1909

Bar Mitzvah

BIRTH
1879

(Figure 1)
Retrieved from:
The Vygotsky Project (2001).

Graduated
from
University
with a Law
Degree
Started
teaching
Russian
1917
Revolution

1920
Contracted
Tuberculosis
from his
brother

Married Roza
Smekhova
(later had 2
daughters)
Joined the
Institute of
Psychology in
Moscow

1925

Started
developing
numerous
psychology/
pedagogical
publications

Doctoral
thesis
Psychology
of Art

1934
Died of
Tuberculosis

1926

1924

Vygotskys
work was
banned in
USSR

1936

1962
The ban lifted
in 1956 after
Stalins death
Translated
work
available in
West

Who we become depends on the company we keep and what we do and say together.
-Vygotsky
4 Basic

Influences

What is the theory?

Political Climate

Vygotskys is considered one the most important and influential theorists in educational psychology and cognitive development and due to his work being one of the earliest on the matter, his theory created its own school of thought
Sociocultural
(Krause, et al., 2010). Many psychologists have investigated Vygotskian principles, developing his theory and its applicability
to education. Bruner built on Vygotskys idea that teaching is learning, obuchenie by suggesting a particular
type of support called scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). This enables learners to complete tasks successfully and more independently
by adjusting the assistance to fit the learners current level of performance (Krause, et al.,
and
Zone
of
2010, p. 88) and through this process a childs ZPD will move forward (Bruner, 1986). Rogoff, inspired by Vygotskys sociocultural
principle, argued that children are involved in cognitiveLanguage
apprenticeshipsas
and,athrough guided
participation,
Sociohistorical
similar apprenticeships have been developed in Western contexts (Rogoff, 1993).
Interlisation
Proximal

Lev Semonovich Vygotsky is a well-known theorist adapting a strong sociocultural view on

cognitive development. The time line (Figure 1) above depicts the most relevant events of the
time and culture in which he grew up in. The following discusses some circumstances which may
have affected Vygotskys theory.

Vygotsky lived in 1910s and 1920s Russia where the former dictatorship of the Czar had been
overthrown in the Russian revolution and Marxism had taken over, emphasizing socialism and
collectivism (Hicks, 2010). Marxism also placed an emphasis on the idea that a culture could be
understood by analysis of the ideas and events that helped shaped it (Vasta, Haith & Miller, 1995)
and it seems clear that elements of Marxism were incorporated in Vygotskys model of cognitive
development. Education and Family
Born into a Jewish family, Vygotskys educational opportunities were severely limited. He gained a
position at University of Moscow, however, where he graduated with a law degree, specialising in
literature (Hansen-Reid, 2001). He became interested in children with learning disabilities and
conducted research in the area when he began teaching in his home-town, which resulted in an
invitation to join the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (Offord, 2005). Here he collaborated with
two colleagues and developed his sociocultural theory. His education led to teaching which
formed his interest in children, ultimately leading him to work in psychology.

Education and Family

Born into a Jewish family, Vygotskys educational opportunities were severely limited. He gained a
position at University of Moscow, however, where he graduated with a law degree, specialising in
literature (Hansen-Reid, 2001). He became interested in children with learning disabilities and
conducted research in the area when he began teaching in his home-town, which resulted in an
invitation to join the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (Offord, 2005). Here he collaborated with
two colleagues and developed his sociocultural theory. His education led to teaching which
formed his interest in children, ultimately leading him to work in psychology.

Piaget
It is also important to include that Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget interacted with one each and,
possibly, influenced each other's theories (Pass, 2007). For example, Piagets idea of children
learning through the acting world (e.g. relating through people and things) is similar to Vygotsky's
theory of cultural appropriation (Ackermann, 2004).
Piaget and Vygotsky conferred as they researched similar fields. Perhaps you should talk about his
influence as well, Pass, S. (2007) When constructivists Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky were
pedagogical collaborators: A viewpoint from a study of their communications. Journal of
constructivist Psychology (20)3, 277-282.

Essential Ideas

Sociocultural and sociohistorical origins of cognitive

development:
Vygotsky became interested in children with learning difficulties and intellectual disabilities when he
returned to Byelorussia and began teaching children and adults (Krause, et al., 2010). He was
particularly interested in differences in cognitive development and which factors contributed to these
differences. He eventually developed his sociocultural theory which describes the acquisition of skills
by infants through social interaction with their carers will be effected by social, historical and cultural
context (Krause, et al., 2010).

Internalisation:
A key concept of Vygotskys theory is the notion of internalisation. Krause, et al. (2010, p. 83) defines
this as the transformation of external processes into internal processes that guide action and
thought. He saw development as a result of social interaction which was then internalised by the
individual and the true direction of the development of thinking is not from the individual to the social,
but from the social to individual (Vygotsky, 1986, p. 36).

Language as a mental tool:

A factor influencing individuals thinking is the cultural context in which they develop. Different
cultures possess different tools with which culture is expressed and passed on (Krause, et al., 2010).
One such tool is mental tools which, through social interaction, will be passed through one generation
and on to the next (Krause, et al., 2010). Examples of mental tools are various systems for counting;
mnemonic techniques; algebraic symbol systems; works of art; writing; schemes, diagrams, maps, and
mechanical drawings; all sort of conventional signs, and so on (Vygotsky, 1986, p. 137, cited by
Krause, et al. (2010)) with the most important being that of language. Krause, et al. (2010, p. 84)
identified that had Vygotsky lived into the 21st century, he no doubt would have included telephones,
word-processors and computers on his list of mental tools. Once progressed from purely a social
function, enabling communication, language can become a tool for problem solving and selfregulation, allowing a shift from external devices to private speech. An example of this is the shift
from reading out loud, to mumble reading to silent reading (Dixon-Krauss, 1996).

Zone of proximal development:

Vygotsky argued that there is a passage between what a child can do (zone of actual development)

Principles
Underlying The
Vygotskys theory relates to cognitive development and is known as the Sociocultural Theory. Due to Vygotsky [being] a contemporary of Piagets (Krause, Bochener, Duchesne, & McMaugh, 2010, p. 80) and both theorists investigating
Vygotskian
cognitive development, there is significant overlap between their work. Vygotskys ideas are distinguished from Piagets through four critical themes; sociocultural and social
historical origins of cognitive development, language as a
Framework
mental tool, Internalisation and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Krause, et al., 2010; Vygotsky, 1986).

origins of
cognitive
development
(Figure 3)

Lev. S. Vygotsky
A sociocultural approach

Educational implications

Vygotskys theory is relevant to teaching today and in the future as there is a continuous social interaction between students, their teachers and society. Controlled social
activities have a powerful impact on cognitive development, catering to classrooms with an assorted social and cultural mix. For teachers, applying Vygotskys ideas is simple
due to its practicality, in particular the ZPD model (Figure 2).
Vygotsky stresses that learning proceeds from the outside in and adults take the roles as teachers, and culture acts as teaching tools (Lutz & Sternberg, 1999, p. 292, cited
by Krause, et al. (2010)).. This theory goes far beyond the classroom and students, reflecting the continual process evident in every culture and every individual worldwide.
He also saw the cognitive development of a child as a constructive process. This is why his approach cannot be put at odds with the theories of Piaget and others (Ackermann,
2004).

The main criticisms upon Vygotsky is often focused on the vagueness oh his ideas (Krause et al, 2010). This lack of explanation can lead to issues when teachers attempt to
apply his strategies in the class. For example involving the ZPD model does not explain the effects, if any, of the area of learning, time of day or motivation.
The potential for misjudging the ZPD of students seems to be the main disadvantage of its applicability. Intellectually this concept is ideal but to determine the exact ZPD of
every student can be difficult, if not impractical. Additionally Rogoff (1993) states Vygotsky had overemphasised the role of language in cognitive development. It has been
shown in cross-cultural studies that many societies use observation and participation alongside adults, versus language as the means of learning.
It is important to state that Vygotskys ideas were not fully developed due to his death. However they do offer an effective perspective on cognitive development that
complements Piagets ideas and many theorist have continued to build upon his theory.

(Figure 2) Retrieved from: Department of Education

and Early Childhood Development. (2006). Vygotskys
model of the Zone of Proximal Development is
based on what teachers should be aiming for- at
what is just beyond the students current capacity
(Krause et al., 2010, p. 95). This model shows the
effect of increased difficulty or lack of difficultly in
student behaviour.

mental tool

Development

Practical
Application in
Class
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching is an idea developed by Palincsar and her
colleague, but uses Vygotsky's principles of ZPD, social
interaction and the use of language as a mental tool (Krause et
al, 2010). This is done through teacher guidance and studentdirected learning. The students help each other under
guidance of a teacher who helps the group understand the
content and thinking processes. For example, analysing a text
in English class. Reciprocal teaching in this situation would
involve four strategies: 'predicting', 'questioning',
'summarising' and 'clarifying' (Krause et al, 2010, p, 90). This
aims to help the students understand the message of the text
and at the same time lets the teacher monitor their
comprehension. Ultimately the teacher uses these four
strategies and increases the students responsibility by
alternating the discussion leader.

Zone of Proximal Development

The most applicable aspect of Vygotskys theory is his ZPD

idea and Bruners extension of Scaffolding (Bruner, 1986).It is
crucial, before applying the ZPD model, to obtain a clear
understanding of students initial capabilities (Slavin,
2005).This can be obtained through past experiences,
questionnaires or discussion.Teachers should then build on
this knowledge by introducing new concepts based on these
and lastly connect this new concept with prior knowledge
(Slavin, 2005).For example, a Mathematics teacher knows,

from teaching this group previously, that the students know

the Steels,
processL.of
multiplication,
and how
to
Ackermann, E. (2004). Constructing knowledge and Transforming the World. In Tokoro, M.,
Amsterdam
(Ed).understand
A Learningdecimals
Zone of One's
Own.
multiply decimals.The teacher introduces the new concept of
(Chapter 2 pp. 17-22)Editors: IOS Press
division as the opposite of multiplication and relates dividing
Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press.
toProximal
multiplying
them.
Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. (2006). VELS Level 1 and 2decimals
Zone of
Development
and Scaffolding. Retrieved
from: http://www.education.vic.gov.au/studentlearning/teachingresources/english/literacy/concepts/3zpd.htm
Dixon-Krauss, L. (1996). Vygotskys sociohistorical perspective on learning and its application to western literacy instruction. In L. Dixon-Krauss (Ed.),
Vygotsky in the classroom: Mediated literacy instruction and assessment (pp. 7-24). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Reference List