent ar- ns recruited in both exrasriate and frontal cortices for processing the two types of visual information, ‘The results of lesion and single-cell recording experiments {indicate that the primate visual system is divided into two processing pathways (Ungerleider and Mishkin, 1982; Desi ‘mone and Ungerleider, 1989). The ventral occipitotemporal pathway, known as the “what pathway” is essential for per- ceiving the identity of objects. Cells in extrastrate regions ‘within this pathway are sensitive to the intrinsic properties Cf objects such as shape, color, texture, and orientation (De- ‘simone and Ungerleider, 1989) In contrast, the dorsal occip- oparietal pathway, known as the "where pathway” is in volved in the perception of the spatial relationships among ‘objects, the perception of movement, and in guiding move- ‘ment toward objects. Cells in extrastriate regions within this pathway are sensitive to visuospatial properties of objects, ‘such 2s the direction of stimulus motion (Desimone and Un- ‘gerleider, 1989). The human visual system also appears to show this segregation in extrastriate cortex for the perception of objects and their locations in space (Haxby et al., 1991, 1994a; Ungerleider and Haxby, 1994) In the macaque, these two pathways have separate an tomical projections to prefrontal cortex. The occipitotempor- al pathway projects to the inferior convexity of prefrontal cortex (Chavis and Pandya, 1976; Ungerleider et al, 1989; Webster et a., 1994), while the occipitoparictal pathway pro- jects to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex CBarbas and Mesulam, 1985; Ungerleider and Desimone, 1986; Cavada and Goldman- Rakic, 1989). These ventral and dorsal prefrontal regions ap- pear, from single cell physiological recording experiments in ‘nonhuman primates, to play a role in working memory for objects and locations, respectively (Wilson et al, 1993). Ad- ‘ditional data from delayed response tasks with nonhuman pri- ‘mates (Fuster, 1985, 1990; Goldman Rakic, 1990) and from hu ‘man lesion and imaging studies (Ghent et al, 1962; Smith and ‘Milner, 1984; Milner et a., 1985; Schachter, 1987; Shimamura et al., 1990; Petrides et al, 1993b; Haxby et al., 1995) also ‘susan M. Courtney, Leslie G, Ungerleider, Katrina Keil, and James V Haxby Laboratory of Psychology and Psychopathology, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892 suggest that the prefrontal cortex plays a role in working memory. ‘The concept of working memory, as originally proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), has three dissociable compo- ‘nents: a phonological rehearsal loop for the storage and ma nipulation of verbal information, a visuospatial sketch pad for visual and spatial information, and a central executive for at- tentional control In light of the physiological data from non- Jhuman primates and the dissociation of object and spatial information in extrastriate areas in the human, it seems rea- sonable that the visuospatial sketch pad might be further dis- sociable into two subsystems: one for object based informa tion, and one for spatial information. However, to our knowl ‘edge, no previous imaging study has used both object and. spatial working memory tasks within the same study such that the spatial task and the object task used the same set of visual stimu ‘We have investigated the functional organization of human Frontal cortex by using positron emission tomography PET) to measure changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) associated with Working memory for faces and spatial loca- tons. We present the results of an experiment in which the ‘stimuli for the face and location working memory tasks were Identical so that differences in the patterns of rCBF changes ‘could be attributed to the difference between the selective retention of face identity oF face location in working memory ‘and not to stimulus differences. Our results, together with the results from several previous studies, suggest that working ‘memory in the frontal lobe of humans, like that of the mon- key, is functionally segregated, with a dorsal region for spatial location and more ventral regions for object identity. ‘A preliminary report ofthis study has appeared in abstract form (Courtney et.a., 1994). Moterals and Methods Subjects Sixteen (eight male, eight female) healthy, righthanded volunteers participated in this study. Mean age was 27.8 years (SD 4.6). Mean ‘educational background was 16.3 years (SD 2)-All subjects gave ‘wniten informed consent. Visual Tasks PET scans measuring rCBF were obtained while subjects performed visual working memory and control tasks. All asks were presented bya Macintosh Ifx computer Apple. Cupertino, CA) using Superlad software (Cedrus, Wheaton, MD; Haxby etal, 1993). Responses for All tasks Were button presses made with the right of left thumb. ‘Buxtons were interfaced to the Macintosh computer with a National Instruments NB-DIO-24 cand (Austin, TX) to record response acc ‘icy and latency "The stim forall asks had the same spatial configuration. Sub- {ects were presented with 24 gray squares placed in an iregular aay fon a black background. For the two working memory tasks, three ‘ices would appear, one ata ume, each ina diferent square in the army Cig.) Each face in the memory st was shown for 1500 mse, fora total of 4500 mace. After the third face appeared, the sereen Cereb Cex VF 19969699-49;1047-S211/56/4 00, Memory Set ‘Test Stimulus Figue 1. Sale simu fr te face waring mamary task. The kt shown would rege yet responce. Stn forth eats wecing ema task wee nicl xcept ete sme was reve" oe of the faces sed to mark he labs in the memory ae The sesormotar ear te ao ha eril sma except hat 2 ‘rambled fce (ot Shown) appeared each einen of he Sunes instead of & would blank for $00 msee and then another face would appear for 2000 msec in one ofthe squares ofthe array. After this tes face, the Screen would blank for I sec and then the next set of faces Would begin. Pictures of faces were from fied set of 24 that were take from a high school yearbook and cropped to remove hair and cloth ing: Por to scanning, the same set of faces was used when the subjects practiced the working memory tasks. In tot subjects saw tach of the 24 faces three times during this taining session, and therefore, were familiar withthe faces before the PET scanning be fore each task began, subjects were instructed to remember celther the three faces in the memory st, or the three locations in ‘which the faces appeared. Subjects were instructed to look directly at each face as it appeared. For the face memory tsk, the subject indicated whether the test face was the same as one of the three faces seen in the memory set regardless ofthe location in which the face appeared. For the location memory task, the subject indicated ‘whether the tes location was the sim a8 one of the three locations indicated in the memory st epardles of which face appeared. For 10 object vers Spatial Working Memory Courtney eta the face memory task, the tet face never appeared in one of the locations used in the memory set. For the location memory task. the test face was never one ofthe faces that had appeared inthe memory set This was done to discourage covert storage of unattended infor fnation during the working memory tasks, A"yes” response Wasi icated by pressing a button with the right thumb, 8 "m0" response bby pressing s button with the let thumb For the sensorimotor contol tsk, thece scrambled pictues of faces (tered to remove the high frequencies) would appear one at time, each ina different gexy square in tbe ara, using the same timing as for the working Memory asks. After the third scrambled face, the screen would blank for 500 msec and then another scram bled face would appear in's different square inthe array. Again, the Subjects were instructed to look directly at each scrambled face 25 it appeared. The fourth (est sumulus was never the sime picture hor in the same location as any of the previous three stimu. After the sreen blanked and the fourth scrambled face appeared, subjects ‘ould press either the left of righthand button oa alternating tral, To thatthe total number of motor responses was identical for the ‘Control and working memory asks. The contol task was always used for the first and last scans of each session. The order for the working memory tasks was counterbalanced aeros subjects, with two scans Obtained foreach task ‘Stimull were presented on computermonitor positioned ap- proximately 60 cm from the subjects eyes and tilted to be perpen: Eicularto the subject's line of sight. The fll stimulus array subtended approximately 155° % 12" of visual angle, Each small square in the fry subtended approximately 18° 21° of visual angle Positron Emission Tomography Measurement of rCBF was accomplished with a Scanditrontx PC2048158 tomograph (Milwaukee, WD. This tomograph acquires 15 contiguous, cross-sectional images simultaneous each 6.3 mm thick Within plane resolution s 65mm ull width a hal:maximun, Head movement was minimized by using a thermoplastic mask that twas molded to the subject’ head and attached to the 9 Eich scan was obtained while the subject performed 0 three tasks described above. Subjects began each task 15 sec before the intravenous injection of 37-5 mC of H,"O. Scanning began when the brain radioactivity count reached 4 threshold value and conto ‘ed for | mia thereafter The ask was stopped atthe end of scanning, ‘transmission scan was used to correct images fr aitenuation Local fadiation counts (counts/min/cc) were sed as an index of local blood flow. Blood flow increases are known to be a linear function ‘of radiation counts for scans of ess than In duration Herscovitch tal, 1983, Fox eta, 1984: Fox and Mintun, 1989). Changes in tissue fadioactiity will be refered to as changes in blood ow Data Analysts ‘The voxel dimensions in the orginal scans were 2 x 2. 65 mm, Using linear interpolation, scans were converted 10 43 slice images with 2% 2 % 2.27 mm voxels. Alignment of the first scan in the y CGnterior-posteion and 7 (superiorinferioe) dimensions was rect fed using the maximum zerocrowover method described by Mi ‘noshima et al, (1992). The remaining scans were aligned to the rec {ied frst scan using af iterative procedure that also tested Ht using the maxinnum zerocrossover method (Lee et al, 1991) and found the optimuan alignment by erating seven parameters (scale and six movements oll pitch, yaw, xctransation, translation, zaranslaion) ‘withthe simplex search algorithm (Nelder and Mead, 1965) These procedures corrected all scans for roll, yaw, and betweenscan head Inovements. These programs were impiemented on an Intel IPSC3GO parallel supercomputer “Taskerelated differences in FCRE were tested using statistical pas metic mapping (SPM; Friston et aL, 1989, 1990, 1991a,b)_ SPM con- Sits of thice steps: stereotactic normalization, correction for global flow, and task comparisons, Stereotactic normalization 4s a fully 2 tomated procedure that scales each scan fo the dimensions of the Talairach and Tournoux (1988) stereotactic alas brain aligns the scan to the estimated location of the lie connecting the anterior and Posterior commissures (ACPC line) and reshapes the scan, using & onlinear resampling, to the conformation of & template PET scan Stereotactic normalization resamples each sean into voxels that are 2 oc 2 4mm in the x,y, and 7 planes, respectively. Scans are then Smoothed using 4 Gaussian ter with fullwiddh at halfmaximam i iar Nese csc angus ines er worn mae ts eco Resp ie Ti (core tse Fae wa meme Prac asim oo =m Petes wee iar imme luc wering money Pcie esa ex Fete su =s0 216 ‘Sanday ite om etn wring meno, < 00 spar rt om nen woking manny p< 1. ‘of 2 cm in x andy, and 1.2 em in 2. After each individual's sean has been resampled inte a standard brain coordinate space, stastcs are Calculated foreach voxel sampled in all subjects rCBF foreach voxel is corrected for variations in global blood flow by dividing each voxel Yalue by the global mean for that scan (Meatosh etal in press) The Significance of rCBF differences between sets of ask conditions I. tested by calculating f tests using the pooled estimate of error var nce, Values of ¢ were converted to standard Z values to provide a imecasure of statistical significance that s independent of sample size. Individual Voxel statistics were corrected for multiple compari sons using. particle analysis method developed by Friston et a (1994), The experiment wise probability of region of activation may be determined from the number of contiguous voxels, all of which exceed some threshold for an individual voxel Z value. Thus, a larger fepion with a lower Z threshold may have the same probability as Smaller region with 2 higher Z threshold. The calculation of proba. bilities i dependent on the size of the search space and the est; ‘mated spatial smoothness ofthe statistical parametric map. Because the estimate of smoothness can vary dependent on the size, number, and intensity of cerebral activations, we used a standard estimate of “Smoothness that we calculated from comparisons between repeated task conditions in tis and other experiments (Haxby ct al, 1994), ‘This estimate corresponded to a smoothness (full width at halfamax limum) of 10.2 mm in X 11.2 man in y, and 12.7 mum in Friston’ W = 265). The scarch space for this analysis was 70,633 voxels (€1130.1 emo. The field of view in was from 24 mm below the AC- PC line to 52 mm above. We set the Z threshold at 2:4, which, for this value of spatial smoothness and sizeof search space, requires that & region of activation contain at last 236 voxels G.78 enP) 10 have an experiment-wise probabilty less than 0.05. Foct for areas demonstrating maximal FCBF differences were identified by finding local maxima, defined as voxels that demonstrated significant rCBF diferences and that had Z values higher than any other voxel in a 1c LB % 2 cm (9 X 9 X 5 voxels) space centered on that voxel. {CBF valves during performance of the two working memory tasks were compared both to the contol task rCBF and to each other. Significant increases as compared to the control task were taken {0 Indicate activity that could be attsbuted to either general visual pro- cessing and memory operations, shared by both working memory tusks, orto visual processing and memory operations specific 10 ob ject or spatial information. Significant differences between the work: Ing memory asks were taken to indicat those areas that were more specifically awociated with perceptual and working memory oper tons related to face Ment than to spatial location or vie versa. Results Cognitive Testing Performance Mean response accuracies and reaction times for the two working memory tasks are presented in Table 1. Reaction times were shorter and accuracies were better for the loca- tion working memory task than for the face working memory task (p < 0.002). Because we equated stimulus parameters for all tasks, performance data could not be equated. ter {oc sina win as dno gue eae BF wang manny an fr ‘iach cadet Fie ot may gue on sone ee is einen AS p< On Ua emg a) 29 Bap rn poe an ‘0 Nine ett a) oo Pipe tl S49 < 00 Made ora 8 zs so Ul ermiewrheettnim) un Aa cq + 3 ow ao lutte, p< 08) Ine ol o 8 ow an toca wet mee tn acer! ‘ste ecg.» < 00 Fie ite 97) = ko so Laser a er) a Fi eo grt ue 4 a Tea vane aT, "oda to aac eau as. CBF Differences ‘Areas demonstrating significant increases in rCBF during per- formance of the face working memory task, relative t0 the sensorimotor control task (experiment-wise p < 0.05), are shown in Figure 2. Areas demonstrating significant increases in rCBF during performance of the location working memory task, relative (0 the control task, are shown in Figure 3. Sig- nificant regions of activation are listed in Table 2 with local ‘maxima for each region. ‘oth tasks showed activation in the right posterior fusi- form gyrus (Brodmann area (BA) 19}. In addition to the pos. terior fusiform gyrus, face, Dut not location, working memory activated more anterior areas bilaterally in ventral occipito- temporal cortex centered along the fusiform gyrus (BA 18), Activation extended more anteriorly in the right hemisphere than in the left In the right hemisphere, activation extended anteriorly to 27 mm posterior to the anterior commissure, ‘through the fusiform gyrus, the lingual gyrus (BA 37),and into, the parahippocampal gyrus (BA 20/36). In the left hemi- sphere, activation extended to 37 mm posterior to the ante- ‘lor commissure. In the right frontal lobe, face working mem- Ory activated areas in the middle frontal gyrus (BA 45/46) and in the sulcus between orbital and inferior frontal cortices (BA 11/47), Activation was also seen in left inferior frontal cortex, ‘but this was more posterior (BA 44) than was the inferior {frontal activation in the right hemisphere. Increases in rCBF for the face working memory task, relative to the control task, were also seen in anterior cingulate cortex (BA 32) and mid- line cerebellum, Location, but not face, working memory showed increases in rCBF relative to the control task, in the right dorsolateral occipital cortex (BA 19/7) and bilaterally in the superior parietal cortex (BA 7). ‘Comparison of rCBF during performance of each of the ‘wo working memory tasks to each other revealed differences in activation between the tasks that were not apparent when ‘comparing each task to the sensorimotor control. As will be presented later, there were areas that showed significantly less activation during the working memory tasks than during the ‘control task, We refer to these areas as being “deactivated” A ‘dizect comparison of face and location working memory ‘would produce areas that showed significantly different de- ‘Cerra Comex Jane 1956, V6 NA AY Pore eye Pore Figure 4 Areas sowing Sigicany increased CBF ug echo te waking memony ons as well as significantly different activations. In 0 der to isolate the differences in activations from the differ sons of the two working memory tasks or the compari each other were ‘comparison to the sensorimotor control. After the Z scores were computed for differences between object and spatial working memory, the statistical, maps were masked so that voxels that showed a decrease for both tasks relative to the sensorimotor control were elimi nated from the analysis. AS will be presented later, these in: cluded auditory, motor, and somatosensory cortices. Figure 4 shows significant differences in rCBF from direct compar: sons between the two working memory tasks. Significant aE ar NTT? +40 mm 2 compar tthe aber marin menor tk tivation are listed in Table The occipitotemporal region of significant xCBF increase farth 's compared to location working memory extended anteriorly than when face working memory was com pared to the sensorimotor control. This finding susgests that Small increases in *CBF during face working memory Gin the thalamus: 1.74 em’sp in the parahippocampal gyrus 0, ‘maximum, 28, ~16, —24; Z score small decreases during location working memory in nearby cortex (1.74 em’ p = 0.54; local minimum, 30, 20:2 score, 3.16), although neither activation reached significance 0.54;local maximum, 6, ~4,4;2. score ‘em’; = 0.99; local 2.78) were enhanced by Tae Uae nen ie ae densa sient pene BF wo may res ess ig meno spl ean lee ie mai win smegma BF rss cam at ekg any Weta tana a ey tee ryt few Fx wn mene a tn Been og may Secale er wg nee Bil cpm ew» < om et pl wp t= 01 ut om “a se let ego “2 4 nox fete gra 8 2 i tetera oe Cr a re x & sree 94 Maine cei ‘ 3 Swap Op < fl iH Sse wp ee 6 se i a i x a 1 th a est to Se 9 <0 fap tom tite p< 0) Pose ep 4k «ow naenl es ie tose eal en oo 8 as " *. Moree nese nprtomdsl TD Fie tl 9 <0 “ se pelerekipeded sos ou re tl 269 = exe wg ey ne ‘eee rl Yo so9 mo toe paps ot pe ec»

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