Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Zndedltion
by
S.K. Patel
------J
L~, ~~-et\1'\'c~
X\"
...
-.- --~-- -,
~,..,
;..,
')
Pascal Press
PO Box 250
Glebe NSW 2037
(02) 8585 4044 '
., ' .
www.pascalpress.com.~u
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PREFACE
As always, my aim in this book has been to impart the knowledge of mathematics
to students who will need it in their later academic and professional work.
I would like to thank and acknowledge the help and contribution of the following
individuals:
- Roger Myers of the Banks town Technical College for his many thoughtful
suggestions
- Judy Faulkner who typed the manuscript in the required time
- all my colleagues in the Technical Colleges and many other school teachers
for their useful suggestions.
I sincerely hope that this new edition will be found to be even more useful than the
previous one.
Suresh Patel
./
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
CURVE SKETCHING
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
CHAPTER 2
Basic Curves
Method for Sketching the Curves
Graphs of Basic Functions
Curves with Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes
Trigonometric Graphs
Exponential Curves
Drawing Graphs by Composition of Ordinates
Implicit Differentiation and Sketching Curves
Applications
Miscellaneous Curves Sketching
Exercise: l:A
Exercise: l:B
1
2
3
8
11
14
15
24
26
30
40
43
INTEGRATION
2.1 Standard Integrals
2.2 Change of Variable: Substitution
Exercise 2A
2.3 Integration by Part
Exercise 2B
2.4 Trigonometric Integrals
2.5 Use of t = tan (X/2)
Exercise 2C
2.6 Reduction Formulas
Exercise 20
2.7 Trigonometric Substitution
Exercise 2E
2.8 Integration of Rational Functions
Exercise 2F
2.9 Method of Partial Fractions
Exercise 2G
2.10 Completing the Square (Integration)
Exercise 2H
2.11 Integration: Special Properties
Exercise 2I
Exercise 2J
49
51
53
54
57
58
61
63
64
66
67
68
68
72
73
77
78
80
81
85
86
CHAPTER 3
VOLUMES
3.1 Formulas for Volumes
Exercise 3A
3.2 Volumes: Shell Method
3.3 Volumes: Washer Method
Exercise 3B
3.4 Worked Examples (Miscellaneous)
Exercise 3C
CHAPTER 4
88
97
99
103
104
105
109
COMPLEX NUMBERS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Operations with Complex Numbers
Exercise 4A
4.3 Complex Plane (Argand Diagram)
Exercise 4B
4.4 Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers
Using Trigonometry
Exercise 4C
4.5 Powers of Complex Numbers: De Moivre's Theorem
Exercise 4D
4.6 Roots of Complex Numbers
Exercise 4E
4.7 De Moivre's Theorem and its Applications
Exercise 4F
4.8 Square Roots of a Complex Number
Exercise 4G
4.9 Properties of Conjugate Complex Numbers
Exercise 4H
4.10 The Complex Roots of Unity
Exercise 41
4.11 Miscellaneous: Factorisation over the Complex Field
Exercise 4J
4.12 Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers
Exercise 4K
4.13 Product and Quotient: Rotation
.Exercise 4L
4.14 Locus Problems with the Complex Variable z
Exercise 4M
4.15 Miscellaneous Locus Problems (Including Inequations)
Exercise 4N
Exercise 40
112
113
116
118
121
122
124
125
126
127
130
131
134
135
136
137
138
139
141
143
145
146
149
150
152
153
154
155
159
160
CHAPTER 5
POLYNOMIALS
5.1 Introduction
Exercise SA
5.2 Zeros of a Polynomial/Multiple Roots
Exercise SB
5.3 Polynomial over the Complex Field
Exercise SC
5.4 Relation between Roots and Coefficients of P(x) = 0
Exercise 50
5.5 Miscellaneous (Worked Examples)
Exercise SE
CHAPTER 6
CONIC SECTIONS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Ellipse (e < 1): (Focus and Directrix Definition)
Exercise 6A
6.3 The Hyperbola
Exercise 6B
6.4 Shape of the Conics
6.5 ParaiJ~.etric Equations of the Circle and the Ellipse
6.6 Equations of chord, Tangent and Normal to the Ellipse
6. 7 Parametric Equations of the Hyperbola
6.8 A Special (Rectangular) Hyperbola xy = c2
Exercise 6C
6.9 Miscellaneous Problems on Conics
Exercise 60
6.10 Tangents and the Chord of Contact
6.11 Geometric properties of the Ellipse
6.12 Geometric Properties of the Hyperbola
6.13 Properties of the Rectangular Hyperbola
6.14 Geometric Properties of Rectangular Hyperbola xy = c2
Exercise 6E
CHAPTER 7
164
167
168
172
173
177
178
183
185
187
191
192
195
196
198
199
201
203
205
206
208
209
214
222
224
227
228
229
232
234
234
239
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 9
240
241
244
246
249
252
259
CIRCULAR MOTION
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Angular Velocity: Period
9.3 Circular Motion: Tangential Velocity
Exercise 9A
9.4 Acceleration of a Particle Rotating in a Circle
9.5 Uniform Circular Motion
Exercise 9B
9.6 Conical Pendulum
Exercise 9C
9.7 Banked Tracks
Exercise 9D
9.8 Components of Acceleration (Variable Angular Velocity
Exercise 9E
9.9 Miscellaneous (Worked Examples on Circular Motion)
Exercise 9F
265
266
267
269
270
271
272
273
275
276
278
279
281
282
285
Answers
288
291
292
2%
297
300
305
307
308
310
312
315
316
317
318
1.1
Basic Curves
The following basic curves are well known to students. (See Chapter 1 for the graphs
of the basic functions.)
Function
1.
Linear: ax + by + c
y = mx + b
2.
Quadratic: y
+ bx + c
= ax
Cubic: y
4.
Quartic: y = ax
6.
+ bx
4
.. bx
k
Y=x,
x + y
(x - a)
2
2
A straight line
= ax 2
3.
5.
=0
+ ex + d
3
+ ex
A cubic curve
+ dx + e
= r
=0
or
7.
Exponential: y = ax , ex
8.
Logarithmic: y
9.
10.
Inverse Tng: y
11.
Type: y
= x 1/n
An exponential curve
= loga x ,
.-1
= sm
x,
, n
A quartic curve
A rectangular hyperbola
xiO
+ 2gx + 2fy + c
+ (y - b)
A parabola
= 2,
loge x
-1
A Iogarithmrc curve
-1
cos x, tan x
3
1.2
A sketch of the curve shou1d convey the general shape of the curve, showing the
following information.
1.
2.
=0
=0
Symmetry
The curve is symmetric about the
(a) y-axis if f(x) = f(-x)
(b) origin 0 if f(-x)
3.
= -f(x)
Asymptotes
If y = f(x) is a rational function of the form f(x) =
_
(a) vertical asymptotes are g1ven by h(x) = 0
~~x~
x
= c.
2
Example: The vertical asymptotes of the curve y = 2X + 1 are given by
2
X - 1
2
x - 1 = 0 , i.e. x = .! 1 and the horizontal asymptotes are given by
2
Lim 2/ + 1 = 2 and y = Lim 2x + 1 _
.
_
Y =X +co. 2
x~-oo
2
- 2 'I.e. Y- 2
X
- 1
X
- I
4.
Critical points
=0
f' (x)
=a
, f"(x)
<0
>0
5.
6.
7.
>0
<0
Concavity
(a) f"(x)
<0
(b) f"(x)
>0
> 3.
j.
1.3
1.
= mx
js
y =c
2.
= ax 2
. a para bo Ia.
1s
Its vertex lies on the axis of symmetry
x = -
+ bx + c
2a
If a
>
If a
< 0,
0, y has a minimum at x
.
b
=-2a
y h as a max1mum at x = -
b
2a
<
0 ,
the x-axis,
If
/J.
If IJ.
0,
>
at x =- 2a
Examples:
(a)
(c)
= x 2 - 4x + 3
y = x2 + x + 1
y
/:;
2a
(b)
y = -x 2 + 2x
tanS
4
Solution:
y =
(a)
>
- ~X
0, A = 16 - 12
>
:.
When x
0 ,
v (2,
=; 3
Vertex at x = 2 , y = -1
(b)
y = -x
a<
-1)
y
V(l,l)
+ 2x
y = 0 gives x (x - 2) = 0
0 (0, 0) and
A (2, 0)
Vertex (1, 1)
(c)
= X2
a>
+ X + 1
A=l-~<
0,
3
2,4 )
+ by + c
>
0 and a
< 0,
b
2a
the shapes
are as shown.
If A
<
y-axis.
Example:
Sketch the curve
Solution:
a = l > 0.
Vertex:
y =
= y2
y
+ 2y
-2a
x = 0 gives y (y + 2) = 0
(0, 0)
and
(0, -2)
-22
i.e.
-1
3.
a.
= f{-x).
= f(x)
The function y
is odd if f{-x)
= -f(-x)
c.
e.
co
minimum
Concavity and points of inflexion
f.
=0
Example: (I)
and y = -x
3
y=x
Solution:
~
dx
co,
_,.-oo,
y + co
y - - co
3x 2
through 0
Some points: A (1, 1) , B (2, 8) This is reasonably sufficient information to sketch
the curve.
6
Example: (2)
y = (x
-t
2) (x - 1) (x_- 3)
l'
y -+ ~ as x-+ ..,
y--a.as x-+-~
Other points x
X
Example: (3)
y = (x +
= 2,
= -1
y
1
= -4
y :: 8
2) (x - 2)
Y-i'.:!:.a.asx~;t""
x "'
gives y = 8
Other points;
C(-1, 9)1 D(l, 3), E(J, 5)
Example: (4)
y = (x
-t 2) (x
X~-
oo
oo
X=O,y~l2
7
4.
Graphs of y
EXAMPLE: (1)
by analysing the
behaviour of the function near x =0
SOLUTION:
The function
Also f(x)
f(x) =
,jx
for x
>0
V X
vx
Graph of y
= .(X.
= x.
EXAMPLE: (2)
Draw a sketch of y = x 1/3
SOLUTION:
Y =x
f (x)
1/3
' dx
= x l/ 3
f(-x) = (-x)
I -2/3
=3 x
fr
' dx2 =
1/3 .
=-x
1/3
= - f(x),
oo
f (x) -t -
oo
as x
-t oo
as x __,. -
oo
-J
= ,fX
1.4
Example: (1)
2
As x
-IX>'
- -co,
y -
a+ (from above)
y -+ 0- (from below)
curve.
The asymptotes are very useful in sketching the
curves. This curve is a rectangular hyperbola rectangular because the asymptotes are perpendicular.
Example: (2)
I
y=x+x'
xl- 0
x.
compared to x
:. The curve y = x + .! behaves
X
~ dx -
1
---:z
X
p (1, 2)
Q(-1,-2)
Example: (3)
2
--2X-
-------"-0-+--i'i
Solution:
2
y = -2-
X-
\ I
2 ' y = 0 A (2, 0)
> 2,
When x
>
0 ,
< 2,
<
CRITICAL
POINTS
~
dx
y -+ 0 + from above
oo ,
-oo,
y -+ 0
=
P (4,
from below
0 gives x
2>
=4
Example: (4)
X
Y = (x - 2) (x + 2)
Solution:
o,
0(0, 0) is a point on
the curve.
The Jines x = 2 and x = -2
are the asymptotes.
As x-+ "" y - I+ from above
x -
- oo
I+ from above
y -
<x <2
<
0 and !h.E'
curve is asymptotic to x =
10
It would be instructive for you to study the sketches of the following curves and
reasoning out the shape and critical behaviour of each of them.
Example: (5)
X
y = (x + 2) (x -
I
-2'
below?
Why is the
LEFT (TOP)
branch -
y = 1 from
.:-
---~.
__ I _ - -
approaching y = 1 from
-1
0
I
above?
Useful points are at
X
= 0,
= -1.
= 2,
= 4,
= -3
Example: (6)
(x + 1) (x- 1)
Y = (x + 2) (x - ~)
~ oo ,
/!
- - - -- -- - ,_ - -2
Example: (7)
y =
x (x + 2)
2
x - I
Questions:
a
b
Asymptotes?
After x = I, as x - oo
what does y approach?
d.
As x - + 1, what does
y- ? -
y =I
to which line
j~
,_-- -----
-1 I
11
1.5
1.
Trigonometric Graphs
y = a sin bx
=a
The amplitude
The period, p =
b2n
f (x) = sin x
f(-x) = -sinx
2.
y = Acos bx
Amplitude = A
. d
2n
reno
p =b
3. y = tan x
y -
oo
as x -
(2n - I)
x = (2n - I) ~ ,
X
n = 0 , .:!:_1, .:!:_2,,
If.
(a) y = cosec x ,
period 2n
(n
=Q.,.:!:
1,.:!: 2, )
period 2n
sec x (c) y
oo
at x = (2n + 1)
lT
2,
=nn,
(n = 0, .:!:. 1 , )
(n=0,_:!:1,
12
y
!\
1\
I
I
I
n:
\
y
:X
----+-o---------4-n---------+l-2n~_.
-1
-n
z1
I
:nn/2
I
I
-1
\!
=cosecx
I
I
I
I
I
I
y = secx
y
y =cot x
lx I "'
IYI
lx I "'
. -n/2
y
. -1
= sm
-1
=COS
13
Sketch the foHowing curves:
Example: (1)
(a)
(c)
(b) y = Icosx
sin(x + y) =
2
y = sin x
I, Ix I ~
2u
(d ) y=cossm
( . -1 x )
y
Solution:
(a)
sin(x + y) =
:.
x + y
= nu
+ (-l)n ~ is the
represents a series of
paraHel lines.
(b)
k)
y = sin x
y
. 2
= sm
x
*'
( ~u , 0.5) , ( u, 0) etc.
(d)
. -J x )
y = cos (sm
lxl ~ 1
Here
cos~os- 1 M)
y=~
Graph of y = cos (sin- 1 x) is a
semi-circle, above x-axis, radius 1,
centre 0.
B
(-1, 0)
A
0
(1, 0)
'~
117
14
Exponential Curves
1.6
y
(a)
=e X
>
As
0 for all x
X~
co, y - co
x--,
y-.. 0
=e X
Some points:
(0, 1), (1, e = 2.7), (2, 7.4), (-1, 0.3)
/
(b)
1.
2.
3.
4.
2
y =e-x
y > 0 for all x
A (0, 1)
f(x) =f(-x), even function. The graph
is symmetric about the x-axis
As x-co, y - 0
2
~ = -2x e-x gives a maximum at
X :
5.
0, y
=1
-I
d2
= 0.7
and x
=-0.7,
= 0.6
(c) y = x e-x
1.
y
y
2.
3.
>0
<0
As
As
for x
for x
xX-
"" y - 0
-co, y _....,
~ = e-x(l-
x)
=0
-1
= 0.4
x = 1, y = e
4.
>0
<0
X
gives
(Maximum)
Some points
(0, 0), (1, 0.4), (2, 0.26), (-1, -2.7)
15
1.7
(a)
=1 +
=1
I
I
=1 +
- -
- -
2sin 2x I
I
- - -
-1 - .
11
-111
\
' _ .,
\
/
' 11
I(
I I
4
-2
' . _..,"-..:.,.::~
= 2sin 2x
= y 1 + y 2 = 1 + 2 sin 2x
(1)
= 2 sin 2x
=1 +
2 sin 2x ' - 11 ~
is 2 and its
per~od
is
X~
11 ' shown
=n
Addition of ordinates must be done at all key points, such as end-points, at the
intersections with the axes and the critical points (Maxima, Minima) of both graphs.
It is useful to note that the graph of y = 1 + 2 sin 2x is obtained by translating the
graph of y = 2 sin 2x one unit upwards, thus preserving all the characteristics of
y = 2 sin 2x.
EXAMPLE: (2)
Sketch the graph of the function f(x)
= 2sinx
+ x,
0~ x~
211.
= 2sinx and y = x
2
The sine graph has an amplitude of 2 units and a period of 211. y = xis a straight
2
line through the origin. We separately sketch these graphs and by graphical addition
at key points x = O, ~ , 11 , ~11 , n , obtain the composite graph of y = x + 2 sin x,
SOLUTION:
Let y
16
y
,/
6
"
y:
=x
+ 2sin x
,"B
/
I
I
//
....._, I
y = 2sin x
n/2
3n/2
2n
Y2
1.57
3.14
4.71
6.28
y1
-2
y1+y2
3.57
3.14
2.71
6.28
Note that the points of intersection of the required curve y = x + 2 sin x and
y =x are where the curve y = 2sinx cuts the x-axis. So, 0, A(n,n), (B(2n, 2n)
are the points on the graph.
Cr itica1 Points:
x + 2 sin x
1 + 2cos x
=-
2n
=T
f"(2n)
3
2 sin x
2n 2n
3 , 3 + {3)
4n 4n
0(3 , T- fj)
<0
=0
=-2
and x
4n
T
and
So C (
is a maximum point.
c (2.1,
and
is a minimum point.
D (4.2, 2.5)
3.8)
!!.f
:. x
=n
17
(b)
EXAMPLE:
(a)
= -sin x
(b) y
=1 -
sin x
y = 1
SOLUTION:
---.;:;.:::.,--I
1/
, 1
I y
-sinx \ 1
is shown by the heavy
,
. 1
\
.I
'
- -4,-,-.....::::.W:::-......:.f...---..&---.-;,.~.o x
= 0,
n
2,
1T ,
11
3n
2 , 2lf
Graph of y
= IHx) I from
the graph of y
11
311
.. 2
......'
''"
-1
(c)
11
= sinx
= f(x)
Sii)Ce I f(x) I ~o for all x, all we have to do is to draw the reflection of any part of
the curve y = f (x) below the x-axis, in the x-axis, leaving unchanged those parts
above the x-axis.
EXAMPLE:
=X2 -
(b)
2
y = 2 + Ix -
y =
I x 2 - 41
41
SOLUTION:
(a)
=y 1 = / - 4
is a (complete)
(c)
= y 2 = Ix 2 - 4 I
=2 +
I x 2 - 41
-2\
'\
''
-2
''
,,
I
I
yl
18
Graph of y = f(,.. x) by initially graphing y = f(x)
(d)
Sketch y
(b)
(c)
Sketch y = log
= loge
= Fx
(a)
log
X , X )
e
= log (-x) , x
I xl
lx I is the graph
y = log (-x)
e
<0
=loge I xl.
y = log lxl
(e)
= f(x)
Graph o.f y
= f(x
- a) by graphing y
=f(x
The graph of
>0
by a units, if a
Ia I
units if a
< 0.
EXAMPLE:
(a) y = cos(x - 1)
(b)
- 1)
=cos(x
= cosx
\
'
= loge (x
+ 1)
19
(f)
EXAMPLE:
Sketch y
= x e-~
-x
and y = y
-x \
=e
'\
0,
As X~
Q)'
X eX)
''
y = y y =xe
from F1g. 1.
1
2
When x < 0, y = x e-x < 0
X )
=e
2
We derive the properties of the graph
-x
,,
=y 1 =x
,"
y =X
"
,/
xex +0;
-1
As x"'"-"" xe-x-+-oo
2
dv
-x
) d y
-x
~ = e (1 - x , - - = -e (2 - x) , the
2
dx
stationary point x = 1 is a maximum.
Some useful points: (0,0), (1,0.37), (2,0.3),
(-1, -2.7).
x = 2 is the point of
inflection
(g)
"
~y=x
f(x)
Gr~phing
/
/
/
logex
EXAMPLE:
Sketch y = - x separately sketching
y = logex and y = x
by
/
E)
_... -- ---
....
P(e, 0.37)
"
log x
--f-
"
SOLUTION:
y =
>0
-I
A few points:
X
0.5
Critical Points:
2
0.7
0.35 0.37
~~
Asymptote at x = 0.
0.32
As x
_!_ (x !
2
x
X
~ddx = 0 ~ log e x =
1.6
+ oo ,
- loge x)
< e,
1 - log x
_
e
1
x = e .., P (e, e )
>0
y _. 0.
and for x
> e,
1 - log x
< 0,
1ogex
The sketch of y = - x - is shown by the solid line.
=I
- logex
20
(h)
Graph of [f(x)]n , n
> 1 by
graphing f(x)
1
Let y = g(x) =[f(x)f, then g'(x) = n. f'(x). [f(x)f- , so all the stationary points
and the x-intercepts of y = f(x) are the stationary points of g(x). The following
properties of [f (x) ]n may be useful.
lf(x)l
> 1,
then
1.
If
2.
If 0
3.
[f(x)]n
4.
>0
for f(x)
> 0,
e.g. (x - 2)
>x
- 2 for x
>2
(b) [f(x)]n
<0
for f(x)
< 0,
e.g. (x - 2)3
<x
- 2 for x
<2
4)
>0
for all x
5.
= f (x).
Sketch y = (x - 1)
2
2
2
Le y = g(x) = (x - 1) , f(x) = x - 1
EXAMPLE: (1)
f' (x)
(1)
=0
and f(x)
2x = 0 and x
=0
give
- 1=0
'
.\
''
minimum occurs at x
= !:
............. .
'
,_
"/
,
/
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
the y-axis.
2
Sketch y = sin x
2
period of g(x) = sin x = .!. (1 - cos 2x) is n.
2
f(x) = sinx.
~ 0 for all x. g'(x) = 2sinxcosx
= 0, f'(x) = 0 give sinx = O, cosx = 0
EXAMPLE: ( 2)
The
Let
g(x)
f(x)
= 0, n,
3n
..:n, 2, 2
2
Observe that 5in x < Isin xI except at the stationary points.
The graph of g(x) can now be sketched with the points (Fig. 1).
So stationary pomt5 are at x
(0,0),
(~ 1), (2n,O).
1T
2n
21
(i)
To sketch y
= f ~x)
>0
, then
!y >
<0,
0 and if y
a.
If y
b.
c.
The asymptotes of
d.
e.
Simple points at x = 0 ,
!y
!y
i.e. y = + I
-
then
!y < o.
!y
As y increases
decreases.
are given by y = 0
I , etc.
Example: (I)
Sketch y
x
>0
= loge x
and y
= log
for y = logex
I
Y = logx
y - - - logex
as follows.
I.
2.
3.
x =e
and
x = e-l = 0.37
2.7
As x - I
X-+
5.
is at x = I
i.e.
y = - - - decreases.
1ogx
4.
--
y = logx
I
, y =-1ogx
1-, y -
-oo.
(both positive)
-""
and
22
Example: (2)
y =
2""--:-
x - 4
Solution:
4 is a parabola as shown in the
.1'
= - 2- I.-
= x2 -
-1
2
and y = x - 4
o.
= - 2-1-
-4
x - 4
X=~
+1
~,fj
15'
The graph of y = - - 1 2
X
k.
y
Example: (3) Sketch the curves
3
y = x + I and y = - 3 - x + 1
3
2.
1
Asymptote of y = - - at x = -1
3
X + 1
3.
4.
As x -
=0 ,
=1
is a common point.
"" y 1.
y = -3-x + 1
>0
As y
<0
and increases,
>
!y <
and increases,
= -1.2
~/11
'\
and decreases.
7.
I
=-3--
0 for
and decreases.
6.
1.
As y
Solution:
.5.
y :
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Solve: y
X
X
=0
=+ 1
, -1.2
23
(j)
VtW
Graph of
by graphing f(x)
g(x)
2.
g (x)
3.
(a)
{Hx)
< f (x)
If f (x)
> 1,
(b)
fiW = f(x)
if f(x)
=1
(c)
if 0
flit;) so f'(x)
=0
4.
~ 0.
2
2
e.g. Jx - 4 :::> x
=0
.JX < x
e.g.
e.g.
if x
{X>
~4 ~
>,
2 or x
-2
>I
if 0
<x <I
EXAMPLE:
(a)
can be developed.
~
f (x)
f(x)
= g(x) = v'fW
= ./f (x)
1.2
\
-3
Solution
(a)
_.,
'
3
The graph of y = f(x) = x - 4x = x(x - 2) (x + 2) is as shown in the diagram
(broken line).
(b)
Let g (x) =
Mx> .
x ~ 0 or x
(i)
g (x) ~ 0
(iii)
g(x)
>f(x)
(i;)
for
= f(x),
this
? 2. Remembering that:
{ff;) ~ f (x)
< f(x) < I ,
g (x) =
0
for
f (x)
? I
= f (x)
The.graph of y = g(x) is shown by the solid line. Verify that the maximum
turning point of f(x) and hence g(x) occurs at x
= 1.15.
24
1.8
=x2
~
dx
+
+ y
= 4, where
2
2
and the relation x + y = 4
2x.
~ from x 2
But to find
We differentiate x + y
(b)
= 4
= 4
Solve for y
y =
{;7
j 4-x 2
or y = -
-x
~--
dx-~
2x + 2y
or ~ = --,-.c;..x=~
~
dx
dx~
= 0
=-y
=-y
y, as in the example x
y - 3axy = 0
For these types of functions, called the implicit functions, we find the derivative by
differentiating each term and then solving for
Example:
(a)
3
3
x + y - 3xy = 0, find
(b)
dx (3y
dy
dx =
3/
~-
- 3x) = 3y - 3x
2
3 (x
- X
+ y) =
x siny = 2, find
X CO<; y
dx +
~ =-~
dx
x cosy
_ tan y
X
Silly :
25
Graphs of y
= l(x)
EXAMPLE:
1.
Vx (x
y = .:!:
We have
= x(x - 1) (x - 2)
Sketch /
- 1) (x - 2)
>/ 0
for 0 ~ x ~ 1 or x ~ 2
= Vx (x
- 1) (x - 2)
y ... .:!:
3.
(1)
,< x ,<
Hence there is a
1. As x +
oo,
co.
3
2
= x - 3x + 2x
y
dv
d,c = 3x
2y
at x = 0.42.
4.
=2
5:
= 0, 1, 2
EXAMPLE:
Sketch y
y = .! (x - 3)
We have
v'x'=J
(1)
2.
x = I, x = 3
4.
As x -+
5.
2Y
co,
y ..,. .!
2 = (x - J) (x - 3) 2
1.
3.
is undefined dt x = 0, 1, 2, so x = 0, x = 1,
co
= 2 (x - I) (x - 3) + (x - 3) 2
= (x - 3) (3x - 5)
5
The possible cnucal points are x = 3 or 3 .
x = I is the vertical tangent.
26
1.9
Applications
~~
~I
(a)
or 21 xI - I x - 21
(b)
1
-l'{i(}>
, fmd
a particular root
Solve physical and engineering problems involving equations which are either
impossible or extremely difficult to solve.
EXAMPLE: (1)
211 X
= sin 2x
and y
=~
The intersections P, Q, R, S
>, ~
1311 1711
- 12' 12 ' I 2 ' 12
is given by
x ~ :; or \ ~11 ~ x ~ \7 11
2
For x
(ii)
For 0
< x < 2,
(iii) For
x~
2, y
O, y
= 2x
y
- (x - 2)
= 2x
=x
-- (x - 2)
= 3x
2
= -2x -- (x-2) = -x-2
- 2
Ix
- 21 at P and Q.
At P, y3 = 2 =9
-X
-2 = 2 ==>
= -4
-4
At Q, y 2 = 2 =9 3x- 2 = 2 ==> x = ~ = 1~
Hence the solution of 2lx I - I x - 21 ~ 2 is
given by x
- 4 or x
-2 A
~ 1~
lx I = 0 and
Ix -
21 = 0.
27
Find the stationary points of the function y = f (x) = (x + l)(x + 4 >
EXAMPLE: (3)
Sketch the graph and find the domain and range of f(x).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(x + 1) {x + 4)
Find the volume of revolution when the region R is rotated about the x-axis.
SOLUTION:
f(x)=(x+0(x+4)
4
f(x) = x + 5 + -
(l)
f' (x) = 1 -
+5x+4
...
2X
f"(x) = 8 3
(2)
. (3)
f' (x) = 0
- 4 = O, the
>0
and f"(-2)
<0
Vertical asymptote at x = 0.
(ii)
(iii) As
The graph can now be sketched. From the graph, we find that the domain is all real
X and the range is y ~ I or y 9 9.
(a)
A= 5(4- I)- 1 06-1)- 4(log4 -Jogl) = 15- 7.5- 81oge2 = 7.5- 81oge2 sq.u.
(cont.)
28
(c)
Volume
=n
ab (y 2 - Y 2) dx
1
2
=n
x) ]
[ 100 - (x + 5 + 4 2 dx
2
16 40
(67 - x - lOx - - - - ) dx
16
=n [67x - Tx - 5x 2 + x
- 40 logex] 41
16
=n [67(4- 1)- 31 (64- 1)- 5(16- 1) + <-;;-= (93 - 40 loge 4) n c.u.
16)- 40loge4]
EXAMPLE: (4) Determine the number of roots of the equation 2sinx - x = 0 and
find the positive root to 2 decimal places by using Newton's formula
f(x )
x2 = xl -
'fi'<xJ
SOLUTION:
The graphs of y = 2sinx and y
=x
=x
i.e. 2sinx - x = 0
At 0,
At P, x
=0
1.9 and at Q, x
-1.9
=0
y = 2sinx
has
3 roots.
Let f(x)
= 2sinx
then f'(x)
- x and x
=2cosx
Substituting f(l.9)
x
=x 1 -
f(~ 1)
~
= 1.9,
- 1.
= 0.18141,
= 19
f'(l.9)
18141
+ _18323
= 1.8323
= 180
in the formula
. I paces.
I
to 2 d ec1ma
29
EXAMPLE: (5)
o~r----r------~
,< ; ,
then
relation.
y
SOLUTION:
We draw the graphs of
Yi = w2 (r + Lsin9) and y
y
is of the form y
where A
y
= r w2 > 0
=A
1
, B
= gtan9.
= L w2 > 0
is obtained by drawing
A + Bsin 9
+ B sin 9
1
shifting it vertically up by A units.
B
A
g tan 9
.I .JI
1
B . 9
sm
~/
I
I
,point P, where 9
of
e-. ~hich
9J
'IT
30
Intercepts
2.
Symmetry
3.
Asymptotes
4.
Critical points
5.
Concavity
6.
x (x + 1)
Sketch y
X -
SOLUTION:
(i)
(ii)
Intercepts:
..
:I
Symmetry:
. I
B
/
I
: I
,'
:: I/ "
,,
"
/I
2 ":
(iii) Asymptotes:
Vertical asymptote: x
'../"'
.....
=1
2
We write y = x + 2 + - - (by long
division), as x ~ co,
y+x+2
. y = x + 2 is the
oblique asymptote.
y --2 - X - I
---- ----
X - 1
2.4
Critical points:
2
f' (x) = x - 2x
21
'
I 1
(x - I)
31
Sketch the curve y = 2cosx
EXAMPLE: (2)
cos 2x, 0 ~ x {. 2n
SOLUTION:
The period of f(x) = 2cosx is 2n and the period of g(x) = cos2x is n, so the
function y = 2cosx + cos 2x is periodic with period 2n. A few key points are
necessary to guide us correctly along the curve. These are:
(0, 3),
<-,
3
-1), (n, -1), ( ; , -1}, (2n, 3)
= - 2 sin x - 2 sin 2x
= - 2 sin x (1 + 2 cos x)
z>
4n
(3,-
~
3
z>
..
.
I
I I
..
,'
'
I
-1
-2
We can also sketch this curve by the addition of ordinates of the curves
f (x) = 2 cos x
7n
3
, : ,
.... '
32
EXAMPLE: (3) Sketch the curve Y = 1 + sin x
SOLUTION:
(i)
(ii)
Intercepts:
No x-intercept.
The y-intercept
(0, I)
IS
-t----
f(-x)
-n
(iii) Asymptotes:
Vertical asymptotes are where sin x = -I
x
(iv)
= 2n n
31T
0 +
2 , n = , _1
COS X
= 0 , giving
'
f(~)
(vii) y
>0
>0
3n
1T
1T
7n
31T
21T
2
l ln
,-2222>
sin x I - I
= - 1.
3n iT 5n
'- 2' 2 ' 2' .. where we exclude
2
f"(x) = sinx. (l + sinx) + 2~osx (l + sinx) cosx
(l + sin x)
2
.
x -_ sinx(l + sinx) + 2cos x , now usmg
cos 2x
f "()
(l + sin x) 3
.
. x , f"(x) __ . 2- sinx
1 + Sin
an d cance 11 Ing
(l + sin x) 2
,'. f" (x)
(vi)
(x
=>
-cosx
. )2
(l + smx
, -+ 2 , .
-2
x ) (l
= (l - sin
x)
+ sm
= ~)
(viii) A few simple points (0, 1) and (n, J) are useful in sketching.
= ..,....--.....:....,+ sin x
I
I
SOLUTION:
I
I
+l sin x
I
I
-Tf\
These
3n
n 5n
2 , 2 , 2 , ...
The graph of y
=1
+ Sin X
-!!
2 ....
....._.,
/ 0
:3
,.
X
:2_.: 2n
.. : .y =sin x
. -- - .... -- ..; .. - ..... .
'Tl.
--~-----------------------------------------------
33
EXAMPLE: (5)
=x
Sketch /
(1 - x )
SOLUTION:
(i)
Intercepts:
y = 0 gives the x-intercepts
(ii)
= 0,
=-
-1
! I
x = 0 gives y = 0
Symmetry:
-~
+
X
"1 -
X-
-J ~ X~ 1
/1 - l
Let y = f (x) = x
We
shall eventually combine the
graph of y = f (x) with the
reflection in the x-axis, i.e.
y
=-
to obtain the
/ = x2
(1 - x2)
Now f(-x) = - f(x), so y = f(x) is point symmetric about 0. Putting these
facts together, the curve is symmetric about both axes as well as the origin.
(i-ii) No asymptotes.
(iv)
f'(x) =
~-
x2 (1 - x2rl/2 = 1 - 2x2
/1- x2
=0
X :/:
1, -1
=!
12
r---7
VI - x- > O, the sign of f' (x) depends on the sign of the numerator
2
N (x) = 1 - 2x (A parabola) This graph tells us that:
Since
(a)
f(
(b)
f(
(c)
~2
.!.:.. )
v2
- ~, ( -~ v2
0.7)
v 2
-I ~
~ V"[ and
VL
Jz <
<~
as f' (x)
>0
~ 1
=!
This is sufficient information to sketch the curve which is a double loop, as shown
in the diagram.
34
= (x + 1) (x + 2)
Sketch /
EXAMPLE: (6)
SOLUTION:
.:!:
We have: y
J<x + l)x (x + 2)
/
/
(i)
Intercepts:
"c
x J 0, so, no y~intercept
y = 0 gives x = - 1, x = - 2
(ii)
Symmetry:
L et f ( X)
.
I
_ ,Ax + 1) (x + 2)
- t
f\
f(x) J f(- x)
No symmetry about the y-axis.
(iii) Asymptote at
= 0.
vgw
(iv)
(x + 1) ( x + 2)
0 ,
< 1.
x I 0.
l,
Multiply by
then x (x + I) (x + 2) > 0
The domain is x > 0 or - 2 ~ x .$. - 1.
Since the curve is symmetric about the x-axis,
there is a loop in the interval - 2 .$. x .$. -I.
(v)
Critical Points:
x
Differentiating /
2 ~
Y dx
+ 3x + 2
X
x (2x + 3) - (x
X
+ 3x + 2)
w.r.t. x:
2
x - 2
-2-
-~-~
dx 2
x J 0, y I 0 i.e. x I I, - 2.
2x y
Vertical tangents at x = 0, x = - 1, x = - 2
A (1.4, 2.4),
B (1.4, -2.4),
x =
fi
and x = -
.fi.
x = 0, -1, -2.
35
EXAMPLE: (7)
Sketch y = e
1/x
SOLUTION:
y
>0
(i)
f (x)
1/x
----------------
i f(x), - f (x)
No symmetry
(ii)
=I 0
y ~1
As x + .:!:
oo,
y + e
=I
= -
for either x
(v)
el/x
<
>0
or x
< 0.
Behaviour near x = 0
As x + o+, y e"' -+ oo, so the y-axis is a vertical asymptote for the right
branch of the curve (x > 0).
As x
(vi) f"(x)
+ 0-, y + e-"'
=~
X
~ 0
el/x + el/x - ;
X
= ~.
< 0)
el/x. (2 +
~)
el/x (2x + l)
X
>- ~ ,
f"(x)
>0
f"(x)
for
x :/. 0
~ is a point of inflection with the curve concave down for x < - 21 and
1
concave up for x > 2 but x i 0.
So x = -
36
y
EXAMPLE: (8)
Sketch y
= ex cos X
0~
for
X,<
2n
y
= e-x cos x
3n
2'1T
X
SOLUTION:
(i)
Intersections:
= 01 y = 1
.
= 0 gtves
cos x
y
(ii)
=0
=2n , 23 n
Symmetry:
y
Critical points:
dv
= - e-X cos x
-x .
- e sm x
= -e-x(cosx + sinx)
dv
= 0,
when cosx
= e-X (cosx
sinx
=0
tanx
dx
= -1
3n 7n
= 4,
4
= 2e-X smx
When x
d v
=43n , -=-t
> 0,
= 43n ,
so y has a maximum at
= 47n , Q (7n
4 ,
dx
When x
d2
Also ~
dx
(v)
= 47n ,
=0
dx
< 0,
~ sinx
=0
TT
P(
>0
for
3n
)
4 , -0.07.
= O,
n,
0.003).
2n.
= cosx.
< X< ;
and ex cosx
<0
3TT
2 < x <2 .
The simple points are (0, 1), ( ;, 0), ( 11, -e-n ) i.e. (n, -0.04), ( 3; , 0) and
( 2n, e- 2n )
= (2n,
0.002)
37
EXAMPLE: (9)
--I--- -
=0
+
I
I
= 0,
i.e.
-2n
X=-2-2
I
I
-3n
Also x = 0 ~ y = loge 4.
(ii)
3n
t_
I
I
when cosx
'
~0~~-
Intercepts:
y
I
I
I
I
SOLUTION:
(i)
(iii) Asymptotes:
y ~ -oo when 1 + cos x + 0
The asymptotes are x = ~ n
(iv) ~
dx
2 (-sin x)
1 +COS X
x = O, ~ 2n
_
'
(:. cos x
f. -1, we exclude x = ~ n)
For x = 0, ~ 2n ,
2
4
dx
< 0,
(1 +cos x)
(1 +cos x)
=0
O), ( -+ 2
3n
0)
- 2
+ cosx
38
EXAMPLE: (IO)
Sketch the curve y =
(x - 1)2
3
(x + I)
SOLUTION:
(i)
Intercepts:
x = 0, y = I and y = 0 gives x =
(ii)
(iii) Asymptotes:
As x ~ - I+, y ~ oo + and as
x~-1-,
y~oo-
x = - I is the asymptote.
As x ~ + oo , y + 0 +
As x ~ -oo, y -+ 0-
-1
Horizontal
I
I
asymptote y = 0.
(iv)
Critical Points:
3
(x + 1) 4
f, (x) -_ (x - I) ( 5 - x) , so t h e
4
(x + I)
is always
2~)
> 0,
the
numerator
N = (x - 1) (5 - x).
The graph of
N (x)
This graph indicates that f(J) is the minimum and f(5) is the maximum point.
The sketch can now be drawn with this information.
39
y
EXAMPLE: (ll)
(logex)
Sketch y
SOLUTION:
(i)
Intersections
x J 0, so, no y-intersection
=0 =>
=0 =>
logex
=I
(logex)2
(ii)
f (x)
exists for
>0
Asymptotes:
Vertical asymptote x
=0
As x + .,, y-+ 0
y
=0
= 1~g ~
f(e10)
=e 10 ,
e
(v)
Critical Points:
_ x (21ogx) 1/x - (logx) 2
dx 2
21ogx - (logx) 2
2
~ddx = 0 =>
:. x
=I
log x
e
=0
and x
or log x
e
=e =7.I+
For 0
for
<x <e2
, ~
dx
=2
, so y is decreasing
> O,
y is increasing
log x (2 - log x)
e
e
2 . h
.
.
1s t e maximum pomt.
whence
40
Exercise 1A
1.
2.
3.
Sketch the functions y :: f (x) and y = g (x), hence by the addition of ordinates,
sketch the graph of y =f(x) + g(x):
(a)
f(x)
(c)
f (x)
9.
(d)
f (x)
=cos x
(d)
f (x)
=x
, g (x)
= f (x),
f(x) = cosx
f(x) = cosx ,
=x
= f(x),
sketch f(x - 1)
g (x)
Sketch
f (x)
- 2 , g (x)
=[f(x) ]
=i
f(x)
hence sketch
(b)
y = g (x),
=x
= f (-x):
f(x)
hence sketch
+ 2
= f(x
+ a):
, g(x)
= loge x
f(x)
grxJ
=sinx
(b)
f(x)
(b)
f (x) = logex
=x
, given:
-4
Sketch
(a)
= x3
f (x)
(b)
=cos x
=x
= -X
(b)
(a)
8.
f(x)
(b)
(c)
(a) f (x)
7.
(b)
Vx
f(x) = x , g(x) =
(a)
6.
, g (x)
(a)
(a)
5.
= Vx
=cos x
, g(x)
Sketch separately the functions y = f (x) and y :: g (x), hence by the subtraction
of ordinates, sketch the graph of y = f(x) - g(x):
(a)
4.
=x
=x
(b)
= VtW :
f (x) = sin x
(c)
f(x) ::
2 (4 -
2)
H-
(a)
f (x)
=e-x sin x
(b)
f (x)
(d)
f(x)::x~x--21)
(e)
f(x) =
sin (x - l)
;x~x- -/)
=x 2 e-x
(c)
f(x)
(f)
4
f(x) = ~
X
2 x 2 (2 + x)
(g) y ::
2- X
(h)
f(x)
= (x
- 2)
+ 1
41
10.
~3
+ 3
(x
~x:) (/ + 3)
3i- 7
(b) Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the curve y = f (x) = (x _ ) (x + )
3
2
(c) Find the turning points and determine their nature.
(d) Sketch the curve.
(e) Using the sketch, solve the inequality 0
(f)
11.
< (x
<
Find the area between the curve and the x-axis between their points of
intersection.
12.
7
?x ) (x + 3)
2
= x(x
= cos2x
- 2)
, 0~ x
II
and y
=I x
(~) + r a
=n
- a
= 2sin (;)
(d) Using one step of Newton's method, find the value of 9 to 2 decimal
places.
(Hint: f(9) = 2sin (;)+a-n)
14.
=l
+ 2
and
= x3
= 0.
42
15.
3x + 2
Express
f( x ) m
. part1a
. 1 f ract1ons,
.
.
2 + 3)
1.e.
( 2x 3x
_ I)+ (x
A
= 2X":-r
J:
B
+ X"+3
this area.
16.
=x
43
Exercise: 1B
Sketch the following curves, showing the CRITICAL points and labelling the axes
carefully. All logarithms are to the base e.
1.
2.
(a)
IX -
(c)
x- lx
(e)
lx + 1 I + \x - II
(a)
I Yl
21
(b)
\2x- 31
(d)
IX I
X-
(b)
lxl -
(e)
IXI + IYI
IY - 1 I
(d)
(g)
IX
(c)
3.
YI
IYI =
(f)
IYI = lx + II
IX I + 1
IY I
(h)
= IX
21 +
For all real values of x, the symbol [x] denotes 'the greatest integer not
exceeding x'.
Sketch the graph of y
/.j..
Given that
< a < b,
rI
evaluate
X-
[x], lxl ~ 3
=I x -
aj for
lx I ~ b. Hence
a! dx
-b
5.
= max
(x, 1 - x) where max (a, b) denotes the greater of the two numbers
a and b, i.e.
max (a, b)
a if a
b if
6.
7.
(a)
(b)
(a)
(c)
/.j.x
IY I =
l.j.
[x] ,
>b
<b
-2 ..$,
..$,
(b)
(d)
44
8.
9.
10.
11.
=x 3 -
(a)
(c)
y=(x
(e)
(a)
-y - X - 2
(c)
2x
- 4x + 4
-O(x
=(x 2
- 1)
+1)
(g)
1
Y =(x - 2) (x + 3)
(i)
(x + 2) (x - 3)
Y =(x + 1) (x - 2)
(a)
x (x + 3)
Y =(x + 2) (x - 2)
(a)
(c)
(e)
=41 (x
(b)
="""'i("':i:'"2
{d)
=x:~
- 2)
(x
2x - 4
(x - 2)
(d)
(x + 1)2
(e)
(c)
y=x(x-1)
(b)
(f)
1
y =-2-X
+ 1
(h)
X
=- 2
--
+ 2
(b)
2
X
- I
y=-3X
- 4
=--x:;:--3
2
=x3
X
=x (x
+ 1
- l)
=4x (x
- 2)
(b)
(d)
(f)
=9x
(x
=x:-1
2
2 -~
2
4 - y
- 4)
- 1)
45
12.
(a)
2
y = sin (2x) , (-11 ~ x~ 11)
(b)
2
y = cos (2x) , (-11 ~ x ~ 11 )
(c)
sin (x + y) = 0
(d)
cos(x + y) = 0
(e)
y = lsinxf
(f)
y = sinJx
(g)
sin x
y =-X
(h)
. ( . -1 x )
y=smsm
(i)
. -1 ( smx
. )
y =Sin
(j)
. (cos-1 x )
y = sm
(k)
. -1 (COSX)
y = Sin
(1)
2
y = /cos x
y =
(m)
(b)
y = xe
(d)
X- 1
y=-X
e
13. (a)
14.
15.
y=e
e
'
lXI ~ 211
2
X
X
-X
+ e
2
J,
Jxl ~ 211
M.
(c)
y =
(e)
y = [1-x]
- - ex
1 + X
(f)
y = e
(a)
y =log Jxl
(b)
y = loge (x
(c)
y = xlogx
(d)
X
Y = logx
(e)
(f)
y =
(a)
2
2
X + 2y - I = 2(x + 2y)
(b)
2
X (y - 1) = y
(c)
(x + 3) (y - 2) = 1
(d)
(x + 2) (y + I)
rx
= logx
-X
COS
llo~x
- 1)
I
=1
46
MISCELLANEOUS
16.
(b)
= loge (x
x
17.
A function is defined by
f (x) = e
e
(a)
Find
(i)
lim
y = loge (x - x )
2
- x )
-x
- e .
x
-x
+
f (x)
x-+oo
(ii)
X-
-oo
(c)
Determine the stationary points and their nature and hence sketch the curve
(d)
19.
f (x)
(b)
18.
lim
= f (x)
A function is defined by
y =
1
(x) and draw the sketch of
2
f (x) = xsin-l (x )
(a)
(b)
Show that
(c)
Find
(d)
(e)
f (-x)
f (x)
= - f (x)
f' (x)
x
=0
(b)
= I(x
(d)
y =
((x) near
and
=1
y = f (x)
y = (x - 1) (x - 2)
(c)
(e)
Y = (x - 1) (x - 2)
= Ix
- 1 I (x - 2)
- 1) (x - 2)
(x - 1) lx -
21
y =
(x).
47
20.
X )
21.
(a)
(b)
(c)
=0
.!.e
co
= 1, 2, 3,
e'1
10
2x - 8
22.
=x
- x + 1
2
(x - 2)
23.
2x
24.
25.
= x 2 ex
2e
x2
26.
2
= 10 x e-x 12
and y
10 ex '
27.
2x
+ X
48
28.
= (x +
1
( 2 _ x) , showing the vertical and horizontal
30.
I.
2
x
= - - - , showing the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
2
X
(Hint: x =
o,
graph.)
31.
32.
(a)
y = (x - 1) (x - 2)
(c)
(e)
= (x - I) (x - 2) (x - 3)
=X- X
= f (x)
Sketch them.
(b)
y2 = (x - 2)3
(d)
= /
(x + 2)
Using the properties of the reciprocal functions, sketch the graphs of the following
pairs of functions on the same set of axes.
(a)
y = X - 2 and y = i("':"2'
(b)
2
I
y = X - 4 and y =-2-X - 4
(c)
1
2
y = 9 - X and y = - - 2
9- X
(d)
3
y =X
(e)
33.
- I
(f)
Use CALCULUS
1
and y = -3--
-1
y = (x - 1) (x - 2) and y = (x _ 1) (x _ 2)
following curves:
(a)
y =x
+ I
(b)
(c)
y = -2--
x + 4
x-
.
34. Fmd the turmng
pomts
o f t he curve y = I
4
and hence sketch it.
2
49
CHAPTER 2 INTEGRATION
==
I (x)
process of integration is not only difficult, there is no systematic method for integration.
Even worse there are functions which can never be integrated, for example:
e-x
sin x
-2x
So first we have a standard Jist of integrals and then Jearn a few more tricks.
2.1
Standard Integrals
I] =
J.
d rxn +
dx l""'j)""';T
2.
11
1
d [<ax + b) + ]
a (n + I)
dx
3.
d
dx
4.
5.
d
dx
6.
d [ax+bl
e
:: e ax + b
dx
a
7.
d
dx
pin(a~
[tan(a~
+ b)]
:: (ax + b)n
==
==
cos(ax +b)
-sin (ax + b)
e f (x)]
= f'(x)ef(x)
n+l
-J (
J
(ax + b)n dx
-+
J sec 2 (ax
-1.
==
(ax + b)n + 1
+ C,
a (n + I)
cos ax + b) d x
-+
-+
1-
=n-:;:1
xn dx
sin (ax + b) dx
c'
cos (ax + b)
==
tan (ax + b)
==
ax + b
eax + b dx
==
1\
sin (axa + b) + C
==
+ b) dx
+C
+C
1-
-1.
50
8.
d
-d (log x)
loge x + C
9.
J t;{:/
-+-
dx = loge f(x) + C
ax + b
J -1
u.
-J
12.
a
+ x
. -J
=Sill
I
+ x
2 dx =
aI tan-1
Jx 2 -a
I 2 dx = _I_ log
[ ~lc
2a
+ cij
2a
13.
a +C
x2 -a 2
for x
14.
15.
a - x
12:2) _
16.
2a
d 1oge [a+x]
dx
a-:lZ
-d (a ) = a
17. dx(cotx)
d
18. dx (sec x)
d
19. dx (cosec x)
_a
Ja
-4-
sec x tan x
ax dx
Jsecxdx
log
21.
Jcosecx dx
- log
(sec x
e
I
I
tan x)
= lo:x a
e
J cosec 2 x dx
sec x tan x dx
cosec x cot x dx
< a,
-cosec x
-cosec x cot x
2 1 2 dx = _1_ log [a + x] + C
2a
e a - x
- x
for x
-J
log a
> a, a > 0
(cosec x + cot x)
C
+
a>
C '
-cot x + C
sec x
-cosec x
>
51
2.2
J
Now
=;
+ C
[sin~x]
d
dx
Consider
=
X
. 2
Slll X COSX
2
then
J2x ex 2 dx ,
But given
.
J
2
sm x dx
, so why not
'
= -sin3-
+ C
. 2
not sm x.
~
dx
2x e
The method of substitution, leading to a change of variable, is used to solve such problems.
The symbol I will be used to represent the integral in each question.
WORKED EXAMPLES
I.
2
dx
2x ex
Solution:
Let
Solution:
= X2
du
dx
Let
= x2
du
dx
2x
J2x ex
- 4
2x
2
dx
2
2x and x - 4 in terms of u
Substitute for
feu
du
dx
Jeu
du
ru
~+ c
e
Thus
2
+
f f(x)dx
In either case
f)u
dx
Jg(u)du
f g(u)du
by using either
is easy to integrate.
du
dx
dx
-1/2
u
du
+
u = r$(x) or
9(u)
52
-1
~
J~ dx
Solution:
(4)
f.
Sln-1 X
(3)
Ju. dudx
=
du
dx
dx
d
X
. -1
Sin
Judu
u
21 (sin-1 x )2
(4)
J X loge X
Let u
dx
1 - x2
(5)
+ C
Jexdx
Let u = e
e2x + 1
du
dx
du
dx2. dx
+ 1
J- 2du- u
+ 1
-1
tan u +
-1 X
tan (e ) +
(5)
Jxlog
dx
x
du
Let u = 1ogx , dx
.!.X dx
lo!x
J~ .
+- Watch this: -+ dx
X
du
loge u +
log (log x) +
e
e
= xl
= du
53
Exercise 2A
(change of variable)
2.
(a)
J 2x ( /
(c)
J 4~
(e)
Jx
(g)
J x dx
~
(a)
Jcos 2 x
(c)
(e)
+ 1)
3 dx
(b)
f 2x (I - x2) 4 dx
(d)
J 4x
dx
X + I
v'i-7 dx
(f)
J2x d\
I + X
(b)
Jsin 3 x cosx
Jtan 4 x sec 2 x dx
(d)
fcot 4 x cosec 2 x dx
J -si~x
(f)
sinx dx
dx
(g)
Jsec 5 x
(a)
fx2 e
(c)
J e sm
(a)
J~
(c)
tanx dx
(h)
dx
IX ./I - rx
Jo
cosx)
Jo
tanx)
dx
dx
(b)
x dx
(d)
J ex dx
logx dx
(b)
Jl (logx) 2 dx
dx
x (iogx) 3
(d)
. -1
4.
dx
(x 4 + 1)2
(h)
COS X
3.
sinx dx
2
sec x dx
e-X dx
I + e2x
x (I
dx
logx) 3
54
5.
I.
I
(a)
2 sinx
(c)
6.
ecos 2x dx
SlnXCOSX
(b)
-sinx ~x
I +cos X
(d)
cosx dx
Evaluate:
I~
(a)
(c)
(e)
2.3
2x (x
- 3)
3 dx
(b)
Tl/4
3
sin x cosx dx
x dx
(d)
0~
I~
eX
e
(f)
dx
Irr/
+ I
dx
xlog x
cosx dx
0 (I + sinx) 2
Integration by Parts
d
dx (uv)
dv
u dx
du
+ v dx
is the method of
integration by parts.
From the above,
dv
udx
or,
I
I
d
dx (lv)
dv dx
u dx
uv
u dv
uv
I
- I
du
vdx
v du dx
dx
.. (I)
v du
... (2)
WORKED EXAMPLES
Let
du
. dx
Using the formula
x ex dx
uv' dx = uv -
x ex x ex -
v u' dx
ex I dx
ex + C
dv
dx
u = x,
=I
= e
Je
dx
= eX
55
2.
Jx cosx dx
U
u'
=X
dv
dx
=1 ,
Jlogx dx
3.
= COS X
Jcosx dx
and let
sinx
du
dx
Jx cosx dx
=X
f x logx dx ,
~~
if you choose u = x ,
Jx cosx dx = uv - Ju'v dx = ;
x . cosx dx, if
cosx +
= cosx
~ Jx2 sinx dx ,
dv
, dx
=x
, then v
Jx cosx dx
4.
Jexcosx dx
Let
X.
JX
e smx d x
Jex sinx dx
We integrate
ex (-cosx) -
()
1
by parts again
Jex (-cosx) dx
-ex cosx + I
where I
Then from ( 1)
X .
e smx
2I
ex (sinx + cosx) ,
Je
=ex
dv
, dx
u' =ex , v
Jex cosx dx
uv - Jvu' dx
e smx -
=I
x logx - x + C
A bad selection of
For example in
= x'
dv
, dx
uv -
x sinx + cosx + C
Warning:
= log x
Jv u' dx
(log x) x - Jx ~ dx
Jsinx dx
x sinx -
:. Jlogx dx
Jvu' dx
uv -
flogx dx as f (logx) 1 dx
Write
divide by 2
x cos x d x = 1 e x(.
sm x + cos x) +
= cosx
= sinx
= 2x
56
It is important to note that the given integral may occur while integrating it by
Note:
parts, but actually this occurrence helps to find the solution, as seen above.
or x
Integrals with
example to find:
Il
(5)
2
dv
x , dx = cosx
cosx dx
2
x sinx Again
u 1 = 2x , v = sin x
2x sinx dx
x sinx dx
x (-cosx) -
I (-cosx) dx
-x cosx + sin x
=x
, v1
= sin x
u 1 = I , v = -cosx
2
x sinx- 2(-xcosx + sinx) + C
2
x sinx + 2xcosx- 2sinx + C
(6)
Find
Write
-1
I sin
=
=
x d)(
1
(sin x) 1 dx
uv . -1
X Sin
Now for
Let u =
v u 1 dx
X -
x dx
v 1-x~
.. (I)
2
du
Use u = I - x , dx = - 2x
+-
-~I~
Iu-
dv
x , dx =
I
I
U=T2,V=X
x dx
-~
. -1
Sin
du
or xdx =- T
112
-Vu
- vr:7
. -1
X Sin
[from (I) ]
So it seems there is no end to the number of tricks you may be required to play in
Integration. But that is what makes it so fascinating!
57
Exercise 28
Integrate the following:
I
I
X C-x dX
(b)
x cos 2x dx
(b)
2
sec x dx
(b)
1.
(a)
2.
(a)
3.
(a)
Jx
4.
(a)
J x 2 logx dx
(b)
5.
(a)
cos-1 x dx
(b)
6.
(a)
log(x
7.
(a)
Jx
(b)
8.
9.
I
I
I
(c)
2
x sjnx dx
(c)
2
x sin x dx
(c)
J x cosec 2 x dx
(c)
f rx
logex dx
I
I
(b)
- 1) dx
I
I
x 2 e X dx
tan-1 x dx
(c)
e-2x cos3x dx
(c)
2
tan x dx
(Hint:
2
tan x
2
x cos x dx
(Hint:
2
2cos x
(a)
J~dx
(Hint:
Write
(b)
J~dx
ex sinx dx
2
x cosx dx
(logx)
I
I
dx
x tan-l x dx
x (loge x)
dx
2
sec x-1)
= 1 + cos 2x)
I<~l).
1 dx)
(a)
(d)
10. (a)
r ' 2 x cosx dx
0
(b)
x ex dx
0
( ' 2 sin-1 2x dx
0
y =
J2
. 9 to find
Sin
Find
1:
. -1
Sin
:i
v'J:Y"
d
y
(f)
e xlog x dx
1
e
n/2
2
x sin x dx
0
r'3
0
(b)
(c)
~dy
58
11. (a)
cos-1
(b)
6 ) dx
(X
Show that
-1
X COS
6 -
11
tan- 1 u du
6n.
(X)
4 - 2 loge2
0
12. Evaluate:
r'3
(a)
I;
(b)
x sec 2 x dx
Ie
(d)
(e)
log x dx
e
I~
(j)
(i)
-t
te dt
(I)
(k)
log2
2
x cos x dx
2
1
(Hint: cos x = (I
2.4
Trigonometric Integrals
. 2
Using sm x
Io
= 2I (I
I
~I
I.
I
I
= 2I (I
(I + cos 2x) dx
I (
sin 2x)
2x+-2-
dX
(I - cos x) sinx dx
-(1 - u ) du
-u +
-cosx +
3
3 cos x
t dt
(x _ sin 2x )
Sin X
. -1
cos 2x) )
2X
t e- 2 t dt
Sin
Io
(I - cos 2x) dx
Sin
dx
xlogex
2
cos x
11/4
(m)
dx
-1
u tan u du
logex
x cosx dx
(f)
x logex dx
(h)
x sin 2x dx
11
r'4
(g)
r
r - 4-
(c)
log 10 x dx
+ C
cosx
du
dx
-sinx
59
4.
3
cos x dx
(I - sin x) cosx dx
sinx = u
du
dx = cosx
.
1 sm
. 3x +
smx-
COS
~ [~
6
x - sin 2x +
sin 4x] + C
u = sinx
. 2X
COS X Sin
I
u
u2 (I - 2 u2
2u
COS X
Itanx dx
u7
I
I
dX
du
dx =
where
u = sin x
sinx
cosx dx = -log cosx + C
=
log secx
tan x tanx dx
f (sec 2 x -
I
I
u du
.!.
tan2x
I) tanx dx
2
tanx sec x dx -
COSX
3--5-+T
8.
5 X Sin
. 2Xd X
7.
u = tanx
tanx dx
log cos x + C
log cosx
60
I
I
2
2
tan x.tan xdx
2
2
(sec x - l) tan x dx
2
2
sec x tan x dx -
2
Iu du-
31 tan 3 x
10.
2
tan x dx
2
I<sec x-l)dx
=tanx
for the
first integral
- tan x + x + C
I
I
secx dx
2
sec x + secx tanx dx
tanx + secx
f'(x) dx
J fTxl
f(x)
=tanx
2
2
Jsec x (l + tan x) dx
u = tanx
2
J (l + u ) du
3
u
u + T + C ,
where u = tan x
3
tanx + .!. tan x + C
All the even powers of sec x and cosec x are integrated as above (odd powers by
integration by parts).
12.
J cosec x dx
Jsecx sec 2 x dx
I
I
secx tanx
2
secx (sec x - I) dx
3
secx tanx
sec x dx + log (secx + tanx)
3
sec x dx , then
I
1
sec x tan x +
log (sec x + tanx) + C
dx = log f(x)
Integrate by parts
secx tanx
Solve for
3
sec dx
f' (x)
f TIXf
+ sec x
61
2.5
Rational Express1on
111
Jacosxd:bsinx
2
1
dt
I
2 X
dx = 2 sec 2
2t
Also sinx
SUbStltUtlOil t = tan
We have
+C
2
(I + t ), so dx
= 2dt 2
I +t
cosx
I +t 2 '
WORKED EXAMPLES
(1)
J3
Find:
1
+ 2cosx
dx
2 dt
-.--::7"
J_2.5!!.._i
5 +
2
./5
v0
(2)
Find:
t
tan-1 [ {5
+ C
X]
tan-1 2
-1
tan
./5
dx
J sinx + cosx
2 dt
1:7
2 dt
J1+2t-i
J 2 dt
2 - (1 - t)
62
J-2 d~
y = 1 - t
2- y
J-;L
- 2
n: ~I
2
~ log
1
71
.f2- tan~
1 + /i.- tan~
1-
log
.f2
(3)
,1-t-/21
1-t+Vi'
log
J2 sinS
- cos9
+C
d9
Jd~
U = 2 - cos9
loge U
dU
d9
loge (2 - cos9) + C
(4 )
J3
COSX
+ 2cosx
x
I
3
2 (3 + 2cosx) - 2
Arrange numerator as
I
(3 + 2cosx) -
3 + 2cosx
dx
J[ 4 - 3
+ icosx]
I x3 -2
- t an-I
dx
l-tan
2".f5
-J
2 -./5 tan
7'5
[tan~]
15
~2 )
+ C
.
sm 9
63
Exercise 2C
l.
2.
TT/4
3.
4.
tan x dx
0
6
J sin
7.
512
8.
x cosx dx
4
cos x dx
J0
.2 2 d
Jsm xcos x x
5
J
Jsin52x
. 2 X dX
COS X Sin
dx
COS X
10.
Jcosec 3 x dx
4
11. J cosec x dx
12.
Jcos 3 2x dx
3
13. J tan 2x dx
14.
16.
3
.4
J Sin X COS X
3
J cot x dx
9.
15. J cos
213
5
x sin x dx
17.
Jc~s4 x
Sin
19
21.
23.
18.
dx
co~x
dx
n/3
0
1 + sinx
dx
dx
sinx - cosx
J0
.3
f sm /
dX
dx
COS X
TT/2
25
3
sin 2x dx
3 + 5cosx
dx
20.
22.
24.
J 2 sinxcosx
~in x
1TT /2
dx
d
-,.2---"'x:.:..__+ cosx
dx
64
2.6
Reduction Formulas
A reduction formula is one that reduces the index (usually an mteger) of the integrand.
By repeated applications the index is reduced to either one or zero. By using the method
of integration by parts, we can establish the following reduction formulas:
I.
2.
Jcos" x dx
-n
3.
f tan" x dx
n-1
X
tan
n - 1
sin
nI Sln. n-1 X
dx = -
cos
n-1
I
I.
I
sm
.
n - 1
x. sm x + - n
n-2
x dx
cos n-2 x dx
tan n-2 x dx
Solution:
Let In
I.
I
(n - I)
--n-
COS X
I
sin
n-2
x dx
sin n-1 x d
dx (-cosx) dx
I( ) .
I
- cosx sinn-l x + (n - 1)
- (n - 1) In
sinn-l x cosx +
!!....:....!
n
I
n-2'
where I
11
sin" x dx
You can see why these formulae are called the 'REDUCTION formulas'. The index n is
reduced to n - 2 or n - 1. For the example above, starting with, say, n = 10, we shall have
n = 8, 6, 4, 2, 0, which means you only have to evaluate
odd, then you have to evaluate only
For
tanxdx, we write
sin x dx =
fdx
If n is originally
cos" x dx is similar.
2
2
2
2
In= Jtan"xdx = Itan"- x(sec x-I)dx = Jtan"- x sec xdx- In_
tan
n-1
--n:l - In-2
65
WORKED EXAMPLES
5
=-t sin x cosx +
Jsin6 x dx
1.
sin x cosx +
.
- 21 smx
cosx
J dx =
6
Jsin xdx
14
12
1 I
- 61.5
Sln X
COSX
5(1.3
6 - ij Sin
- 61.5
Sln X
COSX
24
. 5 X COSX
- 61Sln
24
X COSX
31)
+ ij
5Sln
.3X
COSX
851 2
5Sln
.3 X
COSX
.
g5 (
-1
2 SlnX
COSX
211)
O
5
3
6
Jsin xdx = -tsin xcosx- 2!sin xcosx- 1!sinxcosx + 1!x
Since [sinm x cos
n/2
J0
x}
n/2
0
6
sin x dx = 1 [x}
... 0, we have
n/2
5n
32
n/2
6
sin x dx
J0
14 =
3 1
2
ii
n/2
J0
[-
ii
sin 6 x dx
5
1
6 sin x cosx
ii
3
Tf '
J0
sin 8 x dx
65 14 = 5614
Tf
Tf
ii
7
8 16
. 65
n/2
2.
2 1o
6
3i
ii
Tf
Tf
35n
256
n/2
You must show that [sinm x cosk x}
n
Jn/3 6
2 . For 0 sin x, we must use the long
66
Exercise 20
Find a formula finding In in terms of In-l : (for examples 1-4)
1.
3.
n x
x e dx
n e-2x dX
4. I
Jcot 6 x dx
5.
Jcot" x dx
6.
I
n
Jcos" x dx ,
7.
I
n
Jsin" x dx
8.
I
n
Jtan" x dx
J(sin-1 x) n
9.
10.
, hence find
6
hence find (a) Jcos xdx
(b)
Jn/2 cos8 x dx
0
dx , hence find
Jtan 5 dx
(b)
r'4 sin 4 x dx
0
(sin- 1 x) 3 dx
(Hint: x
= sinU)
o xn
Show that Un
(1 + x)
1/2
dx , hence
-1
evaluate
11.
If In =
I
u3
mx
Je
n
tan x dx , show that
emx tann-1 x
n- 1
12.
Find
13.
If I
Jx4 ex
Jsec" x dx
sec
-n:l
, prove that
n-2
x tanx
n - 1
n- 2
--I
n - 1
n-2
r ' 4 sec 6 dx
0
n
-x
x e dx = -e-x . x n + n
Hence, evaluate
14.
Prove:
Hence, find:
Jx3 e-x
dx
x n-1 e-x dx
67
2.7
Trigonometric Substitution
/"=>2
ll"aL+XL
x=atane,
x = a sinS ,
x = a cosa
etc.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1.
J /: 2 1
Find
+ x
dx
d9
a tanS ,
dx
a sec a d9
a seeS
JseeS
Fig. I
d9
1:2?
~)
.;;:z-;-;!
+ x ) + C
a
log (x + .;;;z-:-;;z ) - log a
e
log (
~)
log (x +
2.
Find
J ~ 2dx
x -a
Let
2 ,
>a >0
a sec9tan9
a seeS tanS d9
2
1 + tan 9
(sec a - 1)
Jsec a d9
log (seeS + tanS) + K
x jx2
- I)
a2
log (x
/x27)
e
log ( -
[Note: log a
x = asec9
I v~/
is a constant]
+
+
68
Exercise 2E
=a
Use x
F-2
x
1.
4.
Ia2 - x2 ,
sin 9 for
=a
tan9 for
2.
dx
5.
J?dx
dx
J
10.
13.
-l
/25- x
fi J 2 dx
x
dx
X~
sec9 for
2
J x dx
2
x dx
6.
J/xQ
dx
dx
2
J x dx
9.
J~
dx
11.
dx
x2)3/2
12.
X
d
~X
15.
14.
4
17.
I{.6)3
2.8
=a
8.
dx
dx
16.
19.
3.
Xi
X 2 9-
/25- x
J /a
and
to find:
7.
/a2 + x2
20.
;:G
{4
J)2_ 4 dx
18.
dx
x./:7-
J9dx
JJT7.
2 dx
X
f~dx
21.
f.[;.2:9
x2 + 3 dx
69
EXAMPLES: Integrate the following:
(a)
B= ~ ~
dx
(b)
xx~ 2 dx
x - 1
'"'X""'7T
dx
(c)
(d)
SOLUTION:
1
(a)
Divide 2x - 1 by 2x
2x + 1 f2i(':"l
2x + 1
~dx
2x + 1
Jo-2x:ldx
= x - loge (2x + I) + C
2
J ~dx
2
J[x 2x
X -
+ 4 + x _2
_ __2_
2x + 1
X-
dx
x + x + 4x + 8 log (x - 2) + C
3
(c)
3
Observe that x - 1 can be factorised as (x - I) (x 2 + x + I)
J
L.:.l_
X - I
J<i
dx =
+ x + l)dx
+ 2x + 4
)x3
2
3
x - 2x
2
2x
2
2x - 4x
4x
4x - 8
-'-&
3
x - 1 by x - 1 and get the same result.
16
3
16 J 1
1
16
-I
16
1
- 16
-
J1
[u
(U
- 3U
2
U
- 3U
3U- 1
Also
1
3 --) dU
3U - log e U]
[! - J
3
dU
3
+
loge 3
~~
= 2 _,. dx =
--r - -3U
_,
:.
3
(U - I) dU
u-
x=~
70
P(x)
ax
dx
+ bx + c
in the form
Q(x) +
ax
+ bx + c
:x
i.e.
ax
+ bx + c
+ bx + c and express
+ D
+ bx + c
ax
cannot be factorised.
1.
2.
3.
f
f
f
dx
X
+ a
1
-1
-tan
a
-a
- X
2a
loge
[~]
x +a
2a
loge
c,
[~]+
a-x
dx
a
dx
2
c,
>
I <
lxl
lx
EXAMPLES:
(I)
f
x
fu
tan
dx
- 4x + 5
The quadratic
log (x
2x- 3
- 4x + 5
- 4x + 5)
U
dU
dx
1 ~ dx
The derivative of
dx
We write
dx
= (x - 2) 2
= x- 2
- 4x + 5
where
- 4x + 5
2x- 4
- 4x + 5 is irreducible
square.
-1
tan (x - 2) + C
(2)
dU
2
+ 1
2x - 3
= 2x
dx
- 4x + 5
-1
+ tan (x - 2) + C,
using example (l ).
+ 1
= u2
+ 1
dU
- 4x + 5 is
- 4 + 1
2x - 4
71
(3)
I
I
2
dx
+ 6x + 4
The quadratic x
:. x
+ 6x + 4
+ 6x + 4 is irreducible
(x + 3)
- 5
dU
2
u - 5
1
V5
log
where
[u-v'5J
U + v5
+
I
= 21
2x
I
4
2 v'55
dx
+ 7x + 13
2x
2x
u2
+ 7x + 13 cannot be factorised.
+ 7x + 13 = 2
dU
55
+16
-1 (
tan
=2
u )
\/55/
4
1/55
7) +
\/55
~ x + 1i]
rx
~)2 + ~~
= 2 [u
c
where U
= x + 47
2
+
~~
72
Exercise 2F
Find the integrals:
2.
J1 ~4x dx
4.
J2x1 - - 2x3 dx
6.
J3:~ 1 dx
dx
+ x + 1
8.
dx
+ 2ax + b
10.
4x + 3
dx
+ 2x + 3
12.
I.
3.
J__
dx
X+ J
5.
7.
6x
3x + 2 dx
ax + b dx
ex+ d
x
9.
J2
x
11.
J
x
13.
J 2 .x dx
x
J
9x
3dx
- 6x + 2
J 2 x dx
x
14.
dx
- x + 1
- x + 1
JX~ + X + J dx
X -X+ J
+ 2x - 2
15.
r
2
J 7.
19.
I:
I:
dx
2
X - 6x + 10
16.
(x + 1) dx
2
X +X+ 1
18.
3 dx
2
X +X- 2
20.
r
r
dx
2
J X + 2x- 1
2x + J
dx
2
-1 X + 6x + 10
r
a
3
_x_ dx
J - X
(1
< a < b)
73
2.9
1.
c
+
ad+ be
bd
x-2-x+3
(x - 3) (x - 2)
2.
(x - 3) (x - 2)
1
The reverse process of separating a fraction such as (x _ ) (x _ )
3
2
is not so simple.
~~~)
into its
partial fractions.
If the degree of
P(x)
~ ~x~
~~~~
~~~~
x
into
stated as follows:
I.
2.
A theorem on polynomials ensures that every polynomial R (x) with real coefficients
can be factorised into the product of powers of either linear terms of the form (x- a)n or
2
irreducible quadratics of the form (x + bx + c)m .
n = I
and
repeated.
3.
< the
degree of the
74
Example: (1)
Find
2x - 1
(x - 2) (x - 3)
dx
by partial fractions.
Solution:
Let
2x - 1
(x - 2) (x - 3)
2x - 1
A (x - 3)
B (x - 2)
x (A
B) -
3A - 2B
and
=-3
3A + 2B = 1
B =5
I[
2x- 1
J(x - 2) (x - 3)
__::_L
X - 2
dx
x -53]
dx
- 3log (x - 2) + -5log (x - 3)
5
log (x - J)
e (x - 2)3
Example: (2)
Find
(x
x +
+ 2) (x - 2)
dx
Solution:
Here we have an irreducible quadratic factor x
2x
(x - 2)
A
x - 2
<l + 2)
2x
A(x
+ 2)
2 , so we write
Bx + C
x2 + 2
2)
Bx (x - 2) + C (x - 2)
2
x (A + B) + x (- 2B + C) + (2A - 2C)
- 2B + C
=2
and
2A- 2C
=3
(cont. next page)
75
Solve:
A =
J(x -
2x + 3
2) (x
6'
d
+ 2)
-6'
?.6
J-
?.6
Jx-2
-- dx -
1
- 2 dx
.!. J _ 7x
X-
- 2 dx
X2 + 2
?.6
J2 x - dx X + 2
7
(
)
7
( 2
6 log x - 2 - T2 log x
.!.3
J 2-X
2) - -1- tan-1 - X
v'2
JVi
dx
+ 2
Example: (J)
(x - 2) :x + 1)2
dx
Solution:
We have a repeated factor (x + 1) , 2 times. We write:
(x - 2) (x + 1)
A
x - 2
A (x
--
+ 1)2 +
+~
+ 1,
\X
B (x
+ 1)
C
(x + l)2
(x - 2)
C (x - 2)
= -1
= -3C
= 2,
= A-
J (x
0 ,
1
- 2) (x +
02
dx
or
9A,
3
1
9
1
B=-9
1
~ - 9 rx+n -
9 log (x
1
=-
A=
2B- 2C,
J [.!.9
1
- 2) -
x-2
9 log i(""""+'"1
log (x + 1)
1
lx+n
(x + 1)
2Jdx
+3rx+n
+
76
Example: (4)
x3
~1
dx
Solution:
x
We have
2
- 1 = (x - 1) (x + x + 1)
1
-3-x - 1
Multiply by (x - 1) (x
Then
A(x
Put
Bx + C
Bx (x - 1) + C (x - 1)
1,
3A = 1
o,
A - C = 1 or
Hence
+ x + 1
+ x + 1)
+ x + 1) +
X = -1,
or
A=3
or
A +2B- 2C =
1
dx= 1
- x_3
3
1
2
= -3
B = -3
1 dx-.!J
x+2
x - 1
3
2
X +X+
1
1
3 log (x - 1) I ,
3
f2
X
X+ 2
+ X + 1
J21 (2;
dx
Iog(x
where
+ 1) +
dx
+ X + 1
.!f2x+l
2
2
X + X +
log (x - 1) -
log (x
A (x) d
J P\xr
To integrate
1.
2.
If deg. A (x)
<
J(x + 2)
/ 2 + 43
dx
t VJ/2
+ x + 1) -
.fj
3 .
-1
tan
A (x) by
P (x) completely.
(b)
For (x - a)0
write
If ax
Warning:
+ bx + c
~ + _B__ + +
Do not use
or
(x - a) 2
C
(x - a) 0
Ax+ B
2
ax + bx + c
B twice; all constants must be different.
v'3
P (x)
2x + 1
(a)
\X - a,
3.
If tan-lf(x + ~)]
+X+ 1) +
SUMMARY:
If degree of
dx
A
x - a
77
Exercise 2G
Use the method of PARTIAL FRACTIONS to find:
1.
3.
5.
+X
(x + 1)
9.
x (x
4)
~ 1)2
dx
(x - 2) (x \
8.
3
x 2+ 2
x (x
2) (x + 3) dx
dx
1)
2x :x
(x + 1)
(x - 2)
13.
(x + 2)
15.
2 2x + 3
dx
- 7x + 12
dx
(x - 2)
10.
dx
x dx
11.
~x2
4.
3
x 2 + 5 dx
7.
x + 2
(x - I)
+ 2
(x - 1) (x - 2) dx
2.
(x - 1) lx - 2) dx
J -f-
12.
- 1
~X
(x
2
x
(x - 2) (x
14.
+ 4)
~Hint:
dx
1
+ x + 2)
~y
2
(x
dx
dx 2
+ 1) (x
let x
+ 2)
+ I)l(y +
16.
18.
20
4
f3
dx
x
2x dx
2
+ 2) (x + 4)
(
x
0
ll/2
cosS dS
2
sin s + 5sinS + 6
fo
y = sinS)
(Hint:
22.
- 3x
17.
1
1 +
rx
dx
(Let U = v'x>
19.
f1
dx
x
(x + 2)
n/4
cosS dS
2 + sinS
(Hint: 2 + sinS = y)
21.
(x2
1)2
dx
2
2
(Hint: (x 2 - 1) 2 = (x + 1) (x - 1) )
78
ax
+ bx + c
field is easily found by completing the square and then using one of the following:
1. f x2 :x a2
3.
i . tan-l(i)
==
dx
::log (x + J. x2 :_ a2)
2.
==
./.T7
Example: (1)
Find
dx
- 4x + 5
Solution:
x
= (x
- 4x + 5
:.
- 2)
= U2
+ 1
= tan-! U
Example: (2)
dx
~x-i
Solution:
4x- x
- (x
- 4x + 4 - 4)
4 - (x - 2)
4 -
u2
dU
= x - 2
. -1
u
2
. -1
(x - 2)
-2-
Sin
Sin
c
+
+ 1
U =
= tan
X -
(x - 2) +
79
2x + 3
dx
2
/ x + 2x + 3
Example: (3)
Solution:
2
2x + 3 = (x + 1)
Also
d
2
dx (x + 2x + 3)
u2
2 =
2x + 2
Rearranging:
I
J2x
Jx
2 + I
2x + 3
(2x + 2) dx
Vx
2x + 3
For 1 , let
1
For 1 , let
2
dx
v'1x + 1)
dz
dx
2x + 3
2x + 2
X +
f .tz I ~
I =
dz
Vz
2 /x
dU
log (U +
2x + 3
Example: (4)
vlJZ':2i
log (x + 1 +
/x 2
2x + 3) +
2
dx
- 4x + 6
Divide out
+
2 4x - 6
x - 4x + 6
2(2x - 4)
2
x - 4x + 6
= x + 2log (x 2 - 4x + 6) + 2
= x + 2log (x 2 - 4x + 6) +
dX
d
2
dx (x - 4x + 6) = 2x - 4
2
2
(x - 2) + 2
- dU
-2
U + 2
../i tan 1 (x
- 2)
V2
=X-
80
Exercise 2H
Find:
1.
2.
J X2 + 2x + 4
+ 1
dx
x + 2x + 4
4.
7.
3.
5.
6.
8.
10.
dx
lx
dx
11.
2
13.
x dx
r lx
IV)
0
17.
dx
2 + 2x + 2
Evaluate:
dx
2 + 4x + 5
X
X + 12
-2-+ 9
X
r hx7
dx
dx
2x
x + 5
x dx
x dx
J
J
Jx 4 - 3x 2 + 1
(1 - 2x) dx
2
/ x + 2x + 3
Show that:
(
16.
dx
/x 2 + 2x + 4
/ 6x- x 2
dx
15.
9.
+ X +
/1 - 2x - x
14.
dx
x dx
2
/x + 2x + 4
/2- x- x
12.
2x
dx
J x2 ;x
f 2 x2
dx
= loge
If : vA I
81
18.
19.
I rr-:;_
X + 1
dx
{~
[ Hint: I
1
- x
./(I - x) (I + x)
=J
;-;-:;
20.
f/
1 - x
dx
dx
dx
x : 2
1.
I
f
a f(x) dx
2.
f (x) dx =
J0
a f (a - x) dx
-a
3.
a f(x) dx ,
0
a
f(x) dx = 0 ,
if f(x)
= -f(-x),
-a
Proof:
Put a-x= U ,
1.
when x
=0
, U =a
x=a,
RHS
LHS
a f(a- x) dx =
0
JOa f(x) dx
RHS.
J
a
U=O
f(U) (-dU) = -
J
a
f(U) du =
a f(U) du
Q
82
2.
f(x)
f (-x)
Area PABQ
-a
2 x Area MOBQ
f(x)dx
J-a
=2
a f (x) dx
fa f (x) dx
0
-a -x
Fig. 2
3.
symmetry about 0.
Area OBA = - Area ODC
a
0 (as an integral)
f(x)dx
-a
= 0
-a
Fig. 3
Note:
Though as a pure integral
f a f (x) dx = 0,
if
-a
area bounded by the curve y = f (x) and the x-axis is required.
A = A
+ A
-a
f(x) dx
a f (x) dx
= 2
I f a f (x) dx I
0
Then we use:
83
WORKED EXAMPLES
Evaluate:
2
J.
J-2
2
x dx
2.
fn
sinx dx
-1T
Solution:
1.
2
2
. an even f unct1on
.
x 2 1s
as f (-x) : (-x) : x
f(x) :
16
::; 3
2.
-sinx
y
1T
sin x dx : 0
-1T
Note:
x-axis from x : -n to x
given by
A = 2
3.
J:
sinx dx =
J0
J:
=n
is
2[-cosx]~
f(x) dx =
.
. sm x
dx
smx + cosx
Fig. 4
J:
f(a - x) dx to evaluate
(b)
Solution:
(a)
=
=
Jn/2
0
r'2
0
sinx
dx
sinx + cosx
( 1) '
sin (n/2 - x)
sin ( n/2 - x) + cos (n/2 - x)
Replace x by 2 - x
cosx dx
cosx + sinx
(2)
84
= Jn/2
21
sinx
+ cosx d
X
+ COSX
SlnX
:: 2
n
ii
2
(b)
x 2 (2 - x) 1/2 dx
J 2 (2 -
x) 2 [2 - (2 - x) ] 1/2 dx
=J
2
1/2
(4 - 4x + x ) x
dx
r~
l3
x3/2 -
x5/2
~ x7/2]
7
128/2
105
1+.
t:
(a)
x3
(b)
tan x dx
-1+-- dx
+ 1
Solution:
(a)
f(x)
f(-x)
= tan
(b)
f(-x)
1
-1
[tan (-x) ] 5
[-tanx]
f(x)
f(x)
+ 1
3
(-x}
4
(-x) +
-X
- tan x
..
f(-x)
-f(x)
..
is an odd function
5
tan x dx
...
r
-2
- f (x)
- 4 - - dx
X
+ 1
-1+--
+ 1
85
Exercise 21
1.
Using the properties of the odd and the even functions evaluate:
(a)
ll/4
3 dx
f-n/4
(b)
-2
COSX
1
(c)
(e)
(d)
1
(x
x tanx dx
f-1
5
X
- 4- X
+ J
(f)
+ x sinx) dx
-1
(g)
(x cos x - 100 x
(a)
(c)
(e)
fon/2
TI/2
JO
2-
Ja
dx
sin x cos x dx
f (a - x) dx
and evaluate
dx
(b)
J,(01
(d)
x (1 - x)
dx
+ lcosx
Tl
X (
a f (x) dx
0
n/2
f-n/2
(h)
+ 2) dx
Prove that
2.
dx
ll/2
)
X
COS
2
cos x dx
10 100 x (I - x)
99
dx
3.
(a)
4.
+ x
+ smx d
-1
} + X
(a)
Show that if
(b)
If
(b)
f_:
x ,
and b
f (x) dx
Ja
sinx dx
2
0 a+ b cos x
1f
explain why
f (x) dx
>0
>0
>a >0
use a sketch to
86
Exercise 2J
(REVISION)
Use any suitable method. Some integrals can be found in more than one way.
Integrate the following:
I.
3.
I-x
.;x:-'2
I e
5.
2x
dx , using u = e
9.
II.
I
J
4.
6.
15.
17.
2 2
b sin x)
25.
2
a co/x
Jx 2 1ogx dx
x v'f'"+i( dx
14.
16.
dx
18.
+ 4x
5
20.
dx
22.
3x + 2
4x
4x
dx
5 + 4sinx
2 2
b sin x
dx
2
(Hint: U = x )
dx
I + e; dx
I - e
(Hint: t = ex)
dx
f Vt-:7
f
2
dx
+X +
dx
12.
f X~
f
J
f
5
sin(x ) dx
2
(Hint: Divide by cos x)
8.
/X
+ 3x - x
23.
x 2 sinx dx
4x
21.
~dx
10.
x)
dx
I +ex
19.
JtfJ
dx
2(1
r
f
- I
13.
I:
I
sin 2x
dx
2
2
b sin x
Ja 2
- I
(Hint: t = a
7.
2.
dx
dx
24.
5
26.
_e_ _ dx
I + e2x
I
f
f
f
xsin- 1x dx
dx
X
4x - 5
dx
y{x
4x + 5
3x + 2
/4) + 4x
dx
+
3sinx + 2cosx
dx
3cosx + 2sinx
87
27.
29.
31.
I/
I
I
2
(cos2x = 1 - 2sin x,
2
divide by cos x)
dx
2 - 3cos2x
30.
/x2- X+ 1 dx
32.
2x + 5
dx
2
X - X- 2
34.
= t)
36.
J -X -- 3
X
(ex = t)
38.
35.
f (x 2 + 3) (x 2 + 1) ,
37.
f + 3ex + 2e 2x
cosx dx
f (I + sin x) (2 + sin x)
2x dx
dx
(x
cos
v'X
40.
2
(Hint: X = t )
dx
3
X
dx
2
X - 3x + 2
dx
I
I
(Hint: divide
2
by cos x)
dx
(3cosx + 2sinx)
cosx
5- 3cosx dx
33.
39.
I
I
I
28.
(Hint: multiply
by .ja"+X)
a-x dx
[x - x
dx
O+X+X
2 + x3)
= x(l
(Factorise)
dx
sinx + sin 2x
(Multiply by sinx, then t
n/ 2
n/2
n
n - I
sin a da = - n
sin
n-2
(n - 1) (n - 3) 4.2
n (n - 2) ... 3.1
sinna da
if n is odd
n
(n - 1) (n - 3) 3.1
n (n - 2) ... 4.2
and
if n is even.
xnsin bx dx = - x: cosbx +
n/4
hence evaluate:
n-1
cos bx dx ,
2
x sin 2x dx
1
xn+ 1 . -1
xn sin- x dx = n + Sin x 1
Hence find
n+T
x sin-l x dx
0
45. Establish the reduction formula
cot
dx
= -
[Hint: cotnx
cotn-l x
n - 1
Jcot n-2 x dx
= cosx)
n/ 2 . 4
3n
sin ada =
16
0
.
- x)(l + x)]
xn + 1
dx + C
88
CHAPTER 3 VOLUMES
3.1
l:!.x
Fig. I
x = b is given by:
y
V =
ny
dx
(Fig. 1)
2.
l:!.y
---------
f(y)
= f (y),
between y
and
y = b is given by:
nx
dy
(Fig. 2)
=a
Fig. 2
In many cases, it is necessary to calculate volumes whose boundaries are not surf.1ces of
revolution and hence the two formulas stated above can not be used. For example we
cannot find the volume of a pyramid or a doughnut shaped solid by these two formulas.
Fig. 3: Pyramid
89
In what follows, the formulas for volumes would be derived intuitively by means of
simple examples.
given by
V =A. h
Fig. 5
If h is very smaJJ, we have an
where
A llz
llz
We slice
the \l.ho!t'
pyramid by
Fig. 7
We express
z.
Similarly
i.e.
ahz]
y
bz
(l)
90
A (z)
y
zb
za
abz
h
2
As n -+ ""
f. 6. V -+- V
and
f. A (z)!:J.z =
A(z)dz
h A (z)dz
0
(I)
Now from solid geometry, we know that the volume of the pyramid is given by
V:
B.h
~ Jb A(z)dz
a
stattment can be mJ.ck:
Ib
A (z)dz
where
plane).
The limits of integration are chosen to include the entire volume. To evaluate
91
We note that the general formula for
V =
the volume
Jab A (z) dz
includes
y
2
ny dx
In the diagram:
Z
::
A(z)
A(x)
n/
v
Hence
A(z)dz
Fig. 8
ny dx.
a
Note that the volume of revolution given by the last formula is also known as a DISC
d
method.
An Important Method
Finding lengths from the given diagram is of particular interest in calculating the
required volume.
L----~~
Solution:
12
We observe that:
Fig. 9
when h
12
when h
and
T
5
mh+b
m =
----rT
I
f - - - - ' - y - - - \ - - -,'
j_
I
I
12
Fig. 10
92
Example: (2)
Using the intercept properties of parallel lines, prove the above result. (Fig. I 0)
Examp!e: (3)
Find the volume of the
block
shown in Fig. 3.
Solution:
We consider the
block to be made up
l
.5
= 1 <-r
.5
Hence, V
wldh
12
7h
r:
+ 3)
2~
4 [14h
2.5
(14h
3
---:r
8h
<-r
+ 4) dh
w = 7h
T
=
6.5h
+ -2- ... 7.5h
].5
0
v =
...
6 (A B 4M)
10
( 10 ... 3) (124)
2
2
= 52
i (12
4)
v =
X
X
12
12
120
= 1133.33
8h
Fig. 11
...
93
Example: (If)
The base of a certain solid is the
ClrC1eX 2
0
+ y2
= 4
Fig. 12
2x
Area of !1PCB
= ~ PC PB sin 60"
,fJ
= 2 .2x.2x.T
=
,flx
I
=I
v =
b A(x) dy
a
2
13x dy
I2 ~(If- y 2)dy
-2
2/i [4y-
~f
3 0
+y
:If
94
Example: (.5)
Find the volumes generated when the areas bounded by the given curves and lines are
rotated about the x-axis.
(a)
(b)
cosx, '
(c)
2x- x
I '
2'
0'
Solutions:
y =
Ja
x-axi~,
we use
n y dx
p (2, 3)
X+
11
-1
rt\3 2 ]2
+X
+X
Fig. 13
-J
9n
Verify: V
(b)
2
nr h
volume of a cone = - 3
cosx , a = 0 , b = n
2
I
cos x = (I + cos2x)
~n
11
9n
J;
(I + cos2x) dx
n [x + I sin 2x]
11
X
95
(c)
= 2x - x
y = 0
Solve these: x = 0
11
J0
(4x
11[ 4x3
- 4x
- x4 +
3
1611
x =2
or
+ x ) dx
x5] 2
5
F1g. l 5
TI
Example: (6)
Find the volume generated when the area bounded by the curve y = x
x
=0
(a)
, y = 2 and
is rotated
(b)
Solution:
(a)
2
ll.V = 11X fl.y
JO2 11X 2 dy ,
= 11
y dy
11
2
X =y
[~1:
211
Fig. 16
96
(b)
= y1 -
=2
- x
=2
line y
, is given by:
!22r dx
=1r J
liJ./202
(2 - x 2 ) 2 dx
li (4
=1r J
- 4x
=
Note:
1T
x5]fi0
r4x - 4x3 +
3
5
l'
32Jin
15
The rotation is not about the x-axis, hence we can not use
V
f
a
n (y
+ x ) dx
2
2
- y ) dx
1
2
yl
=2
y2
=X
2
Fig. 17
97
Exercise 3A
For Exercises 1-10 find the volumes of revolution when the areas bounded by the given
curves and lines are rotated about the x-axis.
rx,
1.
2.
y=x
=0
+1,
= 0,
-x,
=0
=2
X =2
X
J.
y=x
4.
y = sinx ,
5.
y = cosx
6.
y=tanx,
7.
y=x
8.
y = sinx cosx,
y = 0.
9.
y=logx,
=1 ,
=2
lO.
= 0,
=1
X= 0,
=n
n
x=2
-4,
= 21 (e x
-x
+ e
) ,
= 0,
=0
x=;;
For Exercises 11-15 find the volumes of revolution when the areas bounded by the given
curves and Jines are rotated about the y-axis.
11.
x+y=4,
12.
y =
JJ.
X = 4- y
14.
y = Jogex,
15.
y = sm
rx.
2
. -1
X '
y = 0.
y = 2
X = 0,
X= 4
X= 0
X= J
X = 0,
X = 2
X
= 1
(Hint
= eY)
(Hint x = siny)
98
16.
+ y
= 9.
solid.
(b) an equilateral triangle with one side in the base of the solid,
find the
volume.
(c) a semi-circle with its diameter in the base of the solid,
(d) an isosceles right-angled triangle with the shorter side in the base,
find
the volume.
(e) an isosceles right-angled triangle with its hypotenuse in the base,
find the
volume.
17.
+ ~ =
2
a
b
Find the volume of revolution when the region inside the ellipse x
is rotated around the x-axis.
18.
A rugby ball has a volume that is the same as the volume generated by
~ = l
19.
A solid has a base in the shape of an ellipse whose major axis is 12 units and
isosceles triangle with altitude 12 units, show that the volume of the solid is
14411.
20.
+ /
of the plane of the section from the origin. Show that the volume of the solid
is
6411
99
3.2
Section
In
3.1,
strips perpendicular to the axis of revolution. The elementary volume was a disc.
If the rectangular strip is parallel to the axis of revolution, a cylindrical shell is
generated. A shell is a solid contained between two parallel concentric surfaces.
To find the element of volume contained in a shell of inner radius, r = x and outer
radius, R
=x
n (R
AV
n y (x
+ 8x , length
- r )y
+ 2xAx + Ax
2 n xy Ax + n y Ax
AV
y, we have
2
- x )
2
is negligible.
2nxy . Ax
Fig. 18
2nxy Ax
= Jb 2nxydx,
a
Ax
entire volume.
Fig. 19
100
Example: (1)
The region bounded by the parabola
y
= x2 ,
=2
y
A(2, 4)
Solution:
2 nx y Ax
v =
Fig. 20
211 xy dx
8ll
=X
2nx 3 dx
The method is very general and each example requires a good deal of pre-planning and
modification, so let us make it general.
Element of volume
AV
101
(a)
y =
b
a 2 n x y dx
bounded by
y = f(x) , x =a, X= b
y
y =0
X
0
Ax
b
Fig. 21
(b)
y
2ny. x. dy
-----
Ay
X
Fig. 22
(c)
y2
vy
~
I
2nx(y 1 - y )dx
2
0
Fig. 23
(d)
a~ x ~ b , and
>b
by:
V =
Ja
2n (c - x) y dx
Ax
Fig. 24
102
Example: (2)
Find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the circle x
+ y
= 4 about the
line x = 4
Solution:
y
x
r=4-x
-------
-2
H
t:.x
Fig. 25
X
2nrh t.x
4-
2y
(PA)
(PQ)
V =
2nrh dx
-2
2
nJ-2
4TI
(4 - x) . 2 .
~ dx
1-22 (4 - x) .;::7- dx
2
4nJ 41:7
-2
dx-
-2
Fig. 26
4Tir
-2
~ dx
103
I
2
1/4- 4sin S (2cosSdS)
n/2
16n
f
f
-TT/2
2
64n n/ cos 2 e dS
-TT/2
n/2
(I + cos2S)dS
32n
-n/~
n/2
32nJS + 2 sin 29] -n/ 2
32TT
3.3
I !J.y
= 11 (R 2 -
r ) !J.y
Fig. 27
y
Example: (I)
=2
and y = 0
is
= TT
2
2
(R - r ) !J.y
=n
2
(4 - x ) !J.y
:. Required volume V
11
2
(4 - x ) dy
=(
11
(4- y)dy'
= 11
4y -
[r=x,
J0
11
~]:
[16 - 8)
811
R=2)
Fig. 28
= X2
104
Exercise 38
In Exercises 1-.5, find the volumes generated when the region bounded by the given
curves and lines is rotated about the x-axis.
1.
2.
y =X
y =X
+ 1
4.
+ 2'
2
y =1- X
'
2
X = 3y- Y
.5.
y=x+2,
3.
y = .5
'
y =X+ 4
y = 1- X
'
X=0
y = 4'
X= 0
In Exercises 6-10, find the volumes when the region bounded by the given curves and
lines is rotated about the y-axis.
6.
7.
y = X'
2
y =X
8.
y =X
'
'
X = 2'
y =0
X = 2'
y =0
y =0
X = 2'
y = 3x- x
9.
y =X'
10.
(Hint:
11.
= sinx
y = 0'
0~ X~
1T
2x
2
2
A circle of radius 2 is given by x + y = 4 and is revolved about the line
x = .5. Using the washer method, prove that the resulting volume (called a
TORUS) is 40n 2
(Hint: Simplify your work by remembering that
2
J-2 Q
dx = area of a semi-circle = 2n )
105
3.4
EXAMPLE: (1)
A (2,2),
B (2,4)
and
C (4,4)
is rotated
about (i) the x-axis, (ii) the y-axis, (iii) the line x = 8.
Find the volume generated in each case.
y
I
SOLUTION
4
(i)
Equation of
AC
is
y =x
Equation of
BC
is
y = 4
=4
=x
1
2 - y 2 ) /:ix
2
1
and
f4
2
2
2
- y ) dx = 11
(16 - x ) dx
1
2
2
fa
11 (y
v = 11
~6x _ x: J~
(ii)
V =
11 (x
- x ) dy ,
1
6
= 11 [ ;
4J ~
16 - (
II Y
I
I
- 8)]
T
r
Fig. 30
= PR = 8 - 2 = 6, r 1
4
V =
J2 11 (r 2
4
f2
= 11
_..
X
3211
(iii)
Qv:p
/:iy
4) dy
= 11[
/:ix
Fig. 29
4~ 11
r</ _
= 11
---------
2
Substitute in the formula
V =
- r
2
) dy
1
(y
= x)
4
(-28 + 16y _
6411
-3-
l> dy
11 [36 - (8 - y) ] dy
= 11
= QR = 8 -- x = 8 -
3 4
28y + 8/ -
La.
8 X
Fig. 31
106
EXAMPLE (2)
The area bounded by the curve y = x
y = 2x + 5 is revolved about
the x-axis.
Find the volume.
SOLUTION:
=X
= 2x
+ 2
(l)
(2)
=0
(x - 3) (x + l)
x = 3 or x = -1
The element of volume when the region ACBA is
rotated about the x-axis is given by:
2
2
I!.V = n (PM - QM ) l!.x
(washer)
Fig. 32
= n (y 2 - Yl ) l!.x
We substitute y
=x
1!. V = n [ (2x + 5)
= n (4x
y 2 = 2x + 5
+ 2,
- (x
+ 2) ]
+ 20x + 25 - x
= n (20x - x
f
=f
:. Volume V =
n(y
- 4x
- 4)
+ 21)
2
2
- y ) dx
1
2
3
n (20x - x
+ 21) dx
-1
= n [lOx
x5
5
3
1
+ 2lx]_
li 90 - T
243 + 63) - (lO + "5l
= n~
21)
576n
-5-
107
EXAMPLE: (3)
SOLUTION:
y
... (1)
2
y =X
... (2)
where r
11
(disc, radius r)
/lx
I
PQ =
(PM - QM) =
(y 2 - y 1 )
PM
QM
!:N
Fig. 33
2
11
11
/lx
(y 2 - YI)
/lx
y 2 - Yt
11
J(
1
(1 - 2x
= 2- X 2 -X 2 = 2(1
+ x ) dx
-1
211
1611
15
(1 - 2x
+ x ) dx
-X )
108
2
The region bounded by curve y = 2x - x and the line y = x is rotated
EXAMPLE: (4)
about the y-axis. Find the volume by the method of cylindrical shells.
y
SOLUTION:
The curve y
=2x
the line
=X
We use:
- x
and
intersect at 0 (0,0) and A (1, 1)
2n
x(y2- yl) dx
(1)
PR = 2x - x
f
f
:. V
2n
2n
x (2x - x
(x
Fig. 34
= QR = x
- x) dx
.
3
- x ) dx
x3 _ x4] 1
2n [ 3
2n
(j- i)
l!
6
EXAMPLE: (5)
2
The area bounded by the curve y = x
and the line x = 1 is revolved about
the line x = 3. Find the volume
----f;; _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _g_e_ne_r_a_t_ed_,_b_y_t_he_m_e_t_h_o_d_o_f_s_h_e_ll_s_.
J~: !L __
SOLUTION
3
V = b 2n (c - x) h dx
a
=
= 3,
h = PQ = 2y = 2yx
4n (3 - x)
41!
.Jx dx
(3xl/2 - x3/2) dx
0
4 n [ 2 x3/2 _ ! x5/2] 1
5
0
2
41! (2 - 5)
32n
)
Fig. 35
109
REVISION
1.
Exercise 3C
VOLUMES
(b) Show that the volume of a right cylindrical shell of height H with inner
and outer radii r and r + I:J.r respectively is given by 2n r H I:J.r
(c) The region R in (a) above is rotated about the y-axis, generating a solid of
revolution called a
torus.
If the semi-
minor axis of each ellipse is } of the semi-major axis, prove that the volume
of the solid is given by V
=41T
f0
2
(16 - x ) dx and hence find the volume of
the solid
3.
and y
The co-ordinates of the vertices of a triangle PQR are (0, 4) , (2, 2) and
(-2, 2) respectively. The region PQR is rotated about the
(a) x-axis
(b) y-axis
(c) line x = 4
5.
The cross-sections
at right angles to the x-axis are triangles with one leg in the base.
If the
= 16
J0
2
- x ,
110
6.
f(z)
ih
7.
nh
T (R
+ Rr + r )
Fig. 36
8.
).5
I
I
I
I
I
I]- - - -
~----~----'
Fig. 37
111
9.
= 4ax
x = a
is rotated
about the line x = a. Find the volume generated, by using the Shell method.
10.
II
Find the volume of the torus obtained by rotating the area bounded by the
2
2
2
circle x + y = a
about the line x = c, (c > a). Use the method of (a)
cylindrical shells and (b) disc (washer method).
2
The area bounded by the parabola y = 4ax and the line
=a
is rotated
13.
14.
The ellipse in exercise (13) is revolved about the vertical line through
15.
The triangle
about the line x = 2a. Find the volume generated by disc (washer) method.
16.
The cross sections of a certain solid by planes perpendicular to the x-axis are
2
circles with diameters extending from the curve
y = x
to the curve
2
y = 8 - x
+ I
=8
- 2x
and V =
2
A (x) dx,
-2
=3 -
x is revolved
method)
18.
(a, a), (a, 2a), (2a, 2a) is rotated (a) about the x-axis
20.
(b) about the y-axis. Find the volume generated in each case.
= 4x
112
Introduction
- Necessity is the mother of invention.
1.
The first invented system J: the set of all integers as developed from the
counting numbers. In this system we can solve equations such as x .:!:. 2 = O,
in general x + b = 0, where b is any integer.
2.
The second invented system Q: the set of all rational numbers p/q as
developed from the integers. In this system we can solve equations such as
2x - 3 = 0, in general ax + b = O, where a and b are rational numbers.
3.
The th1rd invented system R: the set of all real numbers x as developed
from the rational numbers. In this system, we can solve not only the types
2
x + a = 0, ax + b = 0, but in addition all quadratic equations ax + bx + c = 0,
2
a ~ 0 and t:. = b - 4ac ~ 0. The roots are not real if 1:!. < 0. The simple
2
2
quadratic equation x + I = 0 or x + x + I = 0 is impossible to solve with
the above mentioned three number systems. There is no real number that
2
satisfies the equation x + I = 0, since x = r-f does not exist in the real
number system R.
A new kind of number has to be invented to handle the roots which are not real. The
[ i =
symbol
;-:II
= -I
i is called
2
the imaginary number. The roots of x = -1 can now be written as
2
2
x = -1 = i
-> x =- .:!:. i
Again the roots of x 2 + 2x + 3 = 0 can be given as
X= -
.:!:_
f8
-1
.:!:_
= -1.:!:.
Iii
Now we come to the fourth invented system, the set of all complex numbers of the
form
x + iy, i.e.
X+
iy
113
4.2
c + di
if and only if a
=c
1.
Equality:
2..
Addition:
(a + bi) + (c + di)
3.
Multiplication:
and b
= d.
(a +c) + (b + d) i
By using these definitions, we can verify that the complex numbers satisfy all the
laws of algebra and hence the complex numbers form a field (denoted by C).
3 - 5i, then x
= 3,
If x + iy
EXAMPLE: (2)
SOLUTION:
(2 + 3 i) + (3 + 2 i) = (2 + 3) i
EXAMPLE: (3)
SOLUTION:
(2 + 5i) (3 + 6i)
= -5
EXAMPLE: (l)
5 + 5i
=-24
27i
and put
= -1,
Identity elements:
By definition:
and
(a + bi) + (0 + Oi)
(a + 0) + (b + O)i
a + bi
(a + b i) (1 + 0 i) = (a 1 - b 0) + (a 0 + b 1) i = a + b i
114
Additive inverse:
We define the additive inverse of the complex number a + ib to be a number x + iy
such that:
(a + bi) + (x + iy) = 0 + 0. i
(a + x) + (b + y) i = 0 + 0 i
By definition of two equal complex numbers, we have:
a + x = 0
and
b +y =0
giving
x = -a, y = -b
is
(a+ bi)- (c + id) =(a+ bi) + (-c- di) =(a- c)+ (b- d)i.
Multiplicative inverse:
The multiplicative inverse of the complex number a + bi f. 0 is defined to be a
number x + iy such that (a + bi) (x + i y) = l + 0. i. By definition of equality,
and
ax - by = l
bx + ay = 0
z:
Note that a real number can be written in the form a + bi, for example 2 = 2 + 0. i.
Similarly a purely imaginary number such as 2i can also be written as 0 + 2i.
Calculations with the complex numbers do not require any special rules; wherever i
occurs we replace it by -1. Further,
4
2
4
5
3
2
i = -i, i = i x i = (-1) (-I} = 1, i = i i = i
etc.
Complex conjugates:
If two complex numbers differ only in the sign of their imaginary parts, each is
called the conjugate of the other. Thus a + b i and a - i b are the conjugate
complex numbers. Notation
is used for the conjugate of z, i.e.
= a - ib.
Since z + z = (a + bi) + (a - bi) = 2a, the sum of two conjugate complex numbers is
a real number.
EXAMPLE: (4)
SOLUTION:
(3 + 2 i) + (3 - 2 i) = 6
and
3 + 2 i and
3 - 2i
(3 + 2 i) - (3 - 2 i) = 4 i
115
zz
2
2
Again the product
= (a + bi) (a - bi) = a + b , hence the product of two
conjugate complex numbers is a non-negative real number.
(3 + 2 i) (3 - 2 i) = 9 + 4 = I 3
EXAMPLE: (5)
QUOTIENT:
a+ bi .
We can simplify the quotient c + di , I.e. divide a + bi by c + di by using
a+ bi
the following procedure: c + di
c- di
c- di
ac+bd
be-ad.
-2--2 + -2--2 I
c +d
c +d
EXAMPLE: (6)
Divide 3 + 4i by 2 + i
3 + 4i
SOLUTION:
3 + 4i
6 + 8i - 3i - 4i
4 + I
(3 + 4 i)
(2 - i)
= (2 + i) "(2:1}
2+1
10 + 5i
--5-
2+1
2 + i
EXAMPLE: (7)
If
SOLUTION:
.
.
5 + 6i
5 + 6i
2 - 3i
28 - 3i
Wnte x + 1Y = 2 + 3i = 2 + 3i 2- 3i = --13-
28
.
I d .
.
Equatmg rea an 1magmary parts, x = TI
y =-
TI3
5]
2x - 3y =
3x + 2y = 6 '
EXAMPLE: (8)
28
x=n'
solving these:
Expand (a) (I + i)
a+ ib.
3
y=-n
and (b) (I - i)
SOLUTION:
(a)
(I + i)
+ 4i + 6i
+ 4i
+ i
+ 4i - 6 - 4i +
i.
= -4
and
(b)
(I - i)
5
4
2
3
- 5i + !Oi - !Oi + 5i - i
- 5i - 10 + !Di + 5 - i
=
It is easier to expand by
writing z = I + i
2
z4 =
z 2 = (I + i) 2 (I + i)
= (2i) (2i) = -4
5
2 2
. . I
S1m11ar y z = z z z
=(-2i}(-2i)0-i)
= -4 (I - i) etc.
-4 + 4i
EXAMPLE: (9)
Express (2 - 3if
SOLUTION:
<2 - 31
.)-1
in the form a + ib
I
= ~
2 + 3i
2 + 3i
2
3 .
2 + 3i = -13- = T3 + TI I
116
Exercise 4A
Perform the indicated operations and express the answers in the form
2.
(5
2i)
(3
2i)
4.
(3 + 2i)
(3
2i)
6.
(5
i) (3
8.
(4
3i) 2
l.
(3 + 2i) + (2 -
3.
5.
(3
7.
3 i (2 -
9.
(l
11.
i (2
13.
r:-i
2i
14. 3 +
5 + 2i
15.
3 - 2i
5i
16.
3i)
5i)
4i) (2 + i)
i)
i )2
10. (l
(2
+ i)
4i)
12. (-4 i) (2 i)
i)
3if
a + ib:
+ 2i
.3
3x +
2iy
iy)
12 + 5i
18. (2 -
3i) + (x + 2iy)
2i
20. (x + i y) ( 3 + 4 i) = 2
19.
(x
21.
22.
If x + i y
23.
If
5- 4i
5i
= 5 (cos 60 - i sin 60), find x and y in the surd form and hence
2
1
express (a) (x + iy >
in the form a + i b
(b) - -.X- IY
(a)
24.
=2
+ i,
3z + 4
evaluate:
2
(b) z - 2z + 3
(c)
2z - l
2z + l
(d)
(z - 1) (z
2 + z + 1)
25.
-z
(b)
-z
(c)
(l + i)z
(c)
2 - i
2
l + i +
z =
r:l
z + l
Z-1
(d)
a + ib:
(b)
2z
(I - i) z
T+i + 3- 2i =
(d)
Z-1
z + 3
2 - 3i
117
26.
27.
28.
(b) z
- 2z + 4 = 0
(c)
2z
- 3z + 2 = 0
(d) z + ..!.
i, -i
(d)
3 + i,
(b)
+ i,
+ 3i
(c)
I - i
2 + 3i, 2- 3i
2 + i, 2 + i
(e)
Solve the following pairs of equations for z and w where z and w are
complex numbers. Express answers in the form a + ib.
(a)
(c)
z + iw
2 + 3i
z- iw
2 - 3i
(b)
(d)
(2 + i)z + (2 - i)w
(2 - i) z + (2 + i) w
2z + w
I +i
z-w
I - i
z +(I - i) w
2i
w + (I - i) z
29.
30.
V-3 V-i2
1<-3> . <-12)
6 ?
32.
. z )z
= z (z . z )
2 3
1 2
3
(Hint: Let z
= x
z z =z z
1 2
2 1
+ iy
etc.)
118
4.3
P(x,y)
=x
+ iy
=z
2 t - - - - - - - - , P(3,2) = 3 +2i
y
Fig. 2
Fig. l
lm(z) = 2,
z = 3 + 2i.
OP
(x2:l
The direction of the vector OP is given by the angle 6 which OP makes with the
positive direction of the x-axis. Hence 6 is completely determined by the equations:
x = rcos6
and
rsin6
119
The angle 9 is called an argument of the complex number z = x + iy. The angle 9
is measured in radians, but degrees may be used for convenience. Its value is,
however, not determined uniquely, since
cos9 = cos(9.!. 2kn)
and
<9~
Thus for the complex number z = x + iy, we can write its trigonometric form as:
z = x
iy = r(cos9
isin9),
-n
<9 ~
n.
For example
r(cos9 + isin9)
5(cos 60
as
rcis9
It is strongly recommended that you draw a diagram depicting the complex number
z = x + i y to determine the angle 9. The formula tan 9 = Y should be used with
X
z = 0.
We have:
Complex
number
Cartesian
form
Mod-arg form of z
+iy
P(x,y)
= rcos9,
z = r(cos9
y = rsin9
+isin9) -
modz = lz I = r =
rcis9
fx +i
2
arg z = 9
where -n
<9 ~
n
Fig. 3
120
EXAMPLES
(10) Express 3 + 4i in mod-arg form:
SOLUTION:
= /3
+ 4
(Fig. 4)
= 5
Fig.4
tan a
(11). Express
SOLUTION:
tanS
ff
P(J,I)
I
= 45
Fig.5
z = 1 + i = v2(cos45 + isin45)
cis(11/4)
= 4cis
(~
11
P(-2,2 /3) . ,
y
Fig.6
2../3
a
-2
(Fig. 7)
X
X
'1/3
-9
-2 13
Fig.7
P(-2,-2 v'J)
(14) Express 10{3- 10i in mod-arg form: (Fig. 8)
2
2
SOLUTION: r = /( 10 {)) + (-1 o ) = 20
1
9 = -30 from tan9 = - - 10 VJ
Fig.8
-/T
10 = 20cis(-30) or 20cis(-11/6)
P(IO /3,-10)
(I 5)
2 y
-2
-2
(16) Express
(b)
5cis 21 oo
in Cartesian form:
..rJ
(a)
2cis 150
(b)
5cis 210
5(cos210 + isin210) =
5 J3
5i
--2--2
13 +
121
Exercise 48
2.
-5
3.
5i
4.
-5i
5.
2 + 2i
6.
2 - 2i
7.
-2 + 2 i
8.
-2 - 2i
9.
-4
I 0. I 0 1J + I 0 i
13.
1+1
II .
-2
..13 .
2 1
IG
14 4 + 3i
12.
II + 4 l'ii
5
513.
-2- -2-1
15. (I - i)
5cis n/2
17.
IOcisO
18.
4cisll
19.
20.
5cis -n/3
21.
22.
l2cis TI/4
23.
24.
10 cis (-n I 3)
25.
4cis 211/3
122
4.4
The mod-arg form of complex numbers can be used to advantage in finding products
and quotients. The mod-arg form is useful in finding the roots of complex numbers.
Let z
1
complex numbers, then:
MULTIPLICATION:
z z
= r 1 (cos9 1
+ isin9 ) and z
= r 2 (cos9 2
1 2
r r [cos(9 + e ) + isin(9 + 9 )]
2
1
2
1 2
1
... (J)
= z = rcis9
2
1
3
+ 9n)
rn (cosn9 + isinn9)
DIVISION:
1
2
and add
(2)
. (3)
r (cos e + i sin e )
1
1
1
r kose + isin9 )
2
2
2
and
- isin9 ), we have:
2
Thus the modulus of the quotient of two complex numbers is the quotient of their
respective moduli and the argument of the quotient is the argument of the numerator
minus the argument of the denominator.
From results (I) and (4), we immediately deduce that:
I=
Iz 1 I
= - - , but it is not always correct
r2
I2 2 I
to say that arg(z z ) = e + e , because the sum e + e
may be outside the
2
1
2
1
1 2
domain -11 < 9 ~ 11. It may be necessary to add .::.211 to bring the arg(z z ) or
1 2
arg(z/z ) into this domain. Hence argz z = argz + argz 2:. 211 (if necessary)
1 2
1
2
2
and arg(z /z ) = argz - argz 2:. 211 (if necessary).
2
1 2
1
l 2 12 2l = rlr2 = lz 1 llz 2 1 and
zl
l- 2
2
rI
123
EXAMPLE: (17)
Find the product: 2(cos60 + isin 60) 3 (cos 120 + i sin 120)
1O(cos 105
i sin 4-5)
SOLUTION:
QUOTIENT
5[cos(l05- 45)
Quotient
512
isin60)
(5 ljf2)i
+ (1
EXAMPLE: (19)
SOLUTION:
- i) in mod-arg form.
QUOTIENT
or
EXAMPLE: (20)
SOLUTION:
Numerator = N
N
and
2cis45 + 3cis30
4cis 60 - 3cis 30
Denominator = D
2.914-2 i
i (1.964-10)
r(cos9 + isin9) =
= 2.4-2
and
9 =- 70.95
124
Exercise 4C
Perform the indicated operation and express the result in the form a + i b.
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
7.
5.
8.
9.
10.
II.
12.
Change each of the following complex numbers to mod-arg form and perform
the indicated operation, giving answers in mod-arg form.
( ) .!.._.!..l
a
13.
If
(b) (-1 + i)
V3 + i
I - i
= 4cisl20
= r
(cos39 + isin39)
(c) (I + i) (l +
v'3 i)
(d) (
V3
(l +
and
= 2cis30,
+ i) (l - i)
v'3 i) ( y'J - i)
find
2
10
and express your answers in
(c) (z > (d) (z )
1
2
the form a + ib.
14.
15.
Express
(c)
= I + ./3i '
zl + z2
z1 - z2
z =
and
./3
+ i
(d)
~1zl -+ z2z~
2
in the form
A+ iB.
125
4.5
Let
Theorem:
> 0),
then
EXAMPLE: (21)
Find (I + i)
SOLUTION:
6
( Vi.) (cos 6 Tr/4 + isin 6Tr/4)
8 (cos 3 TI/2 + i sin 3TI/2)
-8i
EXAMPLE: (22)
SOLUTION:
We write
+ (-1
/3i)
2 4 (cos60 + isin60)
Hence?
w
/ (cosl20 + isin120)
~~ ~os (240
16 (cos240 + isin240)
and
128(cos840 + isin840)
128 (cos 120 + i sin 120)
126
Exercise 40
2.
4
3.
5.
[cos(-nl4) + isin(-nl4)] 6
4.
6.
(I
9.
(I
II.
(-1
13.
(I
(3 + 4if 2
10. ( v'j - i)4
+ i)6
- i)4
8.
12. (2 - 2 {jif 4
14. (2 J3 + 2i) 5
- i)IO
+
11'304
(1
- i)4 (I
(I
VJi)3
i)4
-
(I
19.
(2cis nl6)
(7 to 14).
+ i)3
16. (I
18.
20.
VJi)3 (I
(2 + 2i) 4
(I
(4cis nl3) 3
v'Ji)2
(3cis n I 12)
+ i)4
127
4.6
For
4 are .:!:. 2
113
(8)
= 2 and so on.
8 is
But finding the desired roots of complex numbers is not so simple, as we must use De
Moivre's theorem to find the:
three cube roots,
a + ib.
EXAMPLE: (23)
SOLUTION:
Method 1:
If z
-1
-I, then
is a cube root of
3
2
z + 1 = 0, hence (z + 1) (z - z + 1) = 0
adding
-l
(TT + 2kTT)
2
cos 11
-1
We write
Method II:
J3i
1 .:!:_
-1,
+ i sinTT
hence
. ( l)
R (cos~ + 1sin~)
+ isin(TT + 2kTT)
= R(cos~
isin~)
R 3 (cos3~+ isin3~) =
cos(TT + 2kTT)
+ isin(TT + 2kTT)
R 3 cos3~
= cos(TT + 2kTT)
1,
From these:
~
i.e., R =
TT/3
sin ( 11 + 2kTT)
and
and
3~
TT + 2kTT
+ 2kTT/3
=
k
(cos~+ isin~)
= 0,
1, 2.
128
For k = 3,
the root for
zl
1/2 +
I,
z2
cosn + isinn
-I
2,
z3
1/2
J3/2 . i
fi/2 i
If
and
rsina = Rnsinn\6
0=
Hence R = r 1/n ,
a +n 2k 1T '
where k = 0, 1, 2, (n - I)
We conclude that the n nth roots of the complex number r(cosa + isina) have the
1/n
.
a + 2kn
)
modulus r
and arguments are g1ven by --n--' k = 0, I, 2, (n - 1
EXAMPLE: (24)
SOLUTION:
.. (2kn + 2n/3)]
[
(2kn + 2n/3)
.. The 1!-th roots are z = 2 cos
+ 1sm
,
4
4
k =
o,
1, 2, 3
"3
0,
zl
I,
z2
-1 + ,/3i
2,
z3
2 (cos210" + isin210")
-.13-l.i
3,
z4
2 (cos300" + isin300")
I -
+ 1i
X
Fig. II
v'3 i
90")
129
EXAMPLE: (25)
SOLUTION:
= 32
= 32(cos0 + isinO)
32[cos2k11 + isin2k11]
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
To clearly visualise the roots, we replace 11 by 180", then the five roots of
z 5 = 32 are:
k
o,
zl
2ciso = 2
!,
z2
2cis72"
2,
z3
2cis 144"
3,
z4
2cis216"
4,
z5
2cis288"
Note that the argument of successive root increases by 360 "'" 5 i.e. 72". This way
you can quickly write down all the roots.
Observing that:
lz 11 = lz 2 1 = lz 51 = 2, we can show
these roots on a circle of radius 2, centre 0.
From the diagram:
A(z )
1
z5
z2
z4
z3
Fig. 12
EXAMPLE: (26)
Solve z
SOLUTION:
Write
16 .f2 + 16 J2i
1+ i
l'i.cis( 11/4) =
k =
o,
1, 2, 3, 4.
zl
2cis9"
z2
z3
z4
z5
2cis81"
v'2cis(2k11 + 11 /4)
130
Exercise 4E
1.
2.
(b)
-16i
4.
(b)
-8
-2/3- 2i
(d)
4 + 3i
(c)
27(~ + ~ 0
(d)
-8i
(c)
-8 - 8 J3i
(d)
2-2
(c)
-2 + 2 I
(d)
32i
V3.1
5.
(c)
3.
2 + 213i
(b)
32
-32
.fj
1.
Find the solution set for each of the following equations. Express your answers
in the form a+ bi.
(a)
(c)
X
X
(e)
(g)
4
2
4
+ 1
(b)
(d)
X
X
(f)
13.
(h)
21
+ i = 0
1
2 -
+ (3 - i)x
+ 16i = 0
64 = 0
+ i
= 0
3i = 0
131
4. 7
We have used De Moivre's theorem in finding the powers and the roots of complex
numbers. We now prove it by the method of induction and consider some further
applications.
De Moivre's theorem is:
For any integer n, (cos9 + isin9)n = cosn9 + isinn9
Proof:
For
= O,
For n = I,
(cos9 + isin9)
= I = cosO
(I)
+ isinO
=0
and n
= I.
=k, a
(2)
This proves that the theorem is true for n = k + I, if it is true for n = k. Since it
is true for n = I, then it is true for n = 2 and so on for all positive integers n.
The theorem is also true when n is a negative integer.
Let n = -m, where m is a positive integer.
(cos e + i sine )n= (cos e + i sine fm = - - - - - - (cose + isin9)m
by using the theorem for positive integer
cosm9 + isinm9
m.
I
(cosm9- isinm9)
cosme + isinm6 = (cosm9 + isinme) kosm9- isinm9)
Now
Finally
cosme- isinm9
1
(b)
11
132
Let
z
z
cosne- isinne.
-n
+z
= 2cos ne
n
-n
Subtracting, z - z
2isin ne
Adding,
1
z
For n = I,
2cos e
Z+-
n = 2,
1
+2
z
(1)
. (2)
'
2cos2e ,
1
z
2
2isine
1
2= 2 isin 2e
z
'
etc.
EXAMPLE: (27)
SOLUTION:
tan e.
By De Moivre's theorem:
cos49 + isin49 = (cos9 + isin9)
C
= (c + is)
4 + 4c3.IS + 6c2.2
2 4c.3
3 .4 4
1 S +
1 S + 1 S
(b)
4
4
2 2
2
4
cos49 = c - 6c s + s = c - 6c (1 - c 2 ) +(I - c 2) 2 ,
2
.
. 2e
usmg
cos e = 1 - sm
4
2
:. cos49 = 8cos e- 8cos e + 1
sin49 = 4c\- 4cs
3
= 4cos 9sine- 4sin 3 ecose
an 4
e _ sin4e
- cos4e
4c\ - 4cs3
c4 _ 6c2 5 2 + 5 4
tan49
3
4tane - 4tan e
2
4
1 - 6tan e + tan e
remembering
133
EXAMPLE: (28)
(a)
If
(i)
zn
z
(b)
zn -
(ii)
cos 4 9
or sin n 9
4
sin 9
(ii)
2isin n9
(iii)
3
sin 9
SOLUTION:
(a)
cos9 + isin9
1 = cos9 - isin9
By De Moivre's theorem:
zn " cosn9
isin n9,
z
Adding:
-n
z-n
cos n9 - isin n9
(i)
2cos n9
Subtracting: z
n
z
(b)
(i)
(2cos9) 4
4
16cos 9
4
cos 9
(ii)
.. (ii)
2isin n9
~) 4
(z +
2cos49
= (z
+ -{)
+ 4cos29
4
16sin 9
2cos49 - 8cos29
(2 i sin 9 )3
. 39
4 (z
+ 6
1
+ /) + 6
[in (a)(i) n = 4, 2]
3)
'
1
1
3z ) - 3(z - -z>
2isin 39
~)
+ z4 ) -
1 3
(z
Sill
= (z
+ 3)
81 (cos49 - 4cos29
(z - -)
8cos29 + 6
(z - -)
4(z
1
8 (cos49
1 4
4
(2 isin 9 )
4
sin 9
(iii)
6isin9
(3sin9 - sin39)
= 3,
1]
= 4,
2]
134
Exercise 4F
I.
2.
3.
Express (a) cos6e (b) sin6e in terms of cose and sine and hence express
tan 6 e in terms of tan e
4.
Express
5.
6.
(a) cos 3 e
5
fcos ede
(b) sin e
(b) sin e
5
(d) fsin ede
6
(a) cos 6 e (b) sin e in terms of multiples of e, and hence
TI /2
Tl /2
6
6
(d)
sin ede
cos ede
integrate (c)
0
0
Express
7.
in terms of multiples of e
Find the constants p, q, r and s if: (a) co/ e = pcos?e + qcos5e + rcos3e + s
Tl /2
7
and hence evaluate: (b)
cos e de
0
8.
Find the constants p, q, r, s if: (a) sin e = psin?e + qsin5e + rsin3e + ssine,
rr/2
7
and hence evaluate: (b)
sin e de
0
9.
10.
cot4e
(b)
cot5e
2
4
- 6 tan e + tan e
3
4tane - 4tan e
4
2
I- 10tan 9 + 5tan 9
3
5
5tan9- 10tan e + tan e
~cos n 2e
n eu
+ 1 sm
, where n
4
2
cot 9- 6cot e + 1
3
4c'ot 9 - 4cot 9
5
3
cot e - I Ocot e + 5cot e
4
5cot e- IOcoie +I
135
4.8
We usually use De Moivre's theorem to find the roots of a complex number; but there
is also a special requirement to obtain the square roots in the form a + ib.
Two methods of obtaining the square roots are:
2
I.
We convert z = a + ib to mod-arg form and use De Moivre's theorem to solve
l
2.
=a+ ib.
METHOD 1:
EXAMPLE: (29)
Let
By De Moivre's theorem:
~os (
z = 2
J,
k = 0, I.
zl
z2
2(cos7n/6 + isin7n/6) =
Verify that,
tf3 +
-13-
[!. ( J3 + i) ] 2 = 2 + 2/3i
METHOD U:
EXAMPLE: (30)
z =a + ib
X2 -
y 2 + 2"IXY = a + 1"b
.22~
22
+ y = '1/a- + b. as x + y
>0
= a and
for x and y.
+ /
= 7 + 6 /2i
/>
/l + b2
/>
49 + 72
121
X
+y
and x - y
Finally we solve
i -/
=11
(1)
=7
(2)
y=!.fi
136
Exercise 4G
1.
3+4i
(b)
3-4i
(c)
(e)
5 + 12i
(f)
8 + 6i
(g)
(d)
5+2J6i
(h)
7-6/ii
-8i
2.
Solve the following equations, expressing the answers in the form x + iy.
2
2
2
(b) z = I + {:Ji
(c) z = 2i
(a) z = -15 + 8i
3.
4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
2
2
2
- (I - 4 i) z - (5 - i)
+ (2 + 4i) z - 11 - 2i
+ ( 4 + 2 i) z + (3 + 2 i)
+ (4 - 2i) z + 6
(Hint:
J5:l2i
3 - 2i)
(Hint:
.Js
3+i)
+ 6i
=0
5.
(b)
/5 -
l2i
5+12i
(b)
..ra+l>1
6.
If X+ iy
7.
Simplify:
va:bT
~
c + !d '
..t5:lii
v57iTi
(c)
(./a
~
I + z + z 2 where z = v&
+ 6i
+b
+a)
h< E:;}_
~
{5 - 12i
> 0)
a)
2 + b2
2
c + d2
a
137
4.9
z= x
- iy
is the conjugate of
If the point
P(x,y) represents
in the x-axis.
z = x + iy in the
is the reflection of
z = 2x
Fig.l3
arg -z = -argz
(a real number)
5.
6.
7.
9.
10.
z and
(a) z
Let
+ z
= a + ib
and
1
= a + ib + c + id
+ c) -
i (b
= c + id,
then
1
- z
= a + ib - c - id
+ d)
- z
= (a - c) - i (b - d)
= (a - ib) - (c - id)
= zl
=zl
+ z2
= (a - ib) (c - id)
- z2
(d)
We have
zI
z2
c2 + d2
zI
Again, z2
z-2
= z = zz = Izl2
= (a - ib) + (c - id)
= zI
.-~ Q<z>
(b) z
= (a + ib) (c + id)
= (ac - bd) + i(be + ad)
z
''
z-I
2 = (a
I
I
: -y
- = x 2 + y 2 = lzl2 -- l-zl2
zz
3.
z = 2iy
8.
lzl
Proof:
..
We have:
2.
z +
x - iy.
I.
4.
P(z)
conjugate of
z = x + iy.
(a - ib)
(a - ib) (c + id)
_ id) = (c _ id) (c + id)
=(c
( :~)
= z I + z 2 + . + zn
+ZnWn
= zl.wl +Z2
13. z 1w"l + z 2w 2 +
+ znwn
w = w,
W2+
+Zn.wn
we have
w 1z 1 + w 2z 2 +
, ence
+ wnzn
We shall use the properties (9), (10) and (11) in the next chapter on Polynomials.
138
EXAMPLE: (31):
=~
If z
(a) z
(b) z + z
(c) z - z
(d) zz
(e)
SOLUTION:
(a)
z =~-
(d) zz
3i
=(~
z =~
(b) z +
+ 3i + ~- 3i
z =~
(c) z-
~ - 3i
~
=z1 =zzz =Izlz2 =2
5 = 25
-1
(e) z
+ 3i)(~ - 3i)
=8
+ 3i- (~ - 3i)
=6i
3.
.
( )
- 25 1, usmg d
= 16 + 9
-1
Note that z
= 25
= (X
If x + 1 y
. )(
+ IY
-z
Using ,
=arg
z .
prove t h at ( x 2 + y 2)2
SOLUTION:
= Vr;;-:;Tb
~
EXAMPLE: (32)
-1
z in general, even though arg z
.1-
1 z2
= ca
. )
IY
z1z
+ ib
(I)
+ id
and
(z1)
Z2
w = (X-
. )(
IY
. )
X- IY
a - ib
c - id
(2)
= x2
2
+b
2
c +d
+/,etc.
2
2
2
+ y ) (x + y )
= a2
Exercise 4H
I.
Given
o> z
(a) z
= 1 + 2i
(ii) z + z
x + iy
x2 + /
Oii) z-
3.
If a+ ib
(x + i)2
2x - i
+ iy
~
1
'
~-
5.
If a
2
(a + ib) , then without finding x and
= (a2 + b2)2
If
-z
2.
If
(b) z
'
prove that a
show that
2 + b2
+y
=cosa
[Hint: (a + ib)
= (x
(x2 + 1)2
~x 2
+ I
6.
y, prove that
~(x 2
~X
+ b +c
~y
3
+ iy) , equate real and imaginary parts, substitute
7.
. 3 + 2isin9
Find 9, 0~9~2n, If l- 2 isine
8.
-1
ispurelyimaginary.
1 - 2icot(9/2)
5 + 3cos9
=0,
etc. >
in~+~]
X
139
zn = I, then r = I,
2
centre the origin (x + / = 1).
zn - 1 = 0
EXAMPLE: (33)
3
Factorise z - I = O, then
SOLUTION:
= -
i-
1
.f'J . h
2 + 2 1, t en
~.
2 .
'?
~ =- ~ -
i = z3
2
3
Thus 1, w and w are the three roots of z - 1 = 0
2
_
. d
_ coefficient of z
Fig. 14
We f m z 1 + z2 + z3 - . .
3 - 0
coefficient of z
0
. I 1
2
1 1 ./3. 1 {j_
Alternative y
+ w + w = z 1 + z 2 + z 3 = - 2 + 21 - 2- 21 =
3
2
The roots of z - I = 0 lie on the circle x + / = 1. The roots are equally spaced
with angular separation between any two roots equal to 360 f 3 = 120. We observe
that z3 = z2
EXAMPLE: (34)
SOLUTION:
i -
Solve z - 1 = 0
(z - 1) (z + 1) ( / + 1) = 0.
Again,
=-I
.3
=
Fig.l5
-1
2
3
1 + w + w + w
+i-1-i=O
The roots lie on the circle x 2 + y2 = 1, the angular separation between any two
consecutive roots being 360 -;. 4 = 90.
We also observe that z
= z 2
4
140
Let
SOLUTION:
= l
= cos
2kn + isin2kn
7
x - 1
4
.5
EXAMPLE: (3})
(1)
= / (cos79 + isin79)
. (2)
From (I) and (2), equating the real and the imaginary parts:
r 7 cos79 =cos(2kn)
and
/ sin79 = sin2kn
14
= 1, hence r = 1 since r > 0
By squaring and adding, r
whence 7 9 = 2kn
cos79 =cos2kn,
2kn
9 = T
, where k = 0, 1, 2, , 6
=cos4n/7
z =cos8n/7
5
+ isin4n/7
z4
=cos2n/7
=cos6n/7
+ isin8n/7
=cosO + isinO = 1
2
6
+ isin2n/7
+ i sin 6n /7
z = cos12n/7 + isinl2n/7
7
Now we apply De Moivre's theorem, in reverse order, i.e.
cosn9 + isinn9 = (cos9 + isin9) 7 to each of the above complex roots.
Let
= w =cos2n/7
+ isin2n/7
2
= w
3
3
and so on,
z =cos6n/7 + isin6n/7 = (cos2n/7 + isin2n/7) = w
4
4
.5
6
hence, z = w , z 6 = w , z 7 = <tJ
5
2
6
To prove that 1 + w + w + + w = 0, we note that the sum of the roots of
6
7
-coef. of z
hence
z - 1 = 0 is zero, because: z 1 + z + + z 7 =
2
7
coef. of z
2
6
substituting for zl' z , etc. we have: 1 + w + w + + w =0.
2
z
Observations:
The roots of zn - 1
= cos ~
n
+ isin
~,
n
=0
= 0,
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
If w is the complex root with the smallest positive root, then the
2
n-1
entire set of roots is given by: 1, w, w , , w
2
n-1
0
.
h
b
.
1 + w + w + + w
= , e1t er y usmg the sum of the roots of
(.5)
zn - 1
=0
.
w1th sum
where k
1, 2, , (n - 1).
zn - 1 = 0, i.e. z
=1
is real.
1 - wn
=~
=
1- 1
1 _w
0,
since wn
= 1,
w ~ 1.
141
Exercise 41
1.
2
= 1), prove that w is
2.
B=
3.
4.
5.
25
d.
ci>
6.
(c)
4
2
3
1 + w + w + w + w = 0
Prove that
4
Find the quadratic equations whose roots are a = w + w
and
7
6
5
2
3
B = w + w
(Hint: use w = 1 to reduce w and w )
Show the roots of
z 5 - 1 = 0 in an Argand diagram.
(d)
7.
(a)
1 + w + w + w + w + w
= 0.
(b)
a + ib
Argand diagram. Find the area of the hexagon formed by the roots.
(c)
(d)
(ii)
The roots of
+ z
+ 1
=0
are w, w , w
5
and w
142
8.
i> ...
(z - wn-l)
zn - I
(b)
(c)
9.
= (z
(a)
143
EXAMPLE: (36)
SOLUTION:
z 6 = 1 = cos(2kn) + isin(2kn),
z
z
= cos(2kn/6) + isin(2kn/6), k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
z
1
i.e.
= cos 0 + i sin 0 = 1
z5
=cos4n/3
= cos2n/3 + isin2n/3 ,
3
We find that z
4
6
= -1
+
isin4nj3
=cos2n/3-
isin21T/3
z 5 = z 3 , hence:
=z
and
2
6
z2 + z6 = z2 + z2 = 2cosn/3
and
z3 + z5 = z3 + z3 = 2cos2n/3
Also z z = z z = 1 ,
z z =z z = 1
2 2
3 5
3 3
2 6
6
Now z - 1 = (z- z ) (z- z ) (z- z ) (z- z ) (z- z ) (z- z )
4
6
1
2
5
3
= (z- 1) (z + 1) [(z- z ) (z- z )] [(z- z ) (z- z )]
6
3
5
2
= (z
2
(z - 1) (z + 1)
2cos(n /3) z + 1] [z - 2cos(2n/3) z + 1]
2
4
2
(z - 1) (z + z + 1), we at once have:
[i -
Since z 6 z
+ z
+ 1
~ =
[z
- 2cos(n/3) z + 1] [z
- 2cos(2n/3)z + 1]
z - 1
EXAMPLE: (37) Solve z
1T + 2k1T
by z = c1s - -, where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
6
z = cis7n/4 =- 13/2- i/2
z = cisTT/6 = 13/2 + i/2
4
1
z = cisn/2 = 0 + i
z
= cis3n/2 = 0- i
5
2
z = cis 5n/6 = - /3/2 + i/2 z = cis llTT/2 = .fJ/2 - i/2
6
3
We have z = z l , hence Z l + z 6 = Z l + Zl = V3 , Z l z 6 =
6
and z5 = z2'
z2 + z5 = z2 + z2 = 0
z2z5 = 1
and z4 = z3 '
z2
z3 + z4 = z3 + z3 = - VJ' z3z4 = 1
Fig.l6
144
6
The factors of z + 1 are:
z 6 + 1 = [(z- z ) (z- z )) [(z- z ) (z- z )] [(z- z ) (z- z )]
2
5
3
4
6
1
2
2
2
= [z - (z + z )z + z z ] [z - (z + z )z + z z ] [z - (z + z )z + z z ]
2
5
2 5
6
1 6
4
3 4
1
3
2
2
= (z - .f3 z + 1) (z + 1) <i + 13 z + 1)
2
2
2
= (z + 1) (z - {3 z + 1) (z + .f3 z + 1)
We could have easily arrived at this result by writing:
4 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z 6 +1 = (z +1Hz -z +1) = (z +l)[(i+0 -3z ] = (z +l)(z -13z+l)(z 2 +13z+l).
So why waste time? This is not so, as the algebraic identities that
established can be used to derive numerous trigonometrical relations.
example.
+ 1
SOLUTION:
The roots of z
we have just
See the next
to cos J
= -1
= 1
are given by z
71 ; 2k 71 , k
= cis
= 0,
1, 21 3, 4.
1
2
z3
z5
= cos71/5
+ isin71/5
Now z
z5
= zl
= z
= cos771/5
+ isin771/5
= cos(371/5)-
isin(371/5)
+ zl = 2cos71/5'
zl z5 = zl zl
+ z = 2cos371/5 ,
z z =z z
hence:
4
2
2 4
2 2
2
z ) (z - z ) (z - z ) (z - z ) (z - z )
3
5
4
1
2
2
2
(z + 1) [z - (zl + zl) z + zlzl] [z - (z2 + z2) z + z2z2]
zl +
z +
2
(z -
+ 1
5
(z + 1) [z
+ 1 = (z + 1) (z
- 2cos(71/5)z + 1] [z
- z
+ z
- 2cos(371/5) z + 1]
(2)
4
4cos71/5 cos371/5 + 1 + 1 = 1
4cos(71/5) cos(3n/5)
= -1
4sin(71/10) cos(71/5)
= 1
(1)
- z + 1)
~n:l
= -sin
- z + 1
fa,
+z
n-2
+z
n-3
zn - I
n-1
n-2
n-3
- z
+ z
- . . - z +
+ + z + I = ----z-:T and z
and
(n is odd)
(3)
hence:
z1
= cos371/5 + isin371/5 ;
=-
145
EXAMPLE: (39)
(a)
Solve z
+z
+ z
+ z + l
4 -z 3 +Z 2 -z+1=0
(b)
(b)
We change z - z + z - z + 1 = 0
z5 + 1
to """"Z+T = 0, z -/. -1
SOLUTION:
(a) We change z + z + z
z5 - l
to
0, z -/. l
2+z + l =0
--z:-r ::
5
Hence z - 1 = 0 whose roots
are given by:
z = cis(2k11/5), k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
z = cis(2k1T/5), k = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Exercise 4J
1.
2.
3.
5
Resolve z - 1 into the real linear and quadratic factors.
1
211
411
cos 5 + cos5
-2.
5
Resolve z + 1 into the real linear and quadratic factors.
11
3lT
1
cos 5 +cos 5 = 2.
4.
factors; deduce that cos39 = 4(cos9 - cosn/6) (cos9 - cos11/2) (cos9 - cos5n/6)
5.
6.
7.
(a)
3
4
+ z
2
2
+ z + 1
+ (z + 1)
are
= 0
.:!:. i
=0
(c) z - z + 1 = 0
4 2
2
[Hint: z 6 +1 = (z +1) (z -z +1)]
(b)
(d)
+ z
+ z
+ z
+ z
+ z + 1 = 0
+ 1 = 0
[Hint: z 6 - 1 = (z
- 1) (z
+ z
+ 1)]
146
-2
-1
-2
Fig.l7
+ iy and
1
1
be represented by the points A
1
=x
z = x + iy
2
2
2
and B respectively on the Argand plane.
Complete the parallelogram OACB. Then the
mid-points of AB and OC are the same. But
I + X?
y1 + y
the mid-point of AB is P
2 j
0 F--------.._X
so the coordinates of C are (x1 + x 2, Y + Y2>
Fig.I8
1
Thus the point C corr.esponds to the sum of the complex numbers z and z ,
2
1
i.e. z + z = (x + x ) + i(y + y ).
1
1
2
1
2
2
rx
n-=,
21
Subtraction:
We first represent -z
by D, so that AD is
1
bisected at 0. Complete the parallelogram
OBCD, then the point C represents the
complex number z + (-z ) i.e. z - z
2
1
2
1
Since OA = OD = BC and OA II BC,
D(-z 1)
OABC is a parallelogram, and hence OC is
parallel to AB. The coordinates of
C are (x - x , y - y )
2
2
1
1
We also note that the length of the segment AB is given by
AB = lz 2 -z 1 1 = /<x 2 - x / +(y - y /
2
It is advisable to draw a diagram and then calculate arg (z - z )
2
1
A(z I)
X
Fig.I9
147
y
EXAMPLE: (40)
= 4 + 2i and z2
1
are represented by points A
= 1 + 4i
2
and B respectively in the plane.
zl + z2. = 4 + 2i + 1 + 4i
The end-point
= 5 + 6i
the sum z = zl + z2 = 5 + 6i
c is the point (5,6)
,/
II/ /
~
A(z
I~
Fi g.20
B(z
3
A(z ) represents z = 2 + i
1
1
B(z ) represents z = 1 + 3i
2
2
D(-z ) represents -z
-1 - 3i
2
2
z = z - z = (2 - 1) + (1 - 3) i = - 2i
1
2
Let C(i,-2) represent z = 1 - 2i
EXAMPLE: (41)
/;
I
-I
D is given
by -z2
-I
//
O
/
B/
of the diagonal OC of
/}
C(z
- z2
D( z )3
2
Fi g.21
y
EXAMPLE: (42)
I = -2
and z
= 3 + 2i
2
Find the following:
A~
= z2
- z
and z2
-2
=5
= 3 + 2 i - (-2)
mod(z
(c)
arg (z 2 - z )
1
- z )
1
lz
9
- z
LCOX
LBAX
Fig. 22
+ 2i
~l~
- z
where OC
and = to AB
~2
Fig. 23
= ./29
where tan 9
II
148
EXAMPLE: (43)
z2 - z 1
arg - - - = ~ - , 1.e. w = - - - is
z +z
2
z +z
2
2
1
1
purely imaginary. This would be so if w +
We find that w +
z2 - zl
z2 - zl
= --- + ---
''
''
''
'
A(z )
1
Fig. 24
0.
2(z2z2- zl zl)
(z2 + z 1) (z2 + z 1)
TRIANGULAR INEQUALITY
lz 1 1 + l.z 2 1
OA + AC
lz + z 2 1 ~ lz 11 + lz 2 1,
1
because AC = OB = I z 1 and OA
2
The only time inequality holds is when
argz
= argz
= 9
Fig. 25
C(z +z )
1 2
(Fig. 26)
(z2)
A(z )
1
9
X
Fig. 26
149
Exercise 4K
Perform the indicated operations graphically. Use graph paper.
I.
(2 + 3 i) + (2 + 2 i)
3.
(3)
5.
7.
(3- 2i)
(-1}
+ (-2 - 3i)
O+i)
(-3 + 5i)
2.
(3 - i)
4.
(-1 + 3i)
6.
(6 + 4 i)
8.
(2i)
+ (5 + 2i)
+ (2i)
(3 - 2 i)
(-3 + i)
9.
Given that z = x + iy, ZJ = X] + iy 1> P i~ the point P(x,y) and A is the point
(x 1 ,y 1),
draw the sketch of the directed line segment AP in the Argand
diagram, if z - z 1 is equal to:
(a) z- 3
(b) z + 3
(c) z + 2i
(d) z- I + 2i
(e) z + 2 + 3i
10.
Find the modulus and argument of each of the complex numbers z and w,
1+ i
.n
z = y-:-r and w = T-=-1
Plot the points representing z, w and z + w on an Argand diagram. Deduce
from the diagram that tan
~TT
.f2
+ I
11.
12.
Izl
I,
13.
14.
If
lz
+z
= lw
1 ~
lz 1
1
2
1
sign hold?
15.
Provethat
lz
lz 1, assuming lz 1
2
1
and
>
z
2
lz 2 1. When does the equality
2
2
2
2
-z 2 1 + lz 1 +z 2 1 = 2lz 11 + 2lz 2 1
Find
150
and C
= r cisS
and
1
1
1
Construct [PO C
Construct
LO CP
Triangles OAB
= r cisS
2
2
2
equal to 8 l
respectively.
equal to LOAB
and
OCP
are similar,
OC
= OA
Fig.27
e2)
In the product z z
1 2
e1 =;
and we write
e2 = 8,
then iz
= r[cos(S
Note that
lzl
= lizl
let z
= i,
= z,
then
+ ~) + isin(B + ; ) ]
B(iz)
A(z)
= r
151
EXAMPLE: (44)
P is the point
z = 3 + 2i. OP
through + 90.
represented by
the plane.
SOLUTION:
3 + 2i
iz = i(3 + 2i) = -2 + 3i
\\
[\
z1
lz 11
= -2 + 3 i ,
IzI
v'iJ
-2
-I
\
0
/
2
Fi11;.29
EXAMPLE: (45)
o/'J +
A represents z =
i,
represents iz
V3
B represents
.r5 + i),
+ i + i (
V3 i,
i.e.
o/'j - I + ( v'J + I) i.
A(
I
v'J,J)
Fig.30
EXAMPLE: (46)
P is the point (2, 3) in the Argand diagram representing the complex number
z = 2 + 3i. The segment OP is rotated through + 60, and P now occupies the
position of the point Q. Find the coordinates of Q.
SOLUTION:
We use z z = r r [cos(9 + 9 ) + isin(9 + 9 )]
1 2
2
1 2
1
1
2
= 2 + 3i and z = cos60 + isin60, then:
2
1
multiplying 2 + 3i by cos60 + isin60 is equivalent to rotating the length OP
Let z
through + 60.
Let Q be the point (x, y), then
x + iy
l - - {3
- +
2
Q is the point
(32 ./::;)
~I~
+ v3
_ 3
f3
2
3
, 2
152
Exercise 4L
1.
P is the point in the Argand diagram and represents the complex number
I + 2 i. The segment OP is rotated through (a) + 30
Find the complex number
each
2.
ro~ation
The point
th..tt
(b) + 45
(c) + 90.
after
is completed.
+ i.
Find
OPQR
given by
OABC
and
Find the
R.
B is in the
~econd
PQRS
numbers
2 + i,
2 i,
2 + 3i,
and
2i
through
90.
respectively.
This square is
P, Q, R and S
153
(a)
Let
+ y
= r2
Iz I
Iz I
Now
Vx 2 + /
+y
= r 2
= r
CIRCLE (x- a)
(y- b)
= r2
Fig.31
y
Fig.32
EXAMPLES: (47)
+ y
= 4
(b) (x - 1)
+ (y - 2)
=4
Izl
(c) x
=r
+ /
or
Iz
- wI = r:
- 4x - 6y = 0
SOLUTION:
(a)
2 + y2 = 4
(b)
(x - I ) 2 + (y - 2)
w
lzl = 2
= 4,
I + 2i
We write lz -wl = 2
or
(c)
+ y
(x - 2)
2
2
- 4x - 6y = 0
2
+ (y - 3) = 13 ,
We write
Iz
- (2 + 3i)l =
Iz
- I - 2i
Jl3
= 2
liJ
centre is (I ,2)
154
Exercise 4M
I.
(a) x
2.
+ y
= 1
(b) x
+y
= 9
(c) x
= 25
+ /
(b)
= 64
+ /
= r:
21
+ y =
(d)
2x
+ 2y
- = r 2:
zz
3.
Izl
(c) ax
+ a/ =
(d)
3x
+ 3y
= 5
Express the equations in cartesian form, stating the radiu<; und the ctntrt of each
circle.
(a)
4.
5.
l2zl = 1
(d) 4zz = 1
(c) zz = 25
Iz
(e)
l2zl=lz-ll
- 21 = 1
<b>
Iz
(f)
+ 21 = 3
Iz
<c>
- 3
i1
(c)
x
X
+ y
+ y
= 2
<d>
Iz
+ 2
i1
= 5
lz-(2+i)l=2
6.
(b)
lzl = 4
- 2x - 2y
+ X + 3y = 0
(b)
(d)
2x
+ y
Iz
- wl
= r
+ 2x + 4y + 1 = 0
+ 2y
+ 4x + 3y + 1 = 0
Show that the following equations represent circles in an Argand diagram. State
their centres and radii.
(a)
(z - 2) (z - 2) = 4
(b)
(z - w) (z - w) = 1' where w = 1 + i
(c)
(z - 2 + 3 i) (z - 2 - 3 i) = 4
(d)
(z - 1 - i) (z - 1 + i) = 9
155
4.15 Miscellaneous Locus Problems (Including lnequations)
EXAMPLE: (48)
(b)
EXAMPLE: (49)
WJJ!J/111/IIJ/1_ ____.
0
Fig.33
X
lzl
SOLUTION:
= 4
Fig.34
EXAMPLE: (50)
Iz
- 2 + 3i I
SOLUTION:
Write:
... (I)
+ (y + 3)
= 9
Fig.35
EXAMPLE: (51)
X
Fig.36
156
EXAMPLE: (52)
P(z)
Iz
Iz
- 2
- 2
I Iz
I < lz
+ 1- i
+ 1- i
I
I
I
I
I
SOLUTION:
(a)
P(z) where z
=x
+ iy
1A
We have:
Iz
- 21
= Iz - <-1
nI ... o>
Fig.37
B be(-1,1)
The relation (1) says that PA = PB for all positions of P and from plane geometry
we know that the locus of P is then the perpendicular bisector of AB.
(b)
lz-21
<
lz-(-l+i)l
Fig.38
SOLUTION:
Here A(2,0), B(-2,0)
we have PA + PB = 6 (given).
This is the condition for the locus of
z to be an ellipse.
The locus of P is an ellipse.
The foci are (.:!: 2, 0).
The centre is o.
Fig.39
2
Equation of the ellipse is x
9
2
~
157
EXAMPLE: (54)
Sketch the region defined by: (a) 0 ~ argz ~}
SOLUTION:
(a)
argz =
Locus of
= 60
P(z) satisfying
Fig. 40
0 .{. drgz
Izl
~ 2
and
0 ~ argz ~ n/4
Fig. 41
EXAMPLE: (55)
Find the locus of w if w - z z- 1
Izl
given
SOLUTION:
We eliminate z from w
Solve for
z,
lz I
lw -
=z
then zw
II -
z --I
=z
- I
II =
=- I
su z(w - I)
II - wI = Iw - I I
but
wl '
Iz I =
.
by usmg
2
and z =
and
I
r-:-w
lzl
2 ,
then
EXAMPLE: (56)
z- 2
Find the locus of z if w = - - , given that w is purely imaginary.
SOLUTION:
z- 2
z2z
w
w
--z2
1
zz
2
X
+y
+ iy
_ 2 (x - iy)
2x
+ y
2iy
2
2
+
X
+y
2
2
2x
+ y
x + y - 2x = 0
(x - 1)2 + y2 = I
or
lz-11=1
Hence locus of z is a circle of radius I, centre (1,0).
158
EXAMPLE: (57)
Iz
+ 21
2lz-2+il
SOLUTION:
I<x
or
2lx+iy-2+il
+ 2) + i y I = 21 <x - 2) + Hy + o I
2 ~,_(x---2)-=-2 -+_(_y_+_0~
2
I~) 2
+ ( y +
jy
1~0
, -
6:
+ 1; _ 1;
)
radius
EXAMPLE: (58)
SOLUTION:
arg(z - 2)
LPBx
a'
B (2, 0)
1$ ' A (-2, 0)
1T
so LAPB =
Now e - 0 =
3
3 '
The locus of z, as represented by the point P,
arg (z + 2)
LPAx
1T
e
Fig. 42
=~
gives r
CO = 2tan30
= 2sec30
*)
J) 2
= 1;
= ~
and radius is
Fig. 43
159
Exercise 4N
1.
Find the Cartesian equation of the following curves, and sketch and describe
them (Exercises I, m and n may be postponed until after Chapter 6):
<g>
Iz I = 2
Iz - i I = 2
Iz I = Iz - 1 I
(i)
lz+2-3il =
(k)
Iz
Iz
<a>
<d>
(m)*
+ 2 - 3i I
- i
Iz
Iz
Iz
Iz
<b>
<e>
<h>
- 21
+ 2i
Iz
Iz
<c>
<n
+ 21
+ 2 - 3i I
- 21 = Iz + i I
lz+2+il
21 z + 2 + i
3
= 3
+ iI = 4
(j)
lz-2il
(I)*
Iz - II .+ Iz + II =
Iz I + I z - II = 4
(n)*
2lz+ll
4
2.
Sketch the following curves after giving their Cartesian equations. Describe the
curves.
(a)
arg z
n/3
(b)
arg z
(d)
arg z
n/2
(e)
arg z
3.
Sketch the following regions in the complex plane, showing whether the
boundaries are included or not.
<a>
<g>
Iz I < 2
Iz - 2 I < 3
2 ~ Iz + 2 - i I
(j)
- n/2
4.
Sketch the following regions of the complex plane, showing carefully the
boundaries (included or not).
<d>
(a)
<
<b>
~ 4
arg z < n/6
Iz I~ 3 and
Iz I ~ 4
(c)
-n/4
(f)
TT
lz I ~ 3
<e>
Iz
arg z ~ n/3
arg(z + 2)
0 ~ arg z ~ n/3
(b)
(d)
Iz
<c>
<h>
(k)
+ 2 + 3i
arg (z + 2) = 5n/6
arg (z + 2i) = n/3
I <
~
n/6
I > 2
< Iz - II
- i
(i)
o> Iz -
Iz I~ 2 and
Iz I ~ 3
2~
3i
2~
(e)
5.
(d)
6.
(a)
z - I
z
(b)
z - i
z - 2
(c)
z - 2
z + 2
and arg w
r:z
lzl
if:
TT
=3
+ 21
w,
--
(c)
I > Iz
(c)
(a)
(f)
z - 2 + i
z + 2 - i
'
lzl
where z is
160
Exercise 40 <REVISION)
1.
For the complex number z = x + iy, find the locus of z. Describe it and draw
a neat sketch, if:
z+2
(b)
lz I= z +
(d) arg [~
(e)
lz+1l+lz-ll=3
= i]=
n /2
(c)
zz- 4 (z + z)
= 10
2.
z , z and z
are three complex numbers that lie on a circle
1
2
3
passing through the origin. Prove that the points which represent 1/z , l/z
1
2
and l/z are collinear.
3
3.
(a)
Express
(b)
Hence or otherwise, find the locus of the point which represents z on the
2
Argand diagram, if. lz - 5 + 12i I = lz- 3 + 2i I
(a)
If
(b)
4.
The points
~ in the form a+ ib
i .
x and y are real, solve the equation -...!.L
1 + IX
(i)
a straight
(ii)
a circle if
line if
3y + 4i
3x + y
is purely real
is purely imaginary.
5.
Given z
(a)
(b)
= 3 + 4i and z = -3- 4i
1
2
Draw a neat sketch of the locus specified by I z - z 1 = I z - z 1
1
2
Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of z.
6.
7.
8.
9.
161
10.
(a)
Find
(b)
Im(z)
(iii)
Iz I
(iv) arg z
Iz
- 3 + i
= 2
(ii)
Re (z - i z) ~ 1
(d)
(ii)
Draw a neat labelled sketch to indicate the locus of the complex number z.
(i)
(c)
Re(z)
1 + i
= 1 + r:T
i + arg (z
z,
11.
12.
(a)
(b)
If 9 = 30, r = 1 in part (a) and the square OPQR is now rotated through
60 (anti-clockwise direction) to become OP'Q'R',
find the complex
numbers represented by P', Q' and R' in the mod-arg form.
(a)
(b)
Show that the point representing sinn/3 + icosn/3 in the Argand diagram
lies on the circle of radius I and the centre at ( yT, 0).
(c)
13.
14.
2 + it
_ it show that as t
2
circle. Find the radius and the centre.
If t
IS
real and z =
is a
(a)
Draw the sketch (on an Argand diagram) of the region in which z lies if
both lz- (2 + i) I ~ 4 and n/6 ~ arg(z- 1 - i) ~ n/2 are satisfied.
(b)
(a)
Complex numbers z
real.
(b)
= ~ and z
1
2
Find p and r, if z - z = 4i.
1
2
=1 :
(ii)
Izl
= n /4.
is the minimum.
162
15.
16.
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
Solve z
+ 16
3 + 4i
and show
-30i completely.
18.
(a)
Prove that
(b)
19.
20.
=x
17.
zl + z2
zl - z2
+ iy)
is purely imaginary if
Iz
2
Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv = (z - 0 + 2 be complex numbers in an
Argand diagram.
Show that as z moves along the y-axis from 0 (0, 0) to
A(0,2) the point w moves along an arc of a certain parabola. Find the
corresponding points on this parabola and the Cartesian equation of the parabola.
(a)
= r(cosG
(a)
(ii)
= 5,
(iii) 1/z
G=
j,
(iv) i z
If z
Iz 1
Iz 1 +
2
in the form
= 131 ++ !I
iy
positive integer, n, such that zn is real; hence find zn for this value of n.
(b)
2
Sketch the circle whose Cartesian equation is (x - 2) + /
= 4
The point A reP.resents the complex number z = r(cosG + isinG).
(i)
Express lzl in terms of G if A lies on the given circle.
(ii)
Find
I~
1/z
163
22.
= z - .!z .
Show that:
x X
Find the
+ y
~ocus
and
of w if
+ --::;:-'--y-:;
2
2
X
+ y
lz I
(a)
(b)
lzl = 1.
Find r and 9 if
24.
r (cosa + isin9)
3
z +I
(a) - - -
=i
3cis45 + 2cis30
5cis 60 - 4cis 30
(b) z
iz
z - l
25.
The four complex numbers u, v, w and z are represented on the complex plane
by points P, Q, R and S respectively. If u + w = v + z and u - w = i (v - z),
determine the possible shapes of the quadrilateral PQRS.
26.
(a)
9
z - l
6
3
Show that - - - = z + z + I
3
z - l
(b)
Prove that:
z 6 + z 3 + I = (z 2 - 2zcos 2n + I) (z 2 - 2zcos 4n + I) (z 2 - 2zcos 8n + 1)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Factorise
3
z + I
2n
4n
8n
9 ) (cosa- cos 9 > (cosa- cos 9 >
into linear
5
2
n
2
3n
Prove that z + l = (z + I) (z - 2zcos + I) (z - 2zcos
5
5 + l)
.
15
3 5
By observmg that z
+ 1 = (z ) + l, prove that
15
2
6
3
n
6
3
3n
z
+ 1 = (z + 1) (z - z + I) (z - 2z cos
+ 1) (z - 2z cos 5 + l)
=- ~ ,
3
w
28.
Show that if lw I
29.
1 + sinS + icosa
.
.
Prove that 1 +Sin
. a -lOS
c . 9 = sma + 1COS9 and deduce that
=1
and Re(w)
then
. n
.
n]5 + 1[ 1 + Sin
n]5
. 5n - !COS
.
5
[ 1 + Sin 5 + !COS 5
30.
Express
integers.
.
4k + 1
[ 1 + 1tan ~n
=1
m m
. t he f orm a+ 1. b , where m and k
are
164
CHAPTER 5 POLYNOMIALS
5.1
Introduction
n-1
n- 1
+ a
n-2
n- 2
+ +
x + a
.J 0
When two or more polynomials are added, subtracted or multiplied, the result is
another polynomial. The division of one polynomial P(x) by another polynomial A(x)
may or may not be exact. When P(x) is div1ded by A(x), we can write the identity:
P(x)
where, P(x)
Q(x)
A(x)
R (x)
[deg R (x)
< deg
If
A (x)]
A (x) are called the
x - a,
thtn the
then
165
EXAMPLE (1)
SOLUTION:
2x
X-
+ x - 2
) 2x 3 - 3x 2 - ~x - 6
3
2
2x - 4x
2
x - 4x
- 2x
~x
- 6 is divided by
- 2x - 6
- 2x + 4
- 10
EXAMPLE (2)
SOLUTION:
We have P(x) = x
P(-3)
= -27
- 3x + 18, x- a = x + 3, so a= -3 and
18
=0
) 3
X
+ 0. X - 3x + 18
+
3/
- 3x
- 3x
2
2
is arranged as 0 . / . This is
important and rtduces the chance
- 3x
of t'rrors.
- 9x
6x + 18
6x + 18
0
P(x) is /
EXAMPLE (3)
SOLUTION:
P(x) = 4x
2 2
- m x - 4mx + 64 is divisible by x + 1, i.e. x - (-1}
2
P(-1} =- 0 gives - 4 - m + 4m + 64 = 0
2
:. m - 4m - 60 = 0, i.e. (m- 10) (m + 6) = 0
m = 10 or m
= -6
2
3
2
3
For m =- 10, P(x) = 4x - 100x - 40x + 6~ = 4 (x - 25x - lOx + 16)
3
2
Divide
x - 25x - lOx + 16 by x + 1, then
2
P(x) = 4(x +I) (x - 26x + 16), ( / - 26x + 16 is irreducible over R-field)
2
3
3
For m = -6, P(x) = 4x - 36x + 24x + 6~ =- 4(x - 9x + 6x + 16)
3
2
Divide
x - 9x + 6x + 16 by x + 1, then
P(x) = 4(x +I) (x 2 - lOx+ 16) = 4(x + l)(x- 2) (x- 8)
166
EXAMPLE: (4)
Given that x
roots.
=2
is a root of x
- 4x
+ 14x - 20
= C,
SOLUTION:
2
3
Divide x -4x +14x-20 by x-2
2
2
(x 3 - 4x + 14x - 20) = (x - 2) (x - 2x + 10)
2
The equation is (x - 2) (x - 2x + 10) = 0
l=3b -
2 +
2
.
.
x = 2 (given
root ) or x - 2x + 10 = 0 , I.e.
x -~
- 1 _+ 3.1
Observe that the complex roots 1 + 3i and 1 - 3i are conjugate. We shall later
prove that the complex roots of a real polynomial occur in conjugate pairs.
EXAMPLE: (5)
Solve: x 3 - 3x 2 + 4x - 2 = 0.
SOLUTION:
:1
x =
2,
P(l) = 1 - 3 + 4 - 2 = 0
x = 1 is a root of P(x) = 0
Divide P(x) by x - 1
:. P(x) = (x- 1) (x 2 - 2x + 2)
The roots of
P(x) = 0 are
1,
2~
r-4
i.e.
1, 1
167
Exercise SA
Perform the following divisions, and check the remainder by using the remainder
theorem.
I.
3.
- 2i + 3x - 1) 7- (x - 2)
4
3
2
2
(x + 2x + 2x - 2x - 3) 7- (x - 1)
(x
5.
6.
7.
8.
P(x)=x
2.
- 2x + 3x - 2) 7- (x + 2)
3
2
(2x - x + x - 1) + (x - 1)
(x
4.
A(x) is a factor of
-2x +x +x-6
3
P(x) = 2x - 3x + 1
2
3
P(x) = x + 2x - x + 6
2
3
P(x) = 5x + 7x + 3x - 1
P(x).
A(x)=x-2
A(x) = x + 1
A(x) = x + 3
A(x) =- x + 3
Find the remainder of the following without actually dividing, i.e. use the remainder
theorem.
9.
P(x) = 4x
10. P(x) = 5x
3
4
4
- 3x
- 2x
2
3
+ x + 8
A(x) = x + 3
A(x) = 2x + 1
A(x) is a factor of
= x4 -
3
3k x + 3x - 1
2
3
14. P(x) = x .:. kx + 4x - 4
2
3
15. P(x) = x - 3x - 6kx + 8k
4
3
16. P(x) = x + kx + 7x + 21
3
3
- 12x
+ 2
A(x)
12. P(x) = x
13. P (x)
=x
- x + 7
- llx- k
18. P(x) = 2x - 6 i + kx + 4
2
3
19. P(x) = k x + x - 8x + 6
4
3
2
20. P(x) = x + x + k x + 4x - 24
A(x)
=x
- 2
A(x)
=x
=X
=x
- 1
P(x).
A(x)
A(x)
- 2
A(x) = x + 3
k
A(x)
A(x)
A(x)
A(x)
=X
=X
=X
=X
+ 3
factor of
P(x)
168
5.2
=-
2
b !. /b - lfac
2a
= ax 2 + bx
- x
+ 7.
This is because some, or even aJJ the zeros of a polynomial may not be integers,
2
e.g. x + 2 = 0 has no real zeros, let alone integer ones. The following theorem is
very useful in finding rational zeros (if any), though we shall mainly be concerned
with zeros which are integers.
Theorem:
Let P (x )
= anx n
coefficients. If x
+ an_ x n-1 + + a x + a
=%,
must be a factor of a
Proof:
Since x
n
:. a ( !:.)
n s
then r
=%
r
+ + a 1 ( s) + ao
( !:.)
n- 1 s
0::
= 0.
.
Multiplying both sides by s n and rearrangmg:
anr
an-{
Or, r(a r
n
n-1
n-1
+ a
n- 1
n-2
+ air. s
n-1
. s + + a s
1
n-1
- aos
)
n
(1)
1, P(x)
169
EXAMPLE:
2x
- 3x - 6
SOLUTION:
Since P(x) is monic, the integral zeros must be the factors of the constant term -6.
All the possible factors are .!: I, .:!::2, .!: 3, .!: 6. We find that only x = -2 satisfies
P(x) = 0, so -2 is a zero of P(x).
P(x) is of degree 3 and therefore has 3 zeros.
The other two zeros must be irrational or complex. To find these, we divide P(x)
by X + 2.
2
:. P(x) = (x + 2) (x - 3)
Hence the zeros of P(x) are: -2, .!: Vf.
It is possible that
EXAMPLE:
Show that
P(x) = x
- x
SOLUTION:
All the possible factors of 6 are: .!: 1, .:!:: 2, .!: 3, .!: 6.
None of these numbers satisfy P(x) = 0, hence P(x) has no integral zeros. Since a
fourth degree polynomial must have 4 zeros (see section 5.3, theorem 3), we conclude
that the zeros of P(x) are either irrational or complex.
EXAMPLE:
5x
+ 28x
+ I Ox - 3
=0
SOLUTION:
2
3
Let P(x) = 5x + 28x + lOx - 3 = 0.
To make our work easier, we transform this equation so that the leading term has a
coefficient equal to I.
3
Observing that the coefficient of x
is 5, we multiply the equation by 25 and then
put y = 5x.
(5x)
Or y
3
+
+ 28 (5x)
28y
+ 50
(5x) - 7 5
=0
+ 50y - 75 = 0
(1)
By testing the possible factors of 7 5 i.e . .:!:: I, .!: 3, .!: 5, .!: 15, .!: 25, .!: 7 5, we find that
y = -3 is a root of (1), hence
P(y) = (y + 3)
y = -3,
- 25.!: 5
2
ff9
X=
S'
-5.:!::
V29
170
Multiple Roots
Consider the polynomial
P(x) = (x - 2)
2 (x 2
5x + 6)
P(x)
= 0,
If
then
=b
~~ ~
0 of
multiplicity (r - J ).
Proof:
Let
P(x)
dP
dx
r(x - b)
r-l
Q(x) +
dQ
ax
. (x
(x - b{-l [r Q(x) + (x -
- b)
b)~~
(x - a{
I.
r-1 .
(x - a )
IS a factor of
2.
2p
(x - a)r- 2 is a factor of d
and so on.
2
dx
is a factor of
EXAMPLE: (6)
SOLUTION:
dP
dx
Show that
3(x - 2)
P(x), then
c!P
dx
~:
(x
+ 2) + 2x(x - 2)
2
(x - 2) [3(x 2 + 2) + 2x (x - 2)]
dP has x = 2 as a double root
dx
P(x) = (x - 2)
(x
+ 2)
171
3
Solve the equation x - 3x - 2 = 0 , given that it has a double root.
EXAMPLE: (7)
SOLUTION:
Let
P(x) = x
~~
- 3x - 2
= 3x2 - 3 = 3(x - l) (x + l) = 0
gives
x = .:!:. l
and -1
(b)
x
x
= 4q
3
2
4p + 27q = 0
SOLUTION:
(a)
Let P(x) = x
~~
= 0 gives
dP
then dx = 2x + p
+ px + q,
2x + p = 0,
hence x
= -~
2
is a double root of x + px + q
= 0.
~-IT+q=o
We
<:..111
whence p
4q
2
2
check this condition for x + px + q = 0 by using fl. = p - 4q = 0 for equal
roots.
(b)
P(x) = x
dP
+ px + q, then dx
3x
+ p = 0 gives x
= -)
172
Exercise 58
Find the real roots of the following equations, given that each equation has a double
root:
2.
3
2
x - 2x - 4x + 8 = 0
4.
I.
3.
5.
Find the real roots of each equation, given that each has a triple root:
- 7x
- 2x
II x - 5 = 0
- 15x + 36 = 0
(a)
P(x) = x
(b)
P(x) = x
4
4
2x
- 6x
- 12x
+ 12x
2
2
x + I = 0
14x- 5 = 0
- lOx + 3 = 0
2
d P
[Hint: - - = 0 and P(x) = 0 have a common root]
2
dx
6.
y = x
(b)
y = x
- 2x
- 2x
2
2
+ 3
at x = 2
+ I
at x =
=x3
P(x)
(b)
P(x) = x
+ 3x
9x + k
=0
- 24x + k = 0
+ 6x
2x
(d) x
(f)
4
4
- x
3
- 4x + 4 = 0
2
- 9x
- 6x
7x
(b) x
6 =0
- x
2x
- 5x - 6
=0
- 7/ - 13x - 6 = 0
+ 34x + 8 = 0
(e) x
- 4x
x + 6 =0
2
3
(g) 4x - lix + x + I = 0
(Hint: multiply by 16, y = 4x)
3
(h) 4x - 5x - 2 = 0
(Hint: y = 2x)
(i)
9.
4
3
2
(Solve for tan 9 only): tan 9 - 2tan 9 - I 3tan 9 + 14tan9 + 24 = 0
P(x) = x
11
n-1
+ + a
, then r
must be a factor of a
173
5.3
2
A polynomial such as x + 4 has no real factors.
2
x + 4.
2
2
4i = (x - 2i) (x + 2i)
x + 4 =
2
Using i = -I, we can factorise
l -
Thus a real polynomial with no real factors can be factorised over the complex field.
We shall now study several theorems which are essential for the factorisation of
polynomials.
You might wonder whether every polynomial has a zero.
answers this question.
Theor-em 1:
From this theorem and the factor theorem, it follows that if P(x) is a polynomial of
degree n ) I, then there is at least one number c
such that:
1
P(x) = (x- c ) Q (x)
1
1
If we repeat the process on the polynomial Q (x),
we get:
P(x) = an (x - c ) (x - c ) . (x - en)
1
2
where anf. 0 is the leading coefficient.
Theorem 2 ensures that every polynomial of degree
n ~ I can be completely
factorised into n linear factors. Each of the numbers c , c , . en is a zero of
1 2
P(x) and hence a root of the equation P(x) = 0.
Now let P(c) = 0, then:
P(c) = an (c - c ) (c - c ) (c - en) = 0
1
2
This is possible only if
theorem 2 that:
This ensures that the equation P(x) = 0 has at most n distinct roots.
174
EXAMPLE: (9)
3
The polynomial P(x) = (x - 2) (x - 3) (x + 1) has 5 zeros, 2,2,2,3,-1.
Here 2 is a zero of multiplicity 3.
3
P(x) = x - 1 = (x - 1)
/3i
<i + x +
1) has
3 zeros:
'
2
3
Observe that the complex zeros of the polynomial x - 1 are a pair of conjugates.
An important fact about the complex zeros of P(x) with real coefficients is given in
the foHowing theorem.
Theorem 4: If a + ib is a complex zero of the polynomial P(x)
having real coefficients, then a - ib is also a zero of P(x).
of degree n
1,
and z
(a)
(z
+ z )
+ z
(b)
(c)
(z l>n
a zn
n
a z
= a n xn
ao = 0 ' hence:
0
By property (a):
anz
+ an-l z
n-1
By property (b):
+ alz + ao
By property (c):
- n
an (z)
(- n-1
+ an-1 z)
+ a 1 z + ao
-2i is a root of
+ 2xi = 0
but x
P(x)
2i is not.
175
Alternative Proof:
=a
Let z
+ ib
z =a
We use
- ib, z + z
(x - z) (x - z) = x
If P(x) is divided by
= 2a,
zz
=a2
+b
- (z + z) X + ZZ = x - 2ax + a
+b
2
2
2
x - 2ax + a + b , the remainder must be of degree
< 2.
Hence,
P(x)
[x
- 2ax + a
2
+ b ] Q(x) + mx + n
0 = 0 + m (a + ib) + n
(am + n) + bm i = 0 = 0 + 0 i
Comparing the real and imaginary parts separately, am + n = 0 and bm = 0 and
hence m
=0
and n
= 0.
(b 1- 0)
Thus,
= 0,
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE: (11)
(a)
SOLUTION:
(a)
x 2 + 2x + 3
(b)
+ 3x + 2
+ 2x + 3
(x 2 + 2x + I) + 2
(x + I)
(x+l)
(b)
4x
4x 2 + 3x + 2
[i
+ 2
-2i
[x + 1 +
.f2 i] [x
4[ (
i)
4 [x +
+ I -
f2 i]
~~]
'P
i] [x +
j - 'P i]
=-l]
176
EXAMPLE: (12)
(a)
- 1
(b)
3+
3X
(c) x
- X - 3
- 1
SOLUTION:
(a)
- 1
(x
- 1J tx
+ 1)
(x - 1) (x + 1) (x - i) (x + i)
(b)
Let P(x)
+ 3x
- x - 3. The constant 3
=3 x
1+ 3 - 1 - 3 =0
P(l)
x - 1 is a factor of P(x)
Divide P(x) by x - 1
P(x)
(x - 1) (x 2 + 4x + 3)
(x - 1) (x + 1) (x + 3)
(x - 1) (x
X-
+ x + 1)
(x - l) [( x +
~) 2 + ~]
(X- 1)(X+2+Tl
1 .[3.)(X+2-Tl
1 13.)
EXAMPLE: (13)
SOLUTION:
P(x)
= x3
2x
- 6x
2
2
- (z +
=1
+ i,
=I
- i is also a
- i, z + z = 2, zz = 2
z) X + ZZ
- 2x + 2
2
Divide P(x) by x - 2x
:. P(x)
(x + 4) (x
2
- 2x + 2)
(x + 4) (x - 1 - i) (x - 1 + i)
z = a - ib
177
Exercise SC
Factorise the following quadratics over the complex field C.
1.
2
4.
X +X +
7.
4x
- x + 1
5.
8.
2x
9.
2.
3.
+ 3x + 5
6.
+ 1
P(x)
3
2
x - 3x + 4x - 4 ;
P(x)
10.
P(x)
2x
11.
P(x)
3
2
X +X - 7x + 65 ;
12.
P(x)
13.
P(x)
4
3
2
x - 2x - 7x + 26x - 20 ;
X =2 + i
P(x)
4
3
2
X + 3x - x - 13x - 10 ;
X=-2-i
14.
15.
2x
P(x)
2x
- 2x
- 5x
+ 1lx
- x - 6 ;
X = 2 - 3i
+ 6x - 2 ;
+ 20x
X=1 - i
X =i - 2
+ 7x - 10 ;
[Hint: P(x)
16.
17.
4
X + 16
18.
19.
20.
4
6
(a)
+ 3x
+X
+4
+ 1
- 1
P(x)
+x
(x
[Hint: P(x)
(x
[Hint: P(x)
(x
[Hint: P(x)
(x
+x + 1
for
2
2
+ 2) - x ]
2
2
+ 4) - 8x ]
2
2
+ 1) - x ]
=1 -
- 1) (x
+ x 2 + 1)]
2
[Hint: Write P(x) = x (x + l) + (x + 1) and substitute]
(b)
P(x)
2
4
3
x - 2x + x - 3x + 2
[Hint: P(x)
=x 2 (x 2 -
for x
2
2x) + x - 3x + 2]
=1 + i
178
5.4
In 3U Mathematics we have studied the relations between the roots and coefficients of
polynomials equations P(x) = 0 of degrees 2, 3 and 4.
1.
ax
2.
ax
2
3
+ bx + c = 0
+ bx
+ ex + d = 0
'
S = --ba
b
+ s +y = -a
aS
ax
+ bx
+ex
c
a
+Sy+ya
--ad
aSy
3.
c
a
+ dx + e = 0
b
a + s +y+o=-a:
ras
= ~a '
raSy=-
d
3,
aS yo
The following two theorems are used in establishing the relation between the
coefficients and the roots of the polynomial equation.
P(x) = anx
+an_ x
1
n-1
Theocem (5):
If a polynomial P(x) of degree n ~ 1 vanishes for more than
values of x, it is the zero polynomial, i.e. an = an-l = = a = 0
0
Referring to the theorem (3), i.e. a polynomial of degree n cannot have more than n
distinct zeros, we find that the assumption that P(x) is not the zero polynomial
contradicts the fact that the polynomial vanishes for more than n values of x.
Hence P(x) is the zero polynomial.
EXAMPLE: (14)
+ bx + c
SOLUTION:
We have: am
an
a/
+ bm + c = 0
.. (1)
+ bn + c = 0
. (2)
+ br
c= 0
(3)
2
- n ) + b(m - n) = 0 ,
a(m + n) + b = 0
. (4)
+b =0
(5)
a(n + r)
m 1- n
m 1- r
vanishes for
179
lbeorem (6):
Q(x) = Ebnx
an = bn '
n, P(x) = Ea xn and
n
an-1 = bn-1' ao = bo
an-1
a
+--X
n-1
an-2 n-2
+--X
+
an
(2)
an-I
+X=--n
an
an-2
s2 = Sum of products =XI x2 +XI x3 + = +-aof roots taken
n
two at a time
and so on.
(n)
sn = Product of all
roots
These relations also help us to write down the equation whose roots
are given.
Xn - S l
xl' x 2, , xn
+x
n-1
coeff.
of x _
= _..;;;...;.
____
+X
coeff. of xn
180
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE: (15)
(a)
+ 13
+ y
(b)
a + 13
+ x + 3 = 0, evaluate:
+ y
(c)
4
4
4
a+f3+y
SOLUTION:
a + .8 + y = 2 ,
We have:
2
+ 13
aS + 13y + ya = 1 ,
2
+ l=(a+ 13+y) -2(af3+8y+ya)=4-2=2
(a)
(b)
af3y = - 3
a3 +
= 2 (a
= 2x
- x - 3 and substitute x = a, B , y
and add:
2
2
+ B + y >- (a + B + y ) - 3 - 3 - 3
=2x2-2-9
= -7
2
= (l:a). (l:a -l:a8) + 3a8y = 2 (2- 1)- 9 = -7
..
(c)
= 2x 3
2
- x - 3x
EXAMPLE: (16)
SOLUTION:
2
dP
d P
Since P(x) has a root of multiplicity 3, P(x), dx and - - have a common zero.
2
dx
2
Now dP = 4x 3 - 9x 2 - 12x + 28 and d p = 12x 2 - 18x- 12
dx .
dx 2
2
Solving 12x - 18x - 12 = 0 + (x - 2) (2x + I) = 0
X
=2
Since P(-
or
4> /.
-zI
P(x)
181
Transformation of Polynomial Equations:
I.
The equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of a given equation, is
obtained by putting x = ! in the given equation.
y
2.
The equation whose roots are those of a given equation multiplied by a constant
m, is obtained by putting x = X. in the given equation.
m
3.
The equation whose roots differ by a constant k from the roots of a given
equation is obtained by putting x = y + k (k > 0 or k < 0) in the given
equation.
4.
The equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of a given equation is
.JY
obtained by putting x =
a'e':Y
(d)
a - 2, B - 2, y - 2
(e)
2x
+ 3x
+ x -
2 + a, 2 + B, 2 + y
(c)
2 , B2 , y 2
(f) -a , - B , -y
SOLUTION:
(a)
Let y
I
=x
,
x = -I (f rom
y
P ut
.. 32
y
2
y
I
+ y
5 =0
5x
=0
2 + 3y + y 2 - 5 y 3 = 0
..
givmg
- x
Y=a.sy
. t he given
.
.
2 x 3 + 3x 2 + x - 5
m
equation
= -XI )
since x = a, B, y ,
- 3x - 2 = 0.
y = 2a, 2B, 2y
. t h e given
.
.
2x 3 + 3x 2 + x - 5 = 0
equatiOn,
2x = y, we put x = ~ m
2 3
3 2
.t.... +2.L +t -5=0
8
4
2
Multiplying by 4,
+ 3/ + 2y - 20 = 0
3x
2x - 20 = 0.
Let y = 2 + x, since x = a, B, y,
y = 2 + a, 2 + B , 2 + y
3
2
Substituting x = y - 2 in the given equation, 2x + 3x + x - 5
=0
182
(d)
+ 37y + 25
=0
2
Cl. '
s'
=0
:. 2x 3 + l5x 2 + 37x + 25
(e)
=0
JY,
'Y
3 2
:. 2y ' + 3y + Vy- 5 = 0
To remove the radical signs, we write:
3y - 5 = -
JY (2y
(y3/2 = y
+ 1) '
.JY)
=y
4x 3 - 5x 2 + 3lx - 25
(f)
Let y
=-x,
=0
- 5/ + 3ly - 25 = 0
+ x + 5
=0.
=O,
183
Exercise 50
1.
2.
If
+ a
+ y
If
(b)
(b)
a5 +
- 2x
+ a
3
-
+ y
5x - 1
= o,
(c)
=0,
a5 + y 5
evaluate:
a
a4 +
evaluate
+ x + 2x
+ 3x + 4
=0,
evaluate
(a) a + B + y + o
4.
- 3x + 1
3
2
Solve the equation x - 3x - 6x + 8 = 0, given that the roots are in geometric
progression.
[Hint: Let the roots be ~ , a, ar)
5.
4
3
Solve the equation x + 2x - 21/ - 22x + 40 = 0, given that the roots are in
arithmetic progression. [Hint: Let the roots be a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d)
6.
If
7.
8.
9.
The equation
completely.
10.
The roots
4
3
2
2
2
x + 4x + mx + nx + 9' = (x + bx + c)
for all values of x, find all
possible values of b and c and the corresponding values of m and n.
a-l,
+ 2x
if the roots of
+ px
+ qx + r = 0
- 3/ - 4x + 4
=0
3
2
a, B, y of the equation x + bx + 12x + 4 = 0 are such that
B-l, y-l
[Hint: Let
6x
p, q, r
are in arithmetic
=
, then 4 u
+ 12 /
+ b u + 1 = 0 has roots
a,
and y
184
11.
a,
If CX,
y
roots are:
(a)
12.
+ 2x
a s Y
(b)
2ex, 2B, 2y
(d) ex - 2, B - 2, y - 2
(e)
ex ,
a + 2,
2x
y + 2 (b)
+ 3x
1
ex + 2,
B+
(c) ex + 1,
62, y2
3
= 0,
- 2x + 3
(f)
- x - 1 = O,
1
8'+2 , y
1
+ 2
1, y + 1
, }
2
ex '
If ex,
are:
(a)
a, y
2ex,
28,
= 0,
+ bx + c
(b)B+y-ex, Y+ex-B,ex+B -y
(c) ~ ,
14.
2y
8+Y ,
(Hint:ex+B+Y=O)
1
(Hint: let y = ~ = - - = ex+p
-y
1
Y +ex
.2
.!.X
etc.)
(a) -1
-1
-1
ex , B , y
and hence evaluate
ex + B + y
roots are
(b)
ci'l
81
8 1 .y1
+ .y1 ci1
[Hint: p, + q
15.
+ r
= (p + q +
rl - 2 (pq + qr
4
2
If ex, 8, y, 0 are the roots-:i:.x .- x + 2x + 3 = 0, form the equation whose
roots are:
2
2
2
2
-1
(b ) ex-1 , B-i, -1
(c) ex , 8 , y ,
(a) 2ex, 2 8, 2y, 2o
y, o
16.
+ rp)]
- 2x+ 3 = 0
2 . 2 2
8 , y
(a)
(b)
Using the result of (a), now form the equation with roots
ex
+ l,
8 + 1, y
+ l.
<i
+ l) (8
+ l)
<l + l)
185
5.5
EXAMPLE: {18)
SOLUTION:
.
P(c 1") = 0 g1ves
c 4 + c 3.1 - 9 c 2 - 4c.1 + 20
:. c
-9c
1-0.
+20
+i(c
=0
-4c)=0
c
i.e.
(c
Now c
- 9c
- 5) (c
We divide
= (z
(z +
+ 4) (z
(z - 2i) , i.e.
(l
a By
= -c
x2 = 82,
'
51
Ex
52
Ex x
= a
1 2
x3 = y
2
+ 82 + y
2 2
= Ea 8
+5 x-5 =0,
2
3
I+/T9i
2
then
(Ea)
(Ea8)
= xlx2x3 = a2 s2i
53
The required equation is
+ 4
+ 8+ y
aB +By + ya
2
We have
(l
If
METHOD I
XI
2i~
- z + 5)
SOLUTION:
-5 x
1
=0
- 4c
.
P(z) = 0 are: _+ 2 1 ,
EXAMPLE: (19)
+ 2 satisfies both
i.e. c = _
by
P(z)
The roots of
'
on l y c 2 = <t,
Let
and
- 4) and c (c - 2) (c + 2) = 0
2
0 and c = 5 satisfy one but not both equations
P(z)
=0
+ 20
i.e.
(Ea8)
b2
2
- 2La8
2
2
2
- 2La8 y
- 2a8y Ea
- 2b
..
+ bx + c = 0,
186
SOLUTION:
Let
y=
METHOD II
2
This transformation will give us an equation whose roots are a ,
s2
and y
IY
= -c
+b)
Substitute x =
/Y
-c .
(y + b) . =
Squaring
c2
2 2
whose roots are a , B ,
i.
3
2
2
2
y +2by +by-e =0
or
is the equation
method.
When a polynomial P(x) is divided by x - I the remainder is 2,
when divided by x - 2 the remainder is 3. Find the remainder
when P(x) is divided by (x - I) (x - 2).
EXAMPLE: (20)
SOLUTION:
The degree of the remainder is less than that of the divisor. When the divisor is
(x - 1) (x - 2), the remainder must be of the form ax + b, hence
Let P(x) = (x - I) (x - 2) Q(x) + ax + b
Given that P(l)
=2,
EXAMPLE: (21)
=3, we
= 1, b =1,
P(2)
now have:
2=a+b
and
3=2a+b
=cose
(I)
SOLUTION:
z
= cose
+ isine
cos(ne)- isin(ne)
1
(1)
zn + - - = 2cos(ne)
zn
The equation is: ( rearrange)
2
4
3
2
3(z + 1) - (z + z) + 4z = 0 . Divide by z ' then: 3(z 2 + I
z
Using (1) with n =2 and n = 1, we now have:
2
6cos2e - 2cose + 4 = 0 ,
using cos2e = 2cos e 2
2
= 2c - 1
6(2c - I) - 2c + 4 =0
2
6c - c - 1 = 0
1
1
(2c - 1) (3c + I) = 0 /jves c = 2 or - 3
1
, - n <e ~ n
If cose =
, sine = .!.
-z> - (z + z>1 + 4 =0
and cose
=- ~,
=.!.I;}
(1.!. v'Ji),
sine
(-1.!.
.{ii)
187
3
(a) X
2.
3.
4.
(a) R
4
(b) X
16
(b) C
3
(c) x + 1
+
+
8x
3x
2
4x
12
- 4x - 24
+X
For each of the following, find a polynomial of lowest degree, having the given
zeros.
(a)
2 + i, 2 - i
(c)
-2, 2 + i, 2 - i
(e)
l -
12,
l +
3 + 4 i, 3 - 4 i
(b)
12,
+ i
I +i
(d)
3,
(f)
4 - i,
3+ i
For the following polynomials, one zero is given. Find the remaining zeros.
(a)
P(x)
(b)
P(x)
(c)
P(x)
(d)
P(x)
3 - 7x 2 + l7x - 15,
3
2
x - 7x + 17x - 15,
x
=3
=2
- i
x = l - 3i
x - 3x + 6x + 2x - 60,
2
3
2x - l3x + 32x - 13,
=3 -
2i
5.
6.
7.
4
Given P(x) = x - 5x 3
the equation completely.
8.
2
Given 1 - i is a root of the equation z - (c - 2i) z + 3 + ib = 0 where b
and c are real. Find b and c. [Hint: a+ 13 = - b/a, and use aS = c/a]
9.
If z
= cos9
+ isin9,
zn + z-n
4x 2
10.
If mx
+ nx
[Use P(x) =
3x
9 = 0
2cosn9
4
3
2
Hence solve 2z + 3z + 5z
3
+ p
~~
=0
3z
2
has a double root, prove that 27m p
=0
188
11.
(a)
(b)
(c)
12.
13.
(a)
(b)
P(x) = 2x - 13x
find the roots.
24x
8x
- 64x
( Y + a )n-( Y + 8 )n
prove that:
14.
- 2z + 2 = O,
sin ne
(sine )n
a - 8
5
Solve x = I by De Moivre's theorem dnd indicate roots on a circle of radius
in an Argand diagram. Express the roots in the cis8 form.
Find the area of the regular pentagon formed by the five points representing
these roots.
4
2
3
Solve the equation x + x + x + x + I = 0
211
411
2
Deduce that cos
and cos
are the roots of 4x + 2x - 1 = 0
15.
16.
Solve z
17.
Find K if
18.
+ z
+ 1 = 0,
One root of x
- 10x
+ 7x + 10 = 0,
= x3
- 6x
+ (I -
i) x
P(x)
K = 0 is
(a)
Solve tan49 = 1,
0 ~ 9 ~ 11
(b)
in the form
from
the
(cis9)
expansion)
Using parts (a) and (b) and z = tan 9 , find the roots of
4
3
2
+ 4z - 6z - 4z + 1 = 0.
z
(d)
tan
(ii)
tan
11
16
2 11
T6
tan
+
51!
T6
tan
<e ~
3i .
3
4 tane - 4 tan 9
4
2
I - 6 tan 9 + tan 9
form, -11
solve
2 511
T6
911
tanu;
tan
2 911
T6
1311
tan T6
+
+
tan
2 1311
T6
ib
11.
189
20.
Using the method of finding the square-roots of a complex number, find the
roots of the following equations in the form A + i B, where A, B are real.
2
2
(a) z +3iz+2=0
(b) z +(2+3i)z-~-2i=0
(c)
21.
- (4 + 2i) z + 6 + 8i = 0
(d)
+(4+2i)z+3+2i=0
(f)
(e)
(a)
(b)
22.
23.
1z 1
lz 1 = 1
18z + 10 = 0.
remainder is zero,
to divide by
Solve
(a)
(c)
24.
z 2 = 3 - 4i
2
z -(3+i)z+4+3i=0
2
- 2z + 4 = 0
2
2z = 1 + i
Solve x
(b)
(d)
6 + (x + 1) 6 = 0
4
2
z - 30z + 289 " 0
(x - 1)
Decompose x
i J[cose -cos 38
11
]
511
[cos e -cos 8
7
[cose -cos ;
25.
2
3
z = 1 - i is a root of z + az + bz + 6 = 0, where a and b are real.
Find a and b and all the roots of the equation.
26.
z =-
27.
28.
~-
(
29.
"J" is a root of z 4 + 2z 3 + z 2 - 1 = 0.
!:!!)n
n
11
+ (-b
)n-1
_
11
1
= O.
3
If the equation x + 3mx + n = 0 has a double root, then prove that
2
3
n = -4m , and that this root is - ~
30.
31.
Solve z
A + iB.
190
32.
If the polynomial x
(mn- r) 2
4(m
3 + 3mi + 3nx + r
- n) (n
33.
34.
If
- 24x
r:a.
l+B
~
!...:!:....r.
1-y
- mr).
3
+ 45x - 26
l+a
35.
=0
=0
[Hint: y =
=0
where x = a , B, y]
191
Introduction
The subject of conic sections had been studied by ancient Greek mathematicians (200
B.C.). In recent times, it has acquired an added importance in space explorations.
The safest and the most economical path to the planet Mars is an elliptical orbit,
called 'the Hohmann ellipse'. (The Hohmann ellipse is an ideal trajectory requiring a
minimum of energy for a journey between any two planets, named after the German
engineer who calculated it in 1925.)
The conic sections are a family of curves obtained by cutting a right circular cone by
a plane at various inclinations to the axis of the cone.
Two
Branches of
Hyperbola
Fig. I
Fig. 2
If the slice is parallel to the base, the curve is a circle, if the slice is parallel to the
slant side of cone, the curve is a parabola; between these two, we have an ellipse.
Finally, any other cut (intersecting also the mirror image of the cone) produces a
hyperbola.
192
We shall only study the CENTRAL CONICS ellipse and hyperbola and their properties.
The case of the parabola has been studied previously (3U Mathematics).
Definition:
A conic is the locus of a point P which moves in a plane so that its distance from a
given point S and its distance from a fixed line,d, always are in the same ratio, i.e.
PS
PM
e
e
< 1,
> 1,
PS = PM,
PS
PS
< PM,
> PM,
Fig. 3
6.2
P(x, y)
SA'
A'Z
e,
e
A'
Fig. 4
By definition, A and A' are on the ellipse. 0 is the mid-point of AA'.
rectangular axes at 0, as shown.
S (c, 0),
then
Let AA' = 2a;
SA'
eA'Z
SA
e. AZ
and
SA'
and
SA'
SA
A'A = 2a
SA
e (A'Z - AZ)
(l)
2ae
(2)
c = OS = OA
SA'
a (1 + e)
SA= a - a(l-e)
ae
Take the
193
and
oz =
s
z_
Now
OA + AZ
is (c, 0)
(ae, 0)
(x - ae)
(x - ae)
(I -
e 2~
OD
a
--x
e
(PM )
+ /
+ /
Let
(by definition)
oz
PM
a
e
a + .!. (a - ae)
e
is (~ 0)
e'
PS
PM
SP
= e
(~e
- x) 2
2
= (a - ex)
2
2
+ /
a (1 - e )
a (1-e)
(3)
d'
Z'
B'
B'
d'
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
194
2
2
The eJlipse x + ~ = 1 has the following properties. (Fig. 5)
2
a
b
1.
2.
2a
3.
2b
A'(-
A(a, 0)
B'(O,- b)
B(O, b)
(l - e ) , e
< 1,
then b
4.
5.
Foci: S (ae, 0) ,
6.
a, 0)
< a.
S' (-ae, 0)
a
e
lf the foci are at S (0, be) and S (0, -be), the standard form of the equation of the
2
2
2
2
2
ellipse is x + ~
1,
with a = b (l - e ) , a < b
2
a
b
BB' = 2b
2.
AA' = 2a
3.
4.
..
eb
WORKED EXAMPLES
Find the eccentricity, foci, directrices of the following ellipses:
(l)
~5
Solution:
a
b
~ = 1
(see Fig. 5)
= 5,
2
b
2
=3
2
=a 0 - e )
9 = 25 (I - e )
e =
195
The foci are (! ae, 0) = ( 4, 0)
a
The directrices are X =
= . 425
2
(2)
x9
Solution:
(see Fig. 6)
a = 3,
b = 5
a2 = b2 (l - e2)
2
9 = 25 (l - e ) gives e
= eb = . 425
Exercise 6A
Find:
1.
3.
5.
7.
4/ + y
9.
16
L
25
9 =
36
9/
4.
T6
10
2
4/
36 = 0
2.
25
8.
4x
X
16
48
36
T2
10.
6.
9/ =
2/
1 = 0
=4
11.
12.
13.
Foci ( 4, 0) , b = 3
14.
Foci (0, .
15.
Centre (0, 0), the length of major axis = 10 and length of the minor axis = 6
16.
17.
Eccentricity e
/5),
, b = 2
a = 3
=~,major
axis= 12
196
6.3
The Hyperbola
~~
= e , e
following diagram, you can easily derive the standard equation of the hyperbola as:
2
a
where b
'1
- Lb2
2
= a
(e
- I)
A'
Fig. 7
The hyperbola x
L
a2 - b2
Y.
Fig. 8
I.
2.
The transverse axis is the line segment joining the vertices A (a, 0), A'(- a, 0) and
AA' - 2a.
3.
The foci are S (ae, 0), A' (-ae, 0),' centre 0 (0, 0)
4.
The conjugate axis is the segment BB', where B (0, b) and B' (0, -b)
5.
6.
+ ~
The rectangle through the vertices A, A', B and B', is very useful in drawing the graph
b
of the hyperbola. Also draw the asymptotes y =
X
through the corners of this
197
2
x2
The hyperbola given by L - a2
b2
details.
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
y = . ~
e
6x
Fig. 9
WORKED EXAMPLES
I.
Find the foci, directrices, asymptotes and vertices of the following hyperbolas and
hence sketch them.
y
2
2
~-L(a)
(See Fig. 10)
16
25 -
(i)
a = 4, b = 5
c2 = a2e2 = a2 +b2
c =
.J4J
or c = -
ll4i.
X
But
a
-e
= +-
c = ae
.Jii1=4.eore=
V4l
4
.
.
16
t h e d trectnces are x = .~
v41
Fig. 10
198
(iii)
(iv)
45 x
(See Fig.
a = 3,
b =4
c2 = a2 + b2 = a2e2
5
:. c = 5,
e =3
If we put y = 0, we have x
-16
and this shows that the foci lie on
the y-axis
. .
y = .:!:.
Fig. II
Exercise 68
1.
For the following hyperbolas, find the foci, directrices and vertices and sketch them:
(a)
(b)
25
;
T6
16
(c)
x2
25
(d)
4/
4/ =
- y2
4
2
2.
3.
= a
199
6.4
=0
=0
'
Eccentricity
< e < I,
For 0
where c
c =
~.
a>b>O.
0~ c
S,S'
"oE ~
0
\_
e"O\C
e
= 0.97
::>
e~l
S'
Planet
Neptune
0.01
Earth
0.02
Jupiter
0.05
Mercury
0.21
The varying shape of an ellipse can also be examined by changing the ratio b : a,
as shown below.
(cont)
200
E---+---3>
the variation of the shape of conics as e
ver
e
>1
hyperbola~
e
circles
1.1
O<e<l
c.~.
------
1.40.95
E___J
= 0.97
parabolas
e .....
oo
201
6.5
L POx
a.
= e.
= a COS e
=a sin e
+ y
=a
< 2n,
=a COS e ,
= b sin e .
;- +
a
0
'
a,
i.e.
< 2n
2
a 2cos e
+
a2
or
I, which is true.
> b.
These are
To determine a point
202
Let
and
Through A draw a line parallel to the y-axis, and through B draw a line parallel to
the x-axis. These lines intersect at P where
X
ON
0Acos9
acosa
bsin9
0Bsin9
= NP
The point P(acosa, bsin9) is usually referred to as P(9), or 'the point 9',
ellipse.
. wort h notmg
.
It 1s
t hat PN
AN
bsin9
b
a,
on the
+ /
=a
in the ratio b : a.
203
6.6
bsinr/J - bsin9
acos\6 - acos9
2bcos(~) sin(
-2asin(\6 ;
Y.>
) sin(\6
Z9)
q, + 9
-bcos(~)
. m=
q,
asin(+)
~ cot( 9 + r/J)
a
2
or
i cos(
; r/J) +
sin(
; r/J) = cos9cos(
; r/J) +
sin(
; r/J) + sin9sin(
; r/J) = cos(
; r/J)
2r/J)
2
-b XI
- 2 - (x a yl
X I)
2
XI
-2a
204
Substituting x
xcose
a
=acos9,
=bsin9,
+ ysin9
b
we have
We have ~
dx
-b XI
a Yl
Finally, substituting x
=acos9,
=bsin9,
or
Note:
+ /
either by substituting b
x. 1 yy 1 a
<eoB y;no a
205
6.7
of the hyperbola ~ - ~
a
b
= 1.
We can also
. t he a d"Jacent
x2 + y 2 = a 2 , as s hown m
diagram.
The point T lies on the circle, where
2
I , we find sec 9 -
2
2
2
y = b (sec 9 - 1).
y = b tan 9 since y
We note that:
and
1.
=; < 9 <;
>0
b2
7b 2 = 1,
i.e.
The equation of the chord joining the points P(asec9, btan9) and
Q(asec0, btan0) is
i cos j (9- 0)
2.
~sin~
(9 + 0) =
cos~ (9
+ 0)
bl
2
xa
XI
2
yb
2
2
+ - - = a +b
y1
2 + b2
206
A Speciai(Rectangular) Hyperbola xy =
6.8
c2
y
= ct,
xy
=c
=~
We have
= -X
2
- c
-2x
~
dx
SubstitutE;
x = ct
~-.:...!
dx -
t2
I)
is given by:
y -
c- = - - 1 ( x - ct)
t
t2
or
The tangent has gradient -
-1 ,
I= t 2 (x - ct),
i.e.
t3 X
ty = c{t 4 - 1)
The
c
The equation of the chord PQ with P(cp, ~) and Q(cq, q)
is given by
y - ~
c
P
c
9 (x - cp).
cp- cq
This simplifies to
x + pqy
=c (p
+ q)
= 2pc
and
p2~p%
/~ q )
2.
The point of intersection of the normals at P(cp, ~) and Q(cq, ~) is given by:
p
X-
cqp(p2+l+rq)+C
pq (p + q
y =
cp3q3+C(p2+~q+l)
pq (p + q
207
EXAMPLES:
Find, the equations of the tangents arid the normals to the following curves at the given
points:
(1)
2
+
(3)
h=l,
2y
=l
(2)
P(-3,2)
(4)
x = V2sec9, y = 2tan9 at e
(1) 3x
+ y
= 12
6x + 2y
(3)
~ =0
~
P(-1,3),
At
and y - 3
X +
= -(x
1, i.e. y =
+ 1),
X +
=-
4 (T)
i.e. y = -x
y - 2
2 (N)
i.e.
(4)
.".
3x
y +
~ =- ~
2y = 6
and y 4x - 6y
3/
.j2), i.e.
V2
...
72. = 3 (x - 112),
= - 5 v'2
(T)
2
~ =
1 at
P(
= 34
(x + 3)
3x + 4y + 1
=ofi sec 9,
=0
=0
/i., /2)
(T)
(N)
y = 2tan9, 9 =%
9 =%
2
2sec e
dx - 0/isece tanS
{isece
At
tanS
e = ~, ~ = 2
i.e.
(N)
at P
~-
/i)
(x -
~ =0
4x - 3y + 18
For e = ~ , ~ = -~.
The required equations are:
.[2,
P(-3,2)
1 ,
(2 ) ~ _ dy~de _ 3cos9
dx - dx dB - -2sin9
P(n/4) = (
2y 2
. 2x - 4y
y - 3 =
=4
N = normal)
SOLUTION: (T = tangent,
P(-l ,3)
and y - 2
= - ~ (x
- 2), i.e.
(T)
y = 2x - 2
and x + 2y
=6
(N)
x - \- = 1 at P(2,2)
2
208
Exercise 6C
Find the equations of the tangents and the normals to the following curves at the
points indicated:
1.
2x
+y
2
=6
2
+ 2y
=5
=3sin9,
p (1,2)
2.
3x
3.
=2cos9
P (9
4.
7.
x =4cos9, y =3sin9
2
3x - 4/ =24
2
x - 2/ = 2
2
3x - 2/ = 1
p (9
8.
5.
6.
9.
= 2sec 9,
p (-1,1)
p (4, - ~)
p (-2,1)
p (l,-1)
=3tan9
P (9 = n/4)
x = sec9, y = tan9
=c 2 (c is constant)
P (9 = n/3)
10.
xy
11.
12.
=3,
=n/3)
=T! /4)
-------EJct
- . -~ )
t
> 0)
~ to ~h; ellipse l
2
= 1.
+ 6/
= 15.
the tangent and the normal at P. Also find the coordinates of the point in which
this tangent intersects the directrix corresponding to the focus S.
13.
Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at P(9,-3) on the hyperbola
4 - fg
= 1.
The normal meets the curve again in Q. Find the coordinates of the
=2x
-y2
=5
2 + 16y 2
144.
17.
= 0.
2 - 3y 2
=6
which are
209
18.
(a)
2
hyperbola X
2a
ellipse
(b)
19.
=0
2
a
if a212 + b2m2
I '
b2
touches the
2
I'
b2
= n2
if a212 - b2m2
= n2
x2
2
The tangent at P (xI' y 1) on the hyperbola a - ~ = 1, x .> 0, intersects
2
1
the directrix at
Q.
is the focus
(ae,O).
Prove that
PSQ
is a right
angle.
20.
6.9
1.
+ yy
=1
be a tangent to x
2 + y2
1 at P(xl'yl)]
Find the point Q(X, 0) where this tangent meets the x-axis, and prove that Xx
=
1
1.
= a 2
Find the point R (0, Y) where the tangent meets the y-axis. Show that the locus of a
a2
b2
point T (X, Y) is given by the equation
2X + 2y = 1.
y
Solution:
The equation of the tangent at P (x , y ) is
1
YYt
XXI
-2- + -2- = I.
a
b
(Prove it)
X
Xx
= a
or
.... (l)
210
(2)
Similarly
yl
+
17
If
blf
a
+
x2a2
Y2b2
2.
at P (If, 3{5).
The tangent meets the x-axis in M and the normal meets the y-axis in
Solution:
There is no need to remember the eqJations of the tangent and normal.
3x
6x
- y
2y
At P(lf, 3/5),
~
dx
Differentiating
3
or
_ 3x
dx - y
If
v'5
r5y
lfx -
(I)
For M, put y = 0
:.
M is
<i ,
0)
or
r5x
=3
3 f5
+
lfy
- 415
16f5
(x - If)
(2)
y - 3/5
If
f5
(x - If)
211
For N, put x = 0
N is (0, 4/5)
MN
3.
/-1~
{ii8i
-4-
80
2
2
x2-~=l.
a
b
This normal intersects the x and y axes at Q and R respectively. M (X, Y) is the
mid-point of QR. Find the equation of the locus of M as P varies on the hyperbola.
y
Solution:
axsin9 + by
Put
=0
(a
at Q
(a
2 + b 2) tan9
asin9
Again at R, put x = 0
y
(a
+ b ) tan9
a (a
+ b ) sec 9 ,
1
2
2
b (a + b ) tan 9
2
or
(a
2 2
b )
hyperbola)
Note:
also x - y = a
2
x - /
=a
212
2
4.
2X
a rectangle.
2y
SOLUTION:
==
o.
==
-bcote,
at M. y
==
O, x
==
acose
aCOS9t y :: -bcot9
~y
~ = sece
X
==
-tane
2
b
2
2
=sec 9-tan 9::
2
2
X
y
.
a2
1.e. 2
-2 = 1
5.
b2
=c 2 at
y =x
in
s.
Prove
= PS.
SOLUTION:
Q is (2ct, 0)
R is (0, ~c)
(1)
.. (2)
213
Solving y
x(t
=x
3
- t)
= c(t
- 1)
c~ 2
S is
c(t - 1)
t3 - t
1)
[~ (t 2 + 1), ~ (t 2 + l)J
~ (t2
+ l) -
ct] 2
SP=~
(3)
(ct - 2ct) 2 + ( ct
/ 2t2
.jc
+-
PQ
:. PQ
~ (t2
,\ 2
- q.,
c2
t2
(4)
= PR = PS
+ l) -
~2
214
Exercise 60
Find the equations of the (a) tangent and (b) normal to the following curves at the
points given:
1.
l._
1,
2.5 + 16
P(~,
2.
1 , at
3.
2 , at x
u'3>
2
2
1T
4.
4cos9 , y
3sin 9 , 9
.5.
x = .5 sec 9 , y
4 tan 9 , 9
6.
= 41T
2
(a)
(b)
7.
2
at P(acos9, bsin9) is axsin9- bycos9 = (a - b 2) sin9cos9.
- L
b
2
2
yy 1
- -
XXI
1 at P (x , y ) is 1
1
2
&tan9
8.
(a)
(b)
9.
= 2a .
bycot9
1, with foci S and S', prove that
----------
215
10.
11.
12.
I PS'
x2
2a - Lb2
- PS I = 2a
2
2
the ellipse x + ~ =
9
(b)
the hyperbola x
- /
at x
=
at x = 3.
+ 25/
~00
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve whose parametric equations are
x = 2cos9 and y = 3sin9 at a=
A
15.
2
2
Show that the equation of the normal to the ellipse x
L =
a2 + b2
at P(acosa, bsin9) is given by axsin9 - bycosa = (a
2
- b ) sin9cos9.
x2
L2
The tangent to the hyperbola = 1 at P(a sect, b tant) meets the
a2
b2
asymptotes in A and B. Prove that P is the mid-point of AB.
17.
sin9=~
(a)
cos a= e
(b)
2
2
equation of the normal at P is axsin9 - bycosa = (a - b )sin9 cosa
(c)
2
e 4 + e -1
and
= 0.
216
18.
2
2
The ellipse x + L ::
a2
b2
tr
x2
v2
+ J- Show that the tangent to the ellipse a2
b2 .
XXI
equat10n
a2
yyl
b2
= 1.
1 at P (x
1'
y ) has the
1
PN
is the
The line y
= mx
Show that c
+ c
x2
is a tangent to the hyperbola 25 -
= 2.5m 2 -
f-6
P (x , y ) to this hyperbola
1 1
2
meet at right angles. Prove that the locus of P is the circle x +
= 9.
22.
P(asece, btan9) and Q(aseccj, btancj) are two points on the hyperbola
2
X
- ~ ::
Find the co-ordinates of the mid-point R of PQ and hence show that the
2
locus of R is given by
a2
23.
b2
x2
P (x , y ) is a point on the hyperbola 25 1 1
f-6
= 1
2.5yy
= 400
Find the co-ordinates of the point G at which this tangent cuts the
x-axis.
217
(b)
~;p_ = ~~
hyperbola.
24.
2
2
Show that the normal to the ellipse ~ + L
a2
b2
(a
(a)
- b ) xI y I
(b)
=e
PS and
PS
GS
= GS'
Write down the equation of the normal at P (5cos9, 3sin 9) to the ellipse
~5
t-
= I.
=e
25.
I at P (x , y ) is given by
1 1
G and H respectively.
Show that the gradient of the line joining the points P (ct , ~ ) and
1
Q(ct ,
2
) on the hyperbola xy = c
2
is
t-~
. The points
P, Q, R lie on
I 2
this hyperbola.
through Q perpendicular to PR
2
xy = c
at M. Prove that
2
27.
Show
= I
2 2
2
a m
+ b . Hence obtain the quadratic equation satisfied by m
where
28.
P (x , y ) to the hyperbola ~ - L
1
1
aa b2
NG : ON = b
: a
= I.
218
29.
Show that the equations of the tangent and the normal to the hyperbola
bx sece- ay tane = ab ,
(b)
and
2
+ b ) sec9tan9.
The tangent and the normal cut the y-axis at M and N respectively.
Show that the circle on MN as diameter passes throu3h the foci of the
hyperbola.
30.
Show that ab
= 2c 2
(a)
if the ellipse x
L
a2 + b2
2
touches the hyperbola xy = c
(b)
PQ
31.
= 2K,
Show that for all values of 9, the point P(4cos9, 3sin9) lies on the ellipse
and find the equation of this ellipse.
(a)
Find the equations of the tangents at the points P and Q(-4sin9, 3cos9 ).
(b)
32.
+ 16/
288
2
2
x - ~
2
a
b
2
+ b ) sec9tan9 is the equation of the
normal.)
33.
2
Prove that the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola x - y 2
P (x , y ) is xx - yy
1 1
1
1
=c
=c 2
=x
at
and
219
3~.
+ /
a 2 If P(9)
2
a , prove that the
= V'Jx
given that 9 +
1,6
= 23n
21
r
i)
+;), r
and sin( 9
2 sin ( 9
21
21 - 21 ,
+;).
where 0
1 , then
36.
:! -~ =
- ~
=1
meets the
37.
= e2 ,
is (0, 0).
2
2
P (x , y ) is any point on the ellipse ~ + L = 1 Find the equation of
1 1
a2
b2
the tangent at P. A line drawn from the centre 0 (0, 0) parallel to the
tangent at P,
38.
Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in the ellipse
9x
39.
+ 25/
225.
.f2,
(b)
~0.
2
The tangent at P(acos9, bsin9) to the ellipse x
a
at M and N. Show that M and
2
+ ~
= 8,
respectively. Find the minimum value of the area of t.OMN and the
corresponding co-ordinates of P.
as P varies.
220
41.
2
AB is a chord of the curve xy = c , where A is (cp,
Find the equation of the chord
AB.
AB
~)
and B is (cq, ~ ).
p
q
Show that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to
2
the tangent to the curve xy = c
at the point P(ct, ~) is given by
(x2 + />2 = 4c2xy.
43.
xy
drawn
A tangent at P(ct,
~)
to the hyperbola
xy = c
and B and 0
4.5.
The tangents to xy
=c 2
at A(cp,
p)
2
4c , show that the locus of
R is
given by 4xy = c
46.
47.
where P is (x , y ) and Q
1 1
is (x , y ), is such that Ix - x I = 2c. Prove that the locus of the mid-point
1
2
2 2
2
2
of PQ is given by the equation x y = c (x + y).
2
P(cp, ~) , Q(cq, ~) are two points on the conic xy = c Show that the
gradient of PQ is
~~
PQ.
P(cp, ) and Q(cq, ) are variable points on the conic xy = c 2. Prove that
p
=k ,
origin.
221
49.
PQ
is
is ( 4p,
~)
variable
chord
and Q is 4q,
*).
of
the
xy
hyperbola
= 16,
where P
(c)
8
- -)
The point of intersection of the tangents at P and Q is T(_!Es_
p+q'p+q
(d)
If the chord PQ passes through the point R (0, 8), show that the locus of
T is a straight line, x
50.
=4.
2
The eccentricity e
(b)
IPS I= a- .fix 1
(c)
PS PS'
=OP 2,
= Vi
ls'PI
where 0
=a+
.fix 1
is the origin.
222
2
~
1r-
=a 2
where A
= 1
(1)
and B
=b2
.
IS
=- b2
yy 1
---a-
(2)
= 1
To find the condition for a line to touch the conic, the line:
=0
lx +my + n
-,- =
y1/B
---m-
-AI
= -n-
xl
- 1
--n
-Bm
-n
'
Bm
(2)
=0
+~=1.
XA
= mx
+ b, the condition
becomes:
Am
B = b
(3)
Chord of Contact:
The chord
PQ,
jommg the points of the contact of tangents drawn to the conic from
223
y
1f-
xx 2
yy 2
+ B"" '"'
"A"
= 1 is
l and
(1)
(2)
yy 1
r=
(3)
The method shown above can be used to find the equation of a chord of contact to
2
2
. 1.e.
.
. Ie x 2 + y 2 = a 2, a h yper bl
any come,
a para bl
o a x = 4 ay, a Clrc
o a xy = c
etc.
(Chord of
contact = COC)
1.
2.
+y
=a
is
.
P(x I' y ), to a parabola x
1
= 4ay is
= 2a(y + y )
1
2 2
2
The equation of the COC, from P(xl'y ), to a rectangular hyperbola x -y = a is
XX l
4.
=a
3.
+ yy
- yy} = a
The equation of the COC, from P(x I' y I), to a (special) rectangular hyperbola
xy = c
2 IS
. xx I + yy = 2c 2
1
224
I; Centre 0.
Directrices: x = .! ~
e
Length of semi-major axis
Length of semi-minor axis
Vertices: (.!a, 0), (0,.! b)
=a
=b
B'
-a
X=-
PS
We have PM
(Definition)
=e
and
PS'
PM'
=e
S' P = 2a
= 2ea
2
a = 2a , which is a constant
e
This fact gives us a fast, accurate (and inexpensive)
:. PS + PS' = e .
method of drawing
the ellipse.
A thread of length 2a, fastened at S and S' is kept tightly stretched by a
pencil at P. As the pencil moves, it traces out an ellipse. (See the diagram
above)
2.
AB
BM
AC = MC
BM'
( = M'C
)
D
...........
'
..... ...
..... .......
...
M'
a
e
225
2
2
~ - l2._ = a 2 - b 2 = a 2 e 2 , and meets
X1
y1
= 0,
2
in G(e x
2
Then, SG = OS - OG = ae - e x
SP
Now PM
,o)
(definition)
=a
SP
= e (a -ex )
- ex
X=-
L-----------------------
SG =e. SP
=e
Similarly S'G
SG
S'G
S'P
SP
S'P
LGPT
LGPT'
LS'PG
LT'PS'
= LTPS
LGPT
and LS'PG
LGPS
LGPS
originating from the focus S, will be reflected through the other focus S'.
3.
that
Xl
a
=e
.
y
XXI
yy 1
-2- + -2- =I.
yy 1
b2 -
= 0,
i.e.
+ -- - 1
226
II.
That part of the tangent between the point of contact and the directrix subtends
a right angle at the corresponding focus.
Proof:
Using the diagram from property 3, we have to prove
l PST = 90
2
2
xx
m
Th e tangent at p( x ,y 2) IS
a 2 + yy = 1 an d t h.IS meets t he d.1rectnx
2
T( ~, k), where
e
(1)
=x
The gradient of SP is m
The gradient of ST is m
mm'
ke
k
a
-e ae
:. LPST
=90
ke
a(l - e 2 )
aeky
a(l - e )
Using (1), we have, mm'
y2
- ae
2
= 2
a (1
2
- e ) (x - ae)
=- 1
Some of these
follow simply from the definition and. others can be proved by co-ordinate geometry
and plane geometry. The reader who masters the general techniques of proving these
properties will have no trouble in proving the same properties when particular values
of a and b are used.
227
d'
-a
e
X=-
= -ea
Many properties of the hyperbola are similar to those of the ellipse, so to avoid
repetition, the properties are stated without proof.
reader to supply the proofs referring, if necessary, to the corresponding results for
the ellipse.
1.
i.e.
2.
= 2a,
= 2a,
if
= 2a
I5P- 5'PI
The tangent at
if
5P5'
A ray L P
of light
directed
focus 5'.
3.
4.
R on the directrix.
That part of the tangent between the point of contact and the directrix subtends
a right angle at the corresponding focus ( L P5R = 90).
228
=c
=y
=a
Fig. 2
In this section we investigate the geometric properties of two special hyperbolas
2
2
2
2
and xy =c .
x - y =a
2
2
2
2
2
= I reduces to x - y = a
and the
If b = a, then the equation ~ - L
a2
b2
asymptotes are y = .:!: x,
each
other.
i.e.
hyperbola
asymptotes
are
perpendicular
is called
i.e.
xy = k, which represents a
=c 2 is also a rectangular
Thus xy
hyperbola, but the reader who is not satisfied by this reasoning should refer to two
2
a
explanations given in the appendix, where it is shown that the hyperbola xy =
is
- y
= a 2 (e 2
- I) and with b
the
same,
~- L
a2
b2
2
but a few peculiar to xy = c are
= a,
I,
given below with proofs. In science and engineering, it is the form xy = k which is
2
2
2
useful rather than x - y = a The law connecting the pressure and volume of a
perfect gas under constant temperature is
pv = k,
229
Proof:
The equation of the tangent at any point
2
P(ct,
on the conic xy = c
is:
r>
x + t y = 2ct
=2 .
2.
2ct .
2c
t2c
0
OA OB
= 2c = a
constant.
The length of the intercept, cut off from a tangent by the asymptotes, equals
twice the distance of the point of contact from the intersection of the
asymptotes.
Proof:
In the diagram, we want to prove AB = 20P. Using the previous example:
P{ct,
r) ,
2
A(2ct, 0), B(O, tc )
... (I)
(2)
= 40P
230
j>.
P(2,
+ 9y
= 45 at the point
Find the coordinates of the foci S and S'. SV and S'V' are the
SOLUTION:
+
2
j>
1.
is
2l
l ( .
XX 1
yy 1
15 = usmg -2- + -2- = I]
a
b
or
2x + 3y
=9
(1)
We have a = 9, b = 5, then
2 2
2
2 .
a e = a - b g1ves ae = 2, so the foci are: S(2, 0) and S' (- 2, 0)
SV J. to the tangent (1), so the equation of SV is
Solving (l) and (2), we find
S'V'
J. to
V(
~;
3x - 2y " 6
(2)
, : ~)
(3)
+ y
= 9.
2
13
( ~; - 2)2 + ( : ~ )2 = ( : ~ )2 + ( : ~ )2 =
sv 2
SV
3 X 13
----,~-
L.H.S. =
(- 2) 2 + (3)
S'V'
325
.
169
= 9 = R.H.S., and
= 9.
~~~
= 13
13
25 g1vmg SV S'V'
2
Y
7+~
SV . S'V'
i.e.
= I,
= b
V and V'
= 9, b
= 5.
+ y
= a
and
231
7a - b
XXI
yyl
-2--2=
a
b
... (l)
2X
... (2)
= 0.
From (I)
or
(l
2 2
y yl
2yyl
+7+~
2 2
2 a YI
I
Re-arranging: y ( 4 b2 - -b
2)
XI
2
2
2YY Ia
a
b 2 2 + -2
XI
XI
and y , then:
2
2
2 2
22
- a b y1
1 - b x1 ~
(
42
/
22
22
bx
ay
-bx
XI
1
1
1
22
2 2
2 2
Since P(x , y ) lies on the conic, a y - b x
-a b
1
1
1 1
:. y = yl
2
Xxl
yl
Then using (I), since M(X, Y) lies on the tangent, we have - 2 - -y=
a
b
2
2
2
Xx
XI
yI
XI
1
But - - - - I so - - = - giving X= x
1
2
2
a2
b2
a
a
2
yla
- -b2
2 -
a y
232
Exercise 6E:
I.
PROPERTIES OF CONICS
2
2
144 meets the directrices
The tangent at P (xI' y ) to the ellipse 9x + 16y
1
at T and T' respectively. S and S' are the foci. Prove that L PST and
3.
9x 1y1
=e
25/
=e
400 at the
. PS and
PS
Hence prove that PS'
GS
= GS'
.
PG btsects the
and that
4.
(b)
16x
=4
(a)
SV S'V'
(b)
S and S'
9/ = 36.
+ y
LS'PS.
respectively to
Prove that:
= 9.
16x
+ 25y
400,
6.
22
22
22
NP is the ordinate of a point P(x , y ) on the ellipse b x + a y = a b .
1 1
2
The tangent at P meets the x-axis at A. Prove that ON . OA = a , where 0 is
the origin.
2
2
P(x , y ) is a point on the ellipse ; 1 1
1e
ctrc
+ y
=a 2
.
P
avmg
t he same a b
sctssa.
roveh
t at t he tangents at
2
2
P(x I' y ) on the hyperbola 16x - 25y = 400 meets
1
the directrix at T. Show that L PST = 90, where S is the corresponding
8.
= I.
2
Prove that ON . OT = a , where
is the origin.
2
9.
7 -~
2
v
- ~ = I with the focus at S.
P are concurrent.
233
PQ is a chord of a hyperbola 9x 2 - 16y 2 = 144 passing through s. The
tangents at P and Q intersect at T. Prove that T lies on the directrix
corresponding to the focus S.
11. Prove that the point of intersection T of the tangents at P(cp, ~) and
10.
Prove that the portion of the tangent at P(l, -1) to the hyperbola
2
Jx - 2y 2 = 1 intercepted between the asymptotes is bisected at the point of
contact.
(Hint: Use the equations of asymptotes Jx 2 - 2i = 0 and the tangent
Jx + 2y = 1 to find a quadratic in either x or y.)
234
DYNAMICS
7.1
Introduction
Dynamics is the branch of Mechanics (Physics) that deals with the conditions
under which bodies move. The other branch of mechanics is called
STATICS, which deals with bodies at rest or under equilibrium under the action of some
forces.
Two branches of Dynamics are called:
1.
2.
KINEMATICS: This deals with the motion of the body without regard to the
cause, effect or result of the motion. So far in our work, we have done just
that, i.e. the motion of a particle in straight line, the motion of a projectile,
the SHM etc. We discussed the motion in terms of the position, velocity, time,
acceleration. It did not matter which forces caused this motion.
We shall now introduce "the elements of KINETICS" which relate the forces with the
motion of the body. This not only enhances our knowledge of the subject, but we can
now solve a wide variety of motion problems, such as the motion in a RESISTING
medium, the motion in a circle etc.
Remembering that the 4- Unit Mathematics syllabus requires us to study not only the
harder new topics, but also 3U-Maths harCier motion problems, we shall first completely
summarize the previous work, then revtse with harder 3U problems, and then extend to
the required new topics.
7.2
In everyday life we use force to pull or push an object. In this chapter we study the
cause-effect relation between the observed motion and the system of forces.
Newton (1642-1727), one of the most famous and greatest scientists, formulated laws of
motion after studying the motion problems which involve application of natural
(gravitational) or mechanical (push, pull, friction) forces.
Newton's First Law of Motion. (Inertia)
A body remains in a state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straiRht line (a
constant velocity, no external force) in the absence of a force.
235
236
mg
Fig. I
A body of mass m lying on a horizontal smooth surface is pressing the table with a
downward force of its weight, but at the same time the equal and opposite force N
acts on the body. This force is the reaction in the direction at right angles to the
surface.
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1:
A body of mass 10 kg is suspended by a string from a ceiling.
Find the tension in the string.
SOLUTION:
You need not show the entire system, only the forces acting on the particle.
Fig. 2
9.8
= 98 kg. m.s-2
m = 10 kg,
= 98 N
(I N
= 10
=I
= 9.8
kg. m.s- 2 )
m.s-2
237
EXAMPLE 2:
Fig. 3
We select the rectangular coordinate system at P and decompose (resolve) the system
of forces into the horizontal components Fx and the vertical components, F Y
l:Fx = T 1 cos 4.5 - T2 cos 60
lF y = T 1 sin 4.5 + T2 sin 60 - mg
The upward components are considered positive and downward components negative.
Since there is no acceleration in any direction, we have:
l:Fx
0 and lFY
and
200
+ cos 60
= sin 60
146 N
From (1):
...
146 cos 60
cos 49
= 104 N
(1)
(2)
238
2.
The proper resolution of each force into two components at right angles to
each other is shown.
The two perpendicular directions need not always be the HORIZONTAL and the
VERTICAL directions,
3.
IF X = 0 and IF y = 0.
Normally write, F x = m.ax and F y = m.ay' and then substitute for ax
and a , for each problem.
y
EXAMPLE 3:
A truck of mass 3 tonnes is descending an inclined plane at a speed of 20 m/s. Find
the retarding force R, necessary to stop the truck in 30 m. (Angle of the incline is
10).
SOLUTION:
The forces on the truck are:
X
and
R - mg sin 10
(1)
N- mg cos 10
(2)
Now the net force on the truck is along the incline, given by m.a , where
retardation to be calculated using:
2
u + 2ax
2
given u
20
2
-2
-6 J m.s
IF x
rna = 3000 x
From(l), 20000
+ 30 x 2a
= R-
20
20 m/s
30m
= 20000 N
is the
239
Exercise 7A
In the following examples, take g :: 10 m.s 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
A car of mass 1SOO kg is moving at 60 km/h; when the brakes are applied with a
braking force of 12000 N.
Find:
(a)
(b)
(c)
the acceleration
the time taken by the car to stop
the distance travelled before coming to rest.
s.
6.
7.
A smooth block of mass 2 kg slides down an incline making an angle of tan- I (3/4)
with the horizontal. Find the acceleration and the magnitude of the normal
reaction.
8.
9.
Find the magnitude of the braking force to stop a car of mass 1200 kg in 20 m
when it is travelling at 60 km/h (a) on a horizontal road (b) down an incline of
an angle
sin-l (1/40).
240
=
=
Displacement
Velocity
x
dx
dt :
(x, t, v)
X
Acceleration a
= x
..
Fig. 1
dx = dlv)
'd;2
dx \ 2
=
dv
dx
initial velocity
constant acceleration
I.
2.
3.
= u + at
2
= u + 2ax
2
= ut + !2 at
I.
Given
2.
Given
x =
I
I
f(t), integrate
f(t)dt
g(t) + c
g(t)dt + ct
f(x),
use
Time = t
~x (
2
T)
= f(x) and integrate.
241
3.
.
x = f (v ), use v dv
.
G1ven
dx = f (v ), and mtegrate
y
For VERTICAL MOTION under gravity only replace a, by, g
acceleration due to gravity. x may be replaced by y.
I.
2.
3.
ut u
2
2 gt
gt
2gy
2
p
mg
Fig. 2
0
2 gt
gt
8.2
Fig. 3
2gy
Definition:
A particle M on a straight line is said to perform a SHM if its displacement
satisfies the differential equation
y
2
d x
2
-n x
2
dt
A'
Fig. 4
The acceleration is always directed towards, and proportional to the displacement from
the centre.
1.
ix
are constants.
242
2.
substitute in
a cos ex
giving
cos ex
0.
ex = 0
a cos nt
x
3.
+a,
-n
x.
Ix I
period of SHM is T
(ii)
The
(iii)
dx
The velocity v = dt
2n
n
v
(iv)
an
We have:
2
X
2
a
Fig. 5
or v
Since v
n2 (a2 - x2)
2
then
3> 0,
lx I ~ a
a.
This is
243
(v.)
We have:
nt
9
X
a cos nt
a sin nt
-na sin nt
an cos nt
2
-an cos nt
-an
2
-n y
-n x
sin nt
EXAMPLE: (I)
A particle P is in the x - y plane and its coordinates satisfy the equations
2
d x
d/
2
d 2v
-n x and :::.....L
2
dt
= -n y
dx
dt
When P is at (5,0),
= 0 '
P is the ellipse
0 '
= 4n
dt
2
25
16
2
d x
2
dt
2
-n x
d~ ( ; )=
v
2
-n x.
- 2I n 2 x 2
+ c
at x = 5 ,
~~
lntegrat ing
= -n;:;;-7,
Fig.6
244
dt
n dx
-J
cos
For
- I
=
X
nt + a
t = 0 and x = 5 , we find a = 0
y = 4 Sill nt.
x = 5 cos nt Similarly,
25
16 = I
Hence the locus of P is an elhpse. (Shown in Fig. 6) with centre at (0,0) and semi-axes
5 and 4.
Exercise SA
I.
The rise and fall of the tide at a certaill port may be considered as simple
harmomc, the time difference betwf:'en successive high tides being I 0 hours. The
harbour entrance has a depth of 20 m at high tide and 8 m at low tide.
If the low tide occurs at 10.00 a.m. on a certain day, filld the earliest time that
a cargo ship requirmg a minimum df:'pth of 15 m of water can pass through the
entrance.
2.
given by
x -$ I
2 - x for
(a)
IS
>I
~~)
f(x) =
I
2
x
2 or 2 (x - 2) accordillg as x-$ I or x > I
(b)
(c)
If in Exercise (b),
Explain
245
3.
Show that x
=r
cos (wt +
rJ)
2
d x
2
= -wx.
2
dt
A small naval target rises and falls with SHM of period 10 seconds; the height
of the waves from the crest to trough is 2 m.
At a horizontal range of 2000 m a gun is fired so that the target would be hit
provided it remains stationary in its highest position. The horizontal component
of velocity is 1000 m/s. Show that the target would be missed by a vertical
height of approximately 0.69 m.
4.
~cos(3t-
is given by
= 0.
= 12
8x - 4x
6.
(a)
the amplitude
(b)
(c)
the period.
(b)
the distance of
(c)
the amplitude.
x = -n 2x
246
8.3
0
Initially,
and
= 0 = y = t
'
2
d v
= -g
2
dt
=-.L
Fig. 7
VI
v cos
a (horizontal
v2
v sin
a (vertical
~
dt
v sin
a-
gt
(v sin
a)
t -
component)
component)
Integration gives
dx
dt
v cos
(v cos
Eliminate
a)
(I)
gl
(2)
from (2):
gx sec
2
2v
ay = xt a n
(3)
x
R
(v cos a) T,
v cos
y = 0, t = T
a . 2v
(4)
sin 29
g
R = OA , is
(5)
247
v2
The range is the maximum when 9 = 45 , R
=
'
max
g
At the highest point H , velocity
= 0 .
sin 9
v - - , hence the maximum height from (2) is
g
2
v sin2 9
(
from 1) t
h
From (5) :
~(vertical)
(6)
2g
R = v
(7)
sin 29
Since sin 2(90 - 9) = sin 29, there are two angles of projection 9 and 90 - 9, which
give the same horizontal range R. It is easy to see that these two directions are
equally inclined to the direction given by 9 = 45.
y
Fig. 8
There is no need to memorise the above results.
Start from :
= 0 and
= -g
The formulas of motion are different from those given above when the initial
conditions are different. For example, the projectile may have been fired at a height,
say, a, above the horizontal ground, in that case the component y is given by:
y =
a+(vsin9)t-~gl
EXAMPLE: (I)
(b)
1 2h
-j. (c 2 + 4h 2)
248
SOLUTION:
Starting with axes at 0 and
2
2
d x
d
-=Oand~=-g
2
2
dt
dt
We can show that
(1)
x = (v cos a) t
= v sin
a-
(2)
gt
t2
y = (v sin a) t - ~-
y= 0
a .
(3)
Fig. 9
, hence t = v sin
g
=v
sin
a .
(4)
v s!n
2
= vg sin
v sin
g
a - ....2 (
2h
or
a cos a
(5)
in
(3)
v sin
g
a)
tan- 1 2h
21
v
. 2a
sm
g
From (5) :
c
2g
cos
. 2
a sm
a
v; (1 - sin
g
2-
2 a)
sin 2 a
. 2a
sm
v4(1-~)~
2
2
2
=~]
2
This simplifies to v 2
...&
2h (c
+ 4h )
(6)
249
Exercise 88
1.
A stone of mass m is projected with velocity 30 m/s from a point at the foot
of an inclined plane making an angle of 30 to the horizontal. The path of the
projectile can be assumed to be in the vertical plane containing the line of the
greatest slope of the inclined plane. If the angle of projection a > 30, for what
values of a will the stone strike the inclined plane:
(a) horizontally?
(b) at right angles?
2.
2
v sin 29
g
R
2
Also prove that the equation of the path of the projectile can be written as:
2
2
tan 9 -
2
2
2
2v x tan 9 + ( 2v y + gx ) = 0
(a)
gx
(b)
1
At what angle must a body be projected with a speed of 50 m.sto just
clear a wall 10 m high at a distance of 60 m from the point of projection.
(Hint: use part (a) with v = 50, y = 10, x = 60, g = 10. Find two answers)
3.
When the second stone just clears a wall of height h, the first stone hits the
ground at A. If the wall stands at point D on the level ground, prove that
AD = h cot 9.
Further show that
tan (-r.f)
tan 9 -
g T
, where r,f is the angle made by the downward
v cos 9
2
(tan9 + tanr.f)
2v
tan9,
250
4.
> gd,
If U 2 = 4gd, also prove that the maximum height that can be reached by the
15d
. on t h"1s wa 11 IS
. g1ven
.
by 8
Jet
.
5.
with
the
u 2 cos 2 a
2g
4
2
Also prove that any point P(x,y) within and on the circle x + /
= v
1s m
2
2
danger of being hit by the missile. (g m.s- is the acceleration due tog gravity).
6.
= U cot
= -u
g
=0
is given by
u2
=
gR1
= R 1 cot
2 9.
251
8.
=. 20
=x
tan 9 - gx se;: 9
2v
-2
9.
= 10
m, y
tan 9 - gx sec B
2
2v
(b)
tan 9 1 + tan 9 2
(c)
Let T
2
2v
gR
Tl
sin 9
T2
sin 9
(d)
(e)
(f)
and tan 9
tan 9
I.
10.
1
2
+ 9
90.
T'
then
R'
[Hint: sin29
= ~]
I + t
Two particles P and Q are projected from the same point 0 with the same
velocity 25 m/s. They both strike the horizontal plane through 0 at the point
A, 60 m from 0. P reaches A before Q. Show that:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
15
/2
16
m.
252
8.4
friction. A body moving in a fluid experiences a resistance which tends to stop the
motion. In many cases of motion, the resistance is an important consideration. Cars,
planes and boats are streamlined so as to reduce the frictional drag and improve fuel
economy.
The air or fluid resistance on an object depends on its:
(i) shape
(iii) speed.
For example, a sky-diver with an unopened parachute falls quite rapidly, but the
descent is slowed when the parachute opens.
The parachute encounters greater
resistance due to its shape and size. A sky-diver can enjoy a free fall (without an open
parachute) by employing a spread-eagle position to increase the air resistance and
prolong the time of fall.
Air or fluid resistance also depends on the speed of the object. The greater the speed,
the greater the air resistance. We shall mostly be concerned with motion for which
the resistance is proportional to the speed v or v 2
Contrary to our perception of resistance, it is quite beneficial to us. Actually it is the
road friction that makes car driving possible! Sky-diving is
pleasant and possible
because the air-resistance helps to slow the descent. Though streamlined cars cost
more, they are at least pleasing to our eyes, if not to our purse!
EXAMPLE : (1)
-kv
(F
= ma)
Integrating
loge v
I~v
f~ .dt
kt
A
m +
Fig. 10
253
If v = v
at t = 0, then B = v
-kt/m
v = voe
As t ...
co
dx
-kt/m
Further v = dt = v0 e
The distance travelled in time t
X
- Jt
0
or x
jp-
vO
is
v e-kt/m dt
[I -e-kt/mJ
mvo
Again as t
limiting position xt
EXAMPLE : (2)
A particle of mass m falls under gravity from rest in a medium with the resistive
force given by R (v) = kv. Discuss the motion.
SOLUTION:
0
mg -
mkv
p
dt = g - kv
or
dt
Fig. 11
- k1 loge ( 1 _kgv)
254
;kt = 1 _ kv
g
f (1
- e-kt)
(1)
As t-+oo,
Fig. 12
vT
=f
is called the terminal velocity and the particle continues to travel with
constant velocity vr
mkv
balances the
mg
or
gk
[Have you ever wondered how a team of sky-divers frolic (in the sky) with their
parachutes not open! From above you see that a sky-diver should enjoy a free fall
until his weight balances the resistive force, thereafter his parachute must open, and
with good luck the diver should then enjoy his fall with the reduced terminal velocity.
Terminal velocity before the parachute opens is about 200 km/h and it is 40 km/h after
the parachute opens.]
Further
dx
When t
hence
from (1)
dt
= O,
x
=0,
this gives c
255
EXAMPLE : (3)
Equation of motion is
dv
v dx
-g - kv
vdv
g + kv2
dx
- 2k loge (g + kv ) + c
When x
= 0,
= U,
this gives c
2
g + kU
2
g + kv
x = 2k loge
= 21k
2
loge (g + kU )
(1)
h = 2k log ( 1
k 2
g
U )
. (2)
2
dv
dt = - g - kv
-dv
g + kv2
Fig. 13
dt
dv
or
-1
g+kv2
=- k
1
.fiJk
r"
Ltan
1/fkg . v
]o
256
EXAMPLE : (4)
- mg- mkv
p
_I ~
= -~+~
When x
= 0,
k1
(g + kv) g + kv
= U,
mkv
dv
loge (g + kv) + c
hence 0
=-
log (g + kU) + c
k
(1)
(U - v)
= .k!d. -
= 0,
=h
(2)
k2
-g - kv
o
t--
U g + kv
or
1
k log
dt
.dv
( 1 +
~u)
-1
g + kv
(3)
Fig. 14
257
EXAMPLE : (5)
A body is projected vertically upwards from the earth's surface with velocity U. The
2
acceleration of a particle in space is given by kx , towards the centre of the earth,
where x is the distance of the body from the centre of the earth.
Given that the acceleration is g at the earth's surface, prove that the velocity v at
time t is given by
v
= u
2
- 2gR (
~-~
~~
= 2gR, find
in terms of x and show that the body will reach a distance &R
dv
m.v. dx
and
mk
(l)
-7
...
k
(given) at x = R
;2
2
k = gR '
hence
dv
vdx
R2
(2)
mk
x2
-&y
X
x=R
Integrating ,
At
= R, v = U,
gR2
u2
so C=y - gR
v 2 = U 2 - 2gR 2(
R.
Fig. 15
(3)
258
If U
= dx
dt
For
2 R
T
i 112 (sign
+ v'22gR.
IR
9R
xl/2 d
ffgR
+ as v t from
= 6.4
x 10 m, g
= 10
-2 , t
m.s
H.
= 2.72
-+
hours
oo,
(since
- 2gR
/ZgR
5: .
0)
2 [ x3/2] 9R
ffgR .
=3
For R
112
x
dt
dx
Rffg
8R + R = 9R (from the centre) time taken is
.!X
-+
0)
u > 2gR
U
> /2gR
> 11300
> 11.3
m/s
km/s
12 km/s
h x 10 x 6.4 x 106
259
Exercise SC
I.
A particle of. unit mass falls vertically from rest in a medium with resiStive
force R = kv, where v is the velocity of the particle at time t. (k is a
constant).
Find the velocity v and hence show that the terminal velocity is given by
2.
f.
2
A particle of unit mass falls from rest in a medium with resistive force R = kv ,
where k is a constant. Prove that the distance x fallen when the velocity is
v, is given by:
1
= 2k
loge (
g 2 )
g- kv
Find the distance fallen when it reaches half of its terminal velocity.
2
= 0, i.e. v = .fijk).
k
- x2
where x is the distance of the particle from the centre of the earth whose
radius is R.
= R,
= u
2gR
U = 12 km/s
(Hint: x
4.
+ oo
> 0)
v = U \2e
- l)
and
x =
ku (2
-kt - kt ) .
- 2e
=f .
260
5.
[g
+ kU2
g + kv
H= ....!.
2k
6.
log
[1
2
kU ]
g
A body of mass m falls from rest in a medium with resistive force R = kv,
where k is the coefficient of air resistance and v is the speed of the object.
(k is a constant.) Prove that the distance x fallen when the velocity is v, is
given by:
= - mkv -
m2 g log
k2
e
[I -
kv ]
mg
= 10
m.s
A ball of mass
(ii)
(iii)
2~
loge
[1
Draw a neat sketch of the downward motion of this ball after it reaches
the greatest height H. Show that the distance y fallen when velocity is
W, is given by
= 2~
loge [
g- kW
2]
2~
loge [
g
g- kW
The air
Y
(v)
U.
Draw a neat sketch of the motion, showing the forces acting at a distance
x from the point of projection.
2
Show that x = kI loge [ g + kU ]
2
2
g + kv
(iv)
= kv 2
2]
=H
where
for downward motion.
I
u2
::::2
v2
f , and
261
8.
9.
(b)
greatest height H.
2
A particle falling from rest in a vertical line in a medium with resistance kv
per unit mass, k is a constant, v is the velocity at any time and position x,
prove that it acquires a speed
[/I -
e-2kh
J vr
ff
VI
and
Prove that
10.
.
Given g
11.
= 10
with velocity of
-2
m.s , find
(a)
the time T
(b)
- tan-l v,
-1
-1
-1 [A
- B
tan A - tan B = tan
I + ABj to show that:
v
v - tan x
0
1 + v tan x
0
where
is the initial
262
12.
A particle of unit mass travels in a straight line against the resisting force
f(v) = v(l + v 2 ). Its initial velocity is c m/s at the origin. Show that the time
t, when velocity is v, is given by:
=
2]
1
'
[1
Iog
_
2
2
+ v-
1 +
2
Find v as a function of t and hence the limiting value of v at t
13.
14.
+ co
A particle of mass
m moves along a straight line under the action of a
constant (propelling) force P, and a resistive force mkv, where k is a
constant, v is the speed at any time t. Show that if the speed increases from
2 m/s to 4 m/s over a time interval of 5 seconds,
= 2km
rL :~
(a)
2e
e
- I] .
- 1
(b)
(c)
= 0.5.
from
the earth's
> R,
equal to
< 2gR,
15.
A particle is projected vertically upwards from the surface of the earth with
initial velocity U. The acceleration due to gravity at a distance x from the
centre of the earth is given by k , directed towards the centre. Prove that
2
X
2
the rocket will escape from the earth provided u ? 2gR, where g is the
acceleration due to gravity at earth's surface and R is the earth's radius.
2
Further, if u = 2gR, show that the time to achieve the height R above the
2
earth's surface is approximately equal to 0.273 fR , given g = 10 m.s-
263
16.
if the velocity is
0.5U
+ m ).
Draw a motion diagram at time t and write down the equation of motion
dv
using F = m dt
(ii)
Write down an expression for time t taken by the ball to acquire the
velocity v from rest and hence show that:
v
(iii)
18.
(i.e. velocity as t
= ~
(l - e-kt )
= 10
and k
= 0.2,
(a)
(b)
(c)
Prove that v
(d)
Prove: x
= Ucos9e-kt
u
(1 = kcos9
y =
e-kt)
(kUsin9 +g)
2
and
=
. ) e-kt - &
k1 (g + kUsme
k
264
19.
A projectile is fired vertically upwards from the earth's surface with velocity
U m/s. The retardation due to gravity is given by the law k
X
where x is the
distance of the projectile from the centre of the earth, and k is a constant. The
acceleration due to gravity on the earth's surface is g. The earth's radius is R.
2
20.
= gR,
1] A"
An object of mass
mv
resistance R
=k ,
Draw a neat sketch of the motion and the forces acting at a point P,
distance x from the origin. Hence write down the equation of the motion.
(b)
Find the time taken by the object to reach the highest point H and find
the height of H above the point of projection.
(c)
The object falls to its original position with the same law of resistance.
Will the time of descent be the same as that of ascent? Give your
reasons.
265
Introduction
The study of circular motion is of great importance in science and engineering. The
orbit of the earth around the sun, or the moon around the earth, can be considered
circular for practical calculations. The safe speed on a circular section of a
highway or railway track is governed by the laws of circular motion. We shall also
study the problems related to circular motion, such as conical pendulum and
banked tracks.
In solving the motion problems, we often require resolution of the forces in two
perpendicular directions OX and OY. These directions need not always be the
horizontal and the vertical. Study the following examples of two resolved parts of the
force F.
y
y
Fig. 1
We shall study the dynamical problems, in which Newton's laws have to be used,
namely
(1)
(2)
Force of action
rv
ma (mx or my)
= Force
of reaction
2.
3.
= .EX
- .EFx and my
= .EY
.EF
.EX
- .EFy
.EF
Fig. 2
266
9.2
For a point moving in a straight line, its velocity is defined as the rate of change of
its displacement.
(x, t)
p
Fig. 3
v
= ~~
in m/s where x
= f(t)
2
d x
-2
When a point moves on a curve, we talk about its angular velocity, i.e. the rate of
change of its angular displacement, as defined below.
ANGULAR VELOCITY of a point about a given point
Let 0 be the given point, and OX a
line through 0 of fixed direction.
Suppose P moves in the plane containing
OX and LPOX = 9 at any time t.
The anticlockwise rotation is considered
positive and the clockwise rotation negative.
The angular velocity w (omega) of the moving
point P about 0 is defined as the rate
of change of 9, i.e.
X
Fig. 4
The unit of angular velocity is the radian/s and is abbreviated as rad/s. Angular
velocity is a vector and when the direction is not significant we speak of angular
speed. It must be remembered that as defined above w is a variable, i.e. a function
of t. In most of our applications in circular motion, w is a constant, i.e. a uniform
angular velocity. In a later section, we shall talk about the angular acceleration of a
point, about a given point.
267
EXAMPLE: (I)
SOLUTION:
ll
4n
5n
We have:
ll
2n
2n
t=3
t=O
t=6
2n
1iT3
= 6 s
Fig. 5
9.3
PQ in time 8t.
arc PQ = r x 89
Then v,
d
d
d9
v = dt (arcPQ)=dt (r.89)=rdt asllt~O
d9
Now the angular velocity is w = dt , hence:
Fig. 6
. (l)
The angular velocity w is usually defined in radians per second, but if the radius of
the orbit is extremely large as in planetary motion, w may be defined in radians per
hour or a day or even a year.
It should be remembered that w is a variable in formula (1), but most of our work
deals with the constant angular velocity and hence constant tangential velocity. In
that case; at time t,
9
1 9
wt 1
... (2)
268
EXAMPLE: (2)
SOLUTION:
Since 1 rev
2n radians
50 rps
50 x 2n
lOOn rad/s
EXAMPLE: (J)
SOLUTION:
(J)
20
20 rpd
11
36 X 60
rad/s
11
2160
rad/s
51!
60
24
rad/min
EXAMPLE: (4)
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
1200 rpm
=2x
rw
1200 X 211
rad/s
60
40n
SOn
= 40rt rad/s.
251 m/s.
THE PERIOD:
The period T of a circular motion with constant angular velocity
the time for one revolution.
T
EXAMPLE: (.5)
w is defined to be
SOLUTION:
T
(a)
(J)
(b)
211
given T
(J)
211
=r
x w
211
T.5
9000
rad/h
X
4.19
90 min
= 4.19 rad/h
= 37700 km/h
1.5 h
269
Exercise 9A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Find the tangential speed of the earth at the equator due to its rotation about
its axis, given that the radius of the equatorial circle is 6440 km.
[Use exercise 4 (a)]
6.
Find the tangential speed of the earth due to its revolution about the sun,
given that the radius of the earth's orbit around the sun is 1.5 x 108 km.
[Hint: use exercise 4(b)]
7.
What is the angular speed of the particle in a circular path of radius 5 m and
a tangential velocity of 100 km/h?
8.
9.
An aeroplane propeller
revolutions per minute.
(a)
(b)
(c)
10.
11.
The average distance of the moon from the centre of the earth is 3.85 x I o km
and the period of the moon's revolution about the earth is 27.3 days. Find the
angular speed in rad/h and the linear speed of the moon in km/h.
270
9.4
P is (x, y)
LPOX
w
tangential velocity
Cit = a constant, so dt
de
dw
= rcose
rsine
dx
. e de
. e
dt = -rsm dt = -rw sm
dv
dt
de = -rw 2 cos a
-d2x
2- = -rw cose dt
dt
2
=-rw cose
d9
= rcose dt
= rwcose
dt
:. x
. e de
2 . e
2 = -rwsm dt = -rw sm
2
= -rw sine
fx2 + -y2
2
1<-rw cose)
rw
rw
+ (-rw
sine) 2
/(cos e + sin 2 e)
0
The direction is towards the centre 0, along the radius PO of the circle.
Fig. 8
2r
rw
v
r
At a later stage, we shall derive the expression for acceleration when w is a variable"
271
9.5
rv
2
or a= rw '
mrw
where m is the mass of the particle and this force must act along the radius directed
towards the centre. This force is called the CENTRIPETAL FORCE (centre seeking
force).
EXAMPLE: (6)
Find the tension in the string when a stone of mass 5 kg is rotating at 50 rpm, the
stone is tied at one end of the string and the other end is fixed at point 0. The length
of the string is 2m. (rpm = revolu~ions per minute)
SOLUTION:
w
50 X 211
- -- - rad/s,
60
50 rpm
511
5 kg, r
2 m
rad/s.
centripetal force
mrw
2
25n /9
Fig. 10
274 N
EXAMPLE: ( 7)
The reaction
Tension T
mv
N = mg is of no concern to us.
centripetal force
n x mg
(given)
rmg
ffng
m/s
=2
Fig. II
272
Exercise 98
(Take g
=9.8
I.
2.
3.
Find the centripetal force on a car of mass 1500 kg travelling around a circular
track of radius 7 5.0 m at a speed of 45.0 km/h.
4.
A flywheel of radius 0.4 m rotates with the uniform angular speed of 40n rad/s.
Find the centripetal acceleration of a point on the rim of the wheel.
5.
Find:
(a)
the linear velocity in m/s of a point on the equator where the radius of the
earth is 6400 km.
(b)
6.
7.
8.
(a)
(b)
the linear speed of the satellite in km/h if the radius of the earth is
6400 km
(c)
the centripetal force required to keep the satellite in the orbit if it has a
mass of 1000 kg.
273
9.6
Conical Pendulum
0
mg
Suppose that the particle moves with velocity
v, then the resultant force is along PC and
resolving the forces as shown, we now have
2
Tsin9 = centripetal force = ~
(l)
r
and
v2
Divide (l) and (2): tan9 =
rg
r
and v = rw
Now tan9
Ti
Tcos9
... (2)
Tcos9 = mg
2 2
r w
rg
Fig. 12
f---- mv 2 /r
... (3)
Tsin9
Ti
mg
=ft
... (4)
~11
= 211
JI . .
Fig. 13
(5)
The period is independent of the mass m and depends only on h, the vertical distance
of the circle of rotation below the point of suspension 0.
Note that w
depends only on h.
1.
tan9
3.
2
v
rg
2.
211
4.
= rg tan9
=If
274
EXAMPLE: {8)
A disc of radius 2 m rotates in a horizontal circle about a vertical axis AB. A light
string PQ of length I m tied at the rim of the disc at P, and carries a mass of
2 kg at Q. The disc rotates uniformly such that PQ is inclined at an angle of 45
to the vertical. Find:
(a)
(b)
2
(g = 9.8 m.s )
A
SOLUTION:
The forces acting at Q are:
Tension T in the string
Weight m acting vertically downwards
Resolving at Q along the horizontal and the
vertical directions:
(I)
Tcose = mg
mg
Fig. 14
Tsin6
r = BQ = 2 + I . sin 9
2
Tsin6 = ~
(2)
mg
Fig. 15
gr
45, r
2 + sin 45
gr tanS
(a)
v = 5.15 m/s
(b)
Using Tcose = mg
T = mg sece
'
2 x 9.8 x sec 45
g = 9.8
27.7 N
275
Exercise 9C
-2
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
3.
A
lm
Fig. 16
5.
4.
276
9.1
Banked Tracks
The tendency of a vehicle to skid outwards (along the tangential path) as it rounds the
curve on a horizontal roadway is opposed by the friction between the road and the
tyres (see Fig. 18). The friction is the only force providing the centripetal acceleration
as the vehicle travels along the circular path. This frictional force is never sufficient
to keep the vehicle in the circular path. 1f the road is suitably banked, the upward
thrust of the road on the vehicle then provides the required centripetal force. Banking
means the outer edge is raised above the level of the inner edge of the road (see
Fig. 19).
mv
2P\
' r
\
0..----2
mv
r
Fig. 19
We shall now show that it is possible to choose a banking angle e such that the lateral
friction force is zero.
In Fig. 19, R is the reaction of the road on the vehicle of mass m, as it travels along
the curve of radius r at a speed v. We resolve R into two components:
the friction force F (side thrust), parallel to the slope
(ii) force N, normal to the road surface.
(i)
The resulting acceleration of the vehicle has a magnitude ~ and is directed towards
0, the centre of the circular path.
r
By resolving the forces at P, along and perpendicular to the slope, we have:
force along the slope
=mgcose
- m;
sine.
By choosing 9 such that the side thrust F is zero, we eliminate the tendency of the
vehicle to skid either up or down the slope.
The proper angle of banking for speed v is obtained from
2
m; cos e - mg sine = 0
i.e.l..._ta_n_e___
;_:---1
The frictional force acting parallel to the slope is called the lateral thrust. For a
railway track the use of the correct banking angle 9 (obtained by raising the outer rail
above the inner one) ensures that there is no lateral thrust between the rail and the
wheel flanges, thus reducing the wear on both (rails and wheels). Even when F = 0,
the friction force between the tyres and the road (acting parallel to the direction of
motion) provides the tractive force on the vehicle.
277
A section of a road is in the form of an arc of a circle of radius 1000 m. Find the
banking angle 8 if the road is designed to carry traffic at a speed of 25 m/s.
(g = 9.8 m.s-2 )
SOLUTION:
Ncose
4
Nsin9
mg
Fig. 21
Fig. 20
mg sine
Substituting v
= 25
m/s, g
= 9.8
-2
m.s
r ~ 1000 m ,
2
. tane = v
rg
(1)
tan9
625
1000 X 98
gives 9
= 3.65
Alternatively we can resolve along the horizontal PX and the vertical PY, then:
2
v2
N sin 9 = !!!.!.._ and Ncos 9 = mg,
hence tan 9 =
r
rg
EXAMPLE: (I 0)
A train is travelling around a horizontal curve with uniform speed of 60 km/h. The
radius of the curve is 400 m. The rails are 1.5 m apart. Find the elevation h of the
outer above the inner rail if there is no lateral force on the rails.
SOLUTION:
B
v2
Then h
= ABsin8 = 1.5
sin 4.05
0.106 m
Fig. 22
= 4.05
278
Exercise 90
1.
2.
A section of the road is in the form of an arc of a circle of radius r. The road
is banked at an angle 9, so that a car of mass m travelling at speed v has
no tendency to side slip.
(a)
(b)
3.
4.
A train is travelling around a circular r:urve of radius 200 m with the proper
safe speed of 50 km/h. The rails are 1 m apart. Find the banking angle 9 of
the curve and the elevation h of the outer rail above the inner rail, if there is
-2
no side force on the rails. (g = 9.8 m.s )
5.
A cycling track is in the form of a circle of radius 100 m. The proper safe
speed for this track is 40 km/h. Find the banking angle to 2 decimal places.
(g = 9.8 m.s-2)
6.
A bobsled track has a hairpin curve of radius 16 m. The curve is banked at 72.
What is the maximum safe speed in km/h for the curve, assuming no frictional
forces?
(g = 9.8 m.s-2)
279
9.8
2 2
2
Suppose a particle P moves on a circle x + y = r
and at time t
LPOX = e '
w = d9/dt '
P(x, y)
:. x = rcose
and
y = rsin9
Differentiating wi~h respect !o time t:
.
de
.
de
x :: - r sm 9 dt = - rwsm 9 , y = rcos 9 dt
velocity
.2
y
d9
.
dw
-rwcos e dt - rsm 9 dt
v
let:
rwcose
(I)
rw
.
9
= -rw 2 cos 9 - rw sm
(2)
.
de
2 .
dw
(3)
2
rw
cos9 - ; t p
2 .
rw sme
p
rwsin9
Fig. 24
Fig. 23
Fig. 25
From equations (2) and (3) and the diagrams showing the resolved parts of two
2
accelerations rw and r w, we infer that the acceleration of a point moving on a
circle has two components:
The tangential component
rw
2
2
rw or v
(towards the centre)
p moves on
' a c1rc
Ie x 2 + y 2 = 16 w1t
. h um.f orm angu Iar
A pomt
velocity of 2 rad/s. A is the point (2,0). If LPOA = 9, LPAX = <$
find the angular speed of P about A when 9 = 0 and when 9 =
1T
2.
2 sin(<$ - 9) = sin<$
Differentiating with respect to time t:
2 cos(<$ - e) . (0 -
e)
Angular velocity of
= (cos<$) 0
P about A is
. (I)
0.
Fig. 26
(cont. on the next page)
280
When 9
= O,
Ql = 4 rad/s.
Again, when 9
= O,
=~ , ~
= 2,
= 1,
= {4
2(~ - 2)
= -; = -2
or
= ~ cos!,4
Now cos(IS - 90) = sin~, hence dividing by costS,
2taniS (~ - 2) = Ql
Put tan IS = - 2 and solve for Q1 :
Ql = 1.6 rad/s
:. Angular velocity of P about A when 9 = ~ is
2cos(~ - 90) (~ :.. 2)
1.6 rad/s.
Fig. 27
EXAMPLE: (12)
A car is travelling at 60 km/h and its wheel has a radius of 0.25 m.
u m/s of the highest point of the wheel.
SOLUTION:
-1
-1
v = 60 km h = 16.7 m.s
The angular velocity of a point on the rim about
the centre is given by
_
1
w = v/r = 16.7/0.25 = 66.7 rad h
The situation at time t is shown in the diagram
with P(x,y) on the circle. Assuming P to be
at 0 at t = 0, the distance travelled by the
wheel is OB and this is equal to the arc BP,
i.e. OB = r9.
rsin9,
rw(l - cos9),
BC- NC
y =
=r
Fig. 28
- rcos9
rwsin9
2 2
2r w 0- cos9)
u = 2rwsm
. 9
= =
w = 66.7,
=n
sin9
1-cosa
r
= 0.25,
the
281
Exercise 9E
(ANGULAR VELOCITY)
1.
A point is moving in a circle. Prove that its angular velocity about the centr~
of the circle is double its angular velocity about any fixed point on the
circumference.
2.
3.
b~
r
dX
d9
[Hint: X =PM = bcot9, dt = u, dt = w
0
4.
(b)
and
C(O,a)
5.
2
2
A point P moves on the circle x + y = 25 with uniform angular velocity of
1 rad/s. A is the point (3, 0). If <POA = 9, find the angular speed of P
11
6.
Find the
7.
A train is travelling at 60 km/h and a wheel has a radius of 0.4 m. Find the
magnitude and direction of the velocity of a point 0.2 m above the rail.
282
9.9
EXAMPLE: (13)
Find
SOLUTION:
33
2TI
II TI
= TO rad/s = 3.46 rad/s
(a)
33 rpm
(b)
r x w = 0.15 x lln/10
(c)
rw
60
11 TI 2
0.15 x ( lO)
0.518 m/s
-2
1.79 m.s
EXAMPLE: (14)
(a)
(b)
(c)
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
(c)
2 rad/s
1 x 2 2 = 4 m.s- 2
Fig. 31
EXAMPLE: (15)
The force of attraction between the earth and an artificial satellite in circular orbit
around the earth is given by
F
_ GMm
- (R + h) 2
where G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the earth, m is the mass
of satellite, R is the radius of earth, and h = the height of the orbit above the earth's
surface.
A 1000 kg satellite is circling the earth at 1000 km above the surface of the earth
(g = 10 m.s-2 at the earth's surface). Find:
(a)
(b)
(c)
283
SOLUTION:
s
r.adius of earth
6400 km
satelJite's height
above the earth
1000 km
Given R
7400 km
R + h
GMm
We have: F
Fig. 32
(R+t-i
(a) The gravitational force on the
satelJite is
1000 X 7.48
For h = 0, F = mg
7GMm
GM
mg
gR
7480 N
(I)
When at height h,
let F
mgh
GMm
(R +h)
where r
~2
=R
= 7400
{6400
(7400
+ h
= rgh = (R
(R + h)
10
mv
.
1 f orce = -r= centnpeta
mgh
7.48 m.s-
32
10 )
32
10 )
(c)
= 7.44
The period T =
= 2nx
h) gh
X
10
x 10
2n
w
7400 x 10
7440
6250 s
1.74 h
7.48
m/s
2nr
v
3
284
EXAMPLE: (16)
(g = 10 m.s-2 )
Fig. 33
SOLUTION:
Given: w = 30 rad/s
Radius
CD
AO
AD
oc
2m
2 + 2 + 2
6m
2m
r x w
2 x 30
60 m/s.
At B, y
t
= 60 t
-6
= 1.2
and
or
I
2
2 gt (Axes at 0, as shown)
= {l.is
Now substitute in x = 60 t, x = BC
vf.i'
BC
60 x
AB
65.8 m
-2
10 m.s
285
Exercise 9F
1.
2.
3.
An artificial satellite of the earth travels in a circular orbit of radius 36000 km.
If the period is 12 hours, find the angular velocity, in rad/h, and the speed v in
km/h.
4.
Find the tension in the string when a stone of mass 10 kg is rotating at 60 rpm,
the stone is tied at one end of the string and the other end is fixed at point 0.
The length of the string is 1 m. (rpm -= revolutions per minute)
5.
6.
The force of attraction between the earth and its artificial satellite in circular
orbit is given by F
= G~m ,
= 10
m.s-2
~t
the
7.
8.
A smooth circular disc of radius 0.25 m rotates in a horizontal plane with angular
velocity w = 10 rad/s about a vertical axis through the centre 0. A particle of
mass m is attached at P by light inelastic strings to points M and N on
the ends of a diameter of the disc, such that MP = 0.4 m, NP = 0.3 m and
both strings remain taut. Find the tension in the string NP, and the mass m
if the tension in MP is 20 N.
286
9.
10.
II.
The (water) drops shaken off the rim of a rotating umbrella meet the ground in a
circle of radius r metres. The rim is a circle of diameter I m and is 1.5 m
above the ground. It is rotating with an angular velocity of 411 rad/s. Find the
radius r.
(g = 10 m.s-2)
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Two particles are connected by a string passing through a hole in a smooth table,
one particle being on the table, the other underneath. If the masses of both
particles are equal, find the velocity v of the particle on the table moving on a
circle of radius 2 m, so that the other remains at rest.
(g = I 0 m.s-2)
17.
18.
The orbit of the earth around the sun can be assumed to be a circle of radius
11
1.5 x 10
m described with uniform angular velocity w radians per second.
Given that 1 year = 365.25 days, find
(a)
(b)
19.
The moon makes a complete revolution of the earth in 27.3 days with a nearly
circular orbit of radius 3.85 x 108 m. Find:
(a) the acceleration of the moon towards the earth
(b) the linear velocity, v m/s, of the moon.
287
20.
21.
Given that PQ = 4 m, show that the radius of the circular path of rotation
of C is .f3 m.
Find the tensions in the rods PC and QC when the mass makes 120
revolutions per minute.
distance between the centres of the bodies. Show that the period T of revolution
of the satellite is given by 2~r
["f ,
23.
A satellite S is circling the earth at a height 35800 km above the earth's surface,
with a period of 1 day. Calculate orbital speed of this satellite. (R = 6400 km,
the radius of the earth). Give your answer in km/h.
24.
25.
(a)
Show that BD = R = r
(b)
2
Prove that (r + L sin 9 )w = g tan 9, where
g m.s- 2 is the acceleration due to gravity.
- - - - - _J:::J __ _
D
C
B
~-
L sinS
- - - - - --- ->
R
(c)
(d)
-2
Fig. 34
288
=sinA
A) =-cosA
1.
8.
sin(l80 - A)
2.
cos(A +B)
=cosAcosB
9.
cos(l80 -
10.
If sin x
sinAsinB
3.
4.
. A + sm
. B
sm
5.
. A - sm
. B
sm
. (A-B)
=2cos (A+B)
- - sm
- 2
2
6.
7.
Prove that:
-r
sinB + sinC
sinB - sinC
Solution:
2s1n
L.H.S.
B+C. B-C
2cos(-- ) sm ( -- )
2
2
tan ( B ; C) cot ( B
R.H.S.
then
x = nn + (-l)na
Worked Examples
1.
=sina,
i C)
11.
12.
=2sinxcosx
2
cos2x = 2cos x- 1
= 1 - 2sin 2 x
13.
sin2x
. 2
=cos x- sm x
289
2.
If A + B + C
= 180,
prove that:
=4sinAsinBsinC
Solution:
L.H.S. = 2sin(A + B) cos (A - B) + 2sinCcosC
Now A+ B + C
and
cos(l80 - A - B) = -cos (A + B)
cosC
:. L.H.S.
6
6
Show that cos 9- sin 9
Solution:
3
3
Using a - b
=cos29 (1
-! sin2 29)
2
2
2
2
- b) (a + ab + b ), a = sin &, b = cos 9
2
2
4
4
2
2
L.H.S. = (cos 9- sin 9) (cos 9 + cos 9 sin 9 + sin 9)
2
2
Now cos a - sin a = cos 29
. 2a + sm
. 4a = <cos 29 + sm
. 29)2 - cos 2a sm
. 29
an d cos 4e + cos 29 sm
2
2
:. LH.S.
cos29 (1- cos 9sin 9)
1 2 2a
a cos a , so sm
2 a cos 2 a = 4sm
2a = 2 sm
Agam,
sm
2
:. L.H.S. = cos29 (1
sin 29) = R.H.S.
= (a
. 2a
=1 - cos 2a sm
-!
4.
(b)
(c)
(a)
= ./5-4 1
Solution:
(a)
cos39
Dividing by 5,
9
= 72.
= (18,
n + 18, n = 0,1,2,3,4
(b)
We use:
cos(A+B) = cosAcosB - sinAsinB
Put A = 9, B = 29, then:
cos39
= cos9cos29 - sinS sin29
=cos9(2cos 29-1) - 2sin9. sin9cos9
= 2cos39 - cos 9 - 2cos a (1 - cos2 9)
= 4cos 3 9- 3cos9
290
(c)
5.
Using tan (A + B)
tanA + tanB
prove that
1 - tanAtanB'
tan (x + y + z)
(b)
(c)
(d)
n
<n>
2
- 3t - 3t + 1
= tanx
3
- 3t
- 3t + I
=0
Solution:
(a)
Put A
= x,
=y
+ z
tan (x + y + z)
tanA + tanB
1 - tan A tanB
tanx + tan(~ + z)
1 - tanxtan y + z)
tany + tanz
1 - tanytanz
tanx(tany + tanz)
1 - tanytanz
Put z = y
=x
tan 3x
3tanx - tan x
2
- 3tan x
(c)
Put x = Ti
Now tan
(d)
<i>
t = tan x
n
3
3t - t
tan (!!. ) = - -2
4
I - 3t
- 3t
- 3t + I
(l)
= -1,
< I,
< tan (
> = tan I 5
4! {i2
i.e. -1, 2!
1/3.
we have tan I 5 = 2 -
/3.
Observing that
291
Exercise 1OA
For questions 1 to 5 prove that:
2
2
1.
(a)
8sin ecos e = 1 - cos49, hence
2
4
(b)
32cos 9sin e = 2 -cos29- 2cos49 +Cos69
8
8
2
2.
(a)
cos e- sin e = cos29 (1 - ~ sin 29)
(b)
6
6
cos e + sin e =
(1 + 3cos 2 29)
jl1 _sine
+ sine
3.
n e)
tan ( 4 + 2
4.
5.
6.
if A + B + C
= seca +tanG
(a)
(b)
7.
= 180,
prove that:
1f A + B + C
(a)
= 90,
prove that:
(b)
4cosAcosBcosC
Sin
1 - 2sinAsinB sinC
8.
9.
(a)
sin4a = cos29
(b)
sin39 = sin29
4 sin 2 a - 3cos 2 9 = 1
(a)
(b)
10.
reduces to cos 3 a
(a)
= V2
= V2
2
.f2 =
n +cos (9rr
17n
Prove that: cos (TI)
TI) + cos(TI)
11.
(a)
(b)
(c)
6n)
Deduce that cos ( 2n ) + cos (411) +cos <7
7
7
(d)
= 21
2-1
292
(ii)
(iii)
I.
Equation of a Circle
(x - h)
+ (y - k)
= r
(1)
(2)
+ y
+ 2gx + 2fy + c
(3)
~2
+ f
- c.
+ Ay
+ Bx + Cy + D
(4)
when divided by A, reduces to the general form (3), so, (4) is also a general
equation of a circle.
293
EXAMPLE: (1)
(a)
SOLUTION:
(a)
~ )2
+ (y _
~ )2
=a
(b)
b
2 , 2)
a
So, the centre is C <
and the radius is
/a 2
+ y
(x +
+ b
5 2
6)
5x
T
4y
+ (y + 2)
=0
2
169
= 36
. (- 5 ,
Th e centre 1s
2)
EXAMPLE: (2)
Find the equation of the circle through the points (0, 0), (4, 8), (9, 9).
SOLUTION:
x + y
+ 2gx + 2fy + c
= 0,
=0
16 + 64 + 8g + 16f
f and g:
= -10
= -8,
(l)
=0
and
g+ f
and
f
81 + 81 + l8g + l8f = 0
= -9
= -1
=0
EXAMPLE: (3)
Find the equation of the circle which touches both axes and passes through the point
A (l, 2).
SOLUTION:
Let (x - h)
+ (y - k)
=r2
(l)
( l - h)
.,. (2)
=l
+ 5
= 0.
or 5
Thus, there are two circles, satisfying the given conditions, i.e.
2
2
2
2
(x - 1) + (y - l > = l
and
(x - 5) + (y - 5) = 25
294
3.
m'
gradient of AP
= gradient of
BP =
= -1
~
X.-
v - k'
~
(x - h) (x - h') + (y - k) (y - k') = 0
EXAMPLE: (4)
Find the equation of the circle on AB as diameter where A is (2, 3) and B is (4, 5).
SOLUTION:
The required equation is obtained by substituting for
or
+ y
- 6x - 8y + 23
= 0
295
T
4.
Tangents to a Circle
+ y
+ 2 gx + 2 fy + c
= 0.
. (I)
of CP
Y1+f
=-xl+g
= gradient
= - (x 1 + g)
=-
-J
=-m =-
X}+g
--yl+f
XI + g
'Yi"+T
(x - x 1)
(x - x )
1
The reader is advised not to memorise this equation, but derive the result for each
question.
It will be instructive to prove the following results:
1.
2.
2
2
2
The equation of the tangent at P(x I' y ) to the circle x + y = a is
1
2
xx + yy = a and at P(acos9, asin9) is xcos9 + ysin9 =a.
1
1
Prove that
- ; :
2
of the tangent at P(xl'yl) to the circle x + /
+ 2gx + 2fy + c
= 0.
EXAMPLE: (5)
Find the equation of the tangent at A(-1, 3) to the circle x
. C ( 4, T
-7).
SOLUTION: The centre IS
+/
- 8x + 7y - 39
= 0.
A is (-1, 3)
.
3 + 7/2 = lO
- 13
Th e grad 1ent
o f CA = :-y-:t;""
10
13
and
296
Exercise 1OB
1.
2.
(1,0), (0,-1),(0,0)
(b)
(-1,3),(2,2),(1,4)
(a)
3.
Find the equation of the circle whose centre is on the x-axis and which passes
through the points (0, 3) and (4, 1).
4.
Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at the point C (-3, -4) and
which is tangential to the line 3x + 4y = 20.
5.
Find the equation of the circle through the point A (-1, 2) and which is
tangential to both axes.
6.
Find the equation of the circle centred on the line y = 2x, which passes
through the point A (-2, 4) and is tangential to the x-axis.
7.
8.
9.
Find the equation of the circle passing through the origin and making intercepts
a and b on the x- and y-axis respectively.
10.
Find the intercept made on the x-axis by the circle which has AB as diameter,
where A is (0, -1) and B is (2, 3).
11.
Find the equations of the tangents to the following circles at the points indicated:
2
(a)
x + / - 6x - 2y - 3 = O,
(5, 4)
(b)
(c)
(x - 1)
+ y
+ (y + 2)
- 4x + 2y
= 5,
= 20,
= mx
(3, -3)
(5, 3)
= a 2,
13.
2
Find the equations of the two tangents to the circle x + / - 2x - 6y + 6 = 0
which pass through the point P (-1. 2). Use lx + my + n = 0. (Warning: do not
use y = mx +b)
14.
15.
(a)
(c)
+y
+ b
12.
if
2
2
2
2
Show that the circles x + y = 4 and x + y + 6x - 8y + 16 = 0 touch
externally.
297
EXAMPLE: (l)
ABC is an equilateral triangle, inscribed in a
circle. X is a point on the minor arc BC.
Prove that: (i)
t.BDX
(ii)
Ill
XB + XC
t.ACX
XA
SOLUTION:
Given:
t.ABC is equilateral
Prove:
(i)
Ill
(ii)
t.ACX
XB + XC
XA
We have,
Proof:
(i)
t.BDX
=z =60
x =z
(t.ABC is equilateral)
and y = u ( Ls
= y = 60
=q
L BDX
(ii)
XB
XA
= LACX
t.BDX Ill t.ACX
BD
AC
giving
XB AC = XA BD
= XA
Ill
CD
(2)
XC . AB = XA (BD
CD)
CX = XA.
(I)
= BC
XA BC
298
EXAMPLE: (2)
In the diagram, AD and BE are perpendicular
to BC and AC respectively. Prove that:
(a)
(b)
AH
= AK
Given:
Prove:
ADlBC, BEJ.AC
(a) HDCE is a cyclic quadrilateral
(b)
AH
Proof:
LHEC
(a)
...
LHDC
AK
= 90
= 90
(BE lAC)
(AD .i BC)
(b)
=z
X :
t.AHK is isosceles
AH
AK
EXAMPLE: (3)
In the diagram, BC is a fixed chord of a circle,
A is a variable point on the major arc on the
chord BC.
BD J.AC and CE
(a)
j_ AB.
Prove that:
(b)
(c)
299
SOLUTION:
Given:
Prove:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
Proof:
Since chord
BC
L ABO
= 90 - a
(BD J_AD)
BC
as diameter)
ED
must be of
constant length.
(c)
MD
- PD
Now r = MD= MC =
= r 2 - s2
1
2 sc = a constant
s = PO = ED which is a constant
2
MP
is a constant
Hence, the locus of P is a circle with the centre
at the mid-point of BC and the radius
300
Exercise 10C:
1.
2.
In Fig. 3, 0
prove that a + b
4.
=c.
.5.
(Fig.2)
7.
8.
(Fig.6)
301
9.
= TC
- AD.
= MA.
(See Fig. 8)
11.
12.
= y = z)
13.
14.
In Fig. 11, 0
= 45.
(Fig.10)
(Fig. II)
302
15.
16.
(Fig. 12)
17.
18.
Ill
AFBN
(Fig.l4)
19.
{Fig.l5)
303
20.
21.
(a)
Prove that
=CA. CB
(b)
(Fig.18)
22.
B. AB produced
(Fig.l9)
23.
Prove:
= MA MB and RN
(a)
MP
(b)
PM = MQ
= NB. NA
(c)
PQ = RS
(Hint:
t.OEC : t.OFC)
(d)
MA = BN
(Hint:
MP = RN)
(Fig.20)
304
p
24.
L PMQ is of
25.
R
(Fig.2l)
26.
.L YW.
(Fig.22)
27.
l BHF = LBAC
l BHC + LBAC
Ill
Ill
180
(c)
6AEF
(d)
6BDF
6ABC
(e)
AD bisects L FOE
(f)
(g)
6EDC
(Fig.23)
305
10.4 Inequalities
Definition:
>y
if and only if x - y
> 0.
Worked Examples
1.
Prove that a ; b
Solution:
Consider
a+b2
1 2
2
1
2
Now ( 2-) - ab = 7i (a + 2ab + b ) - ab = 7i (a - b) ~ 0
~ -Jib,
a ; b
2.
> 0,
=i ,
Using (1),
From (2),
3.
, b
Solution:
Put
>0
for a
=y ,
then:
VxY ,<
VxY ,<
-y1
1
4
i1 + y
'l c
for x > 0 , y > 0
vas
(1)
~ _2_
1
-~
VxY
or
~
= b.
(2)
VXY
(a)
+ y 'l2xy
(d)
x +) +z
'l
(b) - + L. 'l2
y X
(c)
+y
+z
3xyz
(xyz)l/3
(cont)
306
Solution:
(a)
Consider
X
(b)
+y
+ y
+ y
~ 0
- 2xy
(x - y)
- 2xy
~ 2xy
xy,
then:
~+x.:V2
(c)
We have
From (a),
x
+ y
x
+ y
(x + y) (x
~
- xy
+ y
- xy)
xy
3 + y 3 >.,- (x + y) xy
~ xyz ( ~ + ~)
>,.xyz(~+i),
y3+z3
Similarly
Adding these:
2 (x
+ y
3
+ z )
XV
VZ
ZX
~ xyz [ (- + .._)
+ ( L + -)
+ (- + -) ]
+ (X. + ~)
+ ( ~ + ~) ]
y
Z
+ y
Hence
(d)
3
x
3
+ z )
3
+ y
>, xyz (2 + 2 + 2)
+ z
=x
x+y+z
Hence
=y
3xyz
+ b
, c
then:
+c
=z
3abc
x +
+ z
(xyz)
113
equality for
Arithmetic Mean
= y = z.
n positive numbers
x 1 + x2 + . + xn
1.e.
x , x , , xn
1 2
is
307
-Exercise 100
1.
(a)
+ b
+ c
>0
a
~
, c
> 0,
ab + be + ca.
(b)
>0
, b
c 2 >,... 3 (abc) 2/ 3
2.
3.
Prove that
(c)
:r
x, y, z
0,
x + y + z
:r
[3 (xy + yz + zx) ] l/
.
a+b
c+d
(Hmt: Let x = - - , y = - - , then use worked example
2
2
4.
formulas S
= 2 (ab
(ii)
x, y
> 0,
/> (z 2 + i>
>,
(xz + yu)
~ 0)
>,. 0)
+ y
+ z ) (a
+ b
+ c )
Using the
= abc
(Hint:
If
repeatedly)
and V
+ be + ca)
(i)
5.
>, (ax
+ by + cz)
308
(i)
Show that for each positive integer n, there are unique positive integers
a
(ii)
and b
= a n + /3.
-n
Solution:
(i)
.{3;
+ .fj. b
1
1
= 1 which are unique integers.
For n = I, L.H.S. = 1 +
a1
= I,
1
Assume that (1 + o/'J)k
R.H.S. = a
= ak
o/1.
(l + v'j) (1 + o/3)k
Then (1 + v'J)k+l
= (l + Jj) (ak +
.r::3)k+l ::: (
3b )
r::3 (
b )
(1 + '"
~ +
k + v" ak + k
VJ.
.. (1)
ak+l +
and
Since ak and bk are unique integers, so are ak+l and bk+l . Thus the
statement is true for n = k + I.
Since true when n
Since true when n
= 1,
=2,
= 2.
To prove: a 2 - 3 b 2
n
= (- l)n
=a 12 -
2n
For n = I, L.H.S.
be true for n
=k,
3b
we have:
a / - 3 b/ = (-l)k 2k
Then,
a~+l
- 3 b~+l
This simplifies to - 2
(2)
= (ak + 3bk)
(a~
a~+l-3b~+l =
3b~)
- 3 (ak + bk)
-2.(-l)k.2k
=k
= 2k+l(-l)k+l
+ 1 and, by the principle of induction,
309
2.
(b)
2n + 3
(2n + 3)
4n
>
2 ( .fi1:;l - 1)
1
.;J
+ +
For n = 1, L.H.S.
=1
and
1+
1
./2
We add
+ 12n + 9 - 4 (n
1::'"7""1
v'il1 > 2 ( -vn
+ ,
+ 3n + 2)
>0
Vi<1 >
+ +
-~
=k,
2(
(1)
- 1)
ff1
> 4 (n + 1) (n + 2)
> 2 J(n + 1) (n + 2)
+
1 +
r.:vr
We have:
2
(2n + 3) - 4 (n + 1) (n + 2)
S(n)
.J(n + I) (n + 2)
(2n + 3)
(b)
>2
Solution:
(a)
> 0,
(a)
= I.
vk
+ 1 - 1)
V" + 1
s (k
+ 1)
>
2 v'i('"":;'"1 +
v1<TJ
>
- 2 = 2k + 3 - 2
v'i<Ti
v1<+T
2 y(k + 1) (k + 2) - 2 ~
v'i(;1
2 ( ~- I)
>
=k
2 ( ./(k + I) + I - 1)
3.
Solution:
For n
1, L.H.S.
= sinx,
= k,
R.H.S.
= 1.
. <"x).
(n+l) x
sm
2 sm - 2sin ( ~)
sin
<1-> sin x
sin ( ~)
sin x
. ( kx ) . sm
. ( -k +- 1 ) x
sm
2
2
sin ( ~)
310
. ( -k +- 1 ) x. sm
. (T
kx )
sm
2
S(k + 1) =
sin ( ~)
= sin (
:. S (k + 1)
"(k+1)
2sm
- x. cos (k+1)
- 2x
2
+ sin (k + 1) x
+)
k
. ( kx)
sm T
[ sin ( ~)
k +- I) x
+ 2cos(2
( 1)
Bracketed expression
. (T
kx ) + 2 cos ( -k +- 1 ) x sm
. x
sm
2
2
sin ( ~)
We use
. ( kx )
. ( k + 2)
. ( kx )
sm T + sm - 2x - sm T
2cosA sinS
sin ( ~)
=sin(A +B)
- sin(A- B)
. (k+2)
sm
- 2x
sin ( ~)
s (k
sin(~)x. sin(~)x
+ 1) =
sin ( ~)
Exercise 1OE
Use mathematical induction to prove the results in questions 1 to 5.
1.
xn - 1
x:-r
2.
n-1
n-2
+ X
+ 1,
2n
+ + 1+2+3+ +n = n+T
4.
2 3
and
5.
1 .2+2
.2
2n + 3
2(n + 1)(n + 2)
1
3
+ -n(;-n--:'-+-;:2~) 4
Prove that t
JI
2,
t2
=6.
5n-l + 1.
+3
.2
+ +n
.2
(n 2 - 2n + 3) 2n+l - 6
(cont)
311
I
Show that ;; -
6(i)(a)
I
n-+1
=
<
I
and
1
n (n + l)
(n + 1)2
n (n + I)
(b)
>
Show 1.4.5 ~
(c)
s99
1.99
(ii)Using the method of induction, prove that for each positive integer n there are
unique positive integers a and b such that
n
(l+f2)n=a
.fi.b.
n
n
2
2
Prove that a
- 2b
n
n
= (- l)n
7.
8.
If u 1
= 2,
u 2 = 3 and u
n+ 2
= 3un+ 1 -
>- I
n-1
un = 2
+ I.
9.
I o + c I~ Ibl
+ lei,
lx 1 + x 2 + x 3 + + xnl ~ I x 11 + lx 2 1 + + lxnl
10.
11.
3
2
Prove by induction that 2n - 3n +
12.
= nc
r\
+ 31
and
~ 0.
n+lc
r
nc
+ nc
r-1
, prove by
r
13.
= nC
+ nC X + nC X
1
2
. ( 3x)
. ( x)
smy-sm
2
(a)
Show that
(b)
2sin ( ~)
+ + nc x
+ +
nc x
cosx
. (2n+l)
x
sm - -22sin ( ~)
- 2
312
10.6 Properties of Integrals
y
1.
Piecewise Functions
Let f (x)
=
=
g (x), if a
h(x), if c
<x ~
Jb f(x)dx
Then
/1
Jb h(x)dx
g(x)dx +
I
I
I
I
l
0
EXAMPLE: (1)
Evaluate
SOLUTION:
f (x)
f(x)
= Ix I, - l ~ x ~ 1
= -x for -1 ~ x ~
=
x for 0
-1
f(x)dx
-1
f(x)
=
=
sinx for
(-x)dx +
EXAMPLE: (2)
If
<x ~
for
-n"
0
x~ 0
< x 'n
fn f (x) dx
(a)
Evaluate
(b)
-n
= f(x)
SOLUTION:
(a)
As an integral
= I_:sin x dx
I:f(x) dx
[-cosx]
-'11
'1l
+ [~ ]
x dx
'1l
-'11
'1l
-2 + T
y = sinx
(b)
-n
=2
+ ~
Sq. u.
X dx
313
CXAMPLE: (3)
=t
- 6,
<t
r:
f (t)dt
(a)
(b)
Find and determine the nature of the stationary points of the curve y
(c)
=F(x);
= F(x)
=F(x)
F(6) =
4
O (2 - t) dt +
4
t2 4
t2
6
[2t - - ]
+ [ - - 6t]
2
2
F(6)
16 (t - 6) dt
0 + -2
= -2
10
(b)
F(x) =
J0 t(t)dt,
:. F'(x)
=f(x)
O~t~8
.". 2 -
X ::
0, 0 ~
= 0,
X ~
<x ~
I:
F 1 (x) = 2x -
=0
F(x)
F(2)
f(t)dt =
=[2t
<t ~
I:
y , 0'
x~ 4
=y- 6x + 16,
< x~
X ::
0, 4, 8
diagram.
I:
(t - 6) dt, 4
= f' (x)
F(2) =
F 2 (x)
~ t~
(2 - t) dt ,
x-axis, i.e.
(1)
F(x) =
(2- t)dt
B
2 2
T] 0
(2x - y)dx +-
f (y- 6x + 16)dx
4
16 -(-16)
32 sq.u.
314
2.
l.
n1 ~
logen
n
13 + 2 3 + + n 3 ~ T
2.
f(x) dx.
y
y
f(l)
f(J)
3 n-1 n
n-1
Decreasing function
Increasing function
,<
r
r
f(x)dx
2.
f(x)dx
EXAMPLE: (I)
SOLUTION:
i
I
- dx
= logen,
+ +
f(x)
then using:
Let f(x) = - , 1 ~ x ~ n
= .!.X is
decreasing function
f(x) dx
I
n ~ logen.
3 n-1
n x
315
Exercise 1OF
Find the integral of the function f(x) on the stated interval:
f(x) = x + 2 if 0 ~ x ~ 2 and f(x) = 4, 2
1.
On [0, 5] ,
2.
On [0, 2] , f(x) = Ix -
3.
4.
=
5.
<x ~
II
-11 ~
X,
x ~ 0,
(X~ 11
<t
f:
~ x~
-1
h(x)
(a)
f(t)dt, 0
intervals 0
2 and 2
<x ~
(b)
Find all the turning points of the function h(x) and hence sketch it.
(c)
Find
h(x)dx
Find the area between the curve y = h(x), the x-axis for 0
(d)
~ 5
7.
f(x)
8.
f(x)
9.
f(x)
1
= _/'::':
.Pr
VL
vx
rx : .fi
= x 2 : 12 +
=--1- 2 :
_rrf"
+ + - ~
Vz
+ +
f:
Vo ~
...... + (n - 1)
rn- 1)
2 (
vn
VJ
X dx
n
T
~ 1
+ 2
+ + n
10. f(x)
n r = I
*, ,. . , ,. . , ,
+ r
(Hint:
n
+ r
2 ::
1
+ (r/n)
316
Appendix 1
Bisector of an Angle of a Triangle
Theorem: The bisector (internal or external) of an angle of a triangle divides the
opposite side (internally or externally) in the ratio of the sides containing
the angle bisecte_?_. p
A,"
,
,'
I
I
Lhl
(Fig. 1)
(Fig. 2)
Given: AD bisects L BAC, internally, in Fig. (1), externally in Fig. (2), and cuts
BC (produced) at D.
Prove:
BD
AB
DC = AC
Then:
AP : AC,
:.
~~
BA
= i\C
317
Appendix 2
=c2
Rectangular Hyperbola: xy
''
''
''
(Fig. 2)
(Fig. 1)
- y
=a
(l)
X -
Let X
= PM
and
and Y
+ y =0
= PN
(Fig. 1)
!...:....l
XY =
.fi
2
Putting c
-2 ~ 2
and
<]
[ , ax 1 +by 1
2
2
fa + b
= ~
Vi
a
= y,
(2)
=a 2
referred
=c 2
Alternatively, using complex numbers and taking P(x,y) as any point on the conic
2
x - y
=a 2,
Iet
P' (X , Y) a f ter OP 1s
. rotate d
X + 1. Y represent t he pomt
.
anticlockwise through 4 5.
X + i Y = cis(i->
X =
(x
+ iy) =
~(I
+ i) (x + iy) = x~-:/
!...:....l and Y = ~
.fi
.fi
The effect of the rotation used in this method is shown in Fig. 2 - where the
orientation of the hyperbola and its asymptotes is that of the familiar type
2
xy = c
318
Answers
(All answers are given to three significant figures)
319
(b)
y = sin x + cos x
,/
/
"'
_.,
"'
,~----
-X
y,v.
(c)
y
(d)
=X
+COS X
//
\ /'
........-1
/\
/A\
~
2 (a)
_--
y =X+-
~\
(b)
= sin x -
I
I
__,
cos x I
/I
I
X
(d)
(c)
--
= X -COS X
= X - -XI
320
(b)
3 (a)
l
.I
(c)
"-----r
,_
4 (a)
-ll
(b)
y
y = cos(x-1)
/
"
. . . -r
Y=e
X+l
(b)
....
X
, ,0
./
-ll
. .
Mammum at
6 (a)
"
,"
7 (a)
sin x
Y =X-
,~
X -
= iC-+"2
I
(b)
'
--)
""
1
e
-,
""
1
---~--
\
\
\
\
I
I
I
X
y = (log x)
321
8 (a)
8 (b)
.Jsin x
y =
,
y =
3/2
2n
9 (a)
-x
,Y
..... = e
-n
3n
-4
o/f, 2)
Min (- If. 2)
Max, (
-2
-~
.
= e-x smx
9 (b)
1\
2
'
o o O , . , . , , \oo o
, -
/4
I
Ooo oo , / . o -
.5
o
:v,
. , o - oo
9 (d)
I
I
9 (c)
,,
"
'
\
\
\
I
I
2 -x
y =x e
I
I
2
I
y :
2 (2 +X)
2-x
I
I
y = (x - 2)
-7
+ I
')i
______ 1. ____ 3
I
_ _!L
II (a)
y
= 2lx - II 8
I
I
-)
3 4
2
3x - 7
y = (x- 2){x + 3)
I
I
I
I
(b)
=-3 ,
I
(c ) Max. ( J ,
x~O
= 2
5) ,
Mm. (7,
IY I .(.
(e)
(f)
2.66
n /2
14
5 )
or
x?4
323
11 (b)
12-------:~r-~--------~--~--------------------
( ) E.!1
a
(b) 471
3
15
13
(c) 1.6
14
(d) 1.66
Yt
15
I
I
(b) A
= 1,
(c) 1oge6
16
-1
-:
)
I
I
I
-I
-2
3x + 2
y = (2x - I Hx + 3)
324
Exercise 18
1.
(a)
~-
(b)
2~
(c)
""'
-1
-2
!/
IV
1.5
.. X
3
y
(d)
3'\
X
2
""' ""-
-2
-4
-,L
-11
(e)
~
3
2.
(a)
y
1
0
- 1
-2
- 1
1~
- 1
Y.l'
- 1
1/
2L
1'
""
"-~2
v /I
~
Y.i-
-1
(b)
I'
c)
'/
(d)
""-2
I""
v
/1
l
"'0
-I
X'
'
325
(e)
{f)
I/
"
"'
1/
0
1"'
~
-2
/1
-1 -1 1
v
/
'\~2
(g)
(h)
"'
"'"
0
- 1
I
3.
y
e--C
__.
'
...-o'
I
-2
' I
-1
3
X
..-o
/2
I 1
-211
"'0
-3
...
.-2 1\.
~
-2
-~
)(
(q
(P)
(::>)
('e)
/
X (
z-
(q) 9
X
!;""0
(l!)
x,
'e
zq + z-e
q-
VN
= -edJ\1
327
8 (a)
(b)
Max. A (- J , 5.6)
(c)
(d)
-
(e)
-1
9 (a)
~)_/;'
_____ I_ 2_ ..
I
I
12
)X
(d)
-~.=..L
__ _
0
_j
\j
(!)
v.
r
(4)
!.
1I
,....1,....
//
~I
329
10 (c)
"T
X
------~--~-~~-
(a)
- - --2 -
(b)
(d)
(f)
2n
ll
3n
4n
(i)
Y n/2
-n/2
331
12 (k)
12 (m)
13 (a)
(b)
-1
X
(d)
(c)
X
(e)
(f)
(1nl4, 0.003)
I
(3m4,- 0.067)
-x
y = e COS X
~ X~
211
2n
6 .
:)
(d)
i\__/
A
I
X
Min. at
X
A (e, e)
(f)
Max. at
1
A (e, e)
e)
2 2
Max. at A (e ,
(d)
-----,--1
~~
333
16.
<X
y'
I ,
( ) Minimum A (
-1.39
1
2 , - 1.39)
Asymptptes at x = 0 and
X : 1
(d)
17 (c)
c 1 (x)
~Jog
I X
-I
(a)
1 , -1
(b)
All real x ,
(c)
Inflexion at x
18. (e)
Iy I < 1
= 0.
Y
(a)
IX I '
(a)
(d)
Inflexion at x = 0
(b)
dx- ~
I -X
I
'- _.,.'
X
(c)
y
I2Yl ~
(c)
19~-
1'
(d)
~I
is
n: :J
c)
Max. at
(b)
Asymptote at x = 0
eI )
(a)
-I
A (e,
as x 4
co.
y -+-co as x -+ 0 .
1.
--------I
1
~),----A
C (0,
B(4, 0),
1 ) y -+
Min. at
A (I .8, 0.7)
Max. at
P (6.6, 0.2)
3J
I
I
I
I
I
Asymptote at x = 2
Min. at A (0,
0
~3.
I
I
I
I
I
\i
4)
I1
24.
I
Min. at 0 (0, 0)
Max. at
y
A(2, z)
e
as
y -+ co
as
-+
+CO
.
0 as x + .:!: co
335
~-I,
Y.
-----~---------
:~
-~-------
27.
Y.
26.
p (1, 6)
Q(-1, 6)
B(-1, -6)
28.
A (1, I)
-In,
0 :2
B(-1, -I)
I
I
29.
30.
------2_.L_
----- --ry
31 (a)
I
I
I
t2- - - - -
Q_ ,_ _ _ _ !__
-'i/
31 (b)
31 (c)
y = .!. I (horizontal)
12
'(\:
t.
'
337
(b)
II
I
I
A is (-1, -2)
CHAPTER 2 INTEGRATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
(a)
(x2 + 1)4
4
(b)
(d)
_ (x4 + 0 -1
(e)
_.! (I
(g)
Ft
(h)
- 4 /1-
(a)
3
cos x
--3-
(b)
4Sln
(d)
- 5I cot 5 x
(e)
-I
cosx
(g)
5
I
5 sec x
(h)
3 (1
(a)
l X
3e
(b)
(d)
log (ex+
(a)
I
2
2(logex)
(d)
5.
6.
(I + logx)
loge (x
(f)
-1 2
tan (x )
(c)
5
I
5 tan x
l . 4
X
- 5I (l
- tan- I (e-x)
(c)
(b)
3I (log x) 3
(c)
- I (logx) -2
2
(b)
tan (cosx)
(c)
sin x
2
log 2
e
+ tanx)
+ cosx)
3
. -1
sm x
-2
(d)
1 l o[ex
- 1
g2
ex + I
-16 4
0.367
+ I)
rx
-2
_.! ecos 2x
(d)
_ x2)3/2
(c)
~)
(a)
(a)
(f)
- (1 - l>5
-1
1
(b)
(e)
16
0.(,2
(c)
(f)
338
CHAPTER 2 INTEGRATION
I.
2.
(a)
(x2 + 1)4
4
(b)
25
-{l-x)
5
(c)
loge (x
(d)
_ (x4 +
(e)
_!
(f)
tan
(g)
./T"".
(h)
- 4
(a)
3
cos x
--3-
(b)
I . 4
ij SIO X
(c)
(d)
- 5I cot 5 x
(e)
5
sec x
(h)
J1 (I
(b)
(g)
3.
4.
5.
6.
0 -1
1 X
Je
(d)
Jog (ex+
e
(a)
2 (logex)
(d)
(I + 1ogx)
-2
(a)
_!
(d)
I
-I I og [ex
- -2
ex + 1
(a)
(d)
+ I)
2
(x )
rx
I
5
tan x
- 5I
- tar\ 1 (e-x)
(c)
(b)
3I (logx) 3
(c)
- 2I
(b)
-1
.
tan (cosx)
(c)
sin x
2
Jog 2
e
-1
cosx
+ tanx)
(I + cosx)
. -1
sm x
~)
(1ogx)-2
-2
ecos 2x
1
1
ii
(b)
T6
0.367
(e)
0.62
-16
/1-
-1
(f)
(a)
(I _ x2)3/2
(c)
(f)
337
(b)
34.
I,
I
I
-1
I
I
A is (-1' -2)
IIA
fl
339
Exercise 28
1.
(a)
e-x (-x - 1)
2.
()
a
21 x
(c)
(a)
(c)
(b)
(constant omitted)
ex (x
"2 x + 1 cos 2x
sm
(b)
4X
3/2
(a)
5.
(a)
X COS-I X-
(c)
2x
(a)
x log (x
(c)
2x
7.
(a)
8.
(a)
9.
(a)
(b)
-1
tan
2x
-1
2 tan
logx +
2
3>
11
10.
(a)
12.
(a)
.{3 -
11
log 2
8I COS
x [ (log x) 2 - 2 Jog x + 2]
(c)
3
TI
(b)
or
[ (Jog x)
2
(b)
r;:-)J ()
b
-2x .
2
e
(sm 3x cos 3x)
2 - log x + I
(e)
. -1 2
I x {4r---7
x
x"- + 2 sm
(b)
/2n -
(b)
I
log 10
or
(e 11/2 - I)
2]
i sin 2x + i cos 2x
(b)
4 - 2
X -
(d)
x tan-1 x - I log (x 2 + I)
[~ : ~]
x
- 4X Sill
(Jogx-
(b)
- I) - 2x - Jog
(logx)
;;-7
x -
(sinx - cosx)
4.
6.
(b)
3.
2e
(c)
- 2x + 2)
log I Oe
(c)
4 +4
(f)
112 + lJ
_1_6_
(c)
-2
(d)
(g)
(e)
~ Oe 2
(h)
- 4e
-3
- I)
(f)
3 -2
( i) _ iie
+4
340
1r
(j)
11
(m)
(k)
4 - 2
TT
(I)
(1 - log 2)
2 -
+ 411 - 8
64
Exercise 2C
2
1.
7.
sin 4x
- ----rr-
2.
5.
COS
311
+ 32
u3
3
8.
9.
2
cot x
--2-
I 0.
21 (log
11.
-u - u 3
3
13.
1
2
I
4 tan 2x + 2 log
15.
_ ~ u5/3
u5
log sinx
c:os 2x
~ cos
14. -
.1.
~ ull/3 _
u17/3
+ 11
17
'
u7
(U = sinx)
19.
22.
11/3
24.
- Jog (2 + cosx)
'
tan
12. 21 SIO
. 2X
(U = cotx)
16.
2U
17.
23.
25.
6.
Tu - -2u
5-
D,
X
2 -
u
3 , (U = sin x)
(U = cosx)
cosec x cot x)
.
- (; SIO
3 2
X
2x +
cos
2x
(U = cosx)
- 31 cot 3 x
18.
1
U+D
(U = cosx)
'
2
- tan (x/2) or tanx + secx 21.
20.
13
4 - 3
7
5
3
X
COS X
-5- - -3-
2 u7/2, (U = sinx)
11
3.
log [ t + I - /'i
t+l+n
t =
13-
tan[~ J
1
4 log 3
Exercise 20
1.
e X x ll - n 1
11
4.
(2n - 2)
_.1
2 , x
n -2x n
e
+ 2 1n-1
[ (x 2 xJ 2)n- I + ( 2n - 3) 1n - I ]
3.
x (log x)
11
n I
n- 1
341
5
- 5u
(ij)
5.
(i)
6.
(a)
c 5s
-6-
3
5C S
--vi'"
15CS
48
3
Ju -
15x
48
x ,
(U = cotx)
S = sinx)
(C = cosx,
3511
(b)
256
7.
(a)
3511
256
8.
(a)
4 - 2 -
9.
(a)
10.
32
-m
12.
e (x
t4
311
(b)
32 - 4
t2
log cosx ,
11
<b> ii -
(t = tanx)
76
m
n .
n-1
In= U smU + nU
cosU- n(n-1) ln_ , where x = sinU
2
{b)
11
8- 311 .,. 6
II.
- 4x
+ 12x
28
13.
- 24x + 24)
TI
Exercise 2E
+~)
I.
log(x
4.
6.
8.
~ ~-
10.
12.
-2
.-lx
/lJ
2.5
. -1
sm
5X
a22 log(x +
25
J 2.5 -
13.
;;-7) +
r--2)
I+
X
19.
21.
- log
Y'l- X
~
~ ~ + 2 log (x
I
sec- I
X~
+ x'
2V4
~
2 log (x +
(4 + x 2) -l/ 2
1~.
~X
I - x
v,;r::-;)
18.
20.
~log (JT:9
a . . ;~
. -1 x
sm
r---2
VI
- x~
"(x)
~ ~
7.
II.
I log (
or
,---z
- X~
9.
I 5.
17.
~)
11 [;;;-::;
2]
x
og
3 - 2 V 25
~)
21og(x+
. -1
SH\
. -1 (X) X r---'f
8 Sin
7i - 2 V 16 - X~
3.
9x
.5.
- Sin
2.
+ x)
~
X
logj.;:z:: +
xl
v::-:;,z)
342
Exercise 2F
I.
2x -
J4
x4
x3
x2
2.
-4 - 3 - 2 -
4.
- x +
18
log (3x + 2)
log (x - I)
x -
3.
T-
5.
ax
c + be - ad log (ex + d)
2
6.
7.
V3 an-1
8.
+ log(x+l)
1 (3x 2 + 2x) +
9.
2 t
(2x +
1)
\7)":
x +a
-1
Vb - a
;:==:=;;
tan
if b - a
log (l - 2x)
V32 tan-1
> 0,
1 log (3x - 1)
27
(2x- 1)
----v)
-1
x +a
and
-1
tan (3x - l)
12.
1
2
1
-1 (2x - 1'I
1
2
1
r~ + 1 tog(x - x + 1) +73tan
~/ 13. 2log(x + 2x- 2)- Wlogl:X +I+
2
14.
x+1og(x
16.
19.
I I.
2 -x+1) +
2log(x
-1
17
1
-Vi
2x - 1
-1
tan
.J3
\lj
15.
1!
+613
18.
-I
log 2 - 5 tan
1)
+ 1 (a 2 - b 2) + (a - b) + log ( ia):l
20.
log 2
+ 2x + 3)
73 tan
1 1 (3 + "'->2
{'i og
7
ex\1'21)
10.
Exercise 2G
log
2.
[<x - 2); J
(x - I)
3.
x + 6 log (x - 2) - 3 log (x - I)
4.
- 9 log (x - 3) + II log (x - 4)
6.
3I
5.
2X -
7.
8.
x + 2 log x - log (x
I 0.
12.
x +
5 log x - 4 log (x + 1)
log (x + 1)
-TO
log (x
2
+ 4)
-1
+TO tan
+ I) - tari
log (x - I) -
log (x
9.
'
+ x + I)
log (x + 3)
II.
2 log (x - 2) - 2 log (x + I) - 3
4( x-::-2/
I '\
+J
log (x - 2) - log (x + 2) +
V3
-1
tan
4I
log (x
2x + I
Vf
log
(-x ) X - I
- I) -
log (x
+ I)
343
13.
161
15.
log
18. -
20.
log
22.
5
2
log (x + x + 2) +
16
log (x - 2 ) +
16.
1
1
2
8 (x + 2) - 32 log (x + 4)
log (x + 2)
fi
-1
..12 tan f l
2x + 1
-1
tan
ff
(j)
3
Jog 2
-1
14. tan
41
Jog
45
1
-1 I
2 tan 2
{j)
kJog
2 I.
1/X - 2 log
log f1
\'
19.
(:
~ :)
1
-)
+ -
V2
2 (x
- I)
.fi)
(1 +
Exercise 2H
tan-!(~)
V3
'1/3
J.
- 1-
3.
x - log (x 2 + 2x + 4) - - I tan-l(x+l)
--
5.
Vx
7.
2
-t
a n-1 4x + 1
9.
r---"2
- V6x
- x' + 3
11.
~log
1 3.
- 2
ru
16.
211
T
19.
11'3
(x
si.n-l x +
-Jc
Sin
-X- -
lx
17.
{t7
20.
11
Vll:J> ,
U = x + I
~ Jog (x + ~ + lx 2 + x
+ I)
1)
Sin
- /1 - 2x- x
12.
V3
. -1 (2x +
\;:-3-
I o.
U = x 2 + 2x + 3
sin 1 (~1 )
15.
tan-
3- tan-
18.
v'3
tar1 1 (~)
sin- 1 (x-l)
6.
+x + 1 +
3)
Vtl) '
+ 2x + 4)
4. log (U +
+2x+4]
fx 4 - 3x2 +I)
+ 3 log (x + 1 +
log
8.
v'39
v'3
+2x+4-log[x+I+Vx
V39
log (x
2.
2
/x +
log (x + 1 + .r;;r-;;x)
2x -
Exercise 21
I.
(a)
(e)
2
11
2.
(a)
3.
(a)
- 112
(b)
1/2
(c)
(f)
(g)
(b)
I
840
(b)
-1
.;ab tan
(d)
(h)
(d)
(c)
Ifa
11
96
11
(e)
344
Exercise 2J
I.
32 (x - 2) 3/2
+ 4 (x - 2)
4. -0.059
7.
1/2
I
5.
2b
1og (a
8.
2 tan
-1
tan-! (.JX)
16
2.
+c
2 . 2
+ b sm x)
3.
6.
b tanx~
I tan-1 ( a
ab
9.
x - log (I + ex)
- e + log (I + e)
(! + x)5/2
-l
II.
(I +
3.3
)3/2
,;;-:-;
14.
12.
X
3 Jog x- 9
15.
-I
sec X
-1
1i tan
19.
(x +
2)
(x + ~)
25.
-1 [4
2
3 tan
27.
a sm
29.
31.
. -1
+ 5 ~an x/2
- /i-
V5 tan x- I
I
--log
\1'5 tan x + I
2./5
- X + 5 tan-J (2 tan~)
33.
3 log (x - 2) - log (x + I)
35.
I
2 log
[~]
3
X
26.
12x
TI
- TI5 log ( 3 cos x
28.
2x - I
-4-
30.
- (4 tan x + 6f 1
32.
2Vx sin
36.
I
2 log [-)
40.
I
6 log
(I - cos x) +
4 3.
8 - 4
(I + cos x) -
44.
11
- I
83 log (-2x
-2-
VP)
p ' P =
+ I
rx + 2cos rx
39.
34.
2.I log
.;pP
+ 2 sm x)
+ 3x + 8 log (x - 2) - Jog (x - I)
~:21
I
38.
2 1og
2
3 log
(I + 2 cos x)
(x + 1) -
1i log (x
+ 1) +
-1
tan
345
CHAPTER 3 VOLUMES
Exercise 3A
20611
(1)
211
(2)
15
(4)
(5)
11
(7)
51211
IT
(8)
16
(IO)
(II)
(13)
15
(16)
(a)
144
(b)
36
(d)
72
(e)
36
(17)
11
-2
e
[e: - 2
+ 2]
51211
11
- 211
8
411 ab
11
30
(6)
11
11 (1- 4)
(9)
(12)
12811
-5
5611
(14)
(15)
411log2- 1.511
v'3
2
(18)
---r-
(3)
{c)
112
1811
40011
-3-
Exercise 38
(I)
108811
-15-
(2)
16211
-5-
(3)
2711
4011
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
811
(8)
6411
(9)
(10)
211
(II)
11
5
1611
-3811
11 (e 8 +4e 4 +3 )
Exercise 3C
(2)
3211
(b)
(6)
(3)
81Th
15
81!
(c)
3
(8)
311
(4)
TO
6411
3211
(5)
4811
(9)
3
32na
_!_5_
!3.25 m
I]
346
10.
2 2
2n a c
11.
16.
15. 4113
19.
.5na
(a)
J
16na
-.5-
4na
---r
(b)
J20n
14.
117n
17. -5-
51211
15
-r
13.
20.
200n
8
;
18.
112n
15
Exercise 4A
).
5 - i
2.
4.
4i
5.
III
6.
II - 23 i
7.
3 + 6i
8.
7 - 24 i
9.
2i
10.
2
- 25
II.
5i
12.
14.
19 + 4 i
_2_9_
15.
-5
17.
18.
=3 , y =- 2
20.
14
23
= - 25 ' y = - 25
3 .
+ 50 I
13.
16.
- 2 + i
19.
(x
21.
2 + II i
(b)
TO
= I,
V3.
10 1
19 + 4 i
29
(b)
25.
(a)
+y
I
5
4 , y =2
(c)
3.
+
3 .
2-2 1
13
2' y =- 5 2
22.
23.
(a)
(d)
I + IIi
(c)
10 + 3 i
+ ~
(x - 1)
(b)
7 .
9
2+2 1
-15 + i
3.
51
I
25
-2
(b)
2 + 2i
24.
(a)
1 - 2~i
2
+ y
(d)
(c)
25 .,fj i
2
(a)
iy
- y
2.
51
- 1 + 2xyi
347
~i
26.
25.
(d)
(c)
4-
(b)
(e)
5i - (12 + 4 i) x + 5
3 +
2
./'li
- 2x + 2 = 0
2
x - 4x + 13
(c)
30.
1.
=0
+ I
28. (a) z = 2, w = 3
=8 + 4
5- 5 1
(b)
3 + 4i
(e)
2 + 11 i
(f)
- 7 + 24 i
Va . Vb = ..raE
=8 - 4
=I
(d)
4.
3
25- 25 1
(c )
(a )
- 6, Rule
2
x -(4+4i)x+l0i=0
(d)
v'Ji
.:!:
(b)
27. (a)
(c)
v'Ji
(d)
-4-
(b)
29
_!2
(a)
+ i,
= -1
78 96.
25 + 25 1
(d)
Exercise 48
5cis 0
I.
2.
5.
8.
5cis n
2 Jicis (n /4)
3.
4.
5 cis (- n/2)
7.
I 0.
20 cis ( n/6)
11.
cis (2n/3)
13.
14.
2cis( 9) where
15.
2 cis(- n/2)
16.
5i
18.
-4
21.
..ti(~
24.
5 (I - .fj i)
.Ji cis(-
5cis n/2
6.
2 .ffcis (-11/4)
9.
8 cis (3 n/4)
12.
5 cis(- 2 n/3)
3n/4)
tanS=-~
17.
5..;3.
19.
-2i
20.
2--2-'
22.
23.
25.
2 (-I
+
+
~~
~v
.f3i)
Exercise 4C
1.
8i
5.
-2 + 2
9.
- .,fj + i
(c)
2 V'I cis (
(c)
- 8- 8
14. z
(c)
./Ji
~;)
VJi
15. (a) z
(c)
-10
3.
-6
6.
27 i
7.
-1-
10.
~(I
(d)
(d)
512-512Vli
= 2cis(n/3), z
1024cis(n/2)
1
z2
- (2 +
- >/3i)
= 2cis(n/6)
V2 (1
(d)
+ i)
.f3i
(a)
'+
32 cis(- n/3)
- 5
8.
2i
t/3 +
Si
1 . 7n
(b ) \i'iClS T2
4.
4i
(b)
2i
(b)
(d) cis(n/6)
113) i
.f2(1
2.
V3
(b)
- z
Vi ( '113 -
1) cis (3n/4)
348
Exercise 40
J.
2.
64i
3.
-I
5.
6.
-8-8VJi
7.
8cis(-11/2),-8i
8.
I cis9, w here
25
9.
4cis( 11),- 4
12.
2 ~6
tan 9
64
-24 (9 m
. 3r d qua drant ) - 7
"--::'7
- 24 1.
625
625
V3
14. 512 (-
17. 2cis 0, 2
v'3 i)
(I -
15. 8
16. 32cis0,32
19.
4.
Exercise 4E
J.
(a)
(d)
{2(1- i)
. 2
3.
4.
5.
:t
-f
cv'J + i)
(c)
2cis(- 511/12)'
.f5cis(9/2),
vr3
2.
(b)
.
+ ~
2cis (711/12)
= ~ , Cartesian
v2
- i,
(c)
3cis
(a)
_I_ (+ l + .)
(d)
(a)
z = 2cis
(b )
2CJS - -- ; ,
5
(c)
o.
cisQ;
(d)
2
z = 2cis( ;
(a)
(b)
(d)
2cis ( k; -
(f)
2k11 11
- - +
9
3
.J2-
II 3
.
Cis
11
-
11
VJ - i
, I +
J3 i,
i),
.fJ +
.r::
v3- i
i, - 1 - ,fj i
to) , k = 0,1,2,3,4
r7"
where r - v 5, t<m9 =
= 0,1,2,3
I
2 , the roots are 1.29
-+
2 1/4
n) . .
.:!:
( 1 - i)
+ 0.201 i,
CIS
n g
7n
g,
3
cis (- .!J , 4
t.
k = 0,1,2,3,4
2k 9
-3
~ 2}
(c)
2i,
k = 0 , 1,2, 3,4
~).
(. I .. i)
(d)
. (11 + 2k11"\
(g) cis( k2
(h)
v'2
(b)
11
11
I .!
_l
2
;
- 2 ,
(3;;. i)
V3 i
(a)
(b)
form .:!:
,k
0,1,2,3
349
Exercise 4F
(c = cos 9' s = sin 9' t = tan a)
I.
(a)
4c
3 - 3c
(b)
2.
3.
4 2
2 4
6
- 1.5c s + 1.5c s - s
4.
I
3
(a) 'ii cos 39 + 'ii cos a
5.
(a)
(b)
39 + 'ii3 Sin
a
(b) - 'ii1 Sin
(c)
(a)
I
(cos69 + 6cos49 + 15cos29 + 10)
32
(b)
7.
(a)
8.
(a)
+ 5s
5
3
6t - 20t + 6t
4
6
2
I - I 5t + I 5t - t
(c)
6.
16s - 20s
(b)
(a) c
3
(c) l.!._:_!_
2
I - 3t
3s - 45 3
32
(cos69- 6cos49
I
64'
I
- 64 '
7
64 '
21
64 '
(c) 5TT
32
35
(b)
64
7
21
35
64 ' - 64 ' 64
(b)
(d)
5TT
32
16
35
16
35
Exercise 4G
(a)
(2 + i)
(b)
!.. (2 - i)
(c) . (
(e)
.:!:. (3 + 2 i)
(f)
.O+il
(g)
2.
(a)
.!. (I
3.
(a)
2 - 3 i, - I - i
(d)
- I - i, - 3 + 3 i
4.
(a)
7.
--y
].
3j
+ 4i)
(2 + i)
(b)
-+ ...L(
12
(b)
(b)
.fS' + i)
(d)
i)
.;1;
(3 -
Vi
(h) . (2 - 2 i)
+-h(l f i)
2
(c) .!. (I + i)
2 - i, - 4 - 3 i
1~
116 ..
(5- 12i)
(c)
(c)
-l,-3-2i
12 + 7 i
j)
350
Exercise 4H
1.
(a) (i)
(b)
7.
1 - 2i
(i) 3 + i
211
11
(ii) 2
(ii)
411
(iii) 4 i
(iv) 5
(v)
J5
(vi)
v5
(vii)
~(1-2i)
(iii) - 2i
(iv)
(v)
v'iO
(vi)
JJO
(vii)
1 (3 + i)
10
511
2.
7.
(b)
9.
(a)
~.
+- . 21'
!: 1' -2
(c) (i)
(b) z 2 +Z-1=0
6.
- 3z + 3 = 0
3v'3
see Fig. 2, area = -2(ii) z 2 + z + 1 = 0
- z + 1=0
1
(c)
VJ.
VJ.
(b) .:!:21 .21.
See Fig. 3.
.:!: 1, .2.:!:2 1
z5
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Exercise 4J
3.
Jz <
7.
(a)
1 i),
- 1, i
.,f'j
1.
(c) .2.:!:21
see Fig. I
1
V3.1
(b) - 1'.2.2
V3.1
1
(d) .22
351
Exercise 4K
(I)
P(z) = (4, 5)
(2)
X
X
-2
(5)
,,
-z2
zl
(7)
-3
-2
-1
-2
-3
-2
-s
-22
P(z) ~ (2, -5)
(8)
X
zl
352
9.
(c)
(b)
(a)
y
P(z)
P(z)
A (I, .:2)
(d)
A(-2,-3)
10.
Iz I = 1,
arg z
11. R(3,0) or
=; , lwl
= I, arg w =
1T
Ii
R(-5,0)
12. z = 3 + 2 i
= arg z
+ n
X
Exercise 4L
+G +V3)i
1.
(a)
2.
--2- + - - 2 - .
3.
Q(z ), z =
1
1
..f2 r
R(z2)' z2 =
-2 +-2-.
B(z 1), z 1 =
~- V3 +(
4.
5.
z =
1-\13
- I
v'3+1.
(b) z = -
VJ+I
1-\.13.
- - 2 - + --2-.
or
v'Jr
3)
- I + 2 i, - 2 + 31, - 3 + 2 I, - 2 + i .
~i
(c) z = - 2 + i
353
Exercise 4M
t.
<a> Iz I = t
2.
(a)
3.
(a) x
zz = 2.5
(c) x
4.
(b) (x
(c) x
2)
lzl=~
(d)
I zl =
zz = 64
(c)
zz = -1
a
(d)
zz =
(b)
4x
(d)
4x
(b)
= 2.5, 0(0,0), r = .5
+/
= 9, a circle, r = 3, C (-2, 0)
+ 3y
= 1, a circle, r = 1, C(2,0)
= 4, a circle, r = 2, C (0, 3)
+ (y + 2)
+ /
+ (y - 3)
(f) (x - 2)
6.
+ y
(e) 3x
.5.
(c)
2 + y 2 = 16, 0(0,0), r = 4
(a) (x- 2)
(d)
<b> IzI = 3
+ 2x - 1 = 0, a circle,
+ (y -
- 1 - iI =
1)2 = 4,
Iz
<d>
Iz + 1 + i1
(a)
C (2, 0), r = 2
(c)
C (2, -3), r = 2
(d)
32 ,
+ 4y
C (-
3.5
= 1, 0(0,0), r =
= 1, 0(0,0), r =
21
1
1
3,
0)
a Circle, r = 2, C(2, 1)
<a>
V2
r =
+ 4y
"!
<b> Iz
+ 1 + 2i
VJ7
=1
C (1, 1), r = 3
I= 2
v'iO
-2
354
Exercise 4N
(b)
The circle x2 + y2 = 4
r = 2, C(O, 0)
The circle
(x - 2)2 + y2 = 4
C(2,0), r = 3
(c)
(d)
The circle
(x + 2)2 + y2 = 9
C(-2, 0), r = 3
2
2
The circle x + (y - I > ,
C(O, 1), r = 2
(e)
Locus of z is the
perpendicular
bisector of OA,
A (I, 0), 2x = I
The circle
x2 + (y + 2)2 = 9
C(O, -2), r = 3
,,A
(i)
I
Locus of z is the
perpendicular bisector of
AB, A(2, 0), B(O, -1),
4x + 2y = 3
(I)
P(z) /
x'
Locus of z is the
perpendicular bisector
of AB, A (-2, 3),
B(-2,-1). y = I
2
2
x4 + ~ = I
V25/3
(m)
= 8/3
~y
(n)
Ellipse
Centre (0, 0)
Foci (0, ."!:I)
P(z)
2.
!:(,)
(a)
(
0
(x - 1/2)
4
2
_y__
+15/4=
~~
(c)
(b)
~ + L
3
4
Ellipse
1
Centre < , 0)
/3
.. X
5n/6
A\-2,0)
0
Locus is the half ray Locus is half ray AP
along the line y = -x where A (-2, 0) and
excluding 0(0, 0) and y > 0 excluding A
y < o.
< PAx = 5n/6
< POX = -n/4
x+y J3+2=0
355
.t~
(e)
~ox
(f)
Locus is half-ray
OP, X< 0, y = 0
}(z)
)f~~--
3.
(d)
(a)
c
-~
(i)
-~ ......
X
' ''
The set of points in half
of the complex plane
divided by the perpendicular bisector of AB,
where A is (0, 3) and
13(-2,0), not including
the boundary
356
4.
(c)
(b)
(a)
<POX = 60
(d)
(e)
5.
(a)
(b)
6.
Locus of w
= 9.
C (\. a c1rc
. Ie, ra d"IUS -..[26
w IS
3- ,
(c )
Locus o f
(d)
Locus of w is a circle, r =
(a)
(b)
Locus is a circle, r =
diameter
(c)
"!,
'{5,
C (I,
+ /
2)
3'3
C (-
~ , o)
~),
B(O, l)
Locus of z is the major arc of the circle on chord AB containing the angle
angle of 60,
+ /
-jf - 4 = 0,
centre ( 0,
J-r),
r =
J-r
357
Exercise 40
1. (a)
1. (b)
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Locus of z is a circle
j , o)
2
2
x + y - 8x - 10 = O,
C(4, 0), r = v'26
Locus is a half-ray
AP, A(2, 0), excluding A
<PAx =60
A hyperbola
2
2
3x - y + 8x + "4 = 0
centre (-
l.(d)
l.(e)
Y / A(3,4)
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Locus is an ellipse.
Foci (.! 1, 0), centre (0, 0)
Centre (0, 0)
Equation
A semi circle on AB
as diameter, excluding
A and B
20x
36y
Fig. 7
= 45
3. (a) 3 - 2 i
=3/2,
4. (a) x
y = 2 or x = -3/2, y = -2
'( + 2y + 2 = 0
(b) (i)
2
Circle x + /
(ii)
+ 2x + y = 0, C(-1,-1/2), r =" [
(b) C1rcle x + y
C (-
I~
'
-5) '
15
r =
x + JOy + 25 = 0
@('
X
Fig. 8
I~
6. A straight line 2x + y = 5
7. (a ) p = /i5 , q = -
T27
(b) p = 4 - 11.1, q = 4 + II I.
4
4
B(z) =
D(z) =
3- 4 V3
2
-3-4./3
2
4+3v'3.
2
I
+
+
3113-4.
2
I
Fig. 11
358
(ii) 1
v'i
(iii)
(iv) n/4
(see Fig. 9)
AB as a chord,
X
A(-4, 0), B(l, 0), with P(z) on the circle, <APB = 60,
excluding A and
= Vi
cis(e + 45),
= cis 180 = -
"?,
e = 3.18
2
+ /
1/2,
t/5/5,
1
(ii)
~,
e = 58.67
1, r = 1, C(O, 0)
3n/4
, _+
(iii) - 1 + i
6 = - I 0.3
16 (a ) -+ 2v'3 _
+2
i
if
1.
(b) .!.(3-5i)
Fig. 14
= 4 (3- x)
I
(ii) 5,- n3
(iii)
20. (a) (i) 25 2n
5'
' 3
(c) 8 .. 6i
(ii) 5
(b) (i) 15
(c)
2
= 4a 2 (a - x), focus (0, 0). The locus of Q is the x-axis,
21. (a)
+ n/2)
17. /
= r cis(e
R' (z)
I 5. (a)
R (z)
1/2, - 15,
= 12,
-64
(iv)
-3
5, 5n
6
(d) - 8- 6i
(ii) _ I _ -9
4cos9 '
z5
4x = I
2
2
22. (a) The ellipse I OOx + 36y = 225
23. r = 1.97,
9 = -73.5
25. a square
27.
<a>
(b)
(z+l)(z
-z+l)
Fig. 15
4,
30.
(b)
z = 0, -i,
1 f , ;../3 t
<-Oksece\~ 1 n)m
;j.>
359
CHAPTER 5 POLYNOMIALS
Exercise SA
(Q = quotient,
I.
Q =x
4.
Q = 2x
9.
-35
R = remainder)
2. Q = x
R = 5
+ 3,
5.
+ x + 2, R = 0
15. -I
- 2x
Yes
464
II.
33/8
16.
17.
k =
19.
k = I,
No
12.
7.
Yes
+ 2x + 3, R = 0
8.
10- 4a + 2b
No
13.
14.
- 3.!6 ~i
20, X = 5,
X
3. Q = x
+ 2x - I, R = 0
6.
10.
I ;t t/5
18. k = 2, X = 2, - -2
fi
= 1, - 1 .!
20. k = - 2; X = 2, - 3, .:!: 2 i
Exercise 58
1.
I, I, 5
5.
(a)
7.
8.
I, I, I, - 5
2.
2, 2, -2
3.
(b)
I, 1, I, 3
6. (a) (- 2, - 13)
3, 3, -4
(a)
k=4,x=-1,-1,-4; k=O,x=0,-3,-3
(b)
k=28,x=2,2,-7; k=-80,x=-4,-4,5
(a)
1, 2, -2
(b) -1, 2, -3
(e)
-1, 2, 3
(f)
4.
(c) -~ , 2, 3
r:
-2, 4, 2 .:!: v5
-1 3
(g) li,
-1' - 1
(b) (0, I)
.:!: fl
(h) -1
1 .:!:
Vi7
(i)
Exercise 5C
l.
(x + 2 i) (x - 2 i)
3.
(x +
5.
(X +
v'5 i)
(x -
v'5 i)
7.
v'li.I)
z3 - -21
m.
1 m.
- - - 1)
4 (x + - - 1) (x -
9.
~(I
Jii.
+ -2- I) ( X +
.:!:
../?i)
13. 2 - i, - I .:!:
.J5
2.
(x + c i) (x - c i)
4.
1
v'3.)(
1 ../3.)
(X+2+2
1
X+2-2 1
6.
3 (x +
8.
2 (x + j_ ) (x - j_ )
~ i) (x
../2
./5i)
11.
- 5, 2 + 3 i
14.
- I, 2, - 2 + i
15.
, - 2, - 2 - i
1- "'[
i)
../2
10.
(- 1.:!:
= .:!: ~.!
21 t
12
"!
+I
+1+v'3.
18. With form used in ex. 16 above, (x , x , x , x 4) = 2-2 I
1 2 3
Exercise 50
(c)
(b) 25
(c) -8
(a)
3.
(a)
(c)
(b)
4. 4, - 2, 1
5. - 5, - 2, 1, 4
-3
-1
2
(b = 2, c = 3, m = 10, n = 12) or (b = 2, c " - 3, m = - 2, n = - 12)
2 I
3
9. I, I, -2,-2
8. - 3' 2' 3
2p + 27r = 9pq
6.
7.
(b)
10
I 0. b = 9,
23
= - I' - 4 . 2 ,fj
74
2. (a) - 5
l.
360
11.
8i -
12.
13
(a) x3 + 4bx +
dx 3 +
14.
1.5.
= 0 (b)
16.
8c = 0
ci + bx + 1 = 0
(a) x 4 - 4x
(c) x
3x3 - 11x2 + 9x - 2
3
(b) x + 4bx - 8c = 0
- 2x
(a)
+ 2x
- x
- bx
+ 7x - 1 = 0
=0
- 1
- 2bd
d2
(c)
13~2
4x: -
(c) ex
(b)
+ 16x + 48 = 0 (b) 3x
= 0 (c)
+ 1 =0
7i - 1Ox + 9 = 0
(a) x3 _ 4x 2 + 4x- 9 = 0
(b) x
- 7x
+ 1.5x- 18 = 0 (c)
18
Exercise 5E
I.
2,
3.
(a)
(x - 2) (x
(b)
(x - 2) (x + 2)
(c)
(x + 1) (x
+ 2x + 4)
; (x - 2) (x
ci + 4)
(x - 2) (x + 2) (x + 2 i) (x - 2 i)
- x + I)
(x + I) (x -
2I + T"J.t)
(x -
Vs)
(x + 4 +
(x + 3) (x + 2 i) (x - 2 i)
v'3 i)
(f)
(x - 3) (x + 2 + 2 i) (x + 2 - 2 i)
(b)
P(x) = K(x
(x - 2 +
(e)
(x + Vj i) (x -
(a)
P (x) = K
(x + i) (x - i)
Ci - 4x + .5)
=K(x
Vs )
(b)
(d)
(x + 2 i) (x - 2 i)
2I - T./3.t)
(x - 2 - Vii)
(a)
(c)
-./2 i)
v'3 i)
I + Jj i) (x + I -
2
2
(x + 4 -
- 6x + 25)
(c)
P(x)
(e)
P(x) = K[x
4.
(a)
2 .:!:. i
5.
(a)
(x + I) (x + i) (x - i)
(b)
(x - 3) (x + I + i) (x + I - i)
(c)
(x - I) (x - I + 2 i) (x - I - 2 i)
(d)
2 (x - 2) (x +
(a)
-I ,
(b)
.: 2, .: 2 i
(d)
-+"t,
(e)
2, 3, I .!. i
6.
- 2x
- (3 + i)x
(b)
+(I + 2i)x + I + i]
3, 2 + i
8.
i
+2
12.
14.
5
x
- 6x + 13)
P (x) = K [x
(d)
- 3x + 10)
= - 5,
13
'- T
(f)P(x) = K(l- 7x + 13 + i)
-2, 3, I + 3 i
(c)
- (4 + i) x + 3 + 3 i]
(c)
:.
=5
9.
i
.{3 i
- 2 ' - t, T - 2
(d)
VJ
~+
~,
3 + 2i
~-
i) (x +
i)
Vi, ! Vii
2 V3i ,
-1!
-1 :. v'i1i
4
()+.[j+i
T -2
(b)
4 roots
2, 2, 2, 2,-3/2
-s- ,
. 2~w
= 1 has 5 roots c1s
K = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Area is 2.38.
4
3
2
2~w
Roots of x + x + x + x + 1 = 0 are: cis
K = 1, 2, 3, 4
-s- ,
15.
2.!.i,-~
211
3
17. K=0,-4
18. -3-2i,K=-13i
361
19
'
( ) n .5n 9n
a 16' 16' 16
(d)
(i) -4
(b)
z1
13n
'16
(ii) 28
= ~[-2
i,
=3 -
23.
(a)
.!
(c)
.! (x
cis
-2k1r8 + ll ,
24.
+ i
tan ( ~ ),
(- 3
(a)
!:
{rt> i
,----
(-3- y)]
=1 + 3 i
i, z 2
22.
20.
where
z1
tan ( :~ ),
+ x + i(-3 + y)]
z 2 = 2 f-2 (c)
r6 ),
(c) tan (
/19 - 3 '
-v'-'2
-
(d) .! (2 - i)
f/409 + 3
y -
V_;,
(e) -1, -3 - 2 i
2 - i, 1 + 2 i
(f)
2 .! i
A /I
.!
i y) ,
(b)
i.
.! i,
where x = ~ ./ "i + 1 ,
k =
o,
J7 +
.! (
/4i)i
=~ J fl-
.! (
./7-
Wfi)i
(d) !: (4 !: i)
1,
1, 2, 3, 4, .5, 6, 7
! 112.5, !: 1.57.5. A great deal of time can be saved by noting that the roots are
symmetrically placed with respect to both axes.
= 0.924 + 0.382 i ,
=-0.924 + 0.382 i ,
= 1, b = -4; 1 -+ 1, - 3
z1
z
2
z,
z4
2'
28.
m(nb~ l)
33.
2, 2 .!:
30.
21.
Uo
= 0.382
=
z,
1, 1, I, 3 131.
"!
34.
0.924 i ,
z6
= '23,
T.tJ 1,
-1 .!
: -0.382 + 0.924i ,
3
z7 = %2,
z8 = zl
.r;
I - i ( V'j +
y 3 + 7y 2 - y + I
22
3 , n = 12
1IJ - '2)
27. m = -
v'i),
-1 + j (
=0
4x - 7
3.5.
(a)
0 (0, 0)
(b)
:!/-
(c)
( !.
2.
(a)
0 (0, 0)
(b)
-{1
(c)
(0, !.
3.
(a)
0 (0, 0)
(b)
(c)
(.!
4.
(a)
0 (0, 0)
(b)
(c)
(0, .!
.5.
(a )
()(b)
00,0
~
J
(c)
(.!
6.
(a)
0 (0, O)
(b)
(c)
7.
(a)
0 (0, 0)
(b)
(c)
(.!
"2
= .! 16
0)
(d)
12, 10
(e)
=.! 36
Iii
ffo)
(d)
12, 8
(e)
.! 18
Y=-
(e)
(e)
=.! 2.5
tiU
=.! 8
(e)
=.! 4
4, 2
(c)
0 (0, 0)
(e)
(d)
(a)
8, 6
(O, !. Jj)
(b)
10.
(d)
(0, .!
0 (0, 0)
o/7)
(d)
(c)
(a)
=.! 16
(0, !. 6)
"!
9.
10, 2
(b)
(b)
(e)
<d>
(+
0 (0, 0)
8, 6
.111,
(c)
(a)
(d)
Jii,
:q.
8.
O)
t/7,
0)
"'3,
"7
..,
t/S
ViO
4
v'3
v'j
(d)
1,
(e)
.!3
x =-
15>
(d)
6, 4
(e)
.!9y=
- ,
(d)
2,
(e)
.g
-T
0)
0)
1/2
2v'5
"'
=.!t/2
362
11.
14.
16.
x2
-n
>7r
x2
+
9
X
1.5.
J6
16 = 1
or
x2
17.
13.
= 1
2.5
14 =
12.
36
~ = 1
or
9
X
20
x2
23
+ \-
2.5
2
Exercise &B
1.
Foci
Directrices
(.!.
Viii, 0)
x=.!.~
(.!. .5, 0)
(See Fig. 1)
16
Y=.!.--
( 0, .:!: 4)
(See Fig. 2)
(.!.:!f.. 0)
:.!. ..1_
rs
(.!. 1, 0)
(See Fig. 1)
(.!.
X=.!.-1-
(.!. 1, 0)
(See Fig. I)
2.
v'4i
Vii1
-.15,
t an-1c
0)
V5
2ab )
""'"2--:-2
a
Vertices
3.
Fig. I
y
90
- b
Fig. 2
Exercise 6C
(Note: T = tangent, N = normal)
I.
T:
4.
T: 3x + 4y = 12 ..fi
N: V'1 (4x - 3y) = 7
T: 3x + 2y = 1
N: 2x-3y:5
7.
y =3
N: x-y=-1
X +
2
10. T: x + t y = 2ct
T:
N:
T:
N:
T:
N:
T: 2 v'!x + 3y = 12
N: 6x - 4 VJy = .5 fi
.5.
6. T: X+y+1=0
3x + V6y = 6
fix- 3y = 7V6
N: x-y+3=0
8.
3Vi'x - 2y = 6
9. T: 2x - 1/Jy = 1
2x+3fi.y:13V2
N: ..13x + 2y = 4 fi
12. 9x + 20y 75
11. x-2y=.!.5
lOOx - 45y 192
P(25/4, 15/16)
2.
N: t 3x - ty = c(t 4 - 1)
13. T: X + y : 6, N: X - y = 12, (
1.5. ( 1.56
j)
Vi
3x - 2y + 5 = 0
2x + 3y = 1
~ ,~)
16. (2,1)
(four tangents) ;
(+
1 + I )
_V'i,_Y'l
3.
14.
P(~, ~),
63.43
363
Exercise 60
1.
2.
4.
5.
.f3
4x + 5 /)y = 40
1. (b) 10 v'3x - 8y = 9
2. (a)
(b) 8 .f3x !. 4y = 3/3 3. (a) y = !. (x - 1)
3. (b)
(a) 3x + 4y = 12
4 (b) 4 .f2x - 3 J2y = 7
5. (a)
(b) 5x + 4 ./iy = 41 v'2
11. (a) Tangents are: x !. 3 /2y = 9
(b) Tangents are: 3x
Normals are: 3y !. 9/2x = i 5.{2
Normals are: 3y
(a)
=x
12.
17.
(e)
!.
v'4i
13. AB
j<V5 i
= ..li"36 = 2 J34
22.
1)
[~
23.
27.
28.
31.
25
!. .[5y = 4
!. f5x = 6{5
(sece +cosec e) ,
~ (tane
1 + -1~
[-a(
cosa sin a- '
2 -
or
x!.2hy=2
y = !. (x - 3)
4 .fix - 5y = 20
+cote)
ff8
b
]
2 cos a sin a
3x cos9
(a)
r(-
(b)
4(sin9- cos9),
33.
Area = cL
38.
30
40.
P(
41.
x + pqy = c(p + q)
3(sin9 + cosa>)
37. Area =
5 X
1
2 ab
2
2
.~
39. x - y = 2 (a) x tanc,6 + y secc.6 = 2 v2 secc,6 tanc,6
*,
~),
lx- my = 0.
T I = 80 N, T 2 = 60 N
4.
(a)
5.
F = m (f + sin 9)
7.
-2
a = -6 m.s
9.
(a)
-2
-8 m.s
'
8330 N
2.
656N
(b)
Reaction 16 N.
(b)
2.08 s
3.
M (v - u)
F- R - 10Msin9
(c)
17.4 m
6.
-2
a = 4.33 m.s
8.
-2
-2 m.s
8030 N
'
Reaction 75 N.
364
Exercise 8A
2.
1.
12.46 p.m
4.
Centre at x = 1 ,
(b) x = .:
Amplitude =
5.
(a)
(b)
6.
(a)
II
(b)
j,
(c)
(c)
11
3.4
(c)
8.32
Exercise 88
2 )
tan-1 ( .J3
(b) tan- 1 (
1.
(a)
6.
. 9 + g 22
v 2 = u 2 - 2 ug sm
t
5 )
7j
2. (b)
82.9 or
16.6
Exercise 8C
1.
&
-kt
v=k (1-e)
(2)
2k
6.
180 km/h.
8.
(a)
10.
(a)
(b)
32.1 m
13.
(b)
17.
(ii)
20.
2.40 s
[ -2 + -!rclog
=
-~loge
~;
c: :~~~~
(1-
=- mg-
~v)
~v
loge (4/3)
3.43 s
k(l -
logi)
(b)
76.3 m
12.
1
(1 + c -2) e 2t - 1
(c)
(iii)
(b)
4.
50 m/s
(ii)
and
1.44 m
-g- kvy
(a)
(c)
The time of descent < the time of ascent, since the gravity opposes the
upward motion of the object.
Exercise 9A
I.
4.
6.
9.
(a)
10.
11
251 rad/s
7.
5.56 rad/s
8.
5.03 m/s
(c)
377 m/s
(b)
1005 rad
II.
365
Exercise 98
I.
50 m.s- 2
5.
{a)
465 m/s
7.
{a)
2.
(b)
6.25 N
3.
3130 N
0.0338 m.s- 2
6.
3000 N
(c)
11100 km/h
6320 m.s- 2
4.
2
8. 8.38 m.s-
224 N
Exercise 9C
I.
(a)
1.39 m/s
(b)
32.4 N
2. (a)
1.68 m/s
(b)
1.87 s
3.
(a)
3.01 m/s
{b)
33.9 N
4. {a)
19.6 m/s
(b)
71.7 N
(c)
5.66 N
5. 3.60
Exercise 90
2.
5.8
3.
73 km/h
4.
5. 7.18
5.62, 0.0979 m
6.
Exercise 9E
4.
6.
(a)
wa
(b) -2--2
- aw
r - a
5.
7.
60 km/h, 60
+a
160 km/h
Exercise 9F
1.
(a)
25110 km/h
2.
(a)
52.4 rad/s
(b)
(b)
3.
4.
395 N
6.
(a)
7.
10.
Tension
I 3.
5.63
16.
4.47 m/s
52.4 m/s
I 890 N
(b)
71.1 N,
10- 7 rad/s
(a)
1.99
19.
(a)
~M
+ m)
-m
- g
2740 m.s- 2
6.32 m/s
22600 km/h
8.
9 = 45.3
(c)
5.
18.
22.
F = 3050 N
11.
(c)
2.89 h
I 2.
I 5.
15.1 m/s
15 N, I kg
3.48 m
14.
20.6 m
I 7.
{b)
(b)
I 024 m/s
20.
23.
I IIOOkm/h
25.
79 km/h
366
Exercise 1OA
8.
9.
11
311
(b)
o,
11, 211,
(a)
24.2,
511
711
11
11
311
711
511
1311
1711
WlTTTITTIrrrr
911
102.7,
204.2,
282.7
(b) (in degrees) 0, 30, 60, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 300, 330, 360
10.
9rn 1'Tht
<u ' u'
u)
11
(a) 2 cos
Exercise 1OB
2
1.
(a)
2.
3.
5.
6.
2
2
+y
+y
+ y
+ y
2
2
-2x-9=0
- 4x - 8y + 4 = 0 ,
11.
(a) 2x + 3y = 22
13.
x + 1 = 0 ,
(a) x
(c)
x
x
+ y
+ y
+y
x +y
9.
+ y
4.
+2x-2y+l=0,
(-5, -7)
14.
(b)
+y
5y + 4
X -
=0
4)' 2
+ y
+ 6x + 8y - 56 = 0
+ lOx - lOy + 25 = 0
- ax - by = 0
y = 2x - 9
(b)
-5
3
(b) ( ii,
8.
=0
+ y
10. 4
(c)
3x + 4y = 27
3x + 4y = 5
2
2
(b) x
- 7x + 3y = 28 = 0
= 2a
+ y
- (a + b) x - (a + b) y + 2ab = 0
Exercise 1OC
8.
12cm.
Exercise 1OF
1.
15.
18
2.
(a) h(x)
3.
=x
T,
(b)
1 B ( 3, "2
-1
A ( 1, 2),
(c)
3'
(d)
4.
X
1T
- 3x + 4
)
X