Mathematical model of grate-kiln—-cooler process used for induration of iron ore pellets R.W. Young, M. Cross, and R. D. Gibson ‘The results of a theoretical study inte factors, affecting the operation of the grato-kiln— {Goulet induration process of an Allis Chalmers pelletizing plant are prosonted. ‘Mathematical models of the grate and cooler oporations are described and the development of a composite model of the complete induration processis outlined. The model basically consists of the models of the grate and cooler plus previously developed kiln model, which are integrated with respect to their gas and pellet flows. This composite model, which traces the thermal history of both the pellet and ‘countercurrent gas flows throughout the induration system, may be used to examine the effects on plant performance (e.g. fuel consumption) of varying any process parameter. In this paper, the effects of varying the limestone, magnetite, and moisture contents plus the relative mass flows of pellets and gases are discussed. When thoroughly validated, this model should prove apowerful 1001 both in optimizing the operation of existing plant and in the design of new ones. 18/279 © 1979 The Metals Society. Manuscript recoived 31 January 1978. 0+ Young swith the Brish Steet Corporation, ‘Teesside Laboretoies, Middlesbrough, Clevelnd, Dr Crossi¢ Inthe. Deparment’ cl. Mathematics and. Computing, ‘Sunderland Polyechic, and Dr Gibson iin he Department fof Mathematics, Statistics and Computig, Newcasta Upon Tyne Pelvis, ‘The British Steel Corporation's first pelletizing plant forms an integral part of the new ironmaking complex now being built at Redcar on the north-east coast of England. The pelletizing plant, an Allis Chalmers grate kiln system, will use a blend of ores, feeding dry ground material to a bank Of balling drums which provides the suprly of raw pellets to the induration operation. As part of a comprehensive research programme on pelletizing, mathematical models of the various constituent processes have been developed to assist in identifying optimal operating conditions. To date, work has beea completed on the modelling of the balling drum cireuits?-* and on the rotary kiln used in the pellet- firing opeartion® (see Ref.7 for a summary of allthis work). In this paper the authors report on the development of a ‘mathematical model to describe the complete grate-kiln— cooler pellet induration process. To construct this com- posite model, the previously developed mathematical mode! of the rotary kiin® is interlinked via the gas and pellet flows to models ofthe grate and cooler. ‘The models of the grate and cooler operations are also developed in this paper, and follow along the same general Tines as previous treatments of moving packed beds,¢-! attempting to account for all the major heat- and mass- transfer mechanisms present. he main results for each of the individual processes are highlighted, with the grate ‘model being carefully validated against other work®* and pot-grate measurements. ‘The composite model is then used to demonstrate the ‘effects of parameter variations on the performance of the induration process. In particular, the effects of varying (a) the limestone, magnetite, and moisture contents of the pellets, and (b) the relative mass flows of the pellets and gases through the induration system are demonstrated. ‘AC the outset, however, it must be emphasized that the ‘composite model of the induration process is essentially thermochemical in aature and does not attempt directly to account for the constraints placed on the system by ‘engineering considerations. Thus, to a certain extent, some of the flexibility of the process examined here may be fictitious. Nevertheless, the results should increase sub- stantially our understanding of how the heat distribution in the firing system varies under different operating conditions. DESCRIPTION OF INDURATION PROCESS ‘A schematic diagram of the whole induration process, indicating all the pellet and gas flows, is shown in Fig.1 ‘The moist pellets from the balling operation are deposited fon the moving grate in a 175mm layer which is subjected to successive applicatiens of updraught drying (UDD), down draught drying (DDD), and preheating (PF) gas streams at ‘about 370", 370°, and 1080°C, respectively. In the up- draught and downdraught zones the pellets are both heated and dried by the relatively hot gas flow. As the pellets approach 100°C, most of the heat is used fo evaporate the moisture and it is only when the pellets are dry that they ‘can rise appreciably above this temperature. ‘During the preheating stage, the pellets are heated by gas, from the rotary kiln to ~1 100°C and this causes magnetite oxidation and limestone decomposition to take place. ‘On leaving the grate, the pellets enter the rotary Kiln. ‘This consists of a large, rotating refractory-lined cylinder, ‘the axis of which is inclined at a small angle to the horizon- tal, At the lower end a flame projects into the kiln and a secondary gas flow is supplied which has already been preheated to around 900°C in the annular cooler. The pellets enter the raised end of the kiln and move down by a tumbling action caused by the rotation of the kiln and its slope, The gas flow moves countercurrent to the pellets and the heat exchange takes place by convection and radiation, ‘and through contac: with the kiln walls ‘As the pellets progress down the kiln, they reach their firing temperatures and then soak for & short time (the period being dependent on the kila speed, and flame shape ‘and length). The pellets are then transferred into the annular cooler where they are loaded on to pallets and ‘moved around to the discharge point. The cooler has twe basic stages and in each cold air is blown through the bed Ironmaking and Steolmaing, 1979 No.1 12 Young et a Induration of ton or pellets waste grate green pellets + a5 secondary = secondary airheater 1 Schematic diagram of induration section of pellet to abstract the heat from the pellets. The bed has an added heat source from any remaining magnetite which has yet 10 be oxidized, and a heat sink from any limestone still ‘unreacted. The fst stage of the cooler provides the high- temperature secondary air for the kiln and the second stage provides the heated gus flow for the UDD zone on the grate. The residence time of the pellets in the grate, Kil, and cooler is about 12,35, and 35min, respectively DEVELOPMENT OF GRATE AND COOLER MODELS Both the grate and cooler are essentially moving packed: ‘bed processes with added complications owing to moisture ‘evaporation, limestone reactions, and the magnetite oxi- dation. In formulating the models a number of simplifying assumptions have been made: G) pellets are isothermal Gi) the moisture within an individual pellet is evenly distributed di) in the bed, the amount of heat in the voids held by the gas at any time is negligible compared to that held by the solids iv) conduction of heat along the bed is negligible and there is no thermal gradient across the width of the bed (0) heat losses are restricted to those of the metal grate and in this it is assumed that the grate is at room temperature when the pellets are loaded on the rate (vi) the process is modelled in steady state. ‘These assumptions are similar to those made in other treatments?“; however, the solution techniques do not rely on the large number of approximations subsequently made by most other authors." BASIC EQUATIONS* “The rate of heat transfer from the gas {0 the solids governed by the following equations pa eC. (x) —thAl Te) —TH 0} +Qx640) Osos NIL) «0 Ironmakng andStelnoking. 1979. No.1 —-- gas pellet flow plant for the solids temperature 7:(x,t) and by aT Cae (44) = hALTHG,f) Te) —0)4 490250). Q) for the temperature of the gas flow 710%). Equation (1) describes the rate of change of the pellet- bed temperature as a function of the heat transferred from ‘the gas and the heat gained from the magnetite oxidation Q(x, plus the heat lost both in the reaction CaCO. CaO Oa(x,1) and in the evaporation of moisture via the parameter «, which is explained in more detail below. The heat transfer to the gas is evaluated as a function of the heat lost to the solids and that ganed from the conden- sation of moisture qx(x,). The parameter « in equations (1) and (2) represents the fraction of heat transferred which 'B0es to evaporation and is evaluated below. The equations as written are strictly relevant only for the grate process since the pellets contain ~9 wt-% moisture when they are charged. However, by equating gx(x,!)=a=0 they can equally well represent the cooler process. HEAT TRANSFER VIA CHEMICAL REACTIONS ‘There are three basic physical/chemical reactions which take place on the grate: (a) moisture evaporation and/or condensation, (b) magnetite oxidation, and (c) the lime- stone reaction, Calculation of moisture evaporetion and condensation In simulating the evaporation/condensation processes three factors are assumed to dominate: (@ the proximity of the pellet temperature to the Doiling point of water (Gi) the moisture content ofthe pellet ii) the humidity of the gas flow through the bed. Since the pellets are assumed to heat isothermally, the ‘moisture evaporation is calculated on the basis of a bulk heat exchange. Thus, at & given poist in time and depth the “Al ybols used are defined in Table 1Young et af. induration of ron ore pellets 3 Pn y pauses oy yo sone ents sob nd p00 $58 Lo 9600 ‘at-0-98e19 (enaconce cui) pest nn UT Ironmaking and Stestmaking, 1979. Ne.t4 Young et a. induration of ion oro pallets net heat used for the evaporation of moisture from the packed bedisgiven by 4166, 0= Oekx, Na aul f) TH, 100°C where Qn(x, )=hALT x, NTs, 14+ Ques) Oale, represents the total heat release rate at @ point within the bbed, a represents the fraction of heat generated within the bbed that goes to evaporation, and ga(x,t) is the rate ct Which heat is gained when moisture is recondensed from the gas low. tis well krown that the weight loss in pellet drying occurs in two main phases: withthe first being dominated by moisture movement tothe pellet surface and the second becoming important when the moisture level falls below a critical value We where the heat diffuses in and evaporates the moisture ¢s a receding moving boundary. This wes simply modelled here by defining in two ranges, i. 2={1 (100-16, DINOO} Ws, D> We Te, 1-< 100°C and a= (1—[100—T.Cx, DY L00}W.Cx, We Wale, N< We ‘When no recondensation occurs, this produces a weight loss v, time curve which matches the experimental curves fairly well> Recondensation will occur only if vapour in the gas reaches or excceds the dewpoint. In this ease, te sate of ‘heat transferred in the recondensation is given by 94x, D=AMQ(We— Wes) Wel, 1% Was, Tx, 100°C and otherwise as where the dewpoint of the gas is calculated from Ref.16, Wea=exp(—$:492.69 + 005492697.) Wes, 1) isthe effective moisture content of the gas and is given by aWibx.1) _ ated) ax Me Finally, the effective rate at which moisture is evaporated from the pellet bed is given by Woe,t) ales ~~ Ips —ea) Although this approach to accounting for moisture evap- ‘ration is very’ approximate, the authors’ studies have shown that it works fairly well, includes the effects of recondensation, and, pechaps most important, demands very litte computer time. This last point is of prime Importance in a model of the size being developed by the authors fo the whole induration process Calculation cf limestone reaction When manufacturing fluxed pellets the limestone de- ‘composes from CaCOs-»CaO-+-COs after the pellets have been dried anda they begin to heat up above about 500°C. ‘The modelling of this chemical reaction within a single pellet has been considered in some detail by Philbrook and Natesan*” and the authors follow their approach here That is, the rete of reaction of the limestone occurs at a definite boundary (Le. shrinking core) and is controlled by the mass transfer to the pellet shell, diffusion of the COs through the product layer, and the chemical reaction at the boundary. Each of these mechanisms is accounted for by @ resistance ané the conglomerate effect is obtained by adding the resistances in series. Thus, the rate of reaction of the limestone is given by Ironmeking an elmaking, 18979 Not fs Anrie(Coo3"* Coos) 7 EK, mle—nto] ke” [n@) BRE OD. which is then used to track the movement of the unreacted core radius by dr) Fume at ~~ Speeder and the consequent heat release from Que, 1)= AH ahi: ‘This model formulation can cope if one of the controlling mechanisms mentioned above dominates. As a pellet mixture contains only a fraction of limestone, the move- ‘ment of the reaction boundary is assumed to be at a rate propartional to this fraction. Calculation of magnetite oxidation The rate of heat release in the zeaction 4FesOx-+Os—> (6FeOs is modelled in the same manner as for the limestone «decomposition except that in this case the diffusion of gases involves the movement of oxygea inwards through the reacted layer, This reaction has also been studied by Philbrook and Natesan'® and the authors again follow their modelling approach here by considering the reaction 8 occurring at a well defined boundary which shrinks as the reaction proceeds. The reaction ate is defined by 16er*a()POo*—ye) anf v Po rat “which governs both the movement af the resction boundary a ep} ral?) Fae @ Spree alr and the rate of heat release in the reaction by Qube, )= AHN As a general comment, it is worth mentioning that since the gas diffusion involved in the magnetite oxidation includes the movement of oxygen into the pellet through, the reacted outer layers of the pellet, there could be some interaction between the magnetite and limestone reactions. Since a pressure rise within the pellet may be associated ‘with the limestone reaction, itis quite possible tha little or ‘no magnetite oxidation will occur until the limestone is almost entirely decomposed. Although this effect has not been included in the model formulation, it could play an important role in the process as a whole, by effectively preventing the magnetite oxidation taking place on the grate. This means that much of it would thea occur in the cooler and could seriously reduce the efficient operation of the pellet induration process. Finally, it is worth noting that many of the parameters used in the above equations are temperature- and gas- flowrate-dependent. Appendix 1 contains a list of the functional relationships used in this paper. NUMERICAL CALCULATION ‘The evaluation of the model essentially comes down to & solution of equations (1) and (2). The numerical-solution technique employed i illustrated in Fig,2. Essentially, a representative column of the pellet bed is examined as it moves from the entry point at time O until the discharge point after some specified time. The bed is divided into a umber of fictitious incremental layers and the effects of the gas being blown through the bed are evaluated numeri cally, ie. the heat generation within both the gas and solidYoung ota, induration of iron ore pellets 5 (aaa witial values ‘Ghd constants FOsTA 12) #TE J=0,1---m| Fravarse order of time | lGependent quantibes —J [calculate parametars AT fo Aas funetions of T, U9} noe feaeuate Toy eere]__yes no__faleuate Ney Acar feainesastuncten ot PB rode ae uteton ot Re sane a5 Rrcietand Tc) feaicuate Jey euler) yes Dano _[ealeulate TU) by Adams] method as function of {3 Predictor as function of al-Dand T0-0 r(-1and 7, -1) [ealculate 7) by Euler's] [calculate Ta) by Adams method as Tunction of Jesrrector as tunction of fa) and 7,0) FeUhand T.) — [raiculate T, by euler) (ealcuate TW) by Adams] method asfunetionot | YS cf, 0__[Corractor Ss function of TW) ana T,0) ethane lore Tonctional values, updating them 6 that previous 4 depth values for T, and previous 4 fine values for I, are kept 2 Grate-cooler flow chart onmaking and Steelmaking, 1979. No.16 Young et a Induraton of iron or polots Tr — pallet temperature at top, middle, and bottom =: 92s temperature at middle —— gas temperature at ton ‘92s temperature at bottom 1209] Mean pallet temperature 226 3 8 TEMPERATURE, g 8 TIME, min 2 Comparison of grate model with experimental results from pot arate phases and that exchanged between these phases 's caloulated. ‘Ancfficient solution technique for the system of equations, described above is obtained via the Adams-Moulton predictor-corrector method..? This entails using the pre- vious four gas temperatures with respect to distance and the complete previous four columns of solids temperatures, with respect to time, An estimate (the predictor) of the next set of values is then given as a function of the last four and the correction is calculated in an iterative fashion until ‘convergence is obtained. The model uses Euler's method to ‘obtain the initial three values. The method was found to be stable and to require relatively little computer time. BASIC RESULTS FOR GRATE AND COOLER The grate Some experimental tests have been carried out to validate, 1400 ——Frefent! mode! “Ret 5 Ret 8 1200 3 8 409, PELLET TEMPERATURE , g 200} “I 46 po 890-12 14 18 78 20-2224 TIME, min o 2 4 Comparison with other workers." using grate model Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 1979. No.1 5 Variation of pellet and gas-flow temperatures along grate at least partially, the grate model on a potgrate furnace. tis now well extablished's that such a comparison will not sive exact matching between theory and experiment since the heat capacity of the furnace itself is of the same order as that of the pellets being heated. Nevertheless, the quali- tative agreement between theory and experiment shown in Fig.3is reasonably encouraging. Hasenack et al. have developed a comprehensive model of the Lurgi straight-grate pelletizing process and Voskamp and Brasz! have compared both models’ predictions with experimental measurements. The present model was gen- eralized to match the Lurgi grate and its predictions ‘compare well with those of Hasenack er a.# and Voskamp and Brasz® (see Fig.4). ‘The standard time-temperature curve at various points Of the bed for the grate dimensions detailed in Table 2 is shown in Fig.5. Model predictions show the temperature of the pellets at the bottom of the bed rising quickly initially, and then slowing down as 100°C is approached. As the ‘moisture in the lower part of the bed is evaporated, the pellets? temperature will again rise quickly until the in- Table2 i snd cooler:basic standard data* Vales rate Mass tow of pains 78cm! Mass low of see 20cm UBB sea scene Pole deter Ten, ® teibem ois) Swe eat inout 5.226107 eal toeate fom Fame loot Som ‘2nd: stage ora 555m" Boa hehe Te2em S00 Fig ao.Young ot at. Inder tion of kon ore pellets 7 17 —T mean pollat exit temperature! mean gas exit temperature — minimum paliet exit 4 ‘temperature “Te | pool. downdraught a 400} °c TEMPERATURE 1 function of moisture content coming gas temperature is approached. The pellets in the middle and upper parts of the bed will not be dried out in the updraught stage. This is because the gas-flow tempera- ture has dropped and its moisture content has risen to such an extent, after passing through the lower part of the bed, that the heat transfer is rather slow. When the gas-flow direction reverses to downdraught, the pellets in the upper part of the bed will dry out and eventually so will the pellets in the middle of the bed. Notice tha: the temperature OF the pellets at the bottom of the bed may actually drop during the downdraught drying. Again, this is because by the time the gas flow reaches the bottom of the bed its temperature could be somewhat lower. In the preheating zone the hot downdraught gases will heat the whole bed. ‘A number of parameter variations have been examined using the model and only a few of the main ones are illustrated here. Figure 6 shows the effect of increasing the moisture content of the incoming feed on the thermal demands of the grate. Now, even though sll the moisture is evaporated on the grate, it is generally expected that any increase in the moisture content will resutin lower preheat- pellet exit temperatures and, consequently, a greater heat demand on the whole induration process It is clear from Fig.6 that on thermal considerations alone this should not bbe the case. Although the pellet and gas exit temperatures from the downdraught zone may be down by ~S0K, the ppellet temperature into the kiln is virtually unchanged. ‘Only the gas exit temperature from the preheat zone drops a few degrees. In other words, provided the thermal mass ratio is correct, moisture fluctuations may be coped with easily since the total gas flow is never reaching a saturated Slate, It should be noted that the results in Fig.6 did not take into account the variation of the permeability/void ratio of the bed resulting from 2 change in pellet size distribution with moisture. Notwithstarcding, the model result should be substantially correct; this being so, the — ot ean patel ent tertoeraturd (rate aor ser eaee | SOR eerie pop Bs downdraught. eer | os oe $e 109 cperauohe rn ap fie os Beoo 4 Fd # Lg 30" 25608 MAGNETITE, 7 Effect of magnetite on grate temperatures criteria for defining the optimum moisture level in the raw pellets becomes a simple combination of the moisture required: ( 10. give satisfactory operating conditions in the balling circuits Gi to provide sufficient strength and permeability so ‘that the pellets remain intact throughout the in- duration process. ‘The effect on the grate of changing the magnetite conten of the ore is shown in Fig.7. The exothermic reaction from magnetite to hematite occurs above about 500°C and this gives rise to an increase in the exit preheat temperature from the grate into the kiln, provided other conditions remain constant. The model predicts only a relatively small, ‘temperature increase in the preheat pellets for quite large increases in the magnetite content of the mix. Although, the objective is to have most of the oxidation occurring on ‘the grate, the authors’ results show that as much as 30-50% of the original magnetite remains unoxidized on entry to thekiln. ‘The manufacture of fluxed pellets has grown in world- wide popularity over the last two or three years,2” and the effect of increasing limestone addition on the grate process is shown in Fig. The exothermic decomposition of limestone occurs above about 500°C and causes a reduction in pellet temperature on leaving the grate. The rate of temperature decrease tails off at higher limestone contents as progressively more limestone is unconverted at the end of-grate stage. This is unlikely to be decomposed in the kiln and therefore is expected to react in the cooler. The ‘model predicts, for example, that for 10% limestone in ‘the mix, 41% Of this amount will remain unconverted on cexit from the grate. The cooler The standard result using the data given in Table 2 is ‘ronmaking and Stesimaking, 1979 NotYoung et af. Induration of iron are pallets Fear pal ext whperature 1200 Tae! T a traan besos tarmpeenuane eee ool | 300 | 1000 4 BE200- downdraught oe ae 900} 4 oS rod « & vndrausht $ sod J 2 design 5 sens 1006 B70 & 700 wy = ; reo} 4 5 ) oy & 400} 4 ge 4 25 4 sg eoot 4 84 | EF or 200} - eo sh umeStONE 10d 4 8 ffectof limestone on grate temperatures : 05 ig ats ae shown in Fig. This agres closely with plant design Bas RSW, t figures and also qualitatively with the pot-grate work 0° Pape ef al. It should be noted that, in line with their findings, the mede! predicts arise in temperature in the top half of the bed during the first few minutes. This rise is caused by the heat released in the magnetite reaction. The ‘way in which the temperature at the bottom of the bed falls rapidly by comparison with the middle and upper regions of the bed is typical of packed beds with upward-flowins cooling gas. As a further illustration, Fig. shows the fempeiature distribution throughout the bed at different points along the cooler. No work has been reported in the literature providing data on the cooling of pellets in grate kin plans, so diect validation ofthis model is not possible. However, since its essentially merely a simplified version Of the’ grate model which compares fairly well with avai able data, we may presume with some confidence on the reality of the cooler model. “Again, this model has the facility to alter @ wide variety TIME (FRACTION OF CYCLE) 902 04 06 08 10 200 e oo Oe oo 1209) {1009 § sock % 60 & 409} | £ 20 e 3030 -O 3060 TIME, min BED HEIGHT, em pellet peu temperature: ‘gas exit temperature 9 a pellat- and gas-flow exit temperatures in annular Ionmeking and Steelmaking, 1979 No.t 2 siege 1: sage? : 10 Effect of varying gas flow on gas exit temperature fromannular cooler of process parameters and here ccnsideration is given. to just a couple of the major ones. The gas flowrate through, ‘the cooler was varied from 0-75 to 1-75 of the standard figure (see Table 2) and the model :esults ar illustrated in FFig.10. It should be noted that while the exit gas tempera ture increases in a linear fashion from stage 1 of the cooler with decreasing gas flowrates, the gas exit temperature from stage 2 increases dramatically. ‘The effect of varying the pellet throughput at constant gas flowrate is shown in Fig.11. On the cooler the bed height is fixed and the throughput is increased by raising the bed speed. As the throughput increases, less of its heat is abstracted on its passage through the cooler and so the ‘exit gas temperatures from stages 1 and 2 also increase. MODEL OF COMPOSITE INDURATION PROCESS A mathematical model of the complete induration process ‘must obviously be constituted from models of the grate, Kiln, and cooler with suitable interrelation of their pellet and gas flows, Apart from using the grate and cooler models described above, the other constituent model re- quired to complete the induration process, i.e. the rotary kiln, is essentially the same model as that described in an ‘earlier paper.* ‘This rotary-kiln model traces the thermal profile of the pellets and countercurrent gas flow through the Iength of the kiln. The main assumption used in the modelling is that the pellet burden is well mixed on its passage through the kiln. The model attempts to account for the heat exchange ‘between the gas flow and the wall and thewall and the pelletF stage! J s100- 4 1000} 4 904] 4 Boo esign 4 8 ; GAS EXIT TEMPERATURES, °C 8 T § ; 200300. 400 500, PELLET FLOWRATE, th 42 age 1; stope 2 11 Effect of varying pel ‘ture from annular cooler flow on gas exit tempera- ‘burden, and the heat loss from the kiln as well as the heat ‘exchange between the gas flow and the pellet burden. It has the facility to vary all the main process parameters i cluding flame length, fuel type, kiln speed, entry tem- peratures, and flowrates of both the pellet burden and the sasflow. Figure 12 shows a plot of the pellet and gas-flow tem- peratures along the kiln for the standard data detailed in ‘Table 2. The linear change in pellet and gas-flow tempera- tures at the higher end of the kiln is typical of rotary heat exchangers 17 Tn many rotary heat exchargers the ratio of flame lengthjkiln length is small and the beat transfer may be attributed entirely to forced convection without in- ‘curring unacceptably large errors. However, this is not so in the pelletizing rotary kiln where the flame length is usually a significant fraction of the total length of the kiln, In fact, the model calculations predict that around 50% of the heat transfer atthe linear end of the kiln is by radiation. 46097 TT +500} gases 4 RE, °C $8 ; 12007- solids | TEMPERATURE 3 + \ 1000,- 4 poy pg 5 i015 202530 35 a0_a5 DISTANCE ALONG KILN MEASURED FROM LOWER END, 12 Thermal history of pelletand gas flows along kiln Young et at induration of iron ore pellets. 9 zadinilial conditions And asienates of Sas ‘temp from il ~~ teanster wate model > Bee freak toss] + [[rotary-kin model Ines eter F cosler model i oer rer gence Lai A Stop) ‘Accounting for the radiation from the flame finds the ‘maximum pellet temperature some way from the end of the kiln, as shown in Fig.12. Those wishing to examine the results from the mathematical model of the rotary kiln ir ‘more detail are referred to Ref 6. ‘Although the model described in Ref.6 is very compre- hensive, the computation time required to obtain a result ‘was too long to be practical in the composite model. Much (of the computer time was taken up with the calculation of the heat conduction through the wall at each point down ‘the kiln. Some approximations were incorporated into the ‘model (see Appendix), which speeded up the computation time by orders of magnitude. The approximations intro- duced erzors which amounted to rather less than 1% and were considered acceptable for the present purpose. COMPOSITE MODEL ‘The composite model is constructed from the grate, kiln, and cooler models by linking their gas and peliet flows and ‘temperatures on entry/exit from one process to the next in the appropriate manner (see Fig.1). Effectively, the basic inputs to the model are the pellet throughput, material properties (ie. meisture, limestone, and magnetite con- tents), heat input via the flame in the kiln, and the pre- seribed gas flowratss. Variables which are not likely to be varied for a given plant, such as kiln length, diameter, rotation speed, slope, and relative areas for the different fate and cooler stages, are included in the model as ‘parameters so that any plant of a similar basic design can be simulated. “The composite model then represents a large complicated ‘eat exchanger where the gas and solids exchange the heat twice on passing Uirough the system. Figuce 13 shows the detailed structure of the model in flow-chart form, and indicates various points at which the constituent models interact with each other. Essentially, the connecting links are the gas flow from the frst stage of the cooler, through Ihonrasking and Steelmaking, 1973 Nos10 Young eta. induration of ion ore pallets Table3 Factors contributing to heat loss or g to system" Hest produced creoesomed| Soe a Goro Heat input to primary burner 5508 ms to begongery Surat 386 130 from 20% monettecaldetion 0-333 22 ett (o. e08 100 Veer stad palate 2053 o7 Heat to Sm water ptets ote 88 Heat UDO of a G02 27 Hearts DDD ote 3st 173 Heat plano 30m Be oat 008 100 (oor) Total pccssingrqurront 16508 oo Host Sade ‘08 t39 Hest rcrod aoe set the kiln, and tke preheat stage of the grate. The second Tinkup is with the pellets when the pellet-temperature output, from the preheater stage of the grate goes to the kiln and. from there to the cooler. A third possible link is the flow of gas from the second stage of the cooler to the UDD. stage of the grate. On plant, however, this variation is effectively negated by a heat source. which controls the temperature of te yasentering the UDD staye of the erate. In the plant, neat loss through the ductwork walls and, other physical boundaries of the system has been estimated 2s accounting for over 30% of the total net heat require- ‘ments of the system, No detailed knowledge of this is yet available and in the model itis necessary to give an estimate of plant heat losses to obtain realistic simulations. This has ‘been effected by allowing the gas to drop in temperature by f fixed amount between the cooler and kiln, and by a different value ketween the kiln and grate. Effectively, this provides a mechanism to tune the composite model The steady state for any set of conditions is found by determining the steady state of each of the constituent ‘models and then iterating around until the appropriate entry/exit temperatures agree. Each parameter may then be varied in the same way as for any of the separate models RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Its clear from che above that the highly integrated nature of the pellet and gas flows throughout the grate-kile induration system means that, in general, small change the process conditions are reflected throughout the whole operation, Thus, the main usefulness of the composite 7-450, 14 Heat input to induration process as function of ‘thermal mass ratio, for various cases Ironmnsking nd Stetmeking, 1979. No.1 — ho lmastore 10% limestone 18s limastone s00}-, 4 MINIMUM PELLET. TEMPERATURE FROM po 07 0809 101172 GAS PELLET RATIO let ratio on minimum temperature ‘model, over a range of operating conditions, should be in: () ‘assessing the fuel required to fie satisfactorily Gi) calculating the heat distribation throughout the system, ii) evaluating how efficiently the heat is utilized in the total system. Ultimately, the model could be used 0 ‘optimize’ the whole induration process. Finally, there are a number of ‘engineering constraints within the induration system which impede the optimization of plant effciency and it would be useful to both identify them and quantify thet effects ‘The basic output from the composite model traces the thermal history of both the pellet and gas flows throughout the process, and is reflected in FigsS, 9, and 12. The plant ata used (0 generate these results are given in Table 2. To ‘assess the total efficiency of the process a breakdown of the ‘energy partition in the system is required and this may be generated easily from the model for any set of conditions. As an example, Table 3 categorizes the important factors contibuting to either heat loss fron, or gaia to the system when the standard data outlined in Table 2 are used. The ‘main heat demands by the system are 10 account for plant losses, water evaporation, and hot off-gases. The heat re- ‘quired to counteract that Tost is the net heat added to the system in the form of fuel and magnetite. The total amount of heat required to fire the pellets is considerably more than the net addition, and comes from the recycling ‘ofthe excess heat in the system via the grate and the cooler. Clearly, this heat distribution ané the fraction recycled will vary asthe operating conditions change. Although the model may be used to examine the effects of changing a large combination of parameters, for the sake of brevity the effects of two of the more important parameters will be demonstrated, Le material characteristics — pellet moisture, limestone, and magnetite contents i thermal mass ratio ~ gas flow and pellet throughput. In the figures referred to in the discussion below, the model ‘has been used to caleulate the net heat input required (via the burner in the kiln) to reach a prescribed firing tem- perature in the kiln ‘Figure 14 shows the effect of varying the thermal mass ratio for various cases. Although the total heat input increases as the pellet throughout rises, the actual heat input required per tonne of pellets varies very little at constant thermal mass ratio (e.g. 145000 kealt-? for aYoung etal. Ind F 4 gos7s- 4 F oso 1 1 Oo 2 4 6 6 10 2 41 LIMESTONE, wt-"% added 16 Hoat input required to fire pellets satisfactorily, function ofimestone added ‘thermal mass ratio of 1). In other words, it would appear that the model predicts that heat is transferred very efficiently throughout the process, in that nearly all the extra heat required at higher pellet throughputs goes to the pellets and is nat lost to the gas flow. ‘The results ako indicate that as the thermal mass ratio is varied from 1 to 1-1, for example, the heat required per tonne to achieve the desired firing temperature increases by 10-20%. In this case, most of the extra heat is lost to the hot off-gases and alters significantly the distribution of heat ‘within the system, The model also predicts that as the Hsermral anass ratio decieases, savings in die energy re ‘quired to fire per tonne of pellets should beachieved. In this case, the fraction of total heat within the system that is recycled increases. Two factors which are likely to be restrictive here are: () the whole pellet bed must be adequately fired to withstand the shock of being dropped into the kiln i) the temperature of the grate bars must not exceed a specified level, or else they ‘burn up’ Figure 15 shows how the minimum pellet exit temperature, which occurs at the bottom of the grate, varies with different plant conditions. For the case of no limestone, this means that at low thermal mass ratios although there is enough heat within the system to fire tke pellets satisfac- torily, the pellets at the bottom of the bed are not likely to hhave Sufficient strength to withstand the drop into the kiln, In Fig.15 it i indicated that the presence of limestone in the mix somewhat damps out the effects of the thermal ‘mass ratio on the net heat input required by the system. Figure 16 shows the heat input required to fire the pellets satisfactorily as a function of the limestone addition. Accounting for the effects of the limestone addition is not straightforward since, although the limestone reaction is endothermic, the firing temperature is a decreasing func~ tion of limestone content,*t and in achieving the same Fe throughput the gross throughput increases. At the ower limestone contents, the model predicts that most of the conversion occurs in the grate; however, as this increases, 30 20-30-40_80 69 70 85 50 MAGNETITE, w! 17 Heat input required to fire pallets as function of T T T - T g [ROM GRATE:, °C g L 700,- - LLLET TEMPERATURE, MINIMUM &% 60 a 20406080 100 MAGNETITE , 48 Effect of magnetite on minimum pellet temper- ature on exit from grate progressively more is converted in the cooler. The model predicts that a 15% lime addition requires ~40% increase in the net supply rate to fie the pellets despite the lower firing temperature. Alternatively, for the same heat input fa drop in production rate of the same order would be necessary. It should be noted also that as the limestone addition increases the minimum pellet exit temperature decreases (Fig.15). This implies that as the limestone addition increases, if the strength at these minimum exit temperatures becomes unsatisfactory, some modification to the distribution of heat within the system must be effected to raise the pellet entry temperature to the kiln ‘without increasing the firing temperature. One way to do this would be to kengthen the flame within the Kiln (see Fig.6 of Ref.6) and probably slightly increase the leat input too. ‘The effosts of varying the magnetite content of the ore mix are shown in Fig.17. The magnetite reaction is exc thermic and produces some significant savings in fue’, provided most of the reaction occurs on the grate. It significant amounts remain in the cooler, however, then its reaction and heat liberation works against the process and impedes efficient use of the energy available. Such an effect js more likely to occur at the lower gas flowrates. The effects of increasing magnetite on the grate bars and bottom layer of pellets are indicated in Fig.18, The exo- thermic reaction is beneficial in that it reduces the tempers ture gradient across the pellet bed on entry to the kiln. ‘However, for the higher magnetite contents this could lead ‘to,severe problemswith the grate bars, ‘The effects of roisture variation in the incoming pellet feed have been dealt with above. Here, the authors merely rote that the model results predict that within the system there is generally enough heat available {0 evaporate any reasonable moisture contents (ie. 7-10wt-%). The main effect of the moisture will be on the green-ball size dist Dution. This becomes wider as the moisture increases, decreasing the bed permeability and thus reducing the gs flow. It is this effect, nor the extra moisture per se, which reduces the heat transfer, delays the moisture evaporation, and decreases the efficiency of the induration process. onmaking and Steelmaking, 1979. Not12. Young 6 a Induration of ion ore pollots In generating the above results the authors’ criterion has ‘been that the pelets reach a given temperature in the kiln. In reality, the situation may be more complicated, with a soak time at this firing temperature perhaps also being necessary to endow the product with the required strength. At present, however, there are no data available on the temperature and time-at-temperature combinations re- quited to fire pellets. If they were available, the present ‘model could be used to evaluate the operating conditions necessary to procuce the required firing schedule With regard to the drying on the grate, both exper imental®® and theoretical®® work on single pellets suggests that low gas flowrates and higher gas temperatures are ‘more likely to produce decrepitation than high flowrates and low temperatures. This effect is not concerned so much with the rate of heat supply at the pellet surface as with the temperature of the vapour within the pellets, which in turn contributes to the internally generated pressure.2® Briefly, high ga: flowrates at the first two stages of the grate are more beneficial than high gas temperatures in terms of ‘safe’ pellet drying. In fact, low gas flowrates on the preheat stage of the grate are also undesirable since at low thermal mass ratios there is a possibility of thermal instability arising when the bed is used as both a heat exchanger and chemical reactor. This forms a major constraint when going for optimum efficiency in terms of energy usage, since from Fig. 14 its clear that the process is ‘most efficient at ow thermal mass ratios. ‘The authors believe that some careful work in this area ‘could result in significant eneray savings over the whole pellet-induration process, ie. utilizing the model to op- timize the heat distribution within the system to minimize energy usage ané maximize process efficiency. CONCLUSIONS Although the mathematical model of the complete pellet- induration process described above appears to behave in a realistic fashion, it still requires detailed validation against pplant measurements. In general, it demonstrates that the hheat distribution within the whole system is very sensitive to small changes in the operating conditions. In summary, ‘the model indicates that (i heat input per tonne of pellets varies very little with, throughpat at constant thermal mass ratio. (ii) subject tc the constraints of process stability, ad- equate firing of bottom layers, and lack of pellet ecrepitation in the grate, the mass flow of gases should be as low as possible to minimize fuel consumption (ii) @ 15% limestone addition to the mixture requires 40% more heat or alternatively a cut in production rate of the same order to fire the pellets satisfactorily even though the firing temperature for this mixture is somewbat lower (iv) use of 100% magnetite ore would produce 40% saving in heat input over hematite ores. Lower percentages would give savings in direct proportion. ‘The main value of the Work, however, must lie in the availability of 2 model (0 study the interaction of the various constituent processes over the whole range of operating conditions. This feature should prove highly beneficial in the evaluation of optimal operating conditions for any situation. Finally, the model has been modified in order to be able to examine the dynamic response of the induration system to parameter variations. REFERENCES 1, MONTER and F. m TRAICE: Paper presented_at Journées Thnterationales de Sidérurge, Paris, 2-3 October 1973. Ironmaking and Stwolmaking, 1979 No.t 2. w.cxoss:Jronmaking Steelmaking, 1977, 159-169. 3. FE. WELLGTIAD, N- MUNRO, and a. cHOSS: Peper presented at Secand IFAC Symp. on Automation in Mining, Minera, and Metal Processing, September 1976, Jotunnesburg South Altice. 4. Mocnots and pF. watesrenD: Simiation 1978, 3455-61 ‘5. PEs WELLSTEAD, Me CROGE, 8. MUNRO, and. IBRAWIM: Int J. Miner. Proce 1978, 845-67 6. nt cuss and KW. YOUNO® Ironmaking Steelmaking, 1976, 3, Thect37 7. Me exo, n. W. YOUNG, P.-E WELLSTEAD, and R. D. OIRgON: “Aeglomeration 77, (ed: K. V. 8. Saary), 403-424; 1977, New York, AIME. 8. SCA. HASENACK, PAM: LERBLLE, and 3. KOOY: ‘Mathematial Drocess models in iton- and stesimakiag’, &16; 1975, Landon, ‘The Metals Society, 9, 1 Voskant and], aRAS2: Measur. Coto, 1975, 8, 23-32. 10, ma, vouna: “Packed bods in metallurgical operations 33-46; 1363, London, Institution of Chemical Engineers. 11, J.Daih Cur. CARTER, and E ROSE: pape presented at SIMAC 74, Steeland irom-making Automation Conf, Harrogate, 1974 12, T, TORAMOTO, 8, sIMADA, I. TAGUCHI, and WteHl: Teruo Fiagand (Iron Stel Is. Jp), 1971, 8h 66-670: (BIST9030) 13, mum DrUcor: Paper presented at AIME Annual Meeting 1915, Preprint no, 79-85, 4. 2a PARE, RD. FRAN, and G. H. GEIGER: Jronmaking Steel. aking, 19763, 138-148. 15, Bom BALL, 2. DARINELL, J. DAVISON, A GRIEVE, and 2. WILD “Agglomeration ot iron ores’, S10; 1973, London, Heinemann Eaational Books. 16, a svuenet "Technical data on fuel, 6 ed, 1962, British "National Committee World Power Conference 17, ReaMtLanook and 0. NaTESaN!“Mized control kinetic in the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate, 1966, ASME “Award Paper, No.6, Washington DG National Lime Associa- 18, Ke THILRROOK and N. 0. NATESAN: AIME Proc. Ironmaking Cow 1869, 28, 411-428. 19, Lorox and b. mavens: ‘Computing methods for scientists and ‘pincers; 1968, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 20, eves sasrny (ed): "Agglomeration 77, Chaps. 44977, Now York, AIME- 21. Tra. FRAY, J. MOON, dA. WOOLMERS “Investigation ofthe relationship between pellet chemistry, minerslogy and qual BSC Report No, OPER/17/5/16, 197% 22. NF, SCHULZ, WA. LEX, and J.D. ZENTERSTROM: Trans. AIME, 1965, 235, 251-288. 23, KD GIBBON, bs CROSS, and R. W. YOUNG: “Pro. nt. cont app. ‘momerical modelling, (ed. C. A. Brebbia), 539-848; 1978, London, Pentech Press 24, 'Semetiy and NJ. THOWELIS: “Rate phenomena in process mmetallorgy’, Chap. 18; 1971, New Yore, Wiley Interscience 25, kaw. yoUNG: "Proc. UKSC conf. conputer simulation’, 119~ 1s; 1978, Guldford, IPC Science and Technology Pres. 43, and APPENDIX 1 CALCULATION OF SOME BASIC PARAMETERS* ‘Many of the parameters involved in the model development ‘described in the sections on “Basic equations’ and ‘Heat transfer via chemical reactions’ are dependent on tem- perature and/or the gas flowrate, Their calculation falls into three main categories: VARIABLES AFFECTING REACTION RATE Yocnate fe pele td cone ean is 0 Be cad, ete of as an, fs ition, and ‘mente casio te eunion che Seaton t= 22 cap soo0acr-+279)) expt —11(74279 4738) Scio sca ment Socoexp( soon) ‘ShDeog/Dy Sia Seton “The symbols are defined in Table IKi fe 0-10-60 Rew Sov feDoleap. (Dp 353/(Te-+273) 16-667 [5-283 10-6+1-8188%10-%{Ty+-273)] ® De M, HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT ‘This factor depends on te temperature and flowrate ofthe fas and may be calculated -0function of the vaiables below. vl “667 [1-718 6806 x 10-* +7-3645161 x 10°", +-273)] Nu=2.04-0:60 Ree pris i Nuke SPECIFIC HEATS For specific heats which depend on temperature, the formulas ‘Cem [(1-086756 x 10-7 ~0-509652% 10-"'T,)T 706464 % 10-*] Te} 0-245 186 forair, and 1 60540-15 x 107s T.< 700°C 214) T.> 100°C APPENDIX 2 CALCULATION OF HEAT EXCHANGED BETWEEN GASES AND SOLIDS IN ROTARY KILN* In the rotary-kiln model, in order 10 calculate the: tem- perature of the gases and solids at any point along the kiln, the rate of heat exchange between the gas and the kiln walls and from the walls to the solids must be known. To be able to evaluate these quantities, the temperature distribution of the wall must be evaluated. Its this caleukation, performed ‘many times in the model, which consumes s0 much com- puter time. ‘The wall-temperature distribution is governed by the equation (neglecting axial conduction): Fe symbols are defined in Table | Young et af. induration of iron ore polets 19 Tofr,9,2) , 1 OT nlr,8,2)_ w @Tv(r,8,2) oe tr &® eo o subject tothe boundary conditions PTs) Ry TewlT R82 Tez) + Hal To(Ri0,2)—Te(2}] (0<0<80) - 4a) hE aul Tol R82 TAH) FHT ol, 0,2)-TH2)] (Bo<0<20) «. and To(Re8,2)=Te Having determined the wall-temperature distribution, the heat exchanged between the gas and the wall and from the wall to the pellet burden is defined by the following integrals: Qeu(z)=Rifle(ot wl T(@) —To(Ri8,2)1+ HalTH(2) 1G, 8,)}9 + 00Rok Qvole)= Reo (bel Tulr,02) Tole) 1+ HiT o(Rs 0,2) (40) Re. 8) TGs Oo —09Re FT] Re 6 By initially neglecting heat losses in equations (5) and (6), and assuming" that the thin annulus approximation i, valid, and leading order terms only need be considered, some detailed, but relatively straightforward mathematical analysis reveals: on Our Rabwn 2 6a) THO where If the heat-loss contributions are then included, com- parison of this analytic solution with the detailed com. putational technique described in Ref.2 shows that errors of <1% are generated. REFERENCE 26, 1. xen It J. Heat Mase Transfer, 197,17, 981-990. CONTINUOUS CASTING OF STEEL | Proceedings of an international conference organized jointly by The Metals Society (UK) and IRSID (France), hold at Biarritz, France, on 31 May-2 June 1976. This volume contains more than forty papers presented at the conference on the subjects of: liquid metal preparation and te’tactories; machine maintenance related to maximum availability ; quality: non-conventional and new techniques; plant experience — blooms and billets ; and plant experience ~ slabs. xii+324 pp, illustrated ISBN 0 804357 08 2 297%210 mm Price:: UK £36-00 (Metals Society Members £30:00) post free ‘Overseas: $90.00 (Members $72.00) post free ‘Send orders with full remittance and quoting ordering code 184 to Sales Department, The Metals Society, 1 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5D8 Ihonmaking and Steelmaking, 1979 No.1