Absorption Chillers and Heat Pumps by Keith E. Herold Reinhard Radermacher Sanford A. Klein CRC PressLIMITED WARRANTY CCRC Press warns he yids eck ren to be ie of dfs in materia snd wodaanhip foc pvad of hyde om the dav of pcs If wi the Waray prod CRC Pres eves wats utenti offerte Wotan, and sh oteica is eterminedy CRC Press tbe cet, CCRC Pree wil replace ie cfeive dike). “Teenie and ecsive Hb sade fr ach his Limitoé Wart sal te todo elceent cf cetesive dates) ae shal ot nla or xen tay li for right covery eet damages, cling trot itedtn oe of rote, orf the fore ere nen oconsgueta dager eet Siar css ven sf CRC Pies as seit aed fhe oy of ch damages bee all Thelin of CRC Pre for ay dager to you ram ther pono ever exe th ewer suggested I pice oF seta le pl ete sofware reels of ny fr of i, ‘CRE Pisn SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMS ALL OTHER WARRANTISS, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, {INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO, ANY IMPLISD WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. 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Reasonable fl have bea Inde to us shed and intention bute utr) and the user eat sae spony for the vlc ofl atrlo fr he csegsnss of thr ier hi bok noe any prt may Ye repel ornate ix ay forme by ny meas, een ot mechanical tein pacing elming oe cri, orby my inferaton storage eral apse, ‘thon pie persion in wring fom he eae. "CRC Pres, e's ens ees ot do coying fr ene btn fr promt, fr xeaing se ‘war fr esl. Sper emison ma Be Obed it wag rr CR Pes for such CDF. Diet linger CR Pra, 2000 Crprte Blvd. NW, Bose Rab, ore 3351 (©1996 wy CRC Pres, te. No em to xia! US. Goverment rks Totnes! Std Bok Namba 803.9627. bry of Congres Crd Nome 95-535 Piated inthe Uied Sole of Amesor 123-4567 89.0 ‘Pete on aise paperDedication ‘This book is dedicated to Professor Dr. Georg Alefeld (March 2, 1933 to August 25, 1995). Dr. Alefold stated his career with the investigation of the relaxation effets in latices and proceeded to working with hydrogen in metals, During the last 15 years of his carer he fceused on applied thermodynamics, in particular heat conversion systems, absorption het ppamps and heat transformers. He established himself as a leader in this field with a ‘comprehensive research effort including extensive experiments andthe development of «basic theory and underlying concept for the desig rules of multi-stage absorption systems and ‘cxscades renewing the interest in the exploration of advanced eycles.PREFACE ‘The advances made in absorption technology during our eafters have always motivated and encouraged us to work i this field. A frustrating part of that endeavor has een the lack of a Systematic and detailed treameat of the fundamentals of the technology in the English literate, A recent book tiled Heat Conversion Systems (Alefeld and Radermacher, 1994) ‘focusses on the advanced aspects. This lack may be due, in pat, to the interdsiplinary nature ofthe technology as evident by the fact that work inthe fleld resides in the Department of Physies atthe Techncel University of Munih, inthe Department of Chemies! Engineering at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm and in Departments of Mechanical Engineering in many other locations, inckading our own, A full understanding of absortion technology involves contributions from all these fields and others. The psics ofthe technology is ick including corrosion chemistry, physical chemistry, coupled heat end mass transfer, Hid cdynamies, materials science, thermodynamics and mote Its safe to sey that there are amamber of poorly understood aspects of the technology that provide a fertile workspace for innovative minds “Activity inthe field of absorption technology has fluctuated considerab'y over the years. {In particular, the industry inthe U.S, is corrently expanding activity in the manufacturing, esearch and development arenas, An indication of the rising interest canbe seen by monitoring publications inthe field, One such measure is the number of patents issued in the U.S. as {Indicated inthe chart below, It is intresting to note that the number of patents isued stayed celatively constant for several years in the 1980s and then fell off dramatically around 1989. "The resurgence in the industy in recent years is reflected very clearly inthe patents issued since 1991, The resurgence of absorption technology is a particularly exciting ime with many ‘new developments and new engineers and companies entering the fel. It is hoped that this ‘book will promote the technology and support he resurgence by making sbserption technology mare accessible "The objectives ofthis text inchude an introduction to the field and the presentation of cufficient detail about the technology to form a bass for reading the extensive literature found in technical journals. The treatment is designed for engincers or other science-educated Number of U.S. Patents Issued SIN ITT Ta yo 12 74 16 8 8 82 A 86D Yeer Number of U.S. patents issued per year on the subject of abscrption chillers and Boat pupsindividuals at the senior undergraduate or fist year graduate level. An undergraduate ‘understanding of thermodynamics, beat transfer, and fluid flow is assumed as prerequisite From this base, the findamental peculiar and unique to absorption technology are developed. Partculer emphasis is placed on mixture thermodynamics and is practical application to atsorption system analysis. Both analytical and grephical methods are employed. Emphasis is placed on using computers to enhance the analytical capability as well as on developing a Scund intuitive sense forthe technology. Numerous examples are provided throughout the text ‘o guide the reader through the concepts. End of chapter problems are included to provie the insuetor with exercises for further reinforcing the concept. ‘Software i supplied to supplement the text. special version of the Engineering Equetion Solver, BES, is supplied withthe book and numerous examples ftom the text ae provied in EES souree code form. FES is a commercial package with powerful equation-selving ‘epabilites. Another major feature of BES isthe built-in thermodynamic property routines for ‘many fuids including waterithium bromide and azanoaiaWwater. This unique combination of ‘cuation solving and built-in property routines makes EES an excellent tool for studying and _urderstanding absorption systems. To complement the basic FES capabilies, the disk supplied Includes over fifty EES programs tied tothe treatment inthe text. These inclide models for single-effect, double-ffect and triple-effect cycles; Type Il cycles; and GAX cycles. Append CCprovides information on eycle modeling that describes the process involved in setting up a ‘model in EES for anew cycle. Thus, the reader hs all the tols needed to perform a widerange of absorption eyete analyses ‘ABSIM (an acronym for ABsorption SiMulation) is another powerful code which could be used fo solve many ofthe examples given inthis book. ABSIM is a modular computer cole for simulation of absorption systems. It was developed with DOB/ORNL sponsorship by Dr, Gershon Grossman. This modular code is based on unit subroutines containing the governing equations forthe system's companents and on property subroutines containing thermodyaamic ropes of the working fluids. Eleven absorption fluids are presently available inthe codes property database, and twelve units are avalable to compose practically every absorption cycle of intrest. ABSIM may be used for evaluating new eyeles and working fuids and to investigate a system’s behavior in off-design conditions, to analyze experimental data end to perform preliminary design optimization. A graphical user interface enables the user to draw ‘the cycle diagram on the computer sereen, enor the input data interactively, run the pregram and view the result either inthe form ofa table or superimposed onthe cycle diagram. Special utes enable the user to plot the results and to produce a PTX diagram of he eyele. Acopy ofthe latest developmental version of ABSIM slong with user's manual end several examples ‘ea be obained from the addzess given in Appendix F. ‘The book is organized into four major sections. Chapters | and 2 prove an introdvction tothe technology and a discussion of absorption cycle fundamental. Chapters 3 and 4 cover properties of working fluids and a description of the thermodynamic processes invalving ‘mixtures. Chapters Sto 8 discuss waterlthium bromide technology. Chapters 9 to 12 discuss armonia/vater technology. Appendices are provided covering cycle mod ‘measurements, and properties of fluids. ‘A project of this magnitude involves the contributions of many individuals and ‘orzanizations, We camot mention al ofthe contibutions due to space constraints. One group ‘that deserves mention is our students who have enthusiastically provided contizuous stimulation through their questions and comments. Extensive assistance was provided by Senjoy Sanyal, Yun-Ho Hwang, Sunil Mehendale, and Mohit Pande. significant fac in ieking this project viable was the support ofthe U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge ‘National Laboratory and the Oak Ridge Insite for Science and Education through sabbaticalsupport for K. E, Herold during 1994-1995. The University of Maryland also provided subbatiel support during thie time. The manuscript was reviewed and improved by Donald K. Miller and by Joseph Muay. The staff at CRC Press patiently guided us through the pablication process. Finally we would like to thank our familie for their support ofthis project. Yani, Paula, snd Jan have endured the effort and contributed through their patient support. Keith E, Herold Reishard Radermacher Sanford A. Klein December 199532. CONTENTS Introduction Heat Pumps Heat-Driven Heat Pure Description of Current Absorption Products 1.3.1 Water/Lithium Bromide Chillers 1.3.2 Ammonia/Water Chillers 1.3.3 Ammonia/Water/Hydrogen Refrigerators Outlook for Absorption Technology Absorption Cycle Fundamentals a Camot Cycles : 7 Absorption Heat Pump, Type... 9 ‘Absorption Heat Transformer, Type Il... 10 Absorption Heat Pump as Combination of Rankine Cycles ee ai Reversible Analysis with Variable Temperatures . iG Ineversiblities in Absorption Cycle Processes ..... 24 Zero-Order Absorption Cycle Model : 15 “Absorption Cycle Design Optimization fren 1% Properties of Working Fluids .........6..400006 Analytical Treatment of Thermodynamic Properties 2 3.11 Property Relations for Systems of Fixed Composition 1B 3.1.2. Open System Property Relations : 25 3.1.3 Equations of State eococoe 28 3.14 Mixture Volume ecto m3 BLS Mixture Energy Properties : 34 3.1.6 Mixture Entropy on 38 3.1.7 Phase Equilibrium = a0) 3.18 Summery 45 Graphical Perspective on Thermodynamic Properties of Absorption esr Fluigs 46 3.2.1. Temperature-Mass Fraction Diagram oe ©. 3.2.2. Pressure-Temperature Diagram ..... 32 3.23 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagrams Pa 3.24 Temperature-Entropy Diagrams — 33 32.5 The Enthalpy-Mass Fraction Diagram |... 0.00000 384.0 Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 4 42 43 44 45 45 4r 43 49 ‘Mixing of Fluide and the Heat of Mixing Specific Heat of Mixtures Desorption ‘Absorption Condensation and Evaporation Compression Pumping Tarottng ‘Amimioni Purification 49.1 Reflux Cooting 492. Rectifiation fear 4.10 Heat Exchangers 50 51 32 34 35 36 37 6.0 61 62 ‘Water/Lithium Bromide Systems Overview of Water/Lithium Bromide Technology . - Fundamentals of Operation S.1-1_ Solution Circuit 5.12. Reftigerant Loop Ceystallization and Absorber Cooling Requirements... Corrosion and Materials Compatibility ‘Vacuum Requirements 3.4.1 Component Size ‘5.42. Bifect of Non-Absorbable Gases 543. one Hend Bet in Evga Design (Gctyl Aleohot "Normal Maintenance and Sede Li Life | Controls Single-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Systems Single-Etteot Weter/Lithium Bromide Chiller Operating Conditions 6.1.1, Mass Flow Analysis 6.1.2. Thermodynamic States within the Cyele 6.1.3. Energy Balance Analysis 6.14 Discussion ofthe Operating Conditions Single-Effect with Heat Transfer Models 62.1 Heat Exchanger Models .. 62.2. Cycle Performance {623 Desorbr inlet Temperature Variations 62.4 Evaporator Temperature Variations 101 - 101 101 103, 03 104 105 108. 108 a) uo Ho m. 43 13 ma us 16 ns.62.5. Rejection Temperature Vatistions ......+..+e+0+0 129 626 Sohtion Flow Rate Variation - 130 62.7. Heat Transfer Loop Flow Rate Variation : 132 623 Baportr Abner Posnre Drop Yariton 2132 62.9 Heat Exchanger Size Variations ...... : 13 62.10 Summary of Single-Effect Operating Conditions 13 Sing ec Waterton Bro He Taner Cpe Het Pump) 133, Discussion of Available Single-Bifect Systems «....... 13 Double Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Technology 145 Double-Effect WaterLithium Bromide CyCl6S «.......sesseseseseesveee MS Solution Cireuit Plumbing Options 146 Operating Conditions of Double-Effee’ Machines SINT asi 73.1 Parallel Flow Double Effect renee last 132. Series Flow Double Effect 156 Systems on the Market : S158 Advanced Water/Lithium Bromide Cycles 161 HAIEBARect Cycle os. eeseessessesseestessecstesseesessecssese UL “Triple-eftect Cycle 164 82:1 Four-Pressure Triple Effect Using Water/Lithium Bromige 164 Resorption Cycle .. ee es ie ‘Additional Water/ithium Bromide Technologies, m BA Bnergy Storage + .se sess i 842 Cogeneration... : na 843 SolarCooling ..... SIND a Ammonia/Water Systems Single-Stage Ammonia/Water Systems 177 General Considerations ” 9.1.1 Properties of Ammonia and Safety Concems SOI ar 942, Wate Content of he Reign! Voor 7 9113 Material Considerations...» 180 Performance Caleuations SI 80 92.1 Single-Stage Ammonia/Watr Systems 8 92.2. Measure to Improve the Performance... TO 186 922.1 Condensate Precooler . CUININT re 922.2 Rectifier Integration 189 9223 Solution Reciculaton .-.......s.0c.cserseserseseee 18992.24 Solution Cooled Absorber = 13 92.3 Comparison of Ammonia/water and Water thium Bromide 198 93. Examples of Ammonia/Water Absorption Systems jn Operation .. 194 10.0 Two-Stage Ammonia/Water Systems ..-....+++40++ 201 10.1 Double-Bffect Ammonia/Water Systems... ceases 20 102 Double-Lift Ammonia/Water Systems... 205 103 Two-Stage Trple-Effect Ammonia/Water System 206 11.0 Generator/Absorber Heat Exchange (GAX) Gycles s+ 23 1141 Concept, Configurations and Design Considerations a 112 Branched GAX Cycle a ena 113 GAX Cycle Hardware on 12.0 Diffusion Absorption Cycle poecoeo + 235 121 Introduction «...-.. eon 2s 122 Cyele Physies : mn 236 123 Choice ofthe Auriliary Gas. se. sec. ssceos 239 124 Total Pressure of the System Bn 20 125 Cycle Performance Appendices A. Properties of LiBr/HH,0 ..... B. Properties of NHy/H,0 - C. Absorption Cycle Modeling . seen 253, CL Introduction - C2 Mass Balance Considerations 3 Energy Balances C4 Heat Transfer Processes CS Equation and Variable Counting - : G5. Convergence Issues and Importance of Selecting an Initial Guess 268 C7 Equation Solves . ee Dn 268 D. Concentration Measurements by Titration ........++FL F2 References Introduction to Engineering Equation Solver Overview Installing BES on Your Computer BES Menus ‘A Simple Problem Example Problem 22. Example Problem Showing Property Functions Example Problem 4.2 ‘AFinal Example Conclusion Overview of the ABSIM Software Package Ovecview . ABSIM Program Structure Index . 2m am am 2m 2 274 27 279 230 283 285 2as 286 - 287 35Bu? 38 319) 320 321 322 323 a 4a List of Figures Single-fect absorption eyee schematic i a ‘Vapor compression hest pump 22 Type heat pump 3 Type Tt heatpump Beare = 3 The Carma evel for power generation ov a emperature-etopy degra 1 ‘The Camo cycle for het panping on a tempeature-ntropy diagram 8 Camot eyes fora combined power-gneration/bat pumping faity such aan absorption heat pump... +10 Camot yes oa combi oer nthe pig sty sch a en absorption heat ansformer ul Ithstration of the combination of wo Rankine eyes (, beat pup, by power geacration toa combined system». 2 ‘enperature versus cumulative heat transfer rte for condenstion of steam st 100 kPa from 15010 50°C ss eseense ee B Zero-order model schema DUI Cooling COP fora single efi abortion machine CII ar Temperatures associated with zero order model cis Chemical potential fren ideal mixture 2... 0scccseeenees 2» Volume versus mas ction 2 Enthay versus ms action — 35 Entropy of mixing for an ideal mixture eee 39 Bly 1,0 babble point a Differential vaporization process ==... 2 “otal evaporation process bees 2 ‘Mass taser in toa evaporation process 3 ea ante in total evaporation process 46 Enihalpy-mas rection dagram for waterithium bromide Seo t Enthalpy-concenzation degra for ammoni/water Das Schematic ofemperatue-concenration diagram «00. scscssnses ~° Evaporation process in temperatire-concentation diagram 530 Siar of temperature glide independence of boiling pin ference 50 Schematic ofthe temperature-concentration diagram for an azeotropie mixture. 51 Schematic ofthe temperature-concentration diagram for an azeotropic mixture. 52 Pressure-temperatre diagram for several pure fluids 54 Pressure-temperature diagram for waterithiui bromide Dies 5 Pressure-temperature diagram for ammoni/ water 56 ‘Temperatureentropy diagram for water. Source: Keenan, 1H. Keyss, FG. Hill, P.G.,, Moore, 1.G, 1969, Steam Tables, Wiley, New York, Reprinted by permission ‘of John Wiley & Sons, In. 37 Pressure-enthalpy disgram for ammonia. Repriated wit permission of the American Sci of Heung, Regering and Air-Condoning Engner fom the 1995 ASHRAE Handloook - Fundamentals 8 Schematic of an enthalpy-concentraton diagram =... 59 ‘Schematic for finding the vapor concentration : 59 Mixing of two fluid streams =... = 6 ‘Mixing process in enthalpy-mass action diegram DI 6a43 Desorption process «2.2.2. +++ on 6 44 Desorption process in hx diagram pesroreraG 45 Graphic representation ofthe desorber heat requirement =... sss sesssiee. 68 4.6 Desorption process inh-x diagram with subcooled inlet stream 270 4.7 Absorption process 7 48 Absorption in hex diagram ” 49. Absorption proces in hx disgram with subcooled eult steam ” $10 Adiabatic absorption 15 SAL Throng process 2... esietieeeeeceeese 80 412 Reflux cooler I a6 413 Reflux cooling process in an enthalpy-mass fraction diagram... -..s. ss... 8S 4.14 Purification column. a7 415 The pole of rectification 2 88 4.16 Deeermination ofthe pole of rectification 02... cs esssesse 90 417 Determination ofthe number of theoretical plates... 0 418 Counter-flow desorber to minimize need for rectification : 31 419 Sensitivity ofthe pote position tothe feed concentration : 4 420° Analyzer 95 421 ‘Typical counterflow heat exchanger 96 S.A Single-effect absorption eycle schematic 22.0222 cece 101 52 Aqueous lithium bromide phase diagram a ie, 53 Vacuum terminology and units ee eee 106 54 Colderap design schematic... 2. .esecceseeseeseeseseneeseeeeesees 106 55 Bjector purge system 109 61 Singleeffect watelithium bromide absorption chiller ee i 62 Daring plot for eycle solution in Teble 6.1 9 63 Cooling COP versus solution heat exchanger effectiveness for 8 single-effect chiller 120 64 Single-effect, waterlithium bromide absorption chiller with extemal hest transfer models ...-..+. cetsitessetiseenenees . 2 “Heat exchanger digram for evaporator 123 Hest exchanger diagram for condenser : 124 “leat exchanger diagram for desorber DIIEINIIIINII ps Heat exchanger diagram for absorber 126 Effect of desorber inlet temperature on COP and capacity for a single-effect waerlthum bromide absorption eile ......2+4..s+s+seses 127 610 Effect of desorber inlet temperature on heat transfer rates for a single-effect watertthium bromide absorption chiller... 27 AM Effect of desorber inlet temperature on temperatures for a single-ffect ‘waterlithium bromide absorption chiller 128 612 Effect of chilled water inlet temperature on COP and capacity for a single-effect watelithium bromide absorption chiller. 9 6.13 Effect of cooling water inlet temperature on COP and capacity for'a single-effece watelithium bromide absorption chiller’ 13 14 Effect of solution pump flow rare on COP, capacity and solution heat exchanger heat transfer rate fora single-fTect waterfithium bromide absorption chiller... 13161s 616 oar 61s 6 620 on on 623 624 a 12 3 14 [Bffect of desorber heat transfer fluid flow rate on COP and capacity for a single-eflect waterlithium bromide absorption chiller... Effect of pressure drop between evaporator and absorber on COP and ociy for a singe-effect watefthium bromide absorption chiller’ fect of desorber heat exchanger on COP and capacity for a. single-offect water/ithium bromide absorption chiller +... + +.0+. fect of absorber hest exchanger on COP and capacity for a single-effect water/ithium bromide absorption chiller : Erfect of condenser heat exchanger on COP and capacity or a single-effect waterllthium bromide absorption chiller [Bffect of evaporator heat exchanger on COP and capacity for a Single-effect waterlithium bromide absorption chiller Effect of solution heat exchanger on COP and capacity fora single-effect watr/ithium bromide absorption chiller Single-effect, waterithium bromide temperature booster heat pump (Type Il absorption gyele) with extemal heat transfer models, Dithring plot forthe tycle solution in Table 6.6... ++. Adiabatic absorption temperature calculation schematic Effect of soliton heat exchanger effectiveness of COP and capacity of the Type Meyele - Double-efect waterithium bromide chiller Dubin cht cen (atallel flow) Double-effect waterithium bromide chiller piping chart schematic (parallel flow) Series low double-effect water/ithiam bromide chiller Dohring chart Sschematic(sotution fo high temperature) Series flow double-effeet watelithium bromide chiller Daring chart schematic (solution to low desorber fist) Parallel flow double-ffect waterlthium bromide ehiler Dating chart schematic showing stat points Dibbring state plot for baseline doubie-eeet waterithium bromide example from Section 7.3 See . (Cycle schematic forthe halfefect cycle Dithrng plot fr the haf-ffect cycle CCyele schematic forthe triple-effecteycle Dahrin plot for the wiple-effecteyele CGyele schematic for the resorption eyele Daring plot for the resorption eyele SE Energy sorage system... c.ecseycscsscessececeeseuseseneneseeeess Single-stage ammonia/water cycle... Single-stage ammonia/water cycle Single-stage ammonia/water cycle ‘Temperature glide in evaporator... Single-stageammoniawatereyete with recooler Single-sage ammonia/watereyele with tegrated recier Solution eration in desrber (ik ins) Solution ecteulation in absorber ba 134 - 134 135 13s 136 136 7 1a a 12 - 146 us 150 150 151 156 162 162 165 166 169 im 1B 178 19 Dist 18s 186 191 192 1949.9 Solution-cooled absorber... woe 19S 9.10 Residential ammoniatwatr air conditioner with solution absorber 197 9.11 Commercial ammonia'water absorption system for cogeneration facility in Verona, California 198 9.42 Schematic of process used in system of Figure 9.11... 198, 104 ‘Two-stage double-effect ammonia/water absorption system; R2 and R3 ar the high and low temperature sections of the rectifier .. 202 102 ‘Two-stage absorption cycle with bleed line SII. 205 103 Necessity for doubles systems... : 206 104 Double-ift configuration 207 10S Two-stage triple-effect ammonia water systems : + 208 10.6 Triple-ffect two-stage absorption air conditioner 210 U1 GAX concept; this figure shows the schematic ofa two-stage cycle; the GAX cyole is obtained when the flow rates of bot solution pumps are reduced and the solution cireuits approach each other as shown by the dashed lines; when they overlap, they cancel each other, ceseeesteeeseseeseets 21 112 GAX cycle 214 U3 GAXeyele oc vise BIS 114 GAX origins 216 11S Heatand mass transfer in the desosberfabsoriver heat exchanger 218 11.6 GAX eyele with hydronic het transfer loop 219 11.7 COP versus approach temperature .. aeeeenennntens 220 118 Results for Example 112 : 221 11.9 ‘Transition from GAX to single-stage eyele 21 11.10 Transition from GAX to single-stage cycle at constant lowest absorber temperature ee a TALI Mismatch: amount of het available and amount of heat required 23 11.42 Branched GAX eycle ..... ct 24 11.13 COP versus approach temperature for branched GAX cycle =. 226 11.14 Results for Example 11.2; the fll cicle for Qjequied is hidden behind th full sure fr Quy se oh ements ofa te same Accordingly. Qa the difference ofthe two is zero (open diamonds)... ++ 227 Energy mismatch between absorber and desorber 228 31.16 Cooling COP versus temperature lift cities 229 SLIT Heating COP versus temperature lift 2000.0... lotsa 229 IIB Schematic of GAX cyele 2231 31:19 Photograph of installed GAX system fitiiiieines 232 12:1 Thre loops in diffusion absorption refrigerator 236 12.2 Diffusion-absorption refrigerator hardware schematic a 12.3. Schematic diagram of « bubble pump .... eee 2a 524 Measured DAR performance versus input power 2a BA Viscosity of ammonia/water liquid. Source: Thermodyamic and Physical Prop- ‘ties of NH - HO (reproduced by permission from Intemational Insitute of Reftigeration, see reference setion under (IIR, 1994) for complete citation). . 249 B2 Predicted thermal conductivity of ammonia/water liquid (Wang, 1992) 250Surféce tension of ammonia/vater liquid. Source: Thermodynamic and Physical ‘Properties of NH; -H,0 (reproduced by permission from Inemational Institute of Retfigeration, see reference section under (IR, 1994) for complete citation) ‘Schematic of single-effect cycle with external heat trahsfer processes Schematic of single-effect cycle without external heat transfer processes. Mass flows in single-effec cycle : ‘Mase flows ina dauble-ffect cycle Volume of HCI versus pit... ~ 251 253 254 255 256 268List of Tables 2:1 Irreversible effects in absorption technology... 5.1 Absorption working fuid properties... 2 41 Properties of ammoni/water a the sate points according to Figure 43. ...... 71 <2 Propet of ammonia a he st pints acring Fg 47 76 43. Property data for Example 4.10 = 86 4A Result for rectifier with no plate (eux cooler) wientece 43 Result for rectifier with ne pate ee 32 466 Result for rectifier with two plates... .0. so. ess. 3 4.7 Result for rectifier with three plates Sl 93 €1 Operating conditions for single-effect waterlthium bromide machine nna €2 Thermodynamic state point summary 116 63 Operating conditions fra single-ffect water/ithium bromide eyele with heat exchangers 1 4 ‘Baseline inputs defining single eect operating conditions in Table 63... 123, 3 Condenser and absorber coolant piping comparisons based on inputs ia Table64 ..... 130 66 Singlet Type If operating conditions SI 38 67 Thermodynamic state point summary... 9 68 Baseline inputs defining Type I operating conditions in Table 6.6 139 7A Comparison of parallel and series low for double-tTect waterlhium bromide exces ve 148 12 State point summary for parallel flow Gouble-ffeteyele 132 713 Inputs forthe parallel low double-ffect eycle model... 133 74 Baseline operating conditions fora parallel ow double-effect waterihium bromide machine 184 28. Operating conditions fra setes How double-effet watrfthium bromide machine vse 1ST 1 Operating conditions forthe haleffeteyele 0200000022 16 ‘&2 Inputs forthe wipe-effect cycle model 167 83. Operating conditions forthe trple-efect cycle 168 84 Inputs for the resorption oycle model .......s0.csveeeveveses 1H $5 Operating conditions for the resonption eyele.1200000200.222 1m S51 Data for Example 9.1 2 180 82 State point forthe ammonia water system according to Figure 93.20... 182 853 State point forthe ammonia‘watr system of Example 93 187 914 State points for the ammonia/water system according to Figure 94 with reduced rectifier load... woe 188 98 State points for the anmonia/water system according to Figue 9.4 wih reduced rectifier load andthe retfier heat wed internally. - 190 86 State points forthe emmonia/water system according to Figure 9.8 using ‘etifir integration and solution recirculation within the absorber 193, 40.1 State points fr the smmoniawater system according to Figure 10.1 208 10.2 State points forthe two-stage tripleelfect ammoniawater system... +... 208 TLL State poins forthe ammoniawater system according to Figure 10.2 217‘State points forthe branched GAX eycle according to Figure 1112 .....+2+. Solubitiry of pure LiBr in water ferential diffson coefficient of aqueous lithium fomide solutions at 26°C Heat of frmation of aqueous lithium bromide solutions ...........- Heats of solution and dilution for lithium bromide in water at 250°C Differential heats of dilution, Q of aqueous lithium bromide solution Integral teats of solution, Q,, of aqueous lithium bromide solutions Average ontact angle between pure lithium bromide brine and select metals ‘Surface easion of lithium bromide aqueous solutions - ‘Mode! ings and outputs . ‘Mass and energy balances Veriables, equations and inputs inthe single-efect model 283 283 248 24s 245 245 246 284 238 261List of Examples Determine Minimum Heat Input Temperature Absorption Cycle Optimization "elansipBoteen aria Moll nd Paria Mas Poperie ‘Thermodynamic Consistency ... ‘Total Bvaporation of Ammonia/Water Mixture Adiabatic Mixing with Wate/Lithium Bromide Desorption ...-.. Desorption of Water from Aqueous Lithiy Absorber ‘Absorption of Water Vapor inte Aqueous Lithium Bromide Condensation and Evaporation of Water ‘Throtling Process with Pure Fluid «+ ‘Throtling Aqueous Lithium Bromide Throtling of Liquid Ammonia Water Reflux Cooler Rectifier. Presoure Unite... Reversible COP of Double Effect Machine Zero-Order Model of a Double-Effect Machine Evaporator Temperature Glide Single-Stage AmmonialWater System Subeooler Subeooler with Liguid Evaporation Rectifier Heat Integration Solution Recirculation inthe Absorber - Two Sage Doble Bo Ann yen wih Sepa Reetiers ‘Two-Stage Trple-Effect Ammonia/Water System . vests GAX Cycle [Effect of Approach Temperature Branched GAX Cycle Resorption Cycle “Mass Balances in Ammonia/Water Cyeles Resorption Cycle Equation Counting Determination ofthe Concentration of Ammonia/Water by Titration Determination ofthe Concentration of Water/Lithium Bromide by Titration BromideList of EES Files File names marked with asterisk can be downloaded from fie CRC Press World Wide Web server by accessing the CRC Press home page a hiip://wwwerepress.com. Click onthe button ‘marked Updates and Downloads and then follow the prompts tothe section for Absorption (Chillers and Heat Pumps. All ther files are included on the floppy disk supplied with the ook. Object Filename Example 21 ...seseeee ee coves @x2_2.008 Bxample 3.1 esc... ce ex3_Lees Example 32 a a od ess Example 33 SOI fore ed ees Example 4.1 : . ext Lees Example 42... . Ba S oxt 2eees Example 4.3 620.000: — ext 3.008 Example 44 : ext ees Example 45 : cer ext S.e0s Beample 46 6.20... SIND ex 6.088 Example 47 : fis exd Tees Example 4.8 aoeeenen ext Bees Example 49 ext Dees Example 4.10 exd_10.008 Example 4.11 exd_Lees Tables... : oo « Hbrs7.005 Tas eee 22 ibssTa.ees Table 6.6 : ‘ypthees Figure 632.0. pone : * tibes702.008 Figure 6.13, eae COL bret Figues 69,610 md 6.1 : Figure 6.12 .....ssesectcesssesssseseuenees Figure 6.13 So Cievisbeoe Hb Teees Figure 6.14 «2... SO * fibr715.0es Figure 6.15, : 1 Hibes76.208 Figure 616 2000.2. : * ibrs7t8.00s Figure 6.17 oe eee * hibrs79.088 Figure 6.18 = coos MbesTya.ees Figure 6.19 - eee aarnsal Figure 6:20 oro * Hbrs7ue.0es Figure 6.21 ee TOI + hrstus.ees igure 625 0000 SII. pean Table 74 . coeenere dbl pees Table 7.5 SII {dbl shLces Series flow, Soltion to low desorver frst v0.00. s oles dbl sh2.008Supporting calculations for Example 72 ......c.ecse++ * dblplaces Parallel flow, all UA models .....- * db-p3.ees Configured to support Example 7.2 argument 2." * dbbpiaxees Series low, low desorber first, intemal heat transfer models ute effectiveness * dblsll.ees Series flow, low desorber frst all UA models, vo * dbbsI2ees Pallet flow, intemal model COIs tbrebi os Table 81 os esseseseee sss cachet Table 83-020. cee eee rine Table 85 SS reserp2.0es Bxample 9.1 0 Lees Example 9.2 = = ex) Dees Example 93 2022.2. SOIT eg ect Example 94 DININ ed Aes Example9.5 oss ssccs Ls x9 Sees Example 9.6 mo 0 6.008 Example 101 ..ccsseceseesseseeseesesseness ‘exl0_Lees Example 10.2. CLI ext ees Bxample 11.1 coeveeee exces Example 112 : oon exll Deeseovceran ANP AR CFC ‘CoP. & mae gzggccn gents wes ‘Nomenclature Effectiveness EMicieney ‘Chemical potential ‘Specific volume Partial molal volume Density ‘Surface tension Helmholtz ree energy, =u pv Area Absorption heat pump ‘Absorption refrigeration system Molar concentration Chloroftuorocarbon reiigrant Coefficient of performan Specific heat at constant pressure ‘Surface fuid coefficient Specific heat at constant volume Diffusion coefficient Engineering equation solver Soltion circulation ratio Gibbs fiee energy; gh + py, acceleration of gravity ‘Bnthalpy, heat transfer cofiieient Extensive enthalpy Heat transformer Thermal conductivity Liquid Length Mass flow rate ‘Molecular weight Number of moles ‘Nasselt number Pattal pressure Partial pressure Pressure Heat flux, heat transfer per unit mass Het transfer rate, vapor quality Latent heat Universal gas constant, thermal resistance Entropy Solution hest exchanger ‘Temperature . Mex Ed eral heat transfer coefficient, Jnteral energy Volume, velocity Mechanical work rte Mass tration Vapor quality Thermal conductivity Subscripts ZENE ES tee RS eza~< 5D ROO rE sooo wD See Component A Component B Condenser [Bvaporator Desorber Absorber Hot Hot internat Intermediate internal Low intemal Refrigeration ‘At constant pressure ‘At constant temperature Vapor Liquid Water Ammonia Inlet Surfice Saturation Liquid to vapor Log mean Wall ‘Vapor phase Liquid phase Rectifier, reflux cooler Heat exchanger Solution heat exchanger Reversible Evaporator Desorber Condenser Absorber SubcoolerChapter 1 INTRODUCTION 11 Heat Pumps ‘The term “heat pump" refers to a group of technologies that transfer heat from alow ‘emperature fo a high temperature. Such a transfer requires a thermodynamic input inthe form of elther work or heat. This is made clear in the Clausius statement of the second law of ‘thermodynamics which can be stated as: is impossible for any system o operate in such a way thatthe sole result would be ‘an energy transfer by heat from a cooler toa hater body ‘The thermodynamic implications ofthe second law for heat pump technology are the factors ‘hat complicate the application and understanding ofthis technology. Even when the second |hw is not explicitly applied ina heat pomp analysis, its requirements are ia force implicitly through the properties ofthe working fui. ‘The type of energy input, whether eat or work, changes the details of the technology needed to provide the heat pumping function. Absorption technology, which ie the focus ofthis book, is an example ofa heat driven technology. A schematic diagram ofa simple absorption cyele is shown as Figure 1.1. The details of the schematic will be discussed fly statin in ‘Chapter 2. The main point here isto focus onthe energy transfers between the eyeleand its sutoundings. Iti possible to transfer heat ftom alow toa high temperature while supplying only heat asthe driving energy By eliminating the need for a work input, an absorption cycle ie 1% a a a Pump Valve —— nH “Absorber Ta Tenpenet Figure 1.1 Single-effect absorption eycle schematic2 Chapter 1 Introd $ Bvapoator Heat In atthe Lowest Tempers Figure 1.2 Vapor compression eat pump provides a unique solution fora range of technological problems from solar cooling to steam- ‘riven reftigeration. Many other hat driven heat pump technologies have been conceived but absorption technology is by far the most widely applied. Other heat-drven technologies that hnave been demonstrated include aisorption (solid/vapor), Stirling cycle, ejector and magnetic refhigeration. Many other ideas have appeared in the literate Heat pumps that require a work input provide solutions to a complementary range of, technological problems. The vapor compression heat pump isthe most widely used variant of this technology. The vapor compression heat pump is widely used for residential and commercial heating and cooling, food refrigeration and automobile air-conditioning, among other uses, This technology is ilstated in Figure 1.2. A mechanical compressor, typically riven by an electric motor, provides the work input thet drives the heat transfer from the low temperature to the high temperature, ‘The emphasis inthis book is on absorption heat pumps that are heat-riven, It should be ‘kept in ming that the basic fiction, that is, transferring heat from a low temperature oa high ‘erperature canbe implemented in a wide range of technologies of which absorption machines ae just one family 1.2. Heat-Driven Heat Pumps ‘The simplest heat-driven heat pump isa device that transfers heat at three temperature levels, There are two variations of his arrangement that represent two fundamentally different ‘neat pumping types. The fist, which we will al Type I i illustrated in Figure 1.3. In this type ‘of beat pump, the driving heat is irput atthe highest temperature level and the product is either 1) refigertion at the lowest temperature or 2) heating atthe intermediate temperature. The second type, Type I is illustrated in Figure 14. ina Type Il heat pump, the driving heat is input atthe intermediate temperature level, andthe product is the heat provided atthe highest temperature level. Type It heat purps, which ae also known as heat transformers, temperature ‘boosters or temperature amplifies, are useful for upgrading the temperature ofa waste heat stream toa useful level. A consequence ofthe second law is that this upgrade in temperatureChapter 1 Introduction 3 & ‘Type Heat Pap Heat Outpt Te Te R. Heat topat Joenrnrn— Tn Re Figure 1.3 Type 1 beat pump requires a portion ofthe input heat to be rejected ata lower temperature, "The blocks with temperatures indicated on Figures 13 and 14 as Ty, T, and T, represent the thermal boundary conditions with which the absorption machine mus interact, The highest temperature is atthe top and the lowest is tthe bottom of both diagrams. Intel to the sbsorption machine, another set of temperatures is designated withthe subscript I. At each temperature level, the heat transfer interaction between the absorption machine and the surroundings must oceur through a heat exchanger represented by the sawtooth thermal resistance. These diagrams emphasize the key role of temperature in understanding absorption technology. ™ % ype eat Pomp Heataper ts Lb nn—_T_& R, Heat Outpt te oN LE igure 14 Type I heat pump4 Chapter 1- Introduction ‘Type | absorption heat pumps are commonly used in commercial Buildings as water chillers ‘or air-conditioning applications. They canbe found in thousands of mechanical rooms across ‘the world Type I heat pumps have been demonstrated in laboratories, including facilites ran by the authors, and have been demonstrated in afew industria installations. The economics of ‘Type Il eat pump utilization with current technology end at curent energy prices is not favorable. However, full understanding of beatdriven heat pumping requires an understanding of the Type If heat pump concept. 13 Description of Current Absorption Products ‘Threo distinc absorption technologies are currently marketed in the U.S. These are 1) waterfithium bromide chillers, 2) ammonia/water chillers and 3) ammoniahvaterhaydrogen ‘efigeratos. Within each ofthe thee categories there is some differentiation among products but iis useful to vide the technology in this way to feclitate the discussion, 131 WaterLithium Bromide Chillers ‘Watelithium vomide technology is discus in detail in Chapters 5 to 8, Watefitium ‘bromide san abserption working vid which has been used widely since the 1950s when the technology was oneared by several manufactures inthe US. This working fd utilizes Water a5 the refigerant and is therefore limited to refrigeration temperatures above 0°C. Absorption machines based on wate/ithiam bromide ar typically configured ak wate chillers for scondtionig estes in large buildings. Machines ae availble in sizes ranging from 10401500 Toa (Not: Ton is aunt of refigeraton capacity, 1 Ton = 12,000 BTUMe~ 317 EW), The coefficient of performance (COP) ofthese machines, defined asthe refrigeration capacity divide by the diving heat input, typically varies over the range 0.7 < COP < 1.2 depending on the particular eyele configuration. These machines have a reputation for conssteat, depenable service mong mechanical room operators. The main comping technology is vps compression cles and theehoie between the tno depends strongly on ‘conomie factors 1.32 Ammoni/Water Chillers ‘Ammonia/waer technology is discused in detail in Chapters 9 to 11. Ammonia/water is ‘an absorption fiud that has been used since the late 1800¢ at which ime it was used for production prior 0 the introduction of vapor compression technology. This working uid utilizes ammonia asthe refrigerant. Thus, the role of water is distinctly different between ammonia/water aad the wateithium bromide discussed in Section 1.3.1, One advantage of ammonia as refrigerant is that the allowable refrigeration temperature is much lower (te fheezing temperate of ammonia is-77.7°C). However, the toxicity of ammonia sa factor that has limited it seo well-ventilated areas. Amamoniawater absorption chillers are commonly sold a8 air-conditioning components and this use is regulated in some densely populated wrban ‘areas, The ability to provide dizect gos-ired and ai-cooled air-conditioning i the primary selling point ofthis technology. Machines sre available in capacity ranging from 3 to 25 Ton (10 9 90 kW) wit coefficient of performance typically around 0.5, These units have a niche ‘market ince there are few competing geo fred technologies suitable for many spplsations. 133. Ammonia/Water/Hydrogen Refrigerators ‘Ammonia/watchhydrogen refrigerators are discussed in detail in Chapter 12. This technology is a direct descendant ofthat patented by the Swedes von Platen and Munters inChapter 1 Inwoduction 5 1921. Domestic refrigerators based on ammonia/waterraydrogen have been contiruously tvailable since that time. Machines besed on this eyele are manufactured by numerous companies throughout the world. Inthe ULS. the reftigerators are used primarily for the recreational vehicle market where the lack of need for any elect input isthe selling point. Internationally, the technology has a significant niche market as hotel room refrigeraters. The selling point tee isthe silent operation 14 Outlook for Absorption Technology Absorption technology is curently experiencing a resurgence of interest from end wsers in te U.S. who need a dependable heat- ¥, a | Wourput g <—e i Q, 5 é F = Entropy igure 2.1 The Carmot eyete for power generation on a tempersture-entopy diagram8 Chapter? - Absorption Cycle Fundamentals Th ig of gums a Bg 2 ate st ile ge 2.3. Al tnapiercomed pst mie fitness TReciccy so por’ zeroes fined nh oun of wok poduced dvded vy desman fiat rinicdatthighesepanae. T zx 2, ‘Tue Second Law of Teonodynuns ts fr he Caot ele of Fie 2: tt fr sabi oprnn be ntetony pedi ir sta % 2 mon ne 22 zo 23 ‘Equation 2.2 can be modified to an expression that contains only temperatures using Equations 2.1 and 2.3 by eliminating W. 1 24 ‘The expression in Equation 24 is frequently termed the Camot efficiency factor for power generation igure 2.2 shows a Camoteycle thats operated asa heat pump cycle. The direction of all processes is reversed as compared tothe power generation cycle. Here, the temperatures are chosen such that heat Qo is added tothe working fluid at Tgalong the process line GH; the fi {is compressed isentopically Hl and heat Q, isrejected at, I; and the uid expanded ‘sentropically, 1G, The areas represent again energy transfers, The net amount of work input requited for this cycle is represented by the area GHL and the amount of heat absorbed by the sea GHKL, The sum of both area (aes LILK) represents the amount of heat rejected at Ty. “The performance of heat pump is described by the ratio of the benefit obtained, the amount of heat aveilable at the high temperature, divided by the expenditure, the net work ‘requirement. Since this value is always greater than 1.0 the term “coefficient of performance” Temperature Figure 2.2 The Camot cycle for heat pumping on a temperature-entropy diagram(Chapter 2~ Absorption Cycle Fundamentals 9 (COP) is used customary. cop = 2s ‘This equation is derived by using the First and Second Laws forthe heet pump process of Figure 2.2 and by following the sume procedure as for Equation 24. The Camot cyl of Figure 22 can also be used fr cooling or refrigeration applications. While tho eyce itself does not change, the way we view the application is different. For reftgeration, the heat removed at Tpis of interes, and the COP is defined asthe rato ofthe cooling cspacity Qu over the work inp, Subscript R is used to designate thatthe COP is defined for refrigeration. T. coP, = 1, -T, 26 Equation 2.6 is derived by applying the Fest and Second Laws as described above fr the power generation cycle. For the coefficients of performance of a heat pomp cycle and a ‘efigeration cycle the following relationship ean be derived. cop, +1 = CoP 27 ‘This expression can be verified by substituting Equations 2 and 2.6 into Equation 27. 22 Absorption Heat Pump, Type I In order to describe an absorption heat pump with the help of Camot cycles, now both cycles (the work producing and refrigeration eyele of Figures 2.1 and 2.2) are combined into ore device, It is assumed that the amount of work produced by te first cycle, Figure 2.1, i identical tothe amount of work required by the second cycle, Figure 2.2. The new device, Figure 2.3, raises the temperature level of heat supplied a T 7; by using te thermodynamic availability of the high temperature energy supplied at Tz, ‘The waste heat of the power generation portion ofthis combined cycle is aso rejected atT. Thus the total amount of heat ‘elected at T, has two contributions, Q and Q, This combined cyele represents a heat-pumping device that i driven by the input of heat corly, Iti the ideal representation of several different heat-pumping concepts. Exam an engine driven vapor compression heat pump, a combination ofa steam power plant with aa electrical vapor compression hest pump of the representation ofan absorption heat pump. The coefficient of performance for this latter device is customarily defined a& COP yyy = 28 eo forkeating pplication and as cory, = % 29 fee cooling and reftigerstion applications. By applying the First and Second Law: and10 Chapter2- Absorption Cyele Fundamentals ‘Temperature Entropy, Figure 2.3 Camot cycles fora combined power-generation/heatpumping fcility suchas an absorption heat pump cfiminting ether Qo oF Q, (with Q,= Q,'+ Q;"), Equations 2.8 and 2.9 can be converted ints ‘expressions that depend on temperature only. ae COP yp 2a ‘As with vapor compression heat pumps and refrigerators, the distinction between a heat pump and a chiller is oaly a function of the application, not of the operating mode. The analogue to Equation 2.7 is also valid for absorption systems: COPyy +1 = COP pup 2 “The system deserbed sofa, et pertain to the implementation of absorption hedt pumps, referred to in the literature at times as “Type I Absorption Heat Pump” 2.3. Absorption Heat Transformer, Type IL “The combined eyele of Figure 23 can be operated in a reversed mode. For this purpose, the diesions of all uid streams and all energy streams are reversed andthe combined cye® of Figute 2 is obtained. This cycle is referred to as “heat transformes” or as “absompticn Systen, Type H. Ta this ene, lie wycle operating between T, and Tio a heat pump evel, ‘while the cycle operating between T, and Ty i a power generation cycle (not the circulation Girectons). Nov heat is supplied at to bath cycles. ‘The purpose ofthis eyoe isto use heat at an intermediate temperature love, for example, 80°C waste heat, and to convert itt high temperare heat, for example, 120°C. This conversion is accomplished by using a portion of‘Chapter 2~ Absorption Cycle Fundamental: 11 ‘Temperature Entropy Figure 2.4 Camot cycles for a combined power generation/heat-pumping facility such as an bsomption heat transformer ‘te waste heat ina power generation cyte that reject heat at To while it provides the work for tne heat pump cycle, The efficiency fora heat transformer eyele is defined os 2 2 +0," COP} isthe amount of wef hightemperature heat divided bythe ttl amount of waste heat required, Q and Q" represent the two conrbutions of wast eet, one to be puped tT, td the secondo drive the power plant to do so. Using the respective equations forte Fist and Second Laws forthe heat transformer and eliminating the heat Qo, the following tem for the efficiency is obtained, 213, 1, 1 “Type Il absorption heat pump” 214 COP py ‘This hea transformer is at times referred toa 24 Absorption Heat Pump as Combination of Rankine Cycles Figure 2.5a shows the components of a Rankine heat pump cycle while Figure 2.sbshows abasic Rankine cycle that produces work. By studying the drecton ofthe working fuid streams, itis apparent thatthe two cycles could potetially be combined into one. For example, hen the following conditions are flfille, the compressor and turbine can be elimizated: 1) Ifthe stream leaving the boiler ofthe power generation eyele had the same high ‘resture level and flow rate a the stream entering the condenser of the hest pump. cycle, and 2) Ifthe steam leaving the heat pump eveporator bad the same low pressure level and flow rate as the stream entering the power eyele condenses, then the compressor and turbine canbe eliminated, The result isan absorption heatpump.12 Chapter 2- Absorption Cycle Fundamentals Condenser oe a | Valve Turbine} | Evaporator Condens POP » > igure 2.5 Ilustration of the combination of two Rankine cycles (a, heat pump; b, power generation) to @ combined system ‘Thus, m absorption heat pump cycle, isa heat-driven reftigereton cycle that ean be thought ‘of asa combination ofa power eyele anda work-driven heat pump all in one machine, In order to full condition 1 and 2 and to have different temperature lovels forthe ‘evaporation proces in the boiler ofthe power eycle and the condenser ofthe heat pump eyele (they ar both atthe same pressure), the Aud in the boiler must evaporate at temperature that ishighe than that ofthe condenser ofthe heat pump cyele. This effect can be achieved when the vapor in te boiler is evaporating out ofa mixture witha fluid of a much higher boiling point. This Nuid is usually termed the absorbent or solvent. Only with such a mixture of absorbent and refrigerant inthe power generation portion isthe absorption heat pump process possible. This requirement explained in more detail in Chapter 3. The absorbent remaining in the boiler must be circulated in its own loop. For this purpose, a dashed line with a pressure reducing valve is shown in Figure 2. This derivation makes it plausible thatthe absorption ‘yele etn be viewed as« combination of two Rankine cycles. 25 Reversible Analysis with Variable Temperatures “Thereversible analysis discussed in Sections 2.1 to 2.3 is based on the assumption tha all heat trasfers occur at fixed temperature. This assumption makes the analysis simple, and the resulting models provide insight into the thermodynamics of absorption eycles. However, the heat raster processes actually occur over a range of temperatures inal the componetts. The working fluid experiences temperature changes at passes through the components due to 3 number of factors including pressure changes, mass fraction changes, superheating, and ubeooling. Prom the perspective of reversible analy, itis dosirable to determine an average temperstire which can Tepresent the variable lemperature heat tansfet processes, The appropiate temperature isthe entropic average temperature. CCorsider an arbitrary heat transfer process occuring over a range of tomperatures. A simple(Chapter 2~ Absorption Cycle Fundamentals 13 Water P= 100 KPa, m= 1 hg 130 || Desupaiteating M0 ‘Condesa | ‘Temperature @C) 3 2 o 1000 200 3000 ‘Cumulative Heat Transfer Rate (kW) Figure 2.6 Temperature versus cumulative heet transfer rate for condensation of stam at 100 kPa from 150 0 50°C example isthe cooling of water flowing ina pipe. As energy is transfered out ofthe sytem, the temperature decreases. An energy balance onthe syste allows determination ofthe total stergy transfer asa function of the flow rate and the end state temperatures. A reversible analysis, ofthe type done in Sections 2.1 to 23 requires a second law analysis which, i turn, requires knowledge of the temperature at which the heat transfer occur, Since the tempetire ‘of the system isa continuously changing variable, it is necessary to view the process on a ferential basi, Consider the arbitrary heat transfer process shown on temperare vs. cumulative heat lwansfer rate coordinates in Figure 2.6. The cumulative heat transfer rte i the integral ofthe heat fox over the eat exchanger area withthe zero st arbitrarily at one end of the device. The ‘eal entropy lowing with the heat transfer canbe waiten as ao s+ s2 2 pee 1s ‘here the heat transfer rate dQ is transferred a the temperature T. Note that the temperature cerresponds tothe temperature ofthe system boundary selected by the analyst. An average temperature, called the entropic average, can be defined such thatthe entropy trensfer would bethe same ifthe entire hea transfer occured atthe average temperature, The defntin is a =o Tm = 5 40 246 T ‘The entropic average temperature, as defined in Equation 2.16, reilets the thermodyramic “quality” of variable temperature beat transfer. Ths, the entropic average temperature i the aporopriate temperature to use whenever 2 variable temperature process is to be analyzed14 Chapter 2 - Absorption Cycle Fundamentals ‘thermodynamically as a constant temperature process. This formulation resins the simplicity fof the constant temperature model but makes it applicable to varying temperature. 2.6 Irveversibilities in Absorption Cycle Processes! ‘The reversible eycle analyses discussed in Sections 2.1 t0 23 represent an idealized performance limits foran absorption cyte. neal eyeles, performance falls below te idealized limits due to irreversible processes such as those listed in Table 2.1, Themogynantic inreversibilitis occur whenever transport occurs. This includes transport of omentum, mass or heat. These transport processes are always accompanied bya finite difference in the diving potential (uch asthe temperature difference for heat transfer). The imeversibility of a given ‘Table 2.1 Imeversible effets in absorption technology Phenomena ‘Visoous fiction ‘Vapor flow, guid flow ‘Thermal mixing Lig net 0 desorbe Mass mixing Ligui inlet to desorbe Heat wansfer Every component Unretrained expansion Expansion valve proces is related to both the quantity of transport and tothe potential difference over which itis transported, An introduction to the analysis of irevesibilities in thermal systems can be ‘ound in Bejan (1982). Irreversibility is defined as the entropy generation multiplied by a reference temperature, ‘Although this is heipfi, inthe sense that it allows a specific definition fortis concept, it also introduces some confusion since the choice is arbitrary andthe interpretation depends onthe temperature used. An alternative that avoids the need for an arbitrary reference temperate is to simply concentrate onthe entropy generation rate and to avoid introducig the concept of irreversibility. This method may be preferable for heat pump analysis because it avoid the confusion associated with the arbitrary reference temperature, This method has been applied ‘o absorption heat pump analysis by Alefeld (1987). By analyzing the state atthe inlet and outlet ofeach component, and, with several assumptions about the processes occuring inthe components, its posible o calculate the entropy generation in each component. By comparing the entropy generation in the various components the analyst can develop an understanding of ich components are causing performance degradation and where to invest design efforts to improve performance, ‘The details of such analyses yield some very informative general reslts. For a well ‘re those ezzocited with the heat designed abzorption machine, he major irevera transfer processes. Those processes include the solution heat exchanger, whch is an internal hac transfer, and the external heat ransfes. In the case ofthe external heat transfer processes, the prcess on the solution sie of the machine ia coupled heat and mass transfer process. The fe associated with the coupled processes are lumped together inthis.(Chapter2 ~ Absorption Cycle Fundamentals 15 9, : ty Ry AHP a T Te Re Te Te Migure 2. Zero-order model schematic and assigned tothe heat transfer. In atypical machine, the other transport processes occurring within the machine ae also irreversible, but faxes and potential differences are low exough so that they are insignificant compared fo the heat transfer processes. This result is imortant because it points toward potential performance improvertents It also points toward the type of models needed to predict the performance of absorption machines. As long a5 @ model predicts the major ireversiblites, it shoald also predict performance 2.7 Zero-Orider Absorption Cycle Model ‘The abilty to predit the performance of particular absorption eye utilizing a particular absorption working pair, is «fundamental skill forthe engineer who needs to determine the applicability of an absorption cycle to a particular situation. The experienced heat pump ‘engineer hes rules of thumb and tution on which to base a decision. A neweamer tothe field must have modeling tools to enable the careful evaluation of a given design In this book, a series of tools are presented which allow absorption eycle performance tobe predicted with ‘varying levels of accuracy. “The factors tat determine the performance ofa thermodynamic eycle in «given application ar the ireversibilties, which are losses of thermodynamie availabilty or exeray. The major ieversibiltes ina typical absorption cycle application are associated with heat transfer batween the eyele and the surroundings. The simplest single-ffect absorption cycle requires heat transfer interactions with the suroundings (two of which occur typically atthe same tenperaure level) Each of these eat transfers have an associated irreversibility or loss, The summation of losses, plus the loses intemal tothe cycle, determines the approach of thecycle performance tothe reversible limit itroduced in Chapter 1. The zero-order madel is based oa ie concept of modeling valy those proceses thst coieTbute the Tergest reversibiites, ignoring all eter losses. Thus the internal losses are ignored inthe zero-order mode. The sethod results in a model that is easy to solve and to understand and produces excellent predictions of performance trends but one that provides only a rough approximation to absolute performance prediction. A detailed description of te zero-order mode canbe found in Herold16 Chapter 2- Absorption Cyele Fundamentals and Radermacher 1990. The zero-order model is based on the schematic in Figure 2.7. The block marked AHP represents the intemal workings ofthe absorption cycle, The intemal workings are modeled as, thermodynamically roversibl. The zero-order madel emphasizes the heat exchanger losses between the AHP andthe surroundings represented inthe figure by thermal resistances denoted R. There are three thermal resistances shown, corresponding tothe three temperature levels | When interpreting the model, one must realize thatthe thenial conductance a he intermediate } temperature level represents the sum of the condenser and the absorber heat transfer conductances. The zero-order model consists of the following equations. There is one heat ‘ansfer equation for each of the three thermal resistances shown in Figure 27. 2a7 28 219 ‘An overall energy balance on the system requires thatthe sum ofthe thee heat ransfrs must be zero, Note thatthe model assumes steady state and that the pump work and environmental heat loses are neglected, % + 2, = 2 220 The perfomance ofthe AHP is assumed obo reversible and can be represented as (Equation 2.10) ee cor es 2) ees 20 Tul Ta Fy ‘The system represented by Equations 2.15 to 2.19 includes five equations inthe six unknowns including the three unknown Q's end the tree unknown internal temperatures. An addtional ‘equation is needed to close the system. One such equation that can be deduced from the ‘working fhud characteristics is ToT, = Ta Ty 222 Assuming thatthe condenser and the absorber operate at the same temperature, Equation 2.22 says that the temperature difference between the evaporator and the condenser is the same as ‘between the absorber and desorber. This characteristic isa reasonable approximation for a single-ffect machine. For other cycles, Equation 2.22 must be replaced accordingly. that ‘The six equations in six unknowns represented by Equation 2.16 o 2.22 can be solved iteratively. The resulta very simple absorption eycle model that predicts performance trends remarkably well considering the effort required to set up and execute the model. The model ‘does an excellent job of eatfying and defining the physies underlying die shape of tie COP curve for an absorption machine. Atypical single-ffet performance curve is plotted in FigureCChapter2 « Absorption Cycle Fundamentals 17 4.00, 3.00) ~ § Ca g S200) 3 é 100 “a0 Ovi Model a MO 36038) waa) ‘Heat Input Temperature (K) Figure 2.8 Cooling COP fora single-effect absorption machine 28 which shows thatthe COP is relatively insensitive to changes inthe heat input temperature This result seems odd when compared to the Camot performance, also plotted in Figute 2.8, sich was obtained by plotting Equation 2.11, Based on the Carat model, eycle performance should inerease significantly asthe heat input temperature increases. Experience shows tha the CCOP cuveis flat, This charctristc results fom the fact thatthe irreversible inthe external heat transfer processes inerease significantly as the heat input temperature increases. The ineversbillties inrease because both the fluxes and the potential differences increase, As in ‘eal absorption machine, any change inthe temperature inputs ceuses changes inthe operating hyscynce ~ £3.99 We. The corresponding pure LiBr state ie a sol crystalline salt. Tomake a mesningfl comparison, the reference state enthalpy for the salt must be chosen consistent withthe solution enthalpy reference state (Le, = Oat T= 0°Cand x (0.5 mass fraction Lif). An estimation of the consistent enthalpy fo the slid salts possible based on a solid specific heat of 0.598 Mg-K (Foote) aud a simple mixing experiment. The36 Chapter 3 - Properties of Working Fluids ‘experiment involves mixing equal masses of anhydrous LiBr and pure water at room temperature and recording the temperature of the resulting. mixture, The result is that the enthalpy of thosolid is 322 Vg at 20°C. These values are all consistent with the exothermic mixing associated with aqueous ltaum bromide. { Speci Heat "A property related to the enthalpy i the constant pressure-specific heat defined as ah) zh. a4 ‘The relationship ofthe mixture-specific hea to the specific heats ofthe components can be found by applying te definition in Equation 3.44 to either Equations 3.42 or 3.43. Appliction ‘to Equation 342 results in Hepa * Oe, ‘The terms in Bguaton 3.45 are partial mass specific heats of the two mixture components. From this perspective, the specific heat ofthe mixture is viewed as having contributions from cach ofthe womixture components. Alteratively, by applying the definition in Equation 3.44 to Equation 3.43 one obtains (A) GR) ow ne" * nape’, * Ae, From this perspective, the mixture specific heat is viewed as consisting ofthe idea mixture specific heat plus a correction term to account for rel mixture effects. Both ofthe perspectives represented in Equations 3.45 and 346 are equivalent and both ao usefol Reference States ‘One aspect af the energy properties that snot relevant tothe volumetric properties i the ‘need fora reference state, Energy properties are defined only as differences, based onthe First Law. Absolute energy value have n intrinsic meaning. However, because itis convenient in utilizing enthaloy values in analyzing engineering systems, common practice isto arbitrarily define a zero energy or enalpy and to express al values relative to this reference It should bbe noted that this applies to pure finds as wel as to mixtures. Its often possible to ignore the reference state when dealing witha pure fluid as long asa single datasource is used forall calculations. However, iftwo or more datasources are used with different reference states, it Fs necessary to convert all he data to the same reference state before se. This problem fs more frequently enconntered in deling with mixtures because each minture componcut eontubutes its own reference state and the possibility of encountering a reference state mismatch inereases ‘with the number of choices available, ‘To enable tabulation or specifiation of enthalpy values fora pure substance, a reference state must be ctosen. For example, the reference state commonly chosen for water isthe liquid(Chapter 3 - Properties of Working Fluids 37 ‘hase at triple point conditions. The intemal energy ofthis state i arbitrarily assigned he value zero. Note that any value could be assigned but thet zero is a convenient choice. Since the enthalpy is defined in terms ofthe intemal energy, i isnot posible to choose areferenc> value forboth, The py tem inthe definition ofthe enthalpy contributes a small term tothe enthalpy liquid water atthe reference state, As an sternatve, one could choase to specify theextalpy {nd to compute the internal energy. Ie is usully possible to deduce the reference state from examining a tabulation of energy ate, Fora pure fui the enthalpy in terms ofthe reference state enthalpy can be expressed as ME DT yP) = MyfT oP.) * MKT. PT,.P,) 347 “The functional notation is used in Equation 3.47 to emphasize the role of the reference state. ‘Ths result gives a simple recipe for reference state corrections fara pure fluid, In general, to ‘ayoe two daa sets tothe same reference slate, constant must be added toll the valuesin one fhe sets so that bri the same for both sets, The procedure is slightly more complicted for A mixture because two reference sites are involved. ‘The two pure component enthalpy values appearing in Equation 3.43 each ean be written ss in Equation 3.47, With this substitution, Equation 3.43 becomes ACD Ta eTazePaad * Alba TarPasd * SEPT Pad) * + ODieaTa read * MT PT Pg] * 348 + Migg( To.) Yor a binary mistre, two refrence sates afet the mixture enthalpy as can be sen ia ‘Bquation 348, The reference state enthalpies contribute according to the relative ameunt of «ech component inte miu, sina sult obtaied ifthe mixture enthalpy is viewed ‘= in Eguntion 3.2, I that cass, he values ofeach ofthe partial mass entalpesdependon he ‘ference stat enthalpy for that component and te reference state enhspis eppea inthe tisture enthalpy expression in idenieal form otha a Equation 3.48, The npliain of Equation 3.48 thatthe minareeninyy depends onthe reference stat» cethalpies according to hag = Hahagy + OE Vige . 7 349 = Pong * FOr ~ Pad Equation 3.49 implies hat to compare swo enthalpy data sexs which use different reference sae it necessary ta a linear fnction of mass faction to one of the datasets so tat he cxthalpy values of bah datasets match a wo distint states. The liner function fas to Farametrs that canbe computed by matching the two stats. One resiton is that te two Sates must be a ifferent mass factions, Once the efrence sate carrecton has been plied, then any remaining differences betwoen two data sets ae substantive. ort mur waterhum bromide, dhe nure of pure un trois sue dat it exists a. oid at oom temperature and resure. However, when mixed wit suffices: water {goes io aqueous solution. This bebavior complicates the analysis of mix prpertes tecause one doesnt usely wish neude the sold lguid-phaseranstion in he aly Forth enhlpy reference state, common practice isto chose a solution sats he reference38 Chapter 3 - Properties of Working Fuids state in place ofthe pure lithium bromide state. One common choice is saturated liquid at 0.5, T= 0°C. This highlights the fact that the enthalpy reference states chosen for a mixture are actually mixture stats. The analyst must choos two different mixtre states for binary systems and assign enthalpy values to those states to dofie the mixture enthalpy. However, with ‘watefithiam bromide as an exception, in practice itis often convenient to choose the pure Tid state (.e, x= 0-and x= 1.0) to maintain consistency with pure fluid data tabulations and pure ‘uid equations of slate, It should be noted thatthe two reference states chosen must be at ifferent mass fraction. 3.1.6. Mixture Entropy ‘When two components mix, there i an entropy increase even if the molecules of the ‘components do not interact ie. an deal mixture). This enteopy change of mixing is associated ‘withthe Fact that two substances can mix spontaneously (eg. by difusion), but a mixture ‘cannot separate into pure components spontaneously. The entropy change of mixing for an ideal mixture is used as a model against which to meastre the characteristics of areal mixture. ‘Thus, the entropy changes in an ideal mixture are discussed first. "An ideal ges mixture i one example of an ideal mixtare. The entropy changes in an ideal gas can be derived directly from Equation 3.14 as Tr 2 6 = 5, 40m ~ Rin cers eer 30 "From an ideal gas mixture perspective, Equation 3.50 applies to each component inthe mixture with the pressure interpreted as the partial pressure, p. The mixture entropy is then asi sarees) ‘Where the entropy change of mixing fr the ideal binary mintre is Aegan =~ GE-[feedta( seed) + (t-seep}m(t- F000] 382 ig and the composition function is Ly) aeChapter 3 Properties of Working Fluids 39 a2} \ ~ASscint 06 os | oF i Mote racton of Amoonia igure 3.4 Entropy of mixing for an ides! mixture “The function {x is actually just the mole fraction which ean be expressed in terms of the mass faction, as is done here, 10 maintain a consistency in use of mass fraction throughout the ‘evelopment. Although derived for an ideal gas mixture, the expression in Equation 3.52 spplios to any ideal mixtre. A plot of the entropy change of mixing is provided as Figure 3.4 ‘here the molecular weights of ammonia and water have been used to define the mas fiction coordinates, The characteristic shape shows a maximum entropy of mixing ata mass faction 0.486 falling off to zero at both pure component limits, For the ideal mixture, the etropy change of mixing is independent of temperature and pressure is sometimes useful to express the entropy in terms of the parti mass entropies. The ati mass entropy of component | in the mixture canbe derived from Equation 3.51 a5, 354 385 “The minture entropy can alo bo exprosted ss the rum of the mass fraction weighted partial mass entropies as 55 xs, + as, 3.86 [ris leftto the eader to subsite Equations 3:54 and 355 ito Equation 3.56 and demensrate40 Chapter 3 ~ Properties of Working Fuids that this approach is equivalent to that in Equation 3.51, For real mixtures the mixture entropy cen be represented as 58 TRL + Maite Seisrt 357 ‘or equivalently as in Ecuation 3.56, For real mixture, the partial mass entropies in Equation '3.56 will have additions] tems beyond those ofthe ideal mixture given in Equations 3.54 and 3.55, ‘Although the Third Law of thermodynamics defines absolute entropies, tis common in pplictions where chemieal reactions are ot significant o use relative entropy values. This fpproach involves selecting reference states and assigning reference sate entropy values analogous tothe method used for enthalpy. This approach works as long as the subsequent alysis using the entropy values involves only differences in eatropy. Sine the analysis is closely identical to that forthe enthalpy, no additional discussion of entropy reference stares fs needed. 34.7 Phase Equiliriam Phase equilibrium between liguid and vapor plays a key role In the understanding of absorption technology. A general requirement for phase equilibrium is that the thermodynamic potentials must be equal between the phases. The potentials of interest are thermal {Gemperatre), mechanical (pressure), and mass transfer (chemical potential), If te two pases ae represented by a single prime and a dauble prime, phase equilibrium requires tet rer! 358 pls pt 359 Bee Lown 3.60 ‘where nis the number of mixture components. "The chemical potential of component I, denated 4, was defined previously in Equation 3.19. This propery has been called the eseaping potential (Lewis and Randall, 1961) since an imbelance in chemical potential between two phases drives a transfer of that component fom. ‘the phase with the higher potential toward the phase with the lower chemical potential, The transfer tends to equalize the potentials between the two phases until st equilibrium, there is no net transfer botween the phases. ‘The compatiton othe equilibrium phases i, in general, not the same. This characteristic isa key aspect of misture thermodynamics and isan important property in sbsorption cycle design. Asan example, consider the vapor-liguid equilibrium in ammonia-water as plotted in Figure 3.5. Such phase diagrams are sometimes called bubble point or dew point diagrams and are used to visualize certain mixture phase change processes such as cooling of superheated ‘vapor at constant pressre as shown by the line labeled A to B on Figure 3.5. The intersection bf line A to B with the dew line indicates the temperanre at which the first drop of liquid will orm, The composition ofthat liquid can be read from the diagram as wel, The energy Wansters associated with tworpiese processes in mixture systems can be calculate if mixture properties are know. The mass faction variable must be accounted for and it contributes snse complication. The type of analysis required is outlined in the following slzcussion of the heat of vaporization,‘Chapter 3 - Properties of Working Fluids 41 200 160 80 ‘Temperature °C) 40 oo) Ammonia Mass Fraction Figure 35 NH/ 120 bubble point Heat of Vaporization The concept of heat of vaporization requires some additional specification when dealing with mixtures, In particular, it is necessary to fully define the vaporization process under consideration. A constant pressure vaporization requires a different heat than a constant temperature vaporization. There are an infinite number of such processes one could ase to define the heat of vaporization of a mixture making it necessary to specify the process being considered whenever the concept i ullized fora mixture, For a pure fluid itis also necessary tospeciy the process bu itis generally implied by a specification of either the temperature or the pressure and both remain constant during the vaporization. Since this snot generall roe faa mixture, the specification ofthe vaporization process hecomes necessary for cary Furthermore one ean define (Bosnjakovic, 1965) a total heat of vaporization, for complete ‘evaporation of aliquid sample, ora differential heat of vaporization, for evaporation of an {nnitesimal amount of mass from a finite sample of liquid. These two quantities ae related asis discussed next forthe constant pressure proces. Consider the differential vaporization process ustrated in Figure 3.6.A balance onthe saramonia mass yields 361 ‘As energy balance on the same contol volume yields dQ = mah + (h, ~ Wham 3.06242 Chapter 3 - Properties of Working Fluids Lid 1 Laid iret Cota Vaan ‘panded vew below) dint xh mig tt het i ——! | 2 ‘Figure 3.6 Differential vaporization process [Normalizing the heat based on the mass flow rate of the vapor yields *) zl, 3.463 teal See peg cerfetec pe er ete ears ee eer eee Sa repeats su i ye a dt ce Se lao eee re ee ieee er vit es tnt oa te ge ee See eee tan be determined by a simple energy balance. Fora complete evaporation process, he result a hy 3.64 ‘here han hare the vepor and liquid enthalpies, respectively, at the entrance and exit of the ‘process, "The heat required, qs slightly greater than that obtained from integrating Equation(Chapter 3 - Properties of Working Fluids 43 i ‘Vapor | Liquid ‘Non-uniform heat input Figure 3.7 Total evaporation process £363 over the same process because of the hea required to raise the temperature ofthe vapor. Inthe differential vaporization process lusrated in Figure 3.6, the vapor is ducted away ‘rom the surfeoe as iti generated, Tn vapor leaving the liquid surface is assumed tobe atthe ‘equilibrium concentration, Furthermore, the liquid is assumed to be well mixed at every Incation so thatthe bulk liquid concentration equals the surface concentration, AI ofthese ‘eaizations are not strictly accurte in 2 reel evaporator bot the allow some insight ito the ‘evaporation proces In particular, the heat of vaporization defined in Equation 3.3 is a rroperty of the fluid which is elated tothe actual heat required to evaporate the mixture in a real device. ‘Another evaporation process of interest is total evaporation in tube with heat applic. This rrocess involves vapor and liguid flowing co-curret as shown in Figure 3.7. As a frst ‘sppcoximation, assume that the liquid and vapor are in equilibrium at every point along the tube ad thatthe process is isobaric. One difference between this process and that illustrated in Tigure 3.6 is that the vapor must be heated, along withthe liquid, to maintain the equirium tomperature, Another difference comes from mass balance considerations. For total ‘evaporation, the exiting vapor composition must match the entering liquid composition. Also ‘ue inital vapor bubbles that form inthe device have much more ofthe volatile component. ‘Thus, as the temperature rises through the device, the transfer of mass between the liquid and ‘apor cannot occur atthe equilibrium concentration, What happens inctesd ia that a the ‘temperature rises and the equilibrium concentration shifts accordingly, the chemical potentials {et to selectively extrac the components inthe compesition mix needed to reach the end state ‘An ammonia mass balance fora differential change inthe mass fraction of the liquid gives44 Chapter 3 - Properties of Working Fluids a 3.465 ‘Similarly forthe mass transfer ofthe water component a, = x ddmy = mS 3.66 “The model i completed by enforcing overall mass balance considerations on the liquid and vapor which amounts to mom = ty 367 where mi isthe inlet mass flow rate. Finll, by definition, dm, = dmy © dy 3.68 “The mass belance details in Equations 3.65 to 3.68 ar illustrated fora particular case inthe following example, imple 33 Total Evaporation of Ammonia/Water Mixture ‘Consider a system consisting of a heated pipe with a mixture of ammonialwater flowing ‘sobarically at pressure of 10 bar. Analyze the case where the inlet condition is saturated liquid with a mass fraction of ammonia of 0.5. Assuming the vapor and liquid are in ‘equilibrium at every lotion within the pipe, ace the mass trnsfer process as the vapor ‘quality goes from 0 t0 10. In addition, determine the heat transfer rate needed to drive the ‘evaporation process. File: &3_3ees. ‘Solution: The inventory of mass can be determined by integrating Equations 3.65 to 3.68 over the fll range of concentrations. At 10 bar, the saturated slates are Saturated Liquid T=63978C Saturated Vapor: T= 153.606°C. xj=05 ny=05) x7 0991 x= 0.098, ‘Thus, if we consider the liquid mess fraction asthe independent variable, the integration proceeds ftom 0.5 to 0.098, The derivative in Equations 3.65 and 3.66 was ‘evaluated ‘numerically by introducing an increment in temperature and approximating the derivative 3 : 3.09 ‘The appropriate size forthe increment in temperature depends on the accuracy required and ‘was chosen as 0.005°C for this calculation. The equations can then be integrated numerically.‘Chapter 3 - Properties of Working Fluids 45 Bove b. i 7 > 2 oz os 7 Figure 4.1 Mixing of two fluid streams64 Chapter 4 - Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures an igure 4.2 Mixing process in enthalpy-mass fraction diagram Here the definition of the mass frection was used, Equation 3.72, For the energy balance the following equation is obtained: ym, + hym, = my, 43 ‘or with Equation 42 Wey tet = hy 44 ‘When all he properties f streams 1 and2are known, then the enthalpy hy ean be found quite ‘eadily from the enthalpy-mass faction diagram, Figure 42. According to Equation 4.4, his located ona straight line (i line) that connects the state points ofthe two incoming streams, 1 and 2. hy is located where the line of constant concentration for xs intersects he te line from to2. This point divides the tie line inthe ratio ofthe mass fractions ofthe exiting stream, there ig no heat of mixing (ie, the mixture ofA in B isan ideal solution) dhen the te line in Figure 42 isan isothern, However, for most fuids, there exists s heat of mixing. When we assume thatthe process in Figure 41 is adiabatic, then the temperature of the mixture is increased or deereased depending on whether the heat of mixing is positive or negative, The ‘isotherm is no longer a straight line but curved upward or downward, Nevertheless, for an tuiabaic process, the cosstruction using the ti ine to find his stil vali, The energy Balance ‘of Equation 444 is independent of the sign of the heat of mixing or its absolute value. The tenthelpy-maze faction diagram reveals an additional item that is very informative, The lwodhermn passing through point 3 specifies the temperature ofthe product steam ‘The construction using the te line is valid under all circumstances of an adiabatic (inthis ‘case; constant enthalpy) nixiag proces. The incoming trams may already be mixtures of A ‘and B themaeives, andr they may bein different phases or in the two-phase region ‘To completely describe the mixing process forthe ease in which the incoming streams areChapter 4 - Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 68 ‘mixtures an addtional mass balance is required to account forall species. Equation 4.1 above is an overall mass balance. The second equation is mass balance for one component, for exampl, B. mr, mae = my 4s ‘After dividing by my a mass flow rate rato ean be introduced g 46 and we obtain Py Dy = 47 with 48 and the energy balance yields fi, + ~fyhy = hy 49 Equations 4.7 and 4.9 represent the graphical constuction shown in Figure 42. xampie 4.1 Adiabatie Mixing with Water/Lithium Bromide Consider an adiabatic mixing process where two solution streams are mixed at the same ‘emperaure. Assume that the mixing process occurs isobarically at pressure of | bar. The data forthe tvo streams are given below. The objec iso determine the outlet eae, Fle ex4_1.ee, TeQ X(%LiBr) Mass Flow Rate (ke/see) Stream 50 50 1s ‘Stroam2 50 60 15 ‘Schematic: Adiabatic Mixing Chamber |-{-=66 Chapter ¢- Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures ‘Analysis: An overall mass balance yields = 9.0 glace ‘A mass balance on the LiBr yields = 0.58333 mass fraction LiBr ‘Based on the known data fr the input streams, the enthalpy values ean be obtained from an enthalpy chart or an appropriate equation. The results are hy = 103 92g, h = 134.99 ig, An ‘energy balance on the chamber then yields the enthalpy of the exiting stream as mh, + gh 129.81 Jig “Techaically, the state is now totally determined since three properties are known. However, it is of interest to determine the temperature, This is done by a reverse process to the one used to find the inlet ecthalpy values. Te result is Ts = 51.4°C. ‘Observations: The mass faction ofthe outlet stat is between the mass fractions ofthe two inlet streams. This is also true ofthe enthalpy. The temperature ofthe outlet stream is higher than te tempensture of either ofthe inlet steams. This comes sbeut because ofthe exothermic nature ofthe mixing process whereby some ofthe internal energy associated with the LiB1-H,0 Sntorations in be inlet streams is Kiberated and shows up as an increase in the thermal energy (Ge, a8 temperature increase). 42 Specttic Heat of Mixtures “The specific heat of a mixture can be derived as follows. Assume the experiment of Figure 4.1 is now conducted as an isothermal process, Then q is the amount of energy (the heat of mixing) that hast be removed to maintain a constant temperature, The energy balance yields fa, =~ Ahy hy 9 430 By taking the derivative of Equation 4,10 with respect fo temperature, all enthalpies are ‘expressed as specific heats at constant pressure ey tS Ney ey = Ah Fen 0 - Depo = TE ant Solving for the specific heat ofthe mixture, cy the following expression i obtained. 29 fy = So Den ~ 24 an n= Fy Den Bl‘Chapter 4- Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 67 xgyh mg, TP 2 syhyompT py liquid ‘vapor gi / syhyem Ty? sehsem 9 TaPs Q igure 43 Desorption proces ‘Thus, the specific heat of the mixture i equal tothe mass fraction-weighted average ofthe specific heats ofthe constituents pls so-alled mixing term that accounts forthe change of the heat of mixing with tempecature, Equation 4.12 s very important forthe constrction of the single-phase regions of enthalpy-mas faction diagrams. 43 Desorption ‘The term “esorption” describes the generation of vapor from the condensed phase (liquid or solid) ofa mixture oftwo or more components. The term implies thatthe vapor contains ‘predominantly one component in contrast to evaporation where all components are assumed to vaporize. A typicel example isthe desorption of water out of a waterlithium bromide mixture or of ammonia out ofan ammonia/water mixture. Figure 43 shows a desorption process in a steady-state, steady flow configuration. By ‘adding thermal energy to the entering stream 1, a vapor steam 2, is generated while any remaining liquid leaves as stream 3. Its assumed thatthe properties ofall thee seams are known, The mate balance forthe overall mas flow is written as follows 1 433 and for one component as myx, + my = mm, 44 ‘After dividing by the vapor mass flow rate (a) the solution circulation ratio, {ean be introduced Zz 418 By introducing f, the following equations are all based on one unt of mess of refigerant vapor68 Chapter 4- Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures | 5 17 Pecans. | 3 Te TI | Avsoten: TE 7 Retigennt ‘Mass Fraction Figure 4.4 Desorption process in hx diagram prociuced in the detaption process. As will be shown later, this greatly simplifies the ‘understanding ofthe interdependence ofthe variables involved. Rewriting the mass balance, Equation 4.14, using yields fe, > sy 436 ‘which can be aranges 2s 4a7 Ttshould be noted that depends only on the mass fractions of the entering and leaving steams. ‘The energy balance on the systom in Figure 4.3 yields ath = hy U-Dhy 48 ‘The energy balance cen be rearranged by solving for qto obi ash, = hy + fl, ~ hy) 419 “This equation can be understood inthe following way. The heat supplied forthe desorption process, q is used in two contributions (hy ~hy) and f(hs hy). The first contribution is an tenthalpy difference benveen a liquid anda vapor phase. This term can be seen as accounting, for the actual phase change process. Tre second contribution consists of the enthalpy ference betweun the liquid stroma entering and leaving tho decorbar multiplied bythe low ratio ofthe iguid steams, This term describes the heating ofthe remaining liquid. Referring to Figure 3.13, itcan be seen that the temperature ofthe remaining liquid is increasing es such ‘an evaporation process progresses. Figure 44 shows the desorption process in an h-x diagram. Its assumed here thet allChapter 4 - Thermodynamic Processes with Mixture: 69 Enthalpy Absorbent X3__X1 X2 Refrigerant ‘Mass Fraction Figure 4.5 Graphie representation ofthe desorber heat soqurement centering and leaving fuid streams are seturated and thatthe desorption process oozurs at constant pressure. Sine itis assumed that atleast two properties ofeach seam are own, ‘he state points canbe plotted. For Figure 44 iti also assumed that the vapor leavng the esorber isn equilibrium wih the incoming liquid stream. However, the corectnes of this assumption depends strongly onthe design ofthe actual heat exchanger. In Figure 44 the inotherms T; and T are shown. The isotherm T, continues throug the two-phase ares to the ‘vapor state 2 which is assumed tobe in equllrium withthe incoming liqld stream. At the bottom of te b-x diagram in Figure 44, tho relationship between the solution cirelatcn ratio and the mass fractions is shown by applying the lever rule as follows, When, according to Equation 4.17, Fis proportional tothe difference x»~xy then f - 1 is proportional to the difference x3 X,. This can be shown by subrating 1.0 from both sides of Equation 4.17 and ty using that 1.0 can be written a8 (x= x3)(4y~ x3) forthe righthand side. This grpheal "presentation is an application ofthe lever rule for Equation 4.17 ‘The amount of energy required fr the desorption process can be determined by a grephical rocedure. For this parpose, Equation 4.19 is revrtten as 420 with Ay) 41 Equation 4.21 can be rearranged to yield70 Chapter 4~ Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures enthalpy Absorbent X3___XT 2 Refrigerant ‘Mass Fraction Figure 4.6 Desorption process in x diagram with subcooled inlet stream y=) Gk) Using Equations 4.17, 420 to 4.22 and applying the lever rule, the heat of desorption can be ploted on the h-x diagram as shown in Figure 4.5. The desorber het is the difference between the enthalpy ofthe leaving vapor stream and hy. hy is found by using the relationship between the differences in concenration and enthalpy as shown in Equations 4.21 and 4.17. hyis found at he intersection ofthe extension ofthe Ge ine beeen poins 1 and 2 withthe isostere ofthe ‘vapor. The vertical distance betwen the isabars ofthe liquid and vapor phase would yield an incorteet value, Because the enthalpy values inthe diagram ae valid per unit of mass ofthe ‘uid ata particule state point, the fact that for one unit of mass of desorbed vapor a liquid stream ofthe low rate £(F > 1.0) is introduced into the desorber and heated must be accounted for appropriately ‘The same method yields correct esuls independent of the state of the streams. ‘The ‘entering solution may be subcooted or he vapor may not be in equliorium with any ofthe Ad streams, As long asthe respective state points ae known, q canbe found ether by Equation 419 or the graphical method. Figure 4.6 shows an example where the incoming liquid is subcooled, state point 1s, The value ofthe corresponding hy, decreases considerably, increasing the desorber heat requirement. This is particularly important for absorption systems because this is a common occurrence and the desorber heat increases considerably 28 2 ‘comparison of Figures 4.9 and 4.6 reveal. a 422CChepter 4- Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 71 Example 42 Desorption ‘The hea of desorption is calculated forthe process in Figure 43. The inlet conditions ofthe rich liquid stream 1 are given as follows: T(1)=370 K, x(1) = 0.30 and the Mud is saturated. ‘The out conditions for the poor solution are given a x(3)= 0.20 andthe solution i saturated tis essumed thatthe vapor is in equilibrium with the incoming liquid. File: ex4_2.ees. Solution: Using the enthalpy-mass faction diagram or suitable software, the conditions of all state points canbe determined as shown inthe following Table 4.1, With these properties and Table 4 Properties of ammonia\water atthe state points according to Figure 4.3. nan | Pon | eniy | Tao To] 1_[ 28 _[ss07 | o000 7000 [030 ‘|| 2 | 1s666 [ssor | 1.000 s7000 _fosas s [sm1 [esor | 000 393.439 [0200 Equations 4.17 and 4.19 the mass flow rate ofthe rich solution F per kilogram of vapor generated as well asthe amount ofeat required can be calculated. F amounts to 7.25. This ‘means further that the flow rate of the weak solution is 6.25 (Equation 4.13). The heat requirement is 2274 ki/{kg of vapor). Consider desorber operating et steady tate with the following operating data, Determine the heat input needed. Assume pressure losses are negligible and thatthe pressure is 10 kPa ‘throughout File: ext_3.ees, x(mass fraction) = TCO) Mass low rate (kg/see) Point3 035 50 10 Point 4 060 Saturated oss ‘Schematle:72 Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures, Assumptions: The exiting solution stream at 4 is saturated, “The vapor exits the desorbor at the saturation temperatare ofthe entering solution stream, Iobaric process Analysis: The vapor mass flow rate s obtained from an overall mass balaree 0.15 kg/see “The enthalpy ofthe soltion streams ae abained from property charts or equations. Sine point 4 isa saturated state, it can be read exactly from the char. Point 3 sa subeooled state. Using the subcooled approximation, the enthalpy is read ffom the char tthe same temperature and ‘mass fraction, The water vapor is superheated and the properties are teken from a pure water Gata source. The results are hy = 114.33 Tp, hy= 213.72 J/g and hy = 2650.2 Vg. Based on these enthalpy value, the energy balance oa the desorber yields D = mghy + mh ~ mshy = 46486 67 “The energy required to raise the inlet stream temperature upto the saturate temperature can also be calculated, Designate the saturation state corespending tothe mass fraction of stream 3 as 3s, The saturation temperature can be obtained from a Dahing plot or an appropriate ‘equation a5 T3_ = 80.01°C. The enthalpy is then hy, = 176.49 Ig. The sense heat required is obtained from an energy balance onthe inlet steam as eg = ay ~ Ay) = 62.16 EY ‘Then the remainder isthe heat of vaporization ofthe working fuid Quy = 2 ~ Qe 402.70 kw For comparison, consider the heat which would be required to vaporize steam 7 at the same pressure (ig, = 2393.2 a) Dy = Mate 358.98 A Observations: ‘The heat requirement can be broken down into two categorie: sensible heat and heat of ‘vaporization ofthe working ud. The sensible heat requirement fr this cae is approximately 1396 ofthe total heat requirement. This isfy typical in practice. The heat of vaporization can bye viewed as consisting ofthe heat of vaporization of pure water und the heat of mixing of the Tiguid solution. A rough companion can be made with te heat of vaporization of water atthe ‘same pressure. This indicates thet the heat of mixing is approximately 11% ofthe heat of ‘vaporization, This is fiely typical for waterlhium bromide. aneChapter 4 Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 73, X5rhyom3,T3,P3 liquid XphpmyT,P; — @ Figure 47 Absorption process 44° Absorption ‘The tem “absorption” describes the transfer ofa binary vapor into the absorbent of a quid or solid stat. It is similar to “condensation” in the sense that a phase change occurs from & ‘vapor state to a liquid state. However, “absorption” implies that there is already a condensed phase present tthe absorber inet. Figure 47 shows a schematic ofan absorber, The vapor ‘steam 2s entering the absorber together with the liquid steam 1, After the vapor is absorbed ito the condensed phase within the chamber and the heat of absorption released, the product stream 3 is leaving. Again, mass and energy balances can be applied to determine the amount ‘of absorber heat. The analysis procedure i analogous tothe one forthe desorber. Asa final result we obain forthe absorber a = h-h, +fh,~ hy) 423 ‘with q representing the amount of heat released per unit of mass of vapor absorbed and the solution circulation ratio as defined as f= mp. Again there are two terms, one forthe phase change of the vapor and a second one that represents the cooling of the solution. The Absorption process is shown in an hex diagram in Figure 4.8. Its assumed that the liquid streams I and 3 are saturated. The vapor state point 2 represents vapor ofthe same pressure asthe lcuid streams; however, this vapor is not necessarily in thermodynamic equilibrium since itis supplied from some ‘unknown source, In fac, the vapor could be superheated (2 would be located above the isobar), contain liquid droplets (2 would be located inthe two phase region) and can have any mass fection, different from the one indicated in Figure 4.8, ‘The amount of enoray relaccad in the absorber can be shown graphically oa diaplayed in Figure 49. For this purpose Equation 4.23 is rearranged introducing hy.74 Chapter 4 - Thermodynamic Proceses with Mixtures P= const ‘Mass Fraction Figure 4.8 Absorption in h-x diagram. Mass Fraction Figure 4.9 Absorption process i h-x diagram with subcooled outlet stream(Chapter 4 - Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 75 Enthalpy moxl OG xaNHS Mass Fraction igure 4.10 Adiabatic absorption fy 424 with hy = hy ~ fh, ~ hy) 428 Salving Equation 425 for f yields again an expression thet contains only differences in enthalpy. By expressing fala in terms of mass fraction, the lever rule ean be applied as shown, inFigure 49. The way of consructing the distance that represents the absorber heat ¢isquite similar as forthe dosorber. ‘The dashed line (long dashes) in Figure 4.9 represeats a case in which the liguld steam 3 isaubeooled. The change inthe absorber hoat with h, is indicated on Figure 4.9. Ina similar way, the reader can study how the absorber heat changes when the incoming vapor is superheated, for example. In some absorption hest pumps a so-called adiabatic absorber is employed. The inceming iuid stream is subcooled significantly. During te absorption process the stream is heated ‘until saturation is reached. Then the absorption process ceases to operate, There iso heat ‘eased tothe outside, q= 0. In an enalpy-mass fraction diagram, Figure 4.10, itean be seen ‘hath, becomes equal to hy. Accordingly, the ie Tine has tobe the same asthe line connecting the vapor state point 2 with the liquid state point 1. ‘The intersection ofthis tie line wi the76 Chapter 4- Thermadynamie Processes with Mixtures Example 4.4 Absorber “The heat of absorption Is calculated forthe process in Figute 4.7. The inlet condions ofthe liguid stream 1 ae given as follows: T(1) = 310 K, x(1) = 0.20 and the fui is strated. The cutlet conditions forth rich solution are given as x(3)= 0.30 and the solution is sturated, It {s assumed thet the vapor originates from an evaporator ofthe same pressure and as a mass fraction of 0.999. File: xt Aes. Solution : Using the enthalpy-mass faction diagram or suitable software, the conditions ofall state points can be determined as shown in the following Table 42. ‘Table 4.2 Properties of ammonia/water atthe state points according to Figure 4.7 Tour) [Pda [Oualiy [TO x [= mi __[oasi .000 3100 | 1a73__[ oat 1.00 ast a9 s [ane [oa 000 p12 0300 ‘With these properties and Equations 4.17 and 4.23 the mass flow rate of the rich solution f per kg of vapor generated as well asthe amount of heat required can be calelated. fis found to bbe 799, This means further tat the flow rate ofthe weak solution s 6 99 (Equation4.13). The heat requirement is 2275 KU(kg of vapor). ‘Example 4.5 Absorption of Water Vapor into Aqueous Lithium Bromide ‘Consider a water/ithium bromide absorber operating at steedy state with the following ‘operating data, Determine the heat input needed. Assume pressure losses are negligible and that the pressure is 1 kPa throughout. File: ex4_5.ces, x (mass fraction) TCC) Mass Flow rate (kg/se<) Point 6 0.60 Saturated oas Point 1 oss Saturated 10 ‘+ The overall composition ofthe two-phase state is 0.6. Assumptions: ‘The exiting olution stream at 1 is saturated. Isobar process ‘Analysis: The vapor sasas flow rate is obesined from an overall mass balance 0.15 bgleeeChapter 4 - Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 77 ‘The enthalpy ofthe solution steam at 1 is obtained from property chars or equations, Since point 1 is a saturated state, it can be read exactly from the chart, resulting in hy = 85.25 I Point 6 is a two-phase state arising fom the solution partially flathing as it pases throush the ‘expansion valve, It was assumed that the temperature ofthe solution entering the valve is SO°C. Sehematie: Abrorber ‘This results in an enthalpy of 13499 Ig. The process in the valve is assumed to be adicbatic, yielding hg~ 134.99 Jig. Based on the assumed temperature ofthe vapor stream the entualpy isread from the stam tables as hyg = 2520.7 ig, Based on these enthalpy values, the exergy ‘lance onthe abeorber yields D = mghg + maby ~ mh, = 407.60 6 ‘Bese on the given conditions at 6, the vapor quality is 0.28% and the temperature i 45.97°C, Because « portion of the water in the solution flashes, the liquid mass faction entering the absorber i 0.6017 Observations: The heat requtement in the absorber is approximately equal to the heat requirement inthe desorber (of couse the direction is opposite). The heat requirement i anger than one would estimate from pure water consideration due tothe heat of mixing inthe solution, The heat of mixing increases the heat requirement in both the desorber and the absorber 45 Condensation and Evaporation ‘The terms “condensation” and “evaporation” refer tothe phase change of pure uid or 2 mixture where the process is complete, i. there is only vapor entering the condenser (no liquid stream as in an ebsorbet) and ther is only vapor leaving the evaporator. In an enthalpy ‘ass fraction diagram, the stale points describing the beginning and end ofthe process are located on the sume line of constant mass faction, ‘The amount of energy tleasd or wverbed inthis phase change proces is calculated as fellows he 42678 Chapter 4~ Thormodynamic Processes with Mixtures Fag dh Tepresent the enthalpies of the leeving and entering ud streams, Inthe case of condensation the entering vapor may be superheated, in which case hy, is the entalpy of Ssuperhested vapor, Further, the leaving condensate may be sibcooted liquid. In the case of the evaporator the vapor atthe exit may be saturated, be supefheated or contain liquid droplets depending onthe design ofthe system. ‘Example 46 Condensation and Evaporation of Water Consider « condenser and evaporator connected by an expansion valve, Based on given pressures and flow rat, determine the heat transfer rats in the components. The high pressure fs 10 kPa and the low pressure is 1 kPa, The mass flow rte of refigerant into the condenser fs 0,15 kg/sec and the inet temperature is 80°C. File: ex4_6.ees. Assumptions: Outlet fom condenser saturated liquid. Outlet from evaporator is saturated vapor. Throtling valve is adiabatic ‘Schematic Condenser Evaporator 10 “Analysis: Incoming vapor is superheated and the enthalpy can be obtained from the steam tables as fy = 2593.0 Ve. The condenser exits saturated Tiquid yielding hy = 191.81 ig. An ‘energy balance on the condenser yields Q, = mally ~ hy) 360.18 AW ‘Based on an adiabatic throtling model we get hy ~ hy. The enthalpy of the saturated vapor at point 10 is hyp = 2514.7 Jig, An energy balanes on the evaporator yieldsChapter 4- Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 79 Q, = mlhy ~ hy) 34843 Observations: ‘The load inthe condense is slightly higher than that in the evaporator due primarily to superheating ofthe inlet vapor tothe condenser. The condenser and evaporator Toads ae approximately 10% less than the corresponding generator and absorber loads. This difference is largely due to eat of mixing effects in the solution which are not present in the pare fl 46 Compression ‘The compression ofa vapor is often assumed to be isentropic to simplify he analysis and in most instances the process occurs entirely in the vapor phase, Only occasionally so-called ‘wet compression is encountered. For the appropriate representation of the compression process, lines of constant entropy are required inthe vapor phase. ‘These arenat available in ‘an enthalpy-mass fraction diapram. Usually the temperatue-entropy diagram or the pressure- enthalpy diagrams are used, Figure 3.21 shows the pressure-enthalpy diagram for ammonia and an isentropic compression proces is shown as a sli line. The compression work is calculated using an enerey balance as shown next Wig iy 427 Taga and a represent the enthalpies ofthe entering and leaving fluid streams and Equation 427 is vali for the mass flow rate of 1 ke/se. 47 Pumping In absorption systems, liquid pumps are used for two purposes, ‘The first i for circulating liquid streams through heat exchangers for increased heat and mass transfer and the second is ‘to convey liquid from the low pressure sider the high pressure sie. In general terns, for pure ‘uid, the enthalpy difference can be expressed a8 ay ah = c,d? +(v-7| 2) yap aT +L {#)) 428 For incompressible flow, this equation converts to dh = cpa + vdP 429 Also the following equation holds forthe entropy change ofa pure fluid = Sar-(%) ap zr (3) ’ (coms pedal ademte.oacoam ee ed80 Chapter 4 - Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures bale mo Xa wh Figure 4.11 Throtlng process over a finite process and inserted into an energy balance on the pump, the pump work is calculated as WO Cry Pod 431 wh Pde gy Pa preset the pressure derence across the pump, vs the specifi volume ofthe aE the mas low rat nd nthe pomp efficiency 48 Throttling In absorption systems throttling devices such as expansion valves, orifice plates, and capillary tubes are used to reduce the pressure ofa liquid steam passing fom te high pressure Side othe low pressure side, The throttling process i assumed to be adiabatic, resulting in a constant enthalpy process, Since the enthalpy and the overall mass faction of the stream do not change while passing a trot, the state point onthe enthalpy mass fraction diagram does not change either, Figure 4.11. When 1 represents the entering team and 2 the leaving stream, then they occupy the same position. However, what do change are the other variable like temperature and pressure. Before the throttle process, point! i subcooled liquid a pressure , end temperature T;, Aer he expansion proces, the pressure has dropped to Pa value for ‘which the fluid is noW in the two-phase range. ‘The new temperature, T> is indicted by the respective isotherm, Figure 4.11, Tecan be sai thatthe state point location does not change ring athroting prooess, but that rather the diagram changes around i, since a different set ‘of isobars represents the fluid state after the process. ‘When liquid is throttled he outlet state can be subcooled ora portion ofthe liquid can sash (vaporize) as i passes through the thre. The ead result depeads on the particular cconaltions. In general, when the inlet stream is more highly subeoole, the outlet stream will have less flash vapor. Assuming thatthe process is adiabatic, the amount of flash gas andthe ‘vepor-quality of the outlet stream can be readily calculated as shown in the following three examples,‘Chapter 4~ Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 81 Example 4.7 ‘Throttling Process with Pure Fluid Determine the outlet state from a tring valve where waters throtied from a condenser to 1m evaporator. Assume the pressures ae fixed at [0 and I KPa and that the inlet temperature ranges from the saturation teraperature down to suficient subcooling to ensure thatthe outlet stato tll subeooled. File: ex4_7.20s Solution: The inlet state is completely specified once the pressure and temperatue are ‘sfecified. Fora pressure of 10 kPa, the saturation temperature is 45 82°C, At the suuratec state, the enthalpy ofthe water is 191.8 J/g. For an adiabatic throtle, the energy balance i just AN ‘This implies that the enthalpy atthe outlet equals the enthalpy tthe inlet, Thus, for the outlet state the enthalpy and the pressure are known. Sinc two properties completely define sine for a pure Hui, the eter properties of interest including the temperature and vapor cualry ‘em be determined, This determination typically requires an iterative proces wing the preperty routines. This calculation was done fora series of temperatures andthe result is given in the {allowing table. TCO Tou PO) action) 0.065 0.064 0.087 0.030 014 ‘Observations: The last run tan inlet temperature of $°C, results ina subeooled stateat the ‘tte beeause the inlet enthalpy is suicient low tha thee Is not enough energy inthe ream tocause vaporization, For that cae, the temperature actualy rises slightly es the liguid pastes through the trot. The temperature rise is due to viscous friction efecs. In all other cases, ® portion ofthe mass flashes ait pases through the throttle with 2 maximum of 659% when the liquid enters ina saturated state. For all the cases where the outlet is two phase, the temperature isthe same as dotcrmined by the given outlet pressure. Example 48 Throttling Aqueous Lithium Bromide Determine the outlet state from a throtling valve where aqueous ltum bromide i thctle. ‘Assume the pressures ae fixed at 10 and 1 KPa, te solution mass action is 0.6 and the inlet ‘temperature ranges from the saurationtemperaire dvi to sufiientsubcooling to ensure that ‘the outlet state ie still subcooled. Pile: ex#_ Sees. ‘elution: Ths example is similar to Example 4.7 with the additional complexity thatthe Faid isa binary mbsture. tis special case ofa binary mixture for which the vapor composition is ‘nown. The basic energy balance on te thoitle remains the same. The iterative soktion proces is also quite sia. I basically involves assuming an outlet condition and caleuating all properties tose ithe energy balance is satisfied, Its no, the propertios must be adjusted2 Chapter4-‘Thermodynamie Processes with Mixtures in the direction required to bring it more closely in balance. The iteration is termined when suffieient accuracy is obtained, At the conditions specified for the inlet, the saturation temperature of aqueous lithium bromide is 90.8°C and the ethalpy is 213.7 Sg. The outlet conditions fora range of inlet temperature are indicated in the following table. Tou) QC) Ge) 49.255 2.88 2137 49.190 283 2122 48.369 2.20 1929 47559 156 136 46.761 092 1343 45974 028 1350 450 125.4 Observations: The last run, with an inlet temperature of 45°C, resulted in no flashing across the throttle. In this case, ther is no temperature increase predicted for the throtting ofthe ‘essentially incompressible liquid because the enthalpy function being used is independent of pressure, This isan intemal inconsistency in th thermodynamic data for aquedus lithium bromide bu it contributes only a small error in most caleulations. Fora binary mixtre, the vapor which flashes causes the mass fraction ofthe remaining ligui to ehange as it pases through the throttle. This can be seen in the last column whee the liguid mass fraction atthe outlet is tabulated. It can also be seen in the fact thatthe temperature at the outlet changes according to how much vapor flashes, ‘A usefill elationshp tht can be derived from mass balance considerations only i, 2 ‘where Qs the vapor faction (ie, the vapor quality), Xi isthe inlet mass faction and oy iS ‘the outlet liquid mass fraction. Example 49 ‘Throttling of Liquid Ammonia/Water Determine the outlet state from a throttling valve where liquid ammonia/water' throtled. “Assume the pressures are fixed at 1000 and 500 kPa, the solution mass fraction is0.3 and the jnlet temperature ranges from the saturation temperature down to sufficient subcooling t0 ‘ensure thatthe outlet states stil subcooled. Fie: ex 9. Solution: The solution here is identical in concept to the preceding two examples. One tifference here is that the vapor mass fraction is not known and must be incladed in the iteretve calculation, fs assured tae the vapor and liquid atthe outlet rein equilbrium. The _eaults are indfoated in tho table below.‘Chapter 4- Thermodynamic Processes with Mixtures 83. 245.956 201.123 36.844 113.025 ‘Observations: The overall observations are similar to those in the preceding two exauples ‘Tae ammonia/water property routines used here do include a pressure term inthe enthalpy

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