Andres R.

11th Grade
Unit 1: Cells

Biology Notes
1.5.1
Cells can only be formed by the division of pre existing cells
-Louise Pasteur made a nutrient broth by boiling water containing yeast and sugar
-With a swan-necked flash

1.5.2
Cells came from non-living material

Recipe for origin of life

1. The synthesis of simple organic molecules (amino acids) from inorganic
molecules (water, carbon dioxide, ammonia)

2. The assembly of these molecules into polymers (e.g. polypeptides from amino
acids)
3. Formation of polymers that can self-replicate to allow for inheritance of
characteristics
4. Development of membranes with internal chemistry different from their
surroundings

1.1.2
Cells carry out all functions necessary for life
Growth: an irreversible increase in size
Homeostasis: keeping conditions inside the organisms with tolerable limits
Metabolism: chemical reactions inside the cell, including cell respiration to release
energy
Nutrition: obtaining food, to provide energy and the materials needed for growth
Reproduction: producing offspring either sexually or asexually
Sensitivity: perceiving and responding to changes in the environment
The cell theory
1. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the smallest unit of life
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells

1.2
1.1.8
Limitations to the cell theory
Striated muscle fibers: multi-nucleated, long (30 mm)
Fungal hyphae: multi-nucleated
Giant algae (Acetublaria): large (100 mm)

1.2
Relative cell size
Molecules
Cell Membrane Thickness
Viruses
Bacteria
Organelles
Eukaryiotic cells

1.2

1 nm
10 nm
100 nm
1 m
Up to 10 m
Up to 100 m

Light vs. Electron Microscopes

Light
Easy preparation of sample
Living material can be examined
Color images
Large field of view
Poor resolution + magnification

Electron
Complex preparation of sample
Living material cannot survive inside
vacuum of the electron microscope
Monochrome images
Small field of view
Good resolution and magnification

1.5
Endosymbiotic theory
Theory that choloroplasts and mitochondria were once free living prokaryotes that were
engulfed by larger prokaryotes and survived to evolve into modern organelles.

1.5
Endosymbiotic Theory
Mitochondria and chloroplasts:
Both have a double membrane (the second outer membrane from the host, the
eater)
Have a look of naked DNA, lacking histone proteins
Divide by binary fission
Small 70S ribosomes (not 80S eukaryotic ribosomes)
Structure and biochemistry of chloroplasts similar to cyanobacteria

1.1
Why is the cell small?

Surface area determines rate of exchange

Volume determines metabolism
As cell size increases, volume increases proportionally faster than SA =>SA:V
ratio decreases
-Low SA reduces rate of exchange while high V increases metabolic demands
-Cell cannot meet needs of metabolic demands

Compound Light Microscope

-Enlarges an image with more than one lens (what we use)
Electron Microscope
-Much more powerful, uses beams of electrons to produce an image on a monitor; types
include scanning and transmission.

Light

Cell Magnification
Calculations
Magnification = measured length/scale bar label
Actual = measured length/magnification
Draw and Label cell types

Electron

1.1.4 1.1.7
Emergent Properties

As a multicellular organism grows and develops it follows a structured plan

The cells specialize (differentiate)
The whole organism shows homeostatic control
A developing multicellular organism shows emergent properties
It is not just a sum of the parts

1.1.7
Stem cells
Populations of cells within organisms that retain their ability to divide and differentiate
into various cell types.

1.1
Why do cells look so different?
Stem cells: Cells that retain capacity to divide and differentiate along different pathways.
Multicellular organisms can differentiate into a variety of interdependent cell types
-Each specialized to carry out a subset of functions greater efficiency
Cellular differentiation
-achieved through differential gene expression
-all cells in an organism have identical DNA
Stargardts disease

1.3
Membrane Structure
1.3.1
Phospholipid bilayer
Flexible, adaptable, in motion
Selectively permeable
-Controlled entry
-Small, hydrophobic (afraid of water)
Hydrophobic fatty acid tails repel water and form middle layer
Hydrophilic phosphate heads attract water and form outer layers
Amphipathic = having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties

1.3
Why are membranes important?
Membranes define compartments
Membrane proteins control traffic

Membranes are fluid

Membrane Proteins
Pumps Move ions in and out
Signals Receive and exchange signals from outside the cell
Channels to allow hydrophilic molecules to pass through the membrane
1.3.6
Davson-Danielli Sandwich Model
Proposed layers of protein adjacent to the phospholipid bilayer
Evidence:
-Proteins appear dark in electron micrographs and phospholipids appear light

1.3.7
Singer-Nicolson Fluid Mosaic Model

Evidence

 Freeze etched images of the center of membranes was interpreted as trans

membrane proteins
Improvements in biochemical techniques led to discovery of new
membrane structures. Membranes were found to be varied in size and
shape.

1.4.1
Passive transport:
Simple diffusion: Passive movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration (down a concentration gradient)

Facilitated Diffusion: Passive movement of particles from a region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration (down a concentration
gradient), through a selectively permeable membrane, facilitated by carrier
proteins
Carrier proteins are integral proteins that allow some molecules to pass
through

Osmosis: Passive movement of water molecules from a region of low solute

concentration (high water concentration) to high solute concentration (low
water concentration) through a selectively permeable membrane

1.4.2
Exocytosis vs Endocytosis

1.6
Cell Division
Why cells divide?
Large cells have a reduced SA:Vol ratio
Growth of organism
Replaced dead, damaged or infected vells
Asexual reproduction

Stages of Mitosis

1.6 Terms
Chromosome: DNA + proteins
Chromatid: one of two copies of DNA
Sister chromatids: two identical copies of DNA
Centromere: region on chromosome that joins sister chromatids
Spindle fiber: microtubules that move chromosomes during cell division
Centriole: microtubule organizing center

Prophase:

Chromosomes condense by supercoiling, becoming visible to microscopic view

Centrioles move to opposite poles
Nucleolus disappears
Nuclear membrane disappears
Microtubular spindle apparatus forms at each pole

Metaphase:
Spindle microtubules attach to chromosome centromeres
Chromosomes move to the equator

Anaphase:
Centromeres split as spindle microtubules pull chromatids to opposite
poles (after centromeres split, sister chromatids are known as
sister chromosomes)
Sister chromosomes move to opposite poles as microtubules shorten

Telophase:

1.6.4

Sister chromosomes have arrived at poles

Spindle disappears
Centrioles replicate
Nuclear membrane reforms and becomes visible
Nucleolus becomes visible
Chromosomes decondense, becoming chromatin

Interphase Processes
interphase
G1: growth, protein synthesis, increase in the number of
mitochondria and/or chloroplasts
S: DNA replication
G2: growth, protein synthesis, preparation for
mitosis/cytokinesis
mitosis = nuclear division
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
cytokinesis = cellular division

1.6.6
Mutations and Cancer
Mutation = random changes to the base sequence of genes
-A mutation may change a proto-oncogene (produces normal cell cycle
control) oncogene (produces uncontrolled cell cycling)
Mutagens = agents that produce changes in genes involved in controlling
the cell cycle, causing uncontrolled cell division.