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Third Edition
CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
3
MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf
Torsion
Lecture Notes:
J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reser

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Edition
Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf
Contents
Introduction Statically Indeterminate Shafts

Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts Sample Problem 3.4
Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses Design of Transmission Shafts
Axial Shear Components Stress Concentrations
Shaft Deformations Plastic Deformations
Shearing Strain Elastoplastic Materials
Stresses in Elastic Range Residual Stresses
Normal Stresses Example 3.08/3.09
Torsional Failure Modes Torsion of Noncircular Members
Sample Problem 3.1 Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range Example 3.10
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3-2

Edition
Third
Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
• Interested in stresses and strains of

circular shafts subjected to twisting
couples or torques
• Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft
• Shaft transmits the torque to the

generator
• Generator creates an equal and

opposite torque T’

Edition
Third
Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an

internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,
T = ∫ ρ dF = ∫ ρ ( τ dA)
• Although the net torque due to the shearing

stresses is known, the distribution of the
stresses is not
• Distribution of shearing stresses is statically
indeterminate – must consider shaft
deformations
• Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the
distribution of shearing stresses due to torsional
loads can not be assumed uniform.

Edition
Third
Axial Shear Components
• Torque applied to shaft produces shearing

stresses on the faces perpendicular to the
axis.
• Conditions of equilibrium require the

existence of equal stresses on the faces of the
two planes containing the axis of the shaft
• The existence of the axial shear components is

demonstrated by considering a shaft made up
of axial slats.
The slats slide with respect to each other when

equal and opposite torques are applied to the
ends of the shaft.

Edition
Third
Shaft Deformations
• From observation, the angle of twist of the

shaft is proportional to the applied torque and
to the shaft length.
φ ∝T
φ∝L
• When subjected to torsion, every cross-section
of a circular shaft remains plane and
undistorted.
• Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular
shafts remain plain and undistorted because a
circular shaft is axisymmetric.
• Cross-sections of noncircular (non-
axisymmetric) shafts are distorted when
subjected to torsion.

Edition
Third
Shearing Strain
• Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a

torsional load is applied, an element on the
interior cylinder deforms into a rhombus.
• Since the ends of the element remain planar,

the shear strain is equal to angle of twist.
• It follows that
ρ φ
Lγ = ρ φ or γ =
L
• Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius

cφ ρ
γ max = and γ = γ max
L c

Edition
Third
Stresses in Elastic Range

• Multiplying the previous equation by the
shear modulus,
ρ
Gγ = Gγ max
c
From Hooke’s Law, τ = Gγ , so
ρ
τ= τ max
c
J = 12 π c 4
The shearing stress varies linearly with the
radial position in the section.
• Recall that the sum of the moments from
the internal stress distribution is equal to
the torque on the shaft at the section,
τ τ
T = ∫ ρ τdA = max ∫ ρ 2 dA = max J
c c
• The results are known as the elastic torsion
(
J = 12 π c24 − c14 ) formulas,
Tc Tρ
τ max = and τ =
J J
Edition
Third
Normal Stresses
• Elements with faces parallel and perpendicular
to the shaft axis are subjected to shear stresses
only. Normal stresses, shearing stresses or a
combination of both may be found for other
orientations.
• Consider an element at 45o to the shaft axis,
F = 2( τ max A0 ) cos 45 = τ max A0 2
F τ max A0 2
σ = = = τ max
45o A A0 2
• Element a is in pure shear.

• Element c is subjected to a tensile stress on
two faces and compressive stress on the other
two.
• Note that all stresses for elements a and c have
the same magnitude

Edition
Third
Torsional Failure Modes
• Ductile materials generally fail in

shear. Brittle materials are weaker
in tension than shear.
• When subjected to torsion, a ductile

specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane
perpendicular to the shaft axis.
• When subjected to torsion, a brittle

specimen breaks along planes
perpendicular to the direction in
which tension is a maximum, i.e.,
along surfaces at 45o to the shaft
axis.
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 10

Edition
Third
Sample Problem 3.1

SOLUTION:
• Cut sections through shafts AB
and BC and perform static
equilibrium analysis to find
torque loadings
• Apply elastic torsion formulas to
find minimum and maximum
stress on shaft BC
Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer
diameters of 90 mm and 120 mm, • Given allowable shearing stress
respectively. Shafts AB and CD are solid and applied torque, invert the
of diameter d. For the loading shown, elastic torsion formula to find the
determine (a) the minimum and maximum required diameter
shearing stress in shaft BC, (b) the
required diameter d of shafts AB and CD
if the allowable shearing stress in these
shafts is 65 MPa.
Edition
Third
Sample
SOLUTION:Problem 3.1
• Cut sections through shafts AB and BC
and perform static equilibrium analysis
to find torque loadings
∑ M x = 0 = ( 6 kN ⋅ m ) − TAB ∑ M x = 0 = ( 6 kN ⋅ m ) + (14 kN ⋅ m ) − TBC

TAB = 6 kN ⋅ m = TCD TBC = 20 kN ⋅ m

Edition
Third
Sample Problem 3.1

• Apply elastic torsion formulas to • Given allowable shearing stress and
find minimum and maximum applied torque, invert the elastic torsion
stress on shaft BC formula to find the required diameter
J=
2
(
π 4 4 π
2
) [
c2 − c1 = ( 0.060 ) 4 − ( 0.045) 4 ] τ max =
Tc
=
Tc
65MPa =
6 kN ⋅ m
J π c4 π c3
2 2
= 13.92 × 10− 6 m 4
c = 38.9 × 10−3 m
TBC c2 ( 20 kN ⋅ m )( 0.060 m )
τ max = τ 2 = = d = 2c = 77.8 mm
J 13.92 ×10− 6 m 4
= 86.2 MPa
τ min c1 τ min 45 mm
= =
τ max c2 86.2 MPa 60 mm τ max = 86.2 MPa
τ min = 64.7 MPa τ min = 64.7 MPa
Edition
Third
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range

• Recall that the angle of twist and maximum
shearing strain are related,
cφ
γ max =
L
• In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear
are related by Hooke’s Law,
τ max Tc
γ max = =
G JG
• Equating the expressions for shearing strain and
solving for the angle of twist,
TL
φ=
JG
• If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section
changes along the length, the angle of rotation is
found as the sum of segment rotations
Ti Li
φ =∑
i J i Gi

Edition
Third
Statically Indeterminate Shafts

• Given the shaft dimensions and the applied
torque, we would like to find the torque reactions
at A and B.
• From a free-body analysis of the shaft,
TA + TB = 90 lb ⋅ ft
which is not sufficient to find the end torques.

The problem is statically indeterminate.
• Divide the shaft into two components which
must have compatible deformations,
TA L1 TB L2 LJ
φ = φ1 + φ 2 = − =0 TB = 1 2 TA
J1G J 2G L2 J1
• Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,

LJ
TA + 1 2 TA = 90 lb ⋅ ft
L2 J1

Edition
Third
Sample Problem 3.4

SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis on
the two shafts to find a relationship
between TCD and T0
• Apply a kinematic analysis to relate
the angular rotations of the gears
• Find the maximum allowable torque
Two solid steel shafts are connected on each shaft – choose the smallest
by gears. Knowing that for each • Find the corresponding angle of twist
shaft G = 11.2 x 106 psi and that the
for each shaft and the net angular
allowable shearing stress is 8 ksi,
rotation of end A
determine (a) the largest torque T0
that may be applied to the end of
shaft AB, (b) the corresponding angle
through which end A of shaft AB
rotates.
Edition
Third
Sample Problem 3.4

SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis on • Apply a kinematic analysis to relate
the two shafts to find a relationship the angular rotations of the gears
between TCD and T0
rBφ B = rCφC
∑ M B = 0 = F ( 0.875 in.) − T0 rC 2.45 in.
φB = φC = φC
∑ M C = 0 = F ( 2.45 in.) − TCD rB 0.875 in.
TCD = 2.8 T0 φ B = 2.8φC

Edition
Third
Sample Problem 3.4

• Find the T0 for the maximum • Find the corresponding angle of twist for each
allowable torque on each shaft – shaft and the net angular rotation of end A
choose the smallest
T L
φ A / B = AB =
( 561lb ⋅ in.)( 24in.)
(
J ABG π ( 0.375 in.) 4 11.2 × 106 psi
2
)
= 0.387 rad = 2.22o
TAB c T ( 0.375 in.) 2.8 ( 561lb ⋅ in.)( 24in.)
τ max = 8000 psi = 0 T L
φC / D = CD =
J AB π ( 0.375 in.) 4
2 (
J CDG π ( 0.5 in.) 4 11.2 × 106 psi
2
)
T0 = 663 lb ⋅ in.
= 0.514 rad = 2.95o
TCD c 2.8 T0 ( 0.5 in.)
τ max =
J CD
8000 psi =
π ( 0.5 in.) 4
2
( )
φ B = 2.8φC = 2.8 2.95o = 8.26o
T0 = 561lb ⋅ in. T0 = 561lb ⋅ in φ A = φ B + φ A / B = 8.26o + 2.22o φ A = 10.48o

Edition
Third
Design of Transmission Shafts
• Principal transmission shaft • Determine torque applied to shaft at

performance specifications are: specified power and speed,
- power P = Tω = 2πfT
- speed P P
T= =
ω 2πf
• Designer must select shaft
material and cross-section to • Find shaft cross-section which will not
meet performance specifications exceed the maximum allowable
without exceeding allowable shearing stress,
shearing stress. τ max =
Tc
J
J π 3 T
= c = ( solid shafts )
c 2 τ max
J
=
π 4 4
c2 2c2
(
c2 − c1 =) T
τ max
( hollow shafts )

Edition
Third
Stress Concentrations
• The derivation of the torsion formula,
Tc
τ max =
J
assumed a circular shaft with uniform
cross-section loaded through rigid end
plates.
• The use of flange couplings, gears and
pulleys attached to shafts by keys in
keyways, and cross-section discontinuities
can cause stress concentrations
• Experimental or numerically determined
concentration factors are applied as
Tc
τ max = K
J

Edition
Third
Plastic Deformations
• With the assumption of a linearly elastic material,
Tc
τ max =
J
• If the yield strength is exceeded or the material has
a nonlinear shearing-stress-strain curve, this
expression does not hold.
• Shearing strain varies linearly regardless of
material properties. Application of shearing-stress-
strain curve allows determination of stress
distribution.
• The integral of the moments from the internal stress
distribution is equal to the torque on the shaft at the
section,
c c
T = ∫ ρ τ( 2π ρdρ ) = 2π ∫ ρ 2τ dρ
0 0

Edition
Third
Elastoplastic Materials
• At the maximum elastic torque,
J Lγ Y
TY = τ Y = 12 πc3τ Y φY =
c c
• As the torque is increased, a plastic region

ρ
( τ = τ Y ) develops around an elastic core ( τ = τY )
ρY
Lγ Y
ρY =
φ

2 πc 3τ 1 − 1 ρY3  4  1 ρY3 
T= Y = T 1− 4 3
3  3 Y
3

4
c   c 
 3
4 T 1 − 1 φY 
T= 3 Y 4 3
 φ 
• As ρY → 0, the torque approaches a limiting value,

TP = 43 TY = plastic torque

Edition
Third
Residual Stresses
• Plastic region develops in a shaft when subjected to a
large enough torque
• When the torque is removed, the reduction of stress
and strain at each point takes place along a straight line
to a generally non-zero residual stress
• On a T-φ curve, the shaft unloads along a straight line
to an angle greater than zero
• Residual stresses found from principle of
superposition
Tc ∫ ρ ( τ dA) = 0
′ =
τm
J
Edition
Third
Example 3.08/3.09
SOLUTION:
• Solve Eq. (3.32) for ρ Y/c and
evaluate the elastic core radius
• Solve Eq. (3.36) for the angle of twist
A solid circular shaft is subjected to • Evaluate Eq. (3.16) for the angle
a torqueT = 4.6 kN ⋅ m at each end. which the shaft untwists when the
Assuming that the shaft is made of torque is removed. The permanent
τ Y = 150 MPa
an elastoplastic material with twist is the difference between the
G =and
77 GPa determine (a) angles of twist and untwist
the radius of the elastic core, (b) the
• Find the residual stress distribution
angle of twist of the shaft. When the
by a superposition of the stress due to
torque is removed, determine (c) the
twisting and untwisting the shaft
permanent twist, (d) the distribution
of residual stresses.

Edition
Third
Example
SOLUTION: 3.08/3.09
• Solve Eq. (3.32) for ρ Y/c and • Solve Eq. (3.36) for the angle of twist
evaluate the elastic core radius
1 φ ρ φY
 1 ρY3  ρY  T  3 = Y ⇒ φ=
T = 3 TY 1 − 4 3  ⇒
4 =  4 − 3  φY c ρY c
 c  c  TY 

(25 ×10 m) φY =
TY L ( )
3.68 ×103 N (1.2 m )
=
( )
1 πc 4 1π −3
J= =
2 2 JG 614 ×10-9 m 4 ( 77 × 10 Pa )
= 614 ×10−9 m 4 φY = 93.4 × 10−3 rad
TY c τ J
τY = ⇒ TY = Y 93.4 × 10−3 rad
J c φ= = 148.3 × 10−3 rad = 8.50o
0.630
TY =
(150 × 106 Pa )(614 × 10−9 m 4 )
φ = 8.50o
25 × 10−3 m
= 3.68 kN ⋅ m
1
ρY  4.6  3
= 4 −3  = 0.630
c  3.68 
ρY = 15.8 mm

Edition
Third
Example 3.08/3.09
• Evaluate Eq. (3.16) for the angle • Find the residual stress distribution
which the shaft untwists when by a superposition of the stress due to
the torque is removed. The twisting and untwisting the shaft
permanent twist is the difference
between the angles of twist and ′
τ max = =
( )(
Tc 4.6 ×103 N ⋅ m 25 × 10−3 m )
untwist J 614 × 10-9 m 4
TL = 187.3 MPa
φ′ =
JG
( 4.6 × 103 N ⋅ m )(1.2 m )
=
(6.14 ×109 m4 )(77 ×109 Pa )
= 116.8 × 10−3 rad
φp = φ − φ ′
(
= 116.8 × 10−3 − 116.8 × 10−3 rad )
= 1.81o
φ p = 1.81o

Edition
Third
Torsion of Noncircular Members

• Previous torsion formulas are valid for
axisymmetric or circular shafts
• Planar cross-sections of noncircular
shafts do not remain planar and stress
and strain distribution do not vary
linearly
• For uniform rectangular cross-sections,
T TL
τ max = φ=
c1ab 2 c2 ab3G
• At large values of a/b, the maximum

shear stress and angle of twist for other
open sections are the same as a
rectangular bar.

Edition
Third
Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts

• Summing forces in the x-direction on AB,
∑ Fx = 0 = τ A ( t A∆x ) − τ B ( t B ∆x )
τ At A= τ B t B = τ t = q = shear flow
shear stress varies inversely with thickness
• Compute the shaft torque from the integral

of the moments due to shear stress
dM 0 = p dF = pτ ( t ds ) = q( pds ) = 2q dA
T = ∫ dM 0 = ∫ 2q dA = 2qA
T
τ=
2tA
• Angle of twist (from Chapt 11)
TL ds
φ= ∫
4 A 2G t

Edition
Third
Example 3.10
Extruded aluminum tubing with a rectangular
cross-section has a torque loading of 24 kip-
in. Determine the shearing stress in each of
the four walls with (a) uniform wall thickness
of 0.160 in. and wall thicknesses of (b) 0.120
in. on AB and CD and 0.200 in. on CD and
BD.
SOLUTION:
• Determine the shear flow through the
tubing walls
• Find the corresponding shearing stress
with each wall thickness

Edition
Third
Example 3.10
SOLUTION: • Find the corresponding shearing
stress with each wall thickness
• Determine the shear flow through the
tubing walls
with a uniform wall thickness,
q 1.335 kip in.
τ= =
t 0.160 in.
τ = 8.34 ksi
with a variable wall thickness

1.335 kip in.
τ AB = τ AC =
A = ( 3.84 in.)( 2.34 in.) = 8.986 in.2 0.120 in.
T 24 kip - in. kip τ AB = τ BC = 11.13 ksi
q= =
(
2 A 2 8.986 in.2
=
)
1 . 335
in.
1.335 kip in.
τ BD = τ CD =
0.200 in.
τ BC = τ CD = 6.68 ksi

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Third Edition

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reser

Introduction Statically Indeterminate Shafts

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3-2

Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

• Interested in stresses and strains of

• Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft

• Shaft transmits the torque to the

• Generator creates an equal and

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3-3

Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses

• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an

• Although the net torque due to the shearing

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3-4

Axial Shear Components

• Torque applied to shaft produces shearing

• Conditions of equilibrium require the

• The existence of the axial shear components is

The slats slide with respect to each other when

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3-5

• From observation, the angle of twist of the

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3-6

• Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a

• Since the ends of the element remain planar,

• Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3-7

Stresses in Elastic Range

• Element a is in pure shear.

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3-9

Torsional Failure Modes

• Ductile materials generally fail in

• When subjected to torsion, a ductile

• When subjected to torsion, a brittle

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 10

Sample Problem 3.1

∑ M x = 0 = ( 6 kN ⋅ m ) − TAB ∑ M x = 0 = ( 6 kN ⋅ m ) + (14 kN ⋅ m ) − TBC

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 12

Sample Problem 3.1

Angle of Twist in Elastic Range

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 14

Statically Indeterminate Shafts

which is not sufficient to find the end torques.

• Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 15

Sample Problem 3.4

Sample Problem 3.4

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 17

Sample Problem 3.4

T0 = 561lb ⋅ in. T0 = 561lb ⋅ in φ A = φ B + φ A / B = 8.26o + 2.22o φ A = 10.48o

Design of Transmission Shafts

• Principal transmission shaft • Determine torque applied to shaft at

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 19

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 20

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 21

• As the torque is increased, a plastic region

• As ρY → 0, the torque approaches a limiting value,

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 22

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 24

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 25

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 26

Torsion of Noncircular Members

• At large values of a/b, the maximum

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 - 27

Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts