‫ﻣﺤﺎﺿﺮات ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎت اﻹﺳﺘﺸﻌﺎر ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺑﺈﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬

‫ﺞ ‪ERDAS IMAGINE‬‬ ‫اﻝﺒﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ‬

‫ﺒﺮ‬
‫اﻝﺘﺤﺴﻴﻦ اﻝﻄﻴﻔﻲ ﻝﻠﺼﻮر‬
‫‪Spectral Enhancement‬‬
‫ﻳﻦ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ‬
‫ووﺳﺎمم اﻟﺪﻳﻦ‬
 ‫ﺗﻌﺮیﻒ اﻝﺘﺼﺤﻴﺢ اﻝﻄﻴﻔﻲ‬

‫اﻟﺘﺼﺤﻴﺢ اﻟﻄﻴﻔﻲ ‪ Spectral Enhancement‬أو اﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻼت اﻟﻄﻴﻔﻴﺔ ‪Spectral‬‬

‫ﻲ ﻥﻄﺎﻗﺎت‬
‫اﻟﺒﻜﺴﻞﻞ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺲ ﺒ‬ ‫اﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﻔﺲ‬
‫ﻴﻢ ﺮ ﻴ‬ ‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎت ﺕﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞﻞ ﻣﻊﻊ اﻟﻘﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻴ‬ ‫‪ Transforms‬هﻲ‬
‫ﻲ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺏﺤﻴﺚ ﺕﻘﻮم ﺏﺘﺤﻮﻳﻠﻬﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺟﺪﻳﺪة ﺏﻬﺪف إﻳﻀﺎح أو إﻇﻬﺎر اﻟﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ‬
‫اﻟﻄﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻄﺎﻗﺎت ﻣﻮﺽﻮع اﻟﺒﺤﺚ‪.‬‬

‫أهﻢ أﻥﻮاع اﻟﺘﺼﺤﻴﺢ اﻟﻄﻴﻔﻲ‬

‫‰ﺕﺤﻠﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﺮآﺒﺎت اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ‪Principal Component Analysis PCA‬‬
‫‪V t ti Index‬‬
‫‪Vegetation‬‬ ‫‰اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻟﻨ ﺎﺕ ﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕﻴﺔ ‪I d‬‬
‫وهﻤﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺳﻮف ﻳﻤﺜﻼ ﻣﻮﺽﻮع هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺽﺮة‪ ،‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﻳﺠﺐ اﻟﺘﻨﺒﻴﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ أن هﻨﺎك أﻥﻮاع‬
‫أﺥﺮى ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺼﺤﻴﺢ اﻟﻄﻴﻔﻲ ﻟﻢ ﺕﺬآﺮ هﻨﺎ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﺮﺟﻮع إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺮاﺟﻊ ﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺘﻬﺎ‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 2‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ اﻝﻤﺮآﺒﺎت اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺕﺤﻠﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﺮآﺒﺎت اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ‪ Principal Components Analysis PCA‬هﻮ‬

‫اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮﺮ‬
‫ﻦ ﻓﻀﺎءء ﻮ‬ ‫ﻴﻦ أوو أآﺜﺮﺮ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻲ ﻥﻄﺎﻗﻴﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺰﻥﺔ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺰ‬ ‫ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺎﻥﺎت‬
‫ﻲ ﺒﻴ‬ ‫رﻳﺎﺽﻲ‬
‫ﻮﻳﻞ رﻳ‬
‫ﻦ ﺕﺤﻮﻳﻞ‬‫ﻋﺒﺎرة ﻋﻦ‬
‫ﺒر‬
‫اﻷﺹﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻓﻀﺎء ﻇﻮاهﺮ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺏﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺕﻘﻠﻴﻞ اﻻرﺕﺒﺎط ﺏﻴﻦ اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻥﺎت وﺕﻘﻠﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺕﻜﺮار اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻥﺎت‪.‬‬

‫ﻓﻀﺎء اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮ ‪ Feature Space‬هﻲ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺕﻤﺜﻴﻞ إﺡﺼﺎﺋﻲ رﺳﻮﻣﻲ ﻟﺘﻜﺮار اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻥﺎت‬
‫اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻥﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﻼرﺕﺒﺎط ﺏﻴﻦ ﺒﻴ‬
‫ﺮي ر ﺒ‬‫اﻟﺒﺼﺮي‬
‫ﻴﻴﻢ ﺒ‬
‫أﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﺎ اﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻬ‬ ‫ﺮض ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻦ‬ ‫ﺒﺮ اﻟﻐﺮض‬
‫ﻴﻦ أوو أآﺒﺮ‬
‫ﻲ ﻥﻄﺎﻗﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻓﻲ‬

‫ﻳﺸﺎر إﻟﻰ ﻓﻀﺎء اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮ أﺡﻴﺎﻥ ًﺎ ﺏﺎﻻﺳﻢ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﻤﺒﻌﺜﺮ ‪ Scatter Plot‬أو ‪Scatter‬‬
‫‪.gram‬‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 3‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﻓﻀﺎء اﻝﻈﻮاهﺮ‬

‫ﻹﻥﺸﺎء ﻓﻀﺎء اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮ ﺕﺘﺒﻊ اﻹﺟﺮاءات اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬

‫‪ .1‬أﺥﺘﺎر ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ‪.Classification‬‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 4‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﻓﻀﺎء اﻝﻈﻮاهﺮ‬

‫‪ - 2‬ﻣﻦ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ‪ Classification‬أﺥﺘﺎر ‪ Feature Space Image‬ﺕﻈﻬﺮ اﻟﻨﺎﻓﺬة‬

‫اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 5‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﻓﻀﺎء اﻝﻈﻮاهﺮ‬

‫‪ – 3‬ﺡﺪد أﺳﻢ اﻟﺼﻮرة اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب ﻋﻤﻞ ﻓﻀﺎء ﻇﻮاهﺮ ﻟﻜﻞ )أو ﺏﻌﺾ( ﻥﻄﺎﻗﺎﺕﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺨﺎﻥﺔ‬
‫ي ﺳﻮف ﻳﻜﻮن اﻻﺳﻢﻢ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬
‫ﻲ‬ ‫‪ Input‬ﺙﻢﻢ ﺡﺪد اﻻﺳﻢﻢ اﻟﺬي‬
‫‪p Raster Layer‬‬ ‫‪y‬‬
‫ﻟﻠﺼﻮرة )أو اﻟﺼﻮر( اﻟﺘﻲ ﺕﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﻀﺎء اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺨﺎﻥﺔ ‪Output Root‬‬
‫‪.name‬‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 6‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﻓﻀﺎء اﻝﻈﻮاهﺮ‬

‫‪ – 4‬ﻗﻢ ﺏﺎﻟﻨﻘﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ أﺡﺪ اﻟﺘﺮاآﻴﺐ اﻟﻤﺒﻨﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﺪول اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮن ‪Feature Space‬‬
‫ﺞ ﺏﺤﺴﺎب ﺟﻤﻴﻊﻊ‬
‫أي ﺕﺮآﻴﺐ‪ ،‬ﻳﻘﻮمم اﻟﺒﺮﻥﺎﻣﺞ‬ ‫‪ ) Layers‬ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻲ ﺡﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢﻢ ﺕﺨﺘﺎر ي‬ ‫‪y‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮاآﻴﺐ(‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 7‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﻓﻀﺎء اﻝﻈﻮاهﺮ‬

‫‪ – 5‬إذا ﻥﻘﺮت ﻓﻮق اﻟﻤﺮﺏﻊ ‪ Output to Viewer‬ﻓﺈن ﻓﻀﺎء اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮ ﻟﻠﺘﺮآﻴﺐ اﻟﺬي‬
‫ﻲ ‪Viewer‬‬ ‫ي ﺡﺪدت أﺳﻤﻪ وﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﺥﺘﺮﺕﻪ ﺳﻮف ﻳﺘﻢﻢ إﺥﺮاﺟﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻠﻒ اﻟﺬي‬
‫ﺟﺪﻳﺪ‪ ،‬أﻣﺎ إذا ﺕﺮآﺘﻪ ﻓﺴﻮف ﻳﺨﺮج إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻠﻒ ﻓﺤﺴﺐ(‬
‫‪ -6‬أﻥﻘﺮ اﻟﻤﻔﺘﺎح ‪.OK‬‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 8‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﻋﺮض وﺗﻔﺴﻴﺮ ﻓﻀﺎء اﻝﻈﻮاهﺮ‬

‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﻋﺮض ﻓﻀﺎء اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟـ ‪ Viewer‬آﺄي ﺹﻮرة‬

‫ﻲ ﺹﻮرة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﻮع‬
‫ع‬ ‫ﻲ واﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻲ ﻓﻀﺎء اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮ ﺏﻴﻦ اﻟﻨﻄﺎﻗﻴﻦ اﻟﺜﺎﻥﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬
‫‪Ikonos MS‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﺤﻮر اﻷﻓﻘﻲ )اﻟﺤﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﺘﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺼﻮرة( ﻳﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﻨﻄﺎق اﻟﺜﺎﻥﻲ واﻟﻤﺤﻮر اﻟﺮأﺳﻲ )اﻟﺤﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ق اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﻠﺼﻮرة( ﻳﻳﻤﺜﻞﻞ اﻟﻨﻄﺎق‬
‫ﺮى ﻮر‬ ‫اﻟﻴﺴﺮى‬
‫ﻴ‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 9‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﻋﺮض وﺗﻔﺴﻴﺮ ﻓﻀﺎء اﻝﻈﻮاهﺮ‬

‫ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﻀﺎء اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ اﻻرﺕﺒﺎط ‪ Correlation‬ﺏﻴﻦ اﻟﻨﻄﺎﻗﻴﻦ ﻣﻮﺽﻮع اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪ Inquire‬ﻟﻴﻈﻬﺮ اﻟﻤﺆﺵﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺵﻜﻞ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ‪+‬‬
‫‪q‬‬ ‫‪ Utility‬اﺥﺘﺎر ‪Cursor‬‬ ‫ﻣﻦ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ‪y‬‬
‫آﺒﻴﺮة‪ ،‬ﻗﻢ ﺏﺴﺤﺒﺔ ورﻣﻴﺔ ﻓﻮق أي ﻥﻘﻄﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﺤﺎﺏﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﻮﻥﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺘﺮض أن‬
‫ﺕﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 10‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﻋﺮض وﺗﻔﺴﻴﺮ ﻓﻀﺎء اﻝﻈﻮاهﺮ‬

‫ﺡﺘﻰ ﻥﺘﻔﻬﻢ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻓﻀﺎء اﻟﻈﻮاهﺮ‪ ،‬أﻥﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ ﻥﺎﻓﺬة اﻟﺠﺪول‪ ،‬إن ﻗﻴﻤﺔ اﻟـ ‪Pixel Value‬‬
‫ﻲ اﻟﻨﻄﺎق اﻟﺜﺎﻥﻲ‬
‫ﻲ‬ ‫‪ 23‬ﺕﺘﻜﺮر ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻲ ﻥﻔﺲ اﻟﺒﻜﺴﻞ ﺏﻴﻦ اﻟﻨﻄﺎﻗﻴﻦ )أب أن ﻗﻴﻤﺔ اﻟﺒﻜﺴﻞ ﻓﻲ‬
‫‪ 23‬واﻟﺒﻜﺴﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻇﺮ ﻟﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻥﻔﺲ ﻣﻜﺎﻥﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻄﺎق اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ ﻟﻪ ﻥﻔﺲ اﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ‪(23‬‬
‫ﺕﺘﻜﺮر ‪ 82‬ﻣﺮة )اﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺒﻴﻨﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﻘﻞ ‪.(Histogram‬‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 11‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫اﻷﺵﻜﺎل اﻝﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ ﻝﻔﻀﺎء اﻝﻈﻮاهﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ اﻷول‪ :‬ﺥﻄﻲ ﻣﺜﺎﻟﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‪ :‬ارﺕﺒﺎط ﺕﺎم‪ ،‬اﻟﻨﻄﺎﻗﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺙﻠﻴﻦ ﺕﻤﺎﻣﺎً‪ ،‬وﻳﻤﻜﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﻐﻨﺎء ﻋﻦ أي‬
‫ﻣﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎت اﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺏﺴﺒﺐ ﺕﻜﺮارهﻤﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﺳﺤﺎﺏﻲ‬
‫ﺥﻄﻲ ﺤﺎﺏ‬‫اﻟﺜﺎﻥﻲ‪ :‬ﺥﻄ‬
‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻥ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‪ :‬ارﺕﺒﺎط آﺒﻴﺮ‪ ،‬اﻟﻨﻄﺎﻗﻴﻦ ﺵﺒﻪ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺙﻠﻴﻦ‪ ،‬ﻳﻨﺼﺢ ﺏﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺕﺤﻠﻴﻞ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺮآﺒﺎت اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ وأﺳﺘﺒﺪﻟﻬﻤﺎ ﺏﺎﻟﻤﺮآﺒﺔ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ اﻟﻨﺎﺕﺠﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ‬

‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ‪ :‬ﺳﺤﺎﺏﻲ ﻣﺒﻌﺜﺮ‬

‫اﻟﻨﻄﺎﻗﻴﻦ ﻓﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺙﻠﻴﻦ‪ ،‬ﻳﻤﻜﻦ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻟ ﻄ ﻗ‬
‫ﺙﻠ‬ ‫ﻏﻴﺮ‬
‫اﻟﻨﻄﺎﻗﻴﻦ ﻏ‬
‫ﺽﺌﻴﻞ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﻄ ﻗ‬
‫ﻞ‬ ‫ط‬
‫ارﺕﺒﺎط‬ ‫ﻟاﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‪:‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻼت‪ ،‬وﻻ ﻳﻨﺼﺢ ﺏﺈﺟﺮاء ﺕﺤﻠﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﺮآﺒﺎت اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻇﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻗﺪ ﻳﺤﺪث ارﺕﺒﺎط ﺳﻠﺒﻲ ﻓﻴﻜﻮن ﻣﺤﻮر اﻟﺸﻜﻞ )اﻟﺨﻂ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ اﻷﺳﻮد اﻟﻘﻄﺮي( ﻣﺎﺋﻞ ‪ 90‬درﺟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺕﺠﺎﻩ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻓﻲ اﻷﺵﻜﺎل اﻟﺴﺎﺏﻘﺔ‪ .‬وﺕﻨﻄﺒﻖ ﻥﻔﺲ اﻟﺘﻮﺹﻴﻔﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﺵﻜﺎل اﻟﺘﻲ ﺕﻈﻬﺮ ارﺕﺒﺎط ﻋﻜﺴﻲ‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ ‪ - 12‬اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬
 ‫ﻣﺮاﺟﻊ ﻝﻠﻘﺮاءة‬

Schowengerdt, R. A.; (1997) Remote Sensing: Models & Methods for Image
Processing:
g Chapter
p 4: Data Models pppp.:111-126

‫ اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﻼﺡﻘﺔ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة‬- 13 ‫اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ – اﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ – ﺹﻔﺤﺔ رﻗﻢ‬