A Dictionary of Advanced Japanese Grammar (Nakama Authors)

A DICTIONARY
OF ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR

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A DICTIONARY OF ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui

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The.lapan'Iimes

HARVARD-YENCHING LIBRARY

OF THE HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY

Copyright © 2008 by Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

First edition: May 2008

Typesetting: guild

English copyreading: Sara Harris

English copyreading and editorial assistance: Sharon Tsutsui Cover art: Akihiro Kurata

Published by The Japan Times, Ltd.

5-4, Shibaura 4-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-0023, Japan Phone:03-3453-20l3

http://bookclubjapantimes.cojp/

ISBN978-4-7890-l295-9

Printed in Japan

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Preface

This is a dictionary of advanced Japanese grammar, a companion volume to A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar (1986) and A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar (1995). More than two decades have passed since we began this grammar dictionary project. During that time we have received numerous comments from our readers, many of whom kindly encouraged us to write a third volume. And here it is as the final volume in the set.

This book is designed for students and teachers of advanced-level Japanese. After examining upper-level textbooks, reference books, and our own teaching materials, we have collected some 230 main entries which we believe to be highly important grammatical items for advanced Japanese learners. As in the previous dictionaries, we have provided detailed explanations for each item and have included comparisons with synonymous items (approximately 430 items in all). The writing tasks were shared between us with each of us preparing first drafts of half of the items which we then exchanged for comments. Our second drafts were reviewed by The Japan Times editors and, following that, the final draft was completed.

There is one important difference between this volume and the preceding ones, however. For both DBJG and DUG we wrote the example sentences ourselves, but for this volume we have also used the Internet as a resource in collecting and creating sentences which reflect natural usage. In situations where it is common practice, we use kanji. For the reader's convenience, pronunciations are provided in hiragana for characters defined as levels 1 and 2 in the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (Nihongonoryoku-shikeni except for those kanji which are regularly introduced in beginning- and intermediate-level textbooks.

We are clearly indebted to the many scholars and teachers whose works are referenced here. In addition to them, there are a number of individuals we wish to acknowledge. Foremost, we thank Chiaki Sekido, The Japan Times editor. We are deeply grateful for her thorough and critical reading of our drafts, for her numerous constructive comments on them, and for her tireless effort in preparing this volume for publication. We thank Sarah Harris, the English editor, for patiently transforming our English in the first draft to make it more natural. In addition, we owe a great deal to Sharon Tsutsui, who read the galley proofs carefully and critically and helped us to improve the readability of the final version. Our thanks go to our colleagues at Princeton University and the University of Washington, who kindly answered our questions about the naturalness of the example sentences, and also to our students, who used the early versions of some of the entries in class and gave us valuable feedback. Finally, we express our sincere

gratitude to our wives, Yasuko and Sharon, who have been so helpful in every possible way during the seven years of this project.

Completing A Dictionary of Advanced Japanese Grammar was not an easy task to say the least. We are very pleased that we are now able to dedicate this volume to those students and teachers around the globe who are studying and teaching Japanese language with unceasing enthusiasm. Our sincere hope is that this dictionary will be a useful tool in their endeavors.

Spring 2008

Seiichi Makino Michio Tsutsui

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Table of Contents

Preface [5]

To the Reader. [8]

List of Abbreviations [10]

List of Symbols [11]

Grammatical Terms [12]

Special Topics in Advanced Japanese Grammar [26]

1. Adjectives in Japanese [26]

2. Interpretation of "Ni no N2" [29]

3. Politeness and Formality in Spoken and Written Language [35]

4. Rhetorical Questions. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. [38]

5. Metaphors in Japanese [42]

6. Number Marking [47]

Main Entries 1-758

English Index 761

Japanese Index 772

References 793

[9]

To the Reader

@ [meaning I function]: The basic meaning or function of the entry item is given in the box below the entry name.

® [English counterpart(s)]: English expressions equivalent to the entry item are given to the right of the box.

® [related expression(s)]: Items which are semantically related to the entry item are listed as [REL. aaa; bbb; cce]. Expressions in plain type like aaa are explained in the entry under [Related Expression(s)l (@). Expressions in bold type like ccc contain comparisons to the entry item under [Related Expression(s)l for ccc.

(j) • Key Sentence(s): Key sentences present typical sentence patterns in frames according to sentence structure. The elements that form the sentence patterns are printed in red and the elements which commonly occur with them are printed in bold-faced type.

® Formation: The word formation rules I connection forms for each item are provided with examples. The entry elements are printed in red.

® Examples: Example sentences are provided for each entry.

@) Note(s): Notes contain important points concerning the use of the item.

@ [Related Expression(s)l: Expressions which are semantically close to the entry item are compared and their differences are explained.

This dictionary consists of the following parts:

A. Grammatical Terms contains brief explanations or informal definitions of the g~~mma.tical terms used in this book. If readers find that they are not familiar WIth these terms, it is suggested that they read this section first.

B. Special Topics in Advanced Japanese Grammar discusses selected topics: Adjectives in Japanese; Interpretation of "NI no N2"; Politeness and Formality in Spoken and Written Language; Rhetorical Questions; Metaphors in Japanese; and Number Marking. The section introduces rea~e.rs ~o a number of important concepts with which they should be farruhar III order to improve their reading, writing and speaking skills.

C. Main Entries constitutes the core of this volume. Each entry is organized as follows:

CD [entry name]

® [usage restriction]

D. Indexes provides both a Japanese index and an English index. The Japanese index includes the main entries, the items explained in Related Expression(s), and the items covered in A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar and in A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar. The English index includes the English counterparts of the main entry items.

® [part of speech]

l @ [meaning I function] (j). Key Sentence(s)

J ® [English counterpart(s)] ® [related expression(s)]

(¢aaa (DBJG/DIJG: 000-000» in Note(s) and Related Expression(s) indicates that the item which was referred to (i.e., aaa) is explained on pp. 000-000 of the companion volumes: A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar (DBJG) or A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar (DIJG).

®Formation

®Examples

@)Note(s)

@ [Related Expression(s)l

CD [en~ry name]: Each entry is given in romanized spelling followed by Its hiragana version. Entries are alphabetically ordered based on their romanized spellings.

® [part of speech]: Each entry is followed by its part of speech.

® [usage restriction]: <s> or <w> is provided when the entry item is used only in spoken Japanese or only in formal written Japanese and formal speeches, respectively.

List of Abbreviations

Adj(i) = /-type adjective (e.g., takai, vesui )

Adj(i)cond = conditional form of i-type adjective (i.e., takakere of takakere-

ba, vasukere of vasukereba)

Adj(i)stem = stem of i-type adjective (i.e., taka of takai, vesu of vasui) Adj(na) = na-type adjective (e.g., genkida, shizukada)

Adj(na)stem = stem of na-type adjective (i.e., genki of genkida, shizuka of

shizukada) Adv. = adverb Aff. = affirmative Aux. = auxiliary

Compo prt. = compound particle Conj. = conjunction

Cop. = copula (e.g., da, desu)

DBJG = A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar

Dem. adj. = demonstrative adjective (e.g., kono, sonna) Dem. pro. = demonstrative pronoun (e.g., kore, sore, are) DIJG = A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar Gr. = Group

Int. = interjection Irr. = irregular

KS = Key Sentence N=noun

Neg. = negative

Nom. = nominalizer (e.g., no, koto) NP = noun phrase

Phr. = phrase

Prt. = particle

REL. = Related Expression S = sentence

<s> = usually used in conversation

Sinf = sentence that ends with an informal predicate S.o. = someone

S.t. = something

Str. = structure

Suf. = suffix (e.g., -sa, -ya) V = verb

Vcond = conditional stem of verb (e.g., hanase of hanaseba, tabere of tabereba)

Vinf = informal form of verb (e.g., hanasu, hanashita)

..--[

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[11]

V masu = masu-stem of verb (e.g., hanashi of hanashimasu, tabe of tebemasu)

VN = stem of suru-verb, i.e., noun which forms a verb by affixing suru (e.g., benkvo, vekusoku, nokku)

Vneg = informal negative stem of verb (e.g., hanasa of hanasanai, tabe of

tabenai)

VP = verb phrase

Vpot = verb potential form (e.g., hanaseru, taberareru) Vte = re-form of verb (e.g., hanashite, tabete)

Vvol = volitional form of verb (e.g., heneso, tebevo) <w> = usually used in formal writing and formal speech Wh-sentence = a sentence that contains a Wh-word Wh-word = an interrogative word (e.g., nani, doko)

List of Symbols

¢ = Refer to.

? = The degree of un acceptability is indicated by the number of question marks, two being the highest.

* = ungrammatical or unacceptable (In other words, no native speaker would accept the asterisked sentence.)

1 A IB I C = AC or BC (e.g., 1 V I Adj(i) I inf = Vinf or Adj(i)inf)

o = zero (In other words, nothing should be used at a place where 0 occurs.

Thus, Adj(na) 1 0 I datta I kamoshirenai is either Adj(na) kamoshirenai or Adj(na) datta kamoshirenai.)

Grammatical Terms

The following are brief explanations of some of the grammatical terms used in this dictionary.

Auxiliary Adjective A dependent adjective that is preceded by and attached to a verb or another adjective. The auxiliary adjectives in the following sentences are printed in bold-faced type.

(a) fh1iV" /':1T"?-C(ll-~\o (I want John to go there.)

[; L.I;

(b) ;:0)15¥.iif5!!p~9~\o

(This dictionary is easy to use.)

(c) fLiiTl.,;6lit«t.:~\,

(I want to eat sushi.)

(d) «A1i*"j!:~l±\t.:':;'l-~\,

(Beth seems to have graduated from college.)

lif .. :: ~rY

(e) 7B'f1iiJ\J( t. \ 'J;:: oj t~,

(Hanako looks lonely.)

" L

(f) z O):loN'f1i:lop t. of oj r:

(This cake looks delicious.)

Auxiliary Verb A verb which is used in conjunction with a preceding verb or adjective. The bold-faced words of the following sentences are typical auxiliary verbs.

(a) l:::')L.-1i~~*~~.p"n\.Qo (Bill is writing a letter now.)

H'

(b) ~;6llmitl.t>.Qo

(lit., The window has been opened, (= The window is open.))

!t( L"<t.:~'

(c) f~iimm~l.,ll-;I;;-:,f.:o

(I have done my homework.)

!:: ttl'S

(d) fL1i1ZJl1::lo~~~l.,l.t>tft.:,

(I loaned money to my friend.)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS [13]

(e) ;:0):J/e_2-)1-1i~9~'·.Qo (This computer is too expensive.)

"

(f) V,,-ViiA~-'YjJ-H,'Xl.,ji"?T~\.Qo

(lit., George is showing signs of wanting a sports car. (= George wants a sports car.))

.J.

(g) ;ji;,"?! i'ffi;6IIl*"? l ~ t.: !

(Gee! It's started to rain!)

Compound Particle A particle which consists of more than one word but functions like a single particle. For example, the compound particle to shite wa consists of the particle to, the te-form of suru and the particle wa, but it is used like a single particle to mean "for."

Conditional A word, phrase, or clause which expresses a condition, as in (a)-(c).

'~A.~<

(a) Ill~O)f±$1d:':;' -"" f) ;j; To

(I will take it on if it's a translation job.)

(b) ~tt;f1.';f~'5;6>t l.,;h.1d:Po

(I might buy it if it is cheap.)

(c) ~83 ~ A..iJ>':;' tI~1i.t>"? t.:':;'?ill G {i-lr ~ Po

(If Mr. Yamada calls me, please let me know.)

Continuative Form Forms of verbs, adjectives and da which signal that the sentence is continuing. They do not indicate tense or politeness level. These forms include the following:

(a) Affirmative forms:

Vte

Vmasu Adj(i)stem < (l)

~i5l., l (s.o. talks/talked/etc. and) ~i5l., (s.o. talks/talked/etc. and) :lo\' L < (l) (s.t. is/was delicious

and)

--<A.I)

Adj(na)stem 1(" / -r:;ji;, f) I -@!fiJ I-r: / -r:;ji;, f) I (s.t. is/was

convenient and)

"j!:~ 1 -r: / -r:;ji;, f) I (s.o. is/was a

scholar and)

· .~

[14] GRAMMATICAL TERMS


Adj(i)stem < is also the adverbial form, as in !f! < i;g (to go to bed early) or '5 i < iffiT (to talk skillfully).

(b) Negative forms:

Vneg f ~~ ~ f (s.o. does/did/etc., not talk and)

Adj(i)stem < ;/j: < iiH' G < ;/j: < (s.t. is/was not delicious and)

Adj(na)stem 1 t:: '? / c:'li I ;/j: < ~fU 1 t:: '? / c:'li I ;/j: < (s.t. is/was

not convenient and)

"Jt1'l1 t:: '? / l"li I ;/j: < (s.o. is/was not a

The interrogative words which correspond to demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives are dare and dono, respectively.

Dependent Noun A noun which must be preceded by a modifier, as in (a) and (b).

ih T t: l.tn'

(a) A: aJlBEBr:p7t'tI::-:§;'5-::>-b~)l"T;I}'o

(Are you going to meet Prof. Tanaka tomorrow?) B: IiI', -,((7)-::>-b ~)l"To

(Yes, I am.)

(b) -t!"/' F'7li r t-HIJ-:J-cp;g'i"f't::o (I expect that Sandra knows Tom.)

scholar and)

These forms are also used with certain words/phrases to convey more specific meanings, as shown in (c).

Direct Object The direct object of a verb is the direct recipient of an action represented by the verb. It can be animate or inanimate. An animate direct object is the direct experiencer of some action (as in (a) and (b) below). An inanimate direct object is typically something which is created, exchanged or worked on, in short, the recipient of the action of the verb (as in (c)-(e) below). (cf. Indirect Object)

(c) Other uses:

Vte\,;g

~~ G -c \ ,;g (s.o, is talking) J§t/'('\"T\' (easy to eat)

~< -Cf±:11;1}l;/j:p (unbearably hot)

" t:.

Adj(na)stem l"liPit;/j:p B*~Mqqo.l"liPlt;/j:p (it's not good

if s.o, is bad at Japanese)

~~l" -b J: \' (English would be all right) QJfl:: (without sleeping)

Vmasu'\"TP Adj(i)te f±:11;1}l;/j: \ ,

~i<'!>

(a) L1JD7t'tli~it'it-J: < t'f.~;go

(Prof. Yamaguchi often praises his students.)

l''5.:?-j

(b) ;I}':to!)li-N~'it-t::iU~o

(Kaori deceived Ichiro.)

""

(c) f~li*H!!,pt~o

(I wrote a book.)

(d) ~e~li;;"E t) 1::7.11-7 'it-'\"-:Jt~o (Ichiro gave a scarf to Midori.)

(e) fAli "7Hi'lit-c:topt~o

(I kept the door open.)

Although direct objects are marked by the particle 0, nouns or noun phrases marked by a are not always direct objects, as shown in (f) and (g).

Vneg ft::

Coordinate Conjunction A conjunction that combines two sentences without subordinating one to the other. A typical coordinate conjunction is ga "but."

(a) AE-:J-CPiTfJ~', 'S-:J c -b'\"-lti-lth.,o

(I'm running, but I haven't lost any weight at all.)

Demonstrative A pronoun or adjective which specifies someone or

something by pointing it out, as in (a) and (b).

(a) I.:.:h / ·ttl. / a&:h I lifiiJC:'T;I}'o

(What is 1 this / that / that over there I ?)

(b) 1':'0)*/ i'O)*/ a&0)* I lifL(7)C:'To

(I This book/That book/That book over there I is mine.)

lift:: Ji):

(f) :rnTli~e~(7)*"JtA"JtH*h.,t::o

(Hanako was glad that Ichiro entered college.)

::-j7_Au

(g) r t- Ii -'( (7)~~IiI~$p-cpt~o

(At that time Tom was walking in the park.)

(¢ 02 (DBJG: 349-51); 04 (DBJG: 352-54»


Embedded Question A question within a sentence. (a)-(c) provide examples (printed in bold-faced type):

!Il>-J[rA~J<

(a) jjl1fJi!ijli r: t:;l6.Q iJ'il&;z -c < t.= ~ Po

(Please tell me where the post office is.)

iJ'rJ)t; J: !t-:o::A-

(b) ~3I::fJ~~ \?~!lI9.Q fJ'9;O -:J -c I ) i T7P,

(Do you know when she is getting married?)

•

(c) *if.B;$:"'1T< fJ'it'=~b6-cpi-tt/Vo

(I haven't decided yet whether to go to Japan next year.)

Formal/Informal Forms Formal forms are the forms which are used in such situations as polite conversation and business/personal letters. Informal forms are the forms used in such situations as casual conversation, newspapers, and academic papers. Examples of these forms can be seen in the following chart:

Formal Forms Informal Forms
1T~iT tr<
*~P-c'T *~P
5C1(t-c'T 5C1(tt'=
"jt1'.-C'T "jt1'.t'= Informal forms are required in some grammatical structures.

(e> Appendix 4 (DBJG: 589-99)

Gr. 1 / Gr. 2 Verbs Gr. 1 and Gr. 2 Verbs are Japanese verb groups: If a verb's informal, negative, nonpast form has the [al sound before nai as in (a), the verb belongs to Group 1, and if not, as in (b), it belongs to Group 2. There are only two irregular verbs (i.e., kuru "come" and suru "do") that belong to neither Gr. 1 nor to Gr. 2.

(a) Gr. 1 Verbs: ill G;/J:\) [kira - nail

lJni ;/J:p, .iJ';/J:P, l~tc:;/J:p, JE;/J:;/J:P, ~b;/J:p, li3~;/J:P

(b) Gr. 2 Verbs: ;@';/J:I) [ki - nail, jlt«;/J:\) [tabe - nail

"

p;/J:p, !l:9~ ;/J:p, -c'~;/J:\ " Q4;/J:P


Hearer The person who receives a spoken or written message, In this dictionary the term "hearer" is used in a broader sense to mean the person to whom the speaker or the writer communicates.

Imperative Form A conjugated verb form that indicates a command, as in Hanase! "Talk!," Tabero! "Eat it!," Shiro! "Do it!," or Koi! "Come!"

Indefinite Pronoun A pronoun which does not refer to something specifically. No in B's sentence in (a) is an indefinite pronoun. Here, no is used for jisho "dictionary," but does not refer to a specific dictionary.

t L.t. e

(a) A: E/v;/J:J!i'i'.iJ;1iXU)/v-c'TiJ'o

(What kind of dictionary do you want?) B: Ij\ ~ pO)iJ1iik G p/v -c'To

(I want a small one.)

Indirect Object The indirect object of a verb is the recipient of the direct object of the main verb, and is marked by the particle ni. In (a), for example, the indirect object is Midori, the recipient of a scarf, which is the direct object of the verb yatta. It can be inanimate, as in (b). The main verbs which involve the indirect object are typically donative verbs (as in (a) and (bj). (cf. Direct Object)

l''So?

(a) ~AAliJjEf)(=AjJ-7~~-:Jtc:o

(Ichiro gave a scarf to Midori.)

h'illl"i t: t!.t' 0- 1iil' ibt.::.

(b) i3' ,@1liiIAtlt{!l.1J 1= ~*;/J: 1lZi§: ~ l§.;z tc:,

(The typhoon brought great damage to the K yushu area.)

Informal Form (c> Formal/Informal Forms)

Intransitive Verb A verb which does not require a direct object. The action or state identified by the intransitive verb is related only to the subject of the sentence. For example, the verb hashitta "ran" in (a) is an intransitive verb because the action of running is related only to the subject.

(cf. Transitive Verb)

1'1' •

(a) ~~*~ /vli~-:Jt.:o

(Mr. Suzuki ran.)

Intransitive verbs typically indicate movement (such as iku "go," kuru "come," aruku "walk," tobu "fly," noru "get onto"), spontaneous change (such as naru "become," kawaru "change," tokeru "melt," fukuramu "swell,"

1



hajimaru "begin"), human emotion (such as yorokobu "rejoice," kanashimu "feel sad," omou "feel"), and birth/death (such as umareru "be born," shinu "die"). (c> Appendix 3 (DBJG: 585-88))

Na-type adjectives are very similar to nouns. Some na-type adjectives can be used as nouns, as shown in (c) and (d). All na-type adjectives behave as nouns when they are used before the copula da, as shown in (e).

I-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with i. Examples of i-type adjectives are takai "high; expensive" and tsuyoi "strong," as seen in (a) and (b). (cf. Na-type Adjective; No-type Adjective)

(a) il'1i~ '* (an expensive book) (b) %l~'A (a strong person)

I-type adjectives are further subdivided into two types: i-type adjectives which end with shi-i and those with non-shi-i endings. Most adjectives with shi-i endings express human emotion (such as ureshii "happy," kanashii "sad," sabishii "lonely," kurushii "painful"); the non-shi-i adjectives are used for objective descriptions (such as kuroi "black," shirai "white," hiroi "spacious," takai "high; expensive").

(tlu=-"J

(c) {jt}ijtli::klfl"T J:o

(Health is important, you know.)

cf. fJlJlltliA

(a healthy person)

b",

(d) C::'*'I.Wli;'G(ni-ltlvo

(I'll never forget your kindness.)

cf. ¥Ji\WliA

(a kind person)

(e) c:: O)Alij(;~ /~~ I tUc'T / t.::-:; i: / C' lAc. / C; -? 7d:P / C; -?;Ii, IJ i -It Iv / C; -? 7d:;I)' -:; t: / C; -? ;Ii, IJ i -It Iv l" L"!c. f 0

(This person I is/was/isn't/wasn't f healthy / a student.)

Main Clause When a sentence consists of two clauses, one marked by a subordinate conjunction (such as kara, keredo, node and noni) and the other not marked by a subordinate conjunction, the latter is called a main clause. The main clauses in sentences (a) and (b) are printed in bold-faced type. (cf. Subordinate Clause)

Nominalizer A nominalizer is a particle that makes a sentence into a noun phrase or clause. There are two nominalizers, no and koto: the former represents the speaker's/writer's empathetic feeling towards an event/state expressed in the nominalized noun phrase/clause; the latter indicates no empathy on the part of the speaker/writer towards an event/state.

(¢ no' (DBJG: 318-22); koto' (DBJG: 193-96))

-t't t;! l't.:

(a) Ul8m~MlmlpO)'=~*3tt:~T? f.:o

(Yamada went to school, although he had a headache.)

1J'-( :. s::>t {>~ .:"j.b(

(b) ~Tt;t7cillfl G PiI' G$":;;f.-:'o

(Karuko is happy, because her husband is kind.)

When a sentence has a relative clause, the non-relative clause part is also referred to as a main clause, as in (c).

Noun Phrase / Clause
Particle Predicate
Sentence N orninalizer
B*il1-liMEtr ufl!'
(J)/;:_c Ii ~GPo
(Reading Japanese is difficult.) !::tt;!-;

(c) fJ.t;t ~ (J) oj, ;!st1!iI' Gil'l' IJ t: 1:::'7':>[ ~ ~f.:o

(Yesterday I watched a video which I borrowed from my friend.)

The nominalized sentence can be used in any position where an ordinary noun or a noun phrase/clause can be used.

Na-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with na. For example, shizukada "quiet" and genkida "healthy" are na-type adjectives, as in (a) and (b). (cf. I-type Adjective; No-type Adjective)

No-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends

with no.

l-r

(a) Mn'li* (a quiet house)

(b) 5t3itliA (a healthy person)

~''iS ~ ~ 1

(a) ~'t!rG(J)::k"'j. (prestigious university)

I: < -c ~,

(b) t,j'Ji: (J) 00 (specific country)

1


t' -::> ~:f A..

(C) -Jill!' 0) A (people in general)

J,., "';.,_ ~:l-? of:: <

(d) ~)J!iO)t.tillU (universal rule)

{>h1t:d

(e) iiI G ~ ~ O)!l!Tf~;I;!)J (mostly empty baseball stadium)

No-adjectives can occur in the predicate as well.

(f) z O)*"lt'i-51,tf':'c

(This university is prestigious (lit, first-classj.)

(g) z O)!l!TJ;,jUJJHi P-:J tii £> ~ ~ f':o

(This baseball stadium is always mostly empty.)

No-adjectives look like nouns, but they do not have the critical properties of nouns (e.g., they cannot be marked by the subject marker ga or the direct object marker 0).

Many no-type adjectives can be classified by meaning, as shown below.

Excellent:

L~'JL.t( li-:J(';'" (? L t''I)~!J>"i

ffi@ (excellent), tt1ff (preeminent), Ftilt~ (outstanding), -l7it (first-class),

~us Cdc?

t=lvt-:J (by far the best), m:tJTfJ (distinguished),Vii'P'5 (superb), 1:~

t:dt:d

(high-class), 1:.-7 (excellent)

Unique/Selected:

c·( t ,l;:°U:< C<~-J =. @') ten'

J!Il§ (of one's own), J!Il~ (unique), f\'ffl' (peculiar), 1l'!Ifl' (proper), Wn:

t < LIII>

(specific), ~3U (special) (cf. f\'f¥*fd: (special))

Common:

J,., '?-? t'":Ilif,., t.th t:dt-)

~~ (common), -Jill!' (general), ;Jt (ordinary), if!, fJ ~ t:::. fJ (ordinary), m~

ih . i.:t.

(common), ~t:::. fJ rru (natural)

Unchanging:

t'""Lt' k ........ A. J,., "'-;,_ ;tt'.tA..

-JE (constant), ~)J!i (universal), :;fllt (unchanging), 7ki! (eternal)

A common semantic property of no-adjectives is that they do not describe relative attributes such as height and quietness. Thus, unlike i- and naadjectives, the suffix sa "the degree of" (e.g., taka-sa "height," shizuka-sa "quietness") cannot be affixed to no-adjectives.

(cf. Na-type Adjective; I-type Adjective)

Certain prefixes and suffixes also form no-adjectives, as shown below.


Prefixes:

tr tr CA.. L'iit'

~-: 1!!tA (unattended), 1!!tl& (undefeated)

. . tr ~ tr ~

*The followmg are na-adjectives: ~:E! (impossible), ~9;0

tr 0)") 4'; X_J,.,~J: u cA,1)1'<

(ignorant), ~fm (incapable), ~i!mt (impertinent), ~iliJj:li

tr t' h

(indifferent; careless), ~J&:,* (nonsensical)

17- s, -Is h lJ'J... h c-5

*-: *9;0 (unknown), *7'G (unfinished), *JIiIi (unexplored)

~t' _._ ~t's< ~t'lA.. t:t,t~t'

:1&-: ~r'Ell (the best), lI:J! (the worst), ~*Jf (the newest), fi:k

(maximum)

Suffixes:

tr c. t't

-rPJ ~ : 'rI:!tr6:i ~ (suitable for children)

tr ftt't.:t, ~ ~

-rPJ,t: m1if~ilfr6:itt (for portable devices)

J:-) hIvL~-j

-ffl: **jl1JljfJ (for practice)

t' 1±'I)h'?

-A fJ: ~!£:A~} (with honey (as an ingredient))

-Ii ~ : it'v - :>11 ~ (with a garage)

.'-?

-m: A« l' / J!l. (Spanish-style)

*" tn'

-t= G ,t: Fdlll, 'f': £> tt (full of errors)

n

- g; ,;r;_ tL: ;JiB:I; JJ n (covered with mud)

~ "

-:)(\'*: :k. fJ ~P* (rather overweight)

-t6: *~ t6 (larger than expected, than usual, etc.)

Note: In the Formation section in each grammar entry, the formation rules for nouns apply to no-adjectives.

Potential Form A verb form that expresses competence in the sense of "can do s.t." The formation is as follows:

Gr. I Verbs: Vcond + ::5

Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem + G tL::5 Vstem + tL::5

Irr, Verbs: *::5

T::5

e.g. 8~1i::5 (can talk) e.g, ilt"'GtL::5(caneat) e.g, ilt"'tL::5 (can eat)

*GtL::5, *tL::5 (can come) c·~ ::5 (can do)

Predicate The part of a sentence which makes a statement about the subject The core of the predicate consists either of a verb, an adjective, or a noun followed by a form of de. Optionally, objects and other adjectival and/or adverbial modifiers may be present In (a)-(c), the predicates are printed in bold-faced type. (cf, SUbject)

1



*"?t~

(a) ~*~Iv(iJ:<~OO~~.Qo

(Mr. Matsumoto sees movies often.)

someone or something that is in a state or a situation (as in (c)-(f)). The subject is normally marked by the particle ga in Japanese unless it is the sentence topic.

(b) ,fLO)~mA'::' A ~A.0)J: ~}t'TL.,~\o

(My house is newer than Mr. Smith's.)

(c) V OJ /'(i8*~0)~~-r"90

(John is a Japanese language student.)

(a) ~3/iJllJlv:::··~ft~t::0 (John ate an apple.)

(b) ..>< y I) - iJl5t1:(::i;f1t> G nt::o (Mary was praised by her teacher.) (c) j-/~-li ~ nPtc:o (Nancy is pretty.)

(d) 1'7 iJl 00, ,t::o (The door opened.)

Prefix / Suffix A dependent, non-conjugational word attached to nouns or the stems of verbs and adjectives in order to form new independent words. Prefixes are attached to the beginnings of nouns, etc., as in (a), and suffixes are attached to their endings, as in (b).

'J(i

(e) ~JLiJI--::> it:> Go (lit., One table exists. (= There is a table.))

(f) ~iJl1f' '0 (The sky is blue.)

'ljt?C?~~? k(t!~'1::?~d tl'tJ'A-CA.

(a) jij!t*'~ (superexpress), ;1j**1E~Jl (vice-president), 1!!{OO{i

(indifference)

Subordinate Clause A clause which is embedded into a main clause with a subordinate conjunction. Typical subordinate conjunctions are ba "if," kara "because," node "because," keredo "although" and noni "although." Thus, in (a) below, the bold-faced clause with the subordinate conjunction node is embedded into the main clause Nakayama-san wa gakko 0 yasunda "Mr. Nakayama was absent from school." (cf. Main Clause)

it'tJl 1;'

(b) ~j[.!fift (cinematization), fiit,;j,'jj (how to read), il1Ii~ (height)

Prenominal Form The verb/adjective form which precedes a noun and modifies it. The bold-faced verbs and adjectives in (a)-(d) are prenominal forms.

l;J:iJ'?;' l't..::

(a) JflW ~ IvliIDVi!JiJ'? t.:O)-r"jttlt~f:tlvtC:o

(Mr. Nakayama was absent from school because he had a headache.)

(a) ,fLiJl~,'W /~i'CA.t':~JTI*l (the newspaper I read)

(b) *~~\ /*~iJ'?t.:w.

(a big house / a house which used to be big)

The informal form of a verb/adjective is usually used in a subordinate clause.

OJ"" !f

(c) .:iL~~ / .:iL~t.:·? t.:!I!4W

(a magnificent building / a building which used to be magnificent)

(d) s~\L.,i oj ~ / s~\L.,i oj t.:?t.:7-'f

(a delicious-looking cake / a cake which looked delicious)

Suffix (¢ Prefix / Suffix)

Suru-verb A verb which is composed of a noun and suru, as in (a) and (b), or a single word and suru, as in (c). Nouns preceding suru are mostly Chinese-origin words. Suru-verbs conjugate in the same way as suru.

Stative Verb A verb which represents the state of something or someone at some point in time, as in (a). (¢ Appendix 2 (DBJG: 582-84»

(a) it:> G (exist (of inanimate things»; P G (exist (of animate things», PG (need), L'~G (cando)

t--5 t.; J: k

(a) MliJm"9.Q (to study), :jfff~"9.Q (to clean), iJ(5!!iJ> L-"9.Q (to stay up

late)

(b) / ,oj 7"9.Q (to knock), -+T l' /'"9.Q (to sign)

b? ~?

(c) iII-!l"9.Q (to heat), ~"9.Q (to guess)

SUbject An element of a sentence which indicates an agent of an action in active sentences (as in (a» or an experiencer of an action (as in (b) or

Transitive Verb A verb that requires a direct object. It usually expresses an action that acts upon someone or something indicated by the direct


object. Actions indicated by transitive verbs include giving/receiving (such as ageru "give," morau "receive," kureru "give"), creating (such as tsukuru "make," kaku "write," kangaeru "think"), communicating (such as hanasu "speak," oshieru "teach," tsutaeru "convey a message") and others. Note that some English transitive verbs are intransitive in Japanese.

(cf. Intransitive Verb)

(a) fJ,li.iJl~.Qo

(lit., With me a car exists. (= I have a car.)

Ij(

(b) f~li:to~iJl~'.Qo

(lit., To me money is necessary. (= I need money.)

1J~? ::: c :::.'

A:; A"6 luli9=tOOijg:OI~:fJ'.Qo

(lit., To Mr. Smith Chinese is understandable. (= Mr. Smith understands Chinese.)

(d) fJ,li 7'7;'; A ijgiJlj? G l'~.Qo

(lit., To me French is a bit possible. (= I can speak French a little.j)

(c)

~O)u.: t:?~d

(e) * T "6 Iu Ii ylDK <:' :to:X: "6 Iu I: 9'i ·-:d<:. 0

(Mr. Kinoshita met his father in Tokyo.)

(f) fJ,I:li«)l.-iJ'Iil'.l': xf.!::fJ'·:>f<:.o

(lit., To me the bell wasn't audible. (= I wasn't able to hear the bell.)

.b e ~A

(g) 2:2::o'Glij,'±WiJ'Jix;t9J:o

(lit., From here Mt. Fuji is visible. (= We can see Mt. Fuji from here.)

1.,A.,;/)'A.;-tt1v

(h) fM::-t:,(Hfi~~I:*fl* 1.-"<:'0

(We rode a bullet train.)

(i) fJ,liil):I:~n'.Q G GPo

(It seems that I resemble my mother.)

Volitional Sentence A sentence in which a person expresses hislher will. The main verb in such sentences is in the volitional form, as in (a).

'"

(a) f~iJlfT,:?/rr~;tI.-J:?o

(I will go.)

Wh-question A question that asks for information about who, what,

where, which, when, why and how, as exemplified by (a)-(g) below.


t.::'h

(a) m£iJl*i U::iJ'o

(Who came here?)

(b) foJ~~«iT:O'o

(What will you eat?)

(c) E':I:fTfg iTiJ'o

(Where are you going?)

(d) EO)Q!~iJllZI!U"g<:'TiJ'o (Which building is the library?)

(e)

SS~7J'

~ '-::>*~Jj(A..1w i') i T:O'o

(When are you going back to Osaka?)

E? I.-TJl:bid:Plul."TiJ'o

(How come you don't buy it?)

(f)

c oJ ~~?.i~

(g) JfDiC~RA..liE?fTfg iTiJ'o

(How can I get to Tokyo Station?)

Wh-word An interrogative word which corresponds to the English words who, what, where, which, when, why and how. The following are examples.

t.::'h

(a) mt (who), fiif (what), I:: 2: (where), I:: 0) (which), ,n (when), c' '5 G

l / id:-l:f (how come/why), c' -] (how)

Note that Japanese Wh-words are not always found in sentence-initial position; they are frequently found after a topic noun phrase, as shown in (b) and (c) below.

~ (f) ? tin

(b) IlfBO)!\-T 1 -1:iim£iJ'*i Gt:::o'o

(lit., To yesterday's party, who came there? (= Who came to yesterday's party")

cf. m£iJ'IlfBO)!\-T 1-i:*i Gt::iJ'o (Who came to yesterday's party?)

(c) B*<:'iifoJ~ Gi U::iJ'o

(lit., In Japan what did you do? (= What did you do in Japan")

cf. foJ~ B*<:'Gi Gt::iJ'o

(What did you do in Japan?)

1 I

SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR [27)

Special Topics in Advanced Japanese Grammar

hi't>::;'

(4) a. fL"j::*:@0)7~7 ry 7. >!i:-il-:d.:, [no-adjective]

(I bought a light blue blouse.)

1. Adjectives in Japanese

l' t ~-Sd

b. !i!ir,,'ij:*@~¥':l!IH= lA~o [noun]

(We chose light blue as the base color for the living room.)

Thus, na-adjectives, no-adjectives and nouns form a spectrum, as shown in Chart 1.

Japanese adjectives are commonly classified into two groups: i-adjectives and na-adjectives. However, there is yet another group of adjectives, which can be called no-adjectives. (See No-type Adjective in Grammatical Terms.) (1) presents some examples of this type of adjective.

Chart 1: Spectrum of na-adjectives, no-adjectives and nouns

Parts of Examples Prenominal Predicate Case
speech form form particles
vi'
(a) Na-adj. ~;Ip (quiet) X-naN
i'I!fiJ (convenient)
c (--<-:J
(b) Na/No-adj. ~~1lU (special)
~i¥t X-na/noN NA
f*l? (various)
t'-:>liA,
(c) No-adj. ~~ (general) X-da/desu/
~;,
~ (ordinary) datta/etc.
111') ~
(d) No-adj./ (rg3(t (ill, illness) X-noN
Noun ;"'-(\'0
*@ (blue)
X-ga/a/
-IS h-j etc.
(e) Noun :llM'* (earth)
;/Cl/ (John) t'?I!1v

(1) a. ~~O)A (people in general)

c < -rv-

b. ~5EO)OO (specific countries)

.u'.tA LA.. f)

c. 71<)j10)~J'Ill. (eternal truth)

f,J.;;' i"tA..L~

d. ~O)~Cf (average player)

t'i; ~.,,?

e. ~'tfrE0)*"'f. (prestigious university)

't>h'it:d

f. iJl c:, ~ ~ O)!l!Jf,*:I;I)l (mostly empty baseball stadium)

No-adjectives are just like nouns in terms of their syntactic rules (e.g., they require no when they modify nouns), but they cannot be marked by case particles such as ga and o. In other words, they are not nouns. The only syntactic difference between na-adjectives and no-adjectives is that na-adjectives take na before nouns whereas no-adjectives take no.

However, some words can take either na or no, as shown in (2).

-IS ~ ~"'J

(2) a. ~1lU j fJ /0) I ~~ (special treatment)

~ti!'t t'Ld

b. f*l? j fJ /0) l;&~ (various costumes)

Some nouns can also be used as no-adjectives, as demonstrated in (3) and (4).

(3) a. (rg3(tO)f!j:i=Cf*J!;Hf\ ,t~, [no-adjective] (I wrote a letter to my sick mother.)

While the predicate form of na-adjectives and nouns is the same, both the predicate and the prenominal forms of i-adjectives are significantly different from those of na-adjectives. From this, it can be said that i-adjectives are "pure" adjectives. However, a handful of adjectives can take either i or na, as shown in (5). (The difference between the i-version and the na-version is subtle, but the i-version tends to be used when the speaker describes something objectively whereas the na-version is used when the speaker describes something with strong emotion.)

ilb-:) tJ·

b. j((7)(rg3(tiiJ!1t G tz ; [noun]

(My father's illness worsened.)

.'

c. !Il)(iJIAi==:(7)(rg3(t~7-yto [noun]

(Mosquitoes transmit this disease to people.)

[28] SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(5) a. *~ l~' / ~ f ") ts (large house)

No

b. ~ G il' 1 ~ , / ~ f f;4;: (limber body)

c. toil' G 1 ~, / ~ f llI5 (strange/funny story)

u

d. :i Ivn 1 ~,/ ~ f J=l (round moon)

The overlapping categories of adjectives and nouns can be depicted as follows:

(6)

I-adj.

No-adj.

SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR [29]

2. Interpretation of "Nl no N2"

Noun phrases with the structure "N, no N2" often have multiple meanings. For example, (1) can mean "bookts) Hemingway wrote," "book(s) Hemingway owned" or "book(s) about Hemingway."

(1) ",,~/j"r,I.-O)*

(book(s) Hemingway wrote / book(s) Hemingway owned / book(s) about Hemingway)

In the first two interpretations, N, (= Hemingway) is interpreted as the subject and N2 (= book(s)) as the direct object, but in the third interpretation neither N, nor N2 receives case interpretation. (Here, the term "case" refers to the grammatical property of a given noun which determines its role in the sentence in connection with the predicate, for example, as a subject, direct object, place, time, means, etc. When a noun is interpreted to have one of those properties, we say that it receives case interpretation.)

As another example, (2) means "the president's arrival," where N, (= the president) is the subject of the action represented by N2 (= arrival). In this example, only N, receives case interpretation.

t!,'c"Hd c.-J'ij<:>(

(2) 7d\Jt~J.!0)3ltl~

(the president's arrival)

In general, "N, no N2" can be categorized into four groups according to whether or not N, and N2 receive case interpretation.

(3) "Nl no N2"

Group 1: Both N 1 and N2 receive case interpretation Group 2: Only Ni receives case interpretation Group 3: Only N2 receives case interpretation

Group 4: Neither Ni nor N2 receives case interpretation

Group 1: Both N, and N2 Receive Case Interpretation

(4) presents examples in which both Ni and N2 receive case interpretation. (4) a. *1,4-0) F t- 7,

= 1 *1fril\~-C P Q F i- 7, (the dress Natsuko is wearing) / *1fril\tIf--:> -c, \ Q F i- 7, (the/a dress(es) Natsuko owns) / *ifril\1'F--:> i: F v 7, (the/a dress(es) Natsuko made)/etc. f


r


~d c. S c

b. :5r1f~O)f,x5(

= J?-:tflH:::1:tlv -C'I) Gf,x5( (the uncle (who lives) in Kyoto)

Group 2: Only Nl Receives Case Interpretation

Example (2) belongs to this group, and (7) presents additional examples, In these examples, N 1 is the subject or direct object of an action represented byN2'

tr't' :;g'

c. 9 a,fO)§;~

= 9 M'1:::M;g: G§;~ (the meeting that begins at 9 o'clock)

-'('HI'G t!A, lJ'

(7) a. LlIH ~ 1v00$lm

=LlIH~Iv#$WI~G/Lkl~~ (Mr. Yamamura's participation)

1.,: c {' ItA..:: < 1;):(

d . .:gtJ~o)7JOOiW

= .:gtJ~""C'OO7l'tLt~7JOOiW (the world expo held in Nagoya) Sometimes case markers appear between N 1 and no to clarify the meaning of the phrase, as demonstrated in (5), (The interpretations given in (5) are not necessarily exhaustive, (5b), for example, can also mean "the game that was held in Osaka,")

(5) a. # -1 7 t- ;.; F 11> S O).JI - )1---

= # -1 7 v;'; F 7l' tj :lIU~ .JI - )1---

(the e-mail that came from my boyfriend)

sSt-i.l'

b. :k1l&"t-'0)~Jl:il-

= :k1l&-c'rrbtL G ~Jl:il-

(the game that will be held in Osaka)

t' -r:1u L

b. )l1~CfO)~Jf~

= )l1~Cf HJf~ I ~ G / Lt~ I ~ ~ (a study of genes)

he:> L~ 3(

c. YU.O)illtL

= JU.;I;II illtLG /illtLt~ I ~ ~ (the train's delay)

h-)~d J.. c.

d. ~ftO):Ji 'J )b<d.

=~ft~I:Ji'J)bu/:Ji'J)bIv~I~~

(the (bank) deposit of someone's salary)

~dx_A

c. =~-3-~·71~tO).M

==~-3-~·71~~Lk.M

(the performance (I) gave with the New York Philharmonic)

Group 3: Only N2 Receives Case Interpretation

(8) presents examples of this category. As shown in the translations, in these examples, NI and N2 are interpreted as predicate noun and subject, respectively.

::Al~?£'? h1-::>7.I't'

d. ~;Ht1~;t <:'O),#§;

= ~~*g: -c,i < '#§;

(the academic conference that lasts through the end of this week.)

The case markers ga, 0 and ni never occur between N I and no. However, sometimes ni is replaced by a case particle with a similar meaning, as shown in (6).

(6) a. jj - )1---7 t- ;.; F "O)Cf*~

= jj-)1---7 v;'; P' I:::ifptdo.*~

(the letter I wrote to my girlfriend)

k( t'

(8) a. J'\ -1 t1'J r O)tli.l# ~ Iv

= ) {-1 t1 'J r C'it> G fi# ~ Iv

(Mr. Fukui, who is a pilot; (among two or more Fukuis.) the Fukui who is a pilot)

"'<

b. !Fl3({,0)~

= !Fl3({, -C' it> G ~

(my wife, who is ill)

(9) presents another set of examples in this category. Here, the suru-verb stem NI represents an action, and N2 represents the subject of the verb, as in (9a), or the procedure for creating a document, as in (9b).

s< to)

b. ,#:i:t~ ts 11> S O)&~ 'J t?IJ

= ,#:i:t.: ts I::: t tj ,::dd~ 'J t?IJ

(the gift I received from my students)


~ ~?:."

(9) a. llitrrO)A. 7' A -!J -1 )1-

= llitrr G l P ~ A. 7' A -!J -1 )t.(the hairstyle that is popular)

);.A.,L.t ~ (-It" L t:",h,

b. ()(iIJ) 1'FnltO)'foIIrn!

= ()(iIJ ~ l1'FnltT ~ 'fo)lrn!

(the procedure by which someone creates a document)

It should be noted, however, that this type of noun phrase is not acceptable for any N, For example, the phrases in (10) are not acceptable.

C.?1;,<:>( • • •

(10) a. *ftll!tO)1it<rrfl (a/the traveler(s) who 1 WIll arnve / arnved l )

~ < t1A. J: ~A

b. *l!!Ui!PXO)-Y. (the budget that 1 will be / was l reduced)

t' fJA. L

c. *~Jf3';;O))IHiT (the genes someone 1 will study / is studying /

etc.] )

Interestingly, a qualified N, can be grammatically acceptable in cases where the more general term isn't, as demonstrated in (11).

c.;'1){>(

(11) a. 5 ~ftll!tO)1it<rrfl

=5~1:~l!tlT~/Gkl1it<rrfl

(a/the traveler(s) who 1 will arrive / arrived l at five)

l;J:AAJA. /::. s-:«): J: ~A.

b. :<js:if.IUUi!PXO)-Y.

=:<js:if.N~.l~~~/~~kl-Y.

(the budget that 1 will be / was l reduced this year)

Group 4: Neither NI nor N2 Receives Case Interpretation

Examples in this group can be further sub-grouped according to the relationship between N, and N2.

A. Qualifier and Dependent Noun

The meanings of nouns such as ue "upper part; the area on top (of something)," ichibu "a part," chosha "author," kekka "result" and tsumori "intention" are not complete in themselves. In this respect, these nouns are dependent nouns. In the "Ni no N2" examples in this group, N, qualifies N2 and gives it context and meaning, thus completing the meaning of N2, as demonstrated in (12).


(12) a. 'T-7<)t.-0)_l (the surface of the table; the space above the table)

t''6£

b. ~t(!ljjO)~l'lJl (a part of the plan)

0-Jt:A. t.~l~

c. r'l3A i:: ¥fjj O)~fl (the author of "The Old Man and the Sea")

(t." 'IJ'

d. ilt,~O)*t'i* (the result of the test)

L~')-tt iff

e. ilin15O)-:J t!) «someone's) intention to attend)

B. Appositive Relationship

In this group, N, indicates (a) specific member(s) of the group indicated by Nz, as shown in (13).

(13) a. -+)-7'70)* (cherry tree(s))

If A. -It ItA.::?

b. 511!t0)~1!t~ (lit., the back number 51 (= the number 51 on the

back of an athlete's uniform))

LJ:.:Qt'

c. ;: ~ G O).t~ (these documents) (;: ~ G is a demonstrative

pronoun.)

C. Inclusion Relationship

In this group, N2 is part of (or an attribute of) Nj, as shown in (14).

~L

(14) a. o;j{ ") r 0)Jli;~ (the legs of a/the robot(s))

b. ::::2 - 3 -70)-!J<r'J /' -!J r'J /' (New York's downtown area)

c. B :<js:AO)![) (the Japanese people's mind)

~.tj c ~ :.-j

d. Et!~O)3(\{~ (the climate of Kyoto)

D. Relevance Relationship

In this group, N2 represents something related to N, and the phrase means "N2 1 on / about / related to / etc.] Nj," as demonstrated in (15).

-ttAi--j ~ t

(15) a. -1 '7 7lji1t~0)1lc~ (an article on the Iraq War)

b. .I. *)t.- cf - 0) Fp'lm (an energy problem / the energy issue)

it;...:? Il ItA. -ttt' c:

c. {}ffflH~I:1i~O)*iJN (the health insurance system)



E. Time-Specified Noun

In this group, Ni specifies a time frame for N2, as demonstrated in (16).

(16) a. 1l~~0) 8;$: (Japan in the Meiji Period)

b. *~~f~O)lf. (Rie in her college days)

c. ~~t~~O)i (my wife when she was a newlywed)

3. Politeness and Formality in Spoken and Written Language

In Japanese, politeness and formality are different concepts. The use of da after nouns and na-adjective stems illustrates this difference, as shown in Chart 1.

Chart 1: Politeness and formality of da

"N N" by

As seen in (1) and other examples above, in many cases 1 iall d t

itself means more than one thing; however, the heare~/rea~er usua Y e ermines the intended meaning from the context and/or situation.

Plain Polite
affirmative form tc l'T
«-. t::. -C'LJ::.
Non-formal negative form 15-'1"~P 15-'1"ibV);i:{U",
15 -'I" ~;/),"? i: 15-'1"ib V) ;i:-t:tlu-C'LJ::.
te-form l' -C'\"'l
affirmative form l'ib'5 l'ibV);i:T
l'ib"? t: l'ibV);i:\"'t::.
Formal negative form 1'Ii~,' 1'Iiib V) ;i:-t:tlu
1'Ii~;/)'"? t::. -c'liib V) ;i:-t:tlu-c'\"'t::.
te-form l'ib"?l -C'ibV);i:\"'l As seen above, da has four distinct sets of forms to show different levels of politeness and formality, The examples in Chart 2 and Chart 3 show the situations where these forms are used in spoken and in written language.

(Here, we do not discuss situations in which plain forms are required for grammatical reasons, e.g. Kana atari da to tsiikin ni benri desu. (:= 0))2;1 V) tc c!l!iIH:1J!;fIJl'To ) "If (you live) around here, it's convenient to commute to work,")


Chart 2: Spoken language

Casual conversation:
C L.l: x..!v i')
. 2:O)mlf, fJ!;fUf'='J:c
Plain (This dictionary is convenient.)
. ikti*~' )/Vf.='1rJc
(Aki is not coming, right? I Aki's not coming, is she? I
You're not coming, right, Aki?)
Non- Ordinary polite conversation; speeches, lectures and
formal
presentations:
t:.l''''A-
, 2: O)li'i"lfti*~fJ!;fUl:9 o
Polite (This dictionary is very convenient.)
• iJli.;jIG ~ /vti*~P/v l:91rJo
(Aki is not coming, is she? I You're not coming, are you,
Aki?)
Plain (Not used in spoken language.)
Formal speeches, lectures and presentations:
~ tri; < Iv h ::? tit::
Formal ' *H:l"iti;Jlt;l;\~o)~ I) -r'if;)~) * 90
Polite (Mr. Kimura is the pride of our school.)
-? 1..' -t!-:> t: 1..' ~~
2: 0) J: '5 ~fi~ti*@J1t::ilt-l!~' )O)-r'if;)~) * 90
(We cannot tolerate such conduct by any means.) Chart 3' Written language

News articles; academic papers; reports; essays:
iJ' tJ'(1±?"'[l' ~h
. 2:O)fffiim[,l:/Etifu:i66l'::fi';-JJI!f':o
(This (practice of) price setting is extremely unreasonablc.)
It? 1;' L t';l'
. *MI~ti-'? I) 1J<Jz~f':o
Non- (The result depends on the way you do it.)
formal Plain Most books for adults use this form, which sets a neutral
tone, This form may also be used in letters and e-mails
to intimate friends,
r::.A., IJ
. 90)7 )~- l- tifJ!;fIJf':J:o
(My current apartment is convenient.) SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR [37]

Nonformal

Formal

Polite

Ordinary business or personal letters and e-mails; business documents for customers; books for young children:

-CA £ If'?J:-j!tt'D ;.;. '?

· ~ftti&:'~;f;¥.O) 3M. t, I) l:9o

(Attached is an estimate of the necessary expenditures.) . ~

'.JJI!t~/v0)~~~/Vti~~~~/vl:9o (Mari's father is a doctor.)

Some books for adults use this form, which sets an intimate tone, This form is also used for letters and e-mails to one's family members and friends,

· 90)7)~- r tifJ!;fU-r'9o

(My current apartment is convenient.)

Plain

News articles; academic papers; essays; reports; government reports; legal documents:

C J: L Ld~l'( t''Sin'

, 2: tLtiWJ~Ci]1iiI1lllf0)~11Ul:if;).Qo

(This is an example of particle ornission.)

~ (t.llv !jt'~l'-t!"I.,jiJ:?IJ'?

· fIf,¥0);f;¥~)jj(;j~¥ti2.5 % l:if;) -::>1':0

(The economic growth rate last year was 2.5 percent.)

De aru is more formal in tone than de. In many cases both de aru and da are used within one document.

Polite

Formal business letters; formal business documents for customers:

r.o c:: c o t.v -t!'A-~l( [fA-t'lv

· 2:O)i'ltO)$$t::-:Jfg:i t r e, '"'It±{iit1Jiib{fl'~lEIi

h'Jli'Jt' lJ:i'A-

"9'£~JlT GPJTtr-r'if;) ~J * 90

(We (lit., Our company) will do our utmost to investigate the cause of the recent accident.)

While verbs and i-adjectives have distinctive forms to indicate different politeness levels (e.g. hanasu and hanashimasu; takai and takaidesu), they do not have distinctive forms to indicate the formality level that corresponds to de aru; therefore, the same forms are used for both non-formal and formal situations, In other words, da and its variants are critical indicators of formality level.



_ ill _

(1) a. litl:i=.:cIv~P:.ipl±*~2E-1:tJ::-5?-ra?o)lJ',

(Are you going to make me do that kind of dirty job?)

a: litl:ii.:c 1v~P:.ipl±*Ii lJ:: < ~Po

(I don't want to do that kind of dirty job.)

b . .:c Iv~:: tr~iJl9;ll? -CPG :bltiJl~p 1.5 '(!> ~~ \IJ'o (How should I know that sort of thing?)

b: .:clv~:: Uil~IHlli)~p,

(I don't know that sort of thing.)

c. 15§iHi.:cnl"'6:*"f:ttlJ'o

(Are you really a college student?)

c' 15ilUli:*"f:tttiiJGt;t~Po

(You're no college student.)

(2) a. ~\"?*-r'TVr:~Ji\-CPGO)o ~'Mll,,~2EP,

(Hey, how long are you going to watch TV? Do your homework!)

a: '6 -5 T i- r:~Ji\-Cli"'t~PJ::o ~5~l,,~ 2E Po (Don't watch TV now. Do your homework!)

t!.tt h1~d

b. ~iJ~'.:c Iv~'!i!, '*€i*4l"l±*~T G 'bAIJ'o

(Who would do the job for such a low salary?)

b: ilIH.:cIv~'!i!p*€ifl-Cl±*Iil,,~pJ::o

(No one will do the job for a salary that low.)

c. E? [.;-rfbO):7f;t'600p-C-f2E i)~PO)-r"9IJ'o (Why won't you listen to what I have to say?)

c' E -5 .:c'fbO):7f;t '6 OOP-Cr t! Po

(Please listen to what I have to say.)

d +- 1£(

. B/~iWiJl-'?2E l"P~Iv-C~\"?l~iJl§?t.::?

(When did I tell you that Japanese is easy?)

d' B*iWiJl-,?2E l"P~Iv-c§?t.::::Ui~PJ::o

(I've never said that Japanese is easy.)

e. E? [.;-rp"?'6fbO)-1:tPI=TGo)? (Why are you always blaming me?)

e: p-:J'6fbO)-1:tPI=l,,~Pl"r2Epo (Don't always blame me.)

4. Rhetorical Questions

Of all the types of questions, including Yes-No Questions, Wh-Questions, Choice Questions, Tag-Questions and Hypothetical Questions, only Rhetorical Questions (RQ hereafter) do not seek or accept an answer. RQs elicit the hearer's/reader's mental recognition and acceptance of an underlying claim. In other words, RQs look like a question on the surface but in actuality, they are an assertion.

The examples in (1) and (2) are some typical RQs used in spoken Japanese. As the English translations show, the RQ is essentially the same in Japanese as in English. The direct non-RQ versions are provided by examples with a prime mark. The sentences in (1) take the form of Yes-No Questions, and in (2), Wh-Questions.

(6

d. 15ilU. }(i,iJlJ:E-:,t.::A 1.5 '(!> ~~ \IJ',

(Are you crazy?)

d: 15ilUli}(i,iJl£h-CPGo (You're crazy.)

e . .:cn'iJ::iJ'-:Jt.:15'(!>~~\IJ', 151i6-ct'5 ! (Wasn't that great? Congratulations!)

e' .:cnliJ::iJ'-:Jt.::o 15li6l',t-5,

(That was great! Congratulations!)

Depending on the context, RQs can express anger or frustration, as in (la-.c) and (2a, b); surprise, as in (ld); joy, as in (Ie); a plea, as in (2c); denial, as m (2d); or accusation, as in (2e).

RQs are also used in written language. However, usually they are not used to express the writer's emotion, but rather to express the writer's views in an indirect way. Take (3a), for example. The writer may well be convinced that the Japanese are excessively optimistic about robots, but he is hesitant about writing that as straightforwardly as it's stated in (3a').

il' t.:!.l' ~ t.:i'

(3) a. B*Alio;¥,y rl=)Iift:*~Wlf~Hi'h-CPGo)Z"i~~\t':'0?IJ',

(Don't Japanese people have excessive expectations regarding robots?)


a: B::$:)d;t t:l;f, 'J r I:}J\\\*id:J!Jl~~f;'f-:)lP 00

(I think that Japanese people have excessive expectations for robots.)

In all the examples in (4), the writer is not emotive about the subject The writer simply refrains from stating his/her belief in a straightforward manner. Depending on the context, an RQ may express the writer's humble cautiousness or lack of straightforwardness. In Japanese formal or public writing, RQs are used quite frequently.

!.:: A., rfA. 7J'Altt'

(4) a. AI1ll tlli/JVgO)OO{*;ip G t -::> t "FA:; 0 U:: Ii&j 0 0)'C";t id:~ \tE6? tr,

(Can we not learn more from the relationship between people and animals?)

a: Ar8, t lIi/JVgO)OO{*;ip G t -::> t "FA:; 0 0

(We can learn more from the relationship between people and animals.)

li i.:o>') t!.t'::· /j. tJ' O)-j

b. j3Zj;jlJO)I'ilHtlll,*t p 'J to)Ii, c'~ id:P;: t ~i1JII§I:T0 t;: is ,:;Ii;,

o 0),,(,,;t7J:~ \tE 6? b'o

(Is it not those technologies that make the impossible possible that show what is truly attractive about technology?)

b' .fJZf,j'rrO)MM!,* t p 'J to) Ii, C' ~ id: p z t ~ i1JII§': T 0 t z_: is I:;Ii;,

00

(Those technologies that make the impossible possible show what is truly attractive about technology.)

t'-::>t.;:t't!.h iJ' (f~ l i:'J ~A.,i!,)

c. -i*§lW'Z_: O)J:: 'J id:}J\\\~id:,IG"~&U:~IliJT -'5 tE6? tr,

(Who in the world would agree with such a radical ideology?)

c' ruH;:O)J::'Jid:}J\\\~id:JG\;m':~IliJL,id:Po

(Nobody would agree with such a radical ideology.)

Note that the endings of RQ sentences usually take one of five forms, as shown below. (ii) can be interpreted either as a RQ or a self-directed question meaning "I wonder if -."

(i) ~ (id:P) 1 (0)) c'Ii I (Iv) ~~ 11 id:P 1;Ii;, I] i-ttlv I 7J' Ex. ?irh lP -'5 (0)) c'Ii 1 id:P I ;Ii;, I] i-ttlv I iJ'o ffi-::>lP-'5 (Iv) ~ ~ 1 id:P 1;Ii;, I] i-ttlv I iJ'o (Isn't it the case that he knows it?)


ffi G id: P (0)) c'Ii 1 id: P I ;Ii;, I] i -tt Iv I iJ' 0 ffiGid:p(Iv)~~Iid:p/;Ii;,l]i-ttlvliJ'o (Isn't it the case that he doesn't know it?)

(ii) ~ ( id: p) 1 0) I Iv I 1 tc: is 'J I c' L, J: 'J I iJ'

Ex. ?ilhlP-'5 10) I Iv 11 tc:iS 'J IC'L, J: 'J I iJ'o

(I doubt that he knows it (lit, Could it be the case that he knows it?»

ffi G id: P 1 0) I Iv I 1 tc: is 'J I C' L, J: 'J I iJ' 0

(I believe that he knows it (lit, Could it be the case that he doesn't know it")

(iii) ~ (id: p) 1 0) C' Ii I Iv ~ ~ I id: P 1 tc: is 'J I C' L, J: 'J I iJ'

Ex. ffi-::>lP-'5o)C'Iiid:P 1 tc:iS 'J Ic'L, J: 'J I iJ'o ?irh l P -'5 Iv ~ ~ id: P 1 tc: is 'J I C' L, J: 'J I iJ'o

(I believe he knows it (lit, Isn't it the case that he knows it?»

?io G id:PO)c'Iiid:P 1 tc: is 'J / » L, J: 'J I iJ'o

ffi G id: P Iv ~ ~ id: P 1 tc: is 'J I C' L, J: 'J I iJ' 0

(I believe that he doesn't know it (lit, Isn't it the case that he doesn't know it")

(iv) ~lc/-::>lll~'J/~vid:pI10)(c'T)IIvC'TliJ' ~lc/-::>ll j,1S('J/JG"vid:pI10)(C'T)IIvC'TliJ>

Ex. ?iO-::>lP-'5 c~'J 0) C'T iJ'o ?iO-::>lP-'5-::>l~'Jo)iJ'o

(I bet he doesn't know it. (lit., Are you (really) saying I Would you say that he knows it")

"

Jf.GfiJ' L, \ \ t ,\!1,vid:\ \O)iJ'o

(Shame on you! (lit., Don't you feel ashamed")

(v) (Wh-word)~ 1 0) (C'T) I Iv C'T I iJ'

Ex. ffi-::>lP-'5O) (c'T) iJ'o

(I bet he doesn't know it. (lit., Does he (really) know it")

['J L,l?iOGid:PO)iJ'o

(You should know it (lit., Why don't you know it?»



5. Metaphors in Japanese

d. ;(7)~iito tl ~ 1u0)J:: ? t;3o (His face is like the moon.)

e. fAt::iJii'E)I.--'E'Y r;;.t;:~\t;;·o (We are like guinea pigs.)

Seto (1995) used a triangle to classify five major types of metaphor, as shown below.

ot'Tl'7.I'A..(tt'

(1) Analogy (~:f1t~1*)

J)l( I<}l

A Simile (j[~)

t'A-1<]>

B. Metaphor (~~~)

t'A.li)J

B. Metaphor (~~~)

X is likened to Y using the pattern "X wa Y da" (X is Y).

~' tA.. '/),

C. Personification (mtA it)

1),0)1.::): ~:A.~d

(2) a. :flt~CiAlf:;t;3o

(She is a doll.)

i:JA-l:t-::>n'/dt1'

(3) Contiguity (~li~1*)

7J'AI;1>

E. Metonymy (~~)

L:/vttt' t::J.1

b. A1:Ci1Hd;;'o

(Life is a journey.)

c. ;li,(7)~Ci"lft;3o

(That man is a snake.)

t..H;j:-j;'pA..ltl'

(2) Inclusion (~~~1*)

-rv- I<}l

D. Synecdoche (m~)

The triangle shows that these five figures of speech are defined by three types of relationships between two objects, X and Y: (1) Analogy, (2) Inclusion and (3) Contiguity. A list of the three types, their metaphorical categories and the respective examples are provided below.

"n

d. 1St (7) ~J! Ci to tl <'E Iu t;3 0

(His face is the moon.)

e. fAt::iJCi'E)I.--'E 'Y rt;3o (We are guinea pigs.)

'If tA. tJ'

C. Personification (mtA it)

X isn't human, but is likened to a person or a part of the human body.

X is perceived to be similar to Y, although X and Y don't show any outward similarity.

X is likened to Y using the pattern "X wa Y no vode" or "X wa Y mitaida" (X is like Y).

..,

(3) a. J\'71iJ;;li,;d:td:m~\l~\.Qo

(Hawaii is beckoning (lit., inviting) you.)

t 15'

b. v-:tbl')iJ;)!\(7)*<:.t:>mii~L,n\.Qo

(Sunflowers are bowing in the wind.)

l;.t( I<}l

A. Simile (j[~)

i)'(J)tJ: l:A¥H

(1) a. 1St3(iitoAIDO)J::? t;;·o

(She is like a doll.)

tA.-1±t' t:.rY

b. A1:ii1if(o)J::? t;;·o

(Life is like a journey.)

c. ;li,(7)~ii"lf;;.t;:~\t;;·o (That man is like a snake.)

'\l

c. Ji\iJ;~IJ$; .. ::>t;:o

(The storm passed. (lit., The stormy wind ran away.))

d. =: (7)*iij[;~t;;·;ld.o (This tree is healthy.)

.:. 1Ql~ t

e. 'J\~iJl.-::>l~\.Qo

(The small flakes of snow are dancing.)



')0. ~l

f. 2: O):tJLO)D!Il/i~~Po

(The legs of this table are weak.)

I)A-tt-::;>/pA,ltl'

(3) Contiguity (~liOO1*)

".

g. 2: O)*/i}J::1I1.- t oj f':o

(This house looks kind to people.)

h. 2: o)~7.l'lvO)C1 /i/j\ ~ T ~~ Q id:o

(The mouth of this kettle is a bit too small.)

1J';"_ ~

E. Metonymy (~~)

Y of "X no Y" is omitted because X is closely related to or is part ofY.

(6) a. i1U~]f!(0)511-t);6IJ{/7ld:o

(The bicycle had a flat tire. (lit., The bicycle was punctured.))

t..:"'I;J:"j7J'Jdtt,

(2) Inclusion (1*.1"22001*)

~ ,b-:>c:?

b. ,{!>fJ'!v(O)to~);6IY1l!JiL-lPQo

(The (hot water in the) kettle is boiling.)

c. 1:::"7"./ (O){f) ;61 I'm 2: ;t l < Q 0

(I can hear the (sound of the) piano.)

"It,i';tl

D. Synecdoche (t:ll!~)

A specific example describes an entire category of nouns, as in (4), or a general category term is used to mean a specific example within that category, as in (5).

•

d. J!t l'CI- '.J '7 (0)1}(.) ;6111'H t::.o

(The wind extinguished the (flame of the) candle.)

e. ~-'Y7")I;" (O){f*) ~I'm < o);6I~H t.:o

(I like to listen to (the music of) Mozart.)

L~?t-:J ?.i OJ =-)x.A- lito: h

(4) a. ~*/i_t!f!T~IiII::1'EJj\/::rr-::>l~t::.o

(I went to Ueno Park for flower viewing (= cherry blossom viewing).)

«Al::-) m :

b. ~B to#~I:::~-C'm'I~;RblP~ iTo

(Every day I bring a boiled egg (= chicken egg) for lunch.)

c. "I){i~ i rHf~ J.::; ~ id:plvt.: .10

(I don't like chicken (lit., bird) so much, y'know.)

(5) a. A./i/'\/t':(tl'1:.~ QO)-C'/iid:p,

(Man doesn't live by bread (= food in general) alone.)

ItA 1j:A,

b. aSll':"'~/ifPJ*;6' G l'T;6'o

(What time is dinner (lit., cooked rice)?)

Note that hana in (4a), tamago in (4b) and tori in (4c) describe the general categories of flowers, eggs and birds, but they are used to mean specific examples, i.e., cherry-blossoms, a chicken egg and chicken, respectively. Note, however, that pan (bread) in (5a) and gohan (cooked rice) in (5b) are examples of food and a meal, respectively, and are used to indicate the general category of food.

ut,;/J';s.!n ~ ~-:J

f. ~ 0) '5 H_tJ~~f (O)/Nll) ~ 2 fIltJh t::.o

(Yesterday I bought two (novels by) Murakami Haruki(s).)

The above examples of metonymy appear to be the result of the deletion of Y in "X no Y" (i.e., the nouns in parentheses). Metonymy is used only when the speaker gives more semantic saliency to X than Y.

All humans, it seems, have metaphorizing competence. In other words, they are all capable of perceiving analogy, inclusion and contiguity. The surface forms, that is, the phonetic shapes, are different from language to language, but as one notices in the examples above, Japanese metaphors frequently translate directly into English.

(7) is a list of some of the metaphorical idioms that are common to Japanese and English. There is always a possibility that Japanese borrowed the expressions from English or vice versa, but as far as we know, there is no evidence that they were the result of borrowing. Even if there is borrowing, it simply shows that any language has linguistic soil that is fertile for such metaphors from outside.

Me, -t~

(7) *1::ntIHt:<·· (addfueltothefire)

~tl I;t~

>l1§0) .1 '5 /:::tIt G;6' (as smooth as silk)

ItJ;l7

~ i:: 1Jl(;Jjt;61-j} '5 (be on the same wavelength)

!> '::8

lIll;6l~ Q (blood freezes)


«

- c:;;; >a:- "F ;:, T (bring the curtain down on -)

~tdi

!3 5t0)1j:>a:-~ '5 (can't believe one's ears)

-1= § >a:--:JS.@ (close one's eyes to «) ~Jj.@ li-I= I±\.@ (come to light)

::l: If si!

-O)El~I=~fij G ~ n.@ (dance to someone's tune)

i<PUl'?I£'A.

1~~*i!J;(P ~ tn) (don't lift a finger)

l'-:>-ttA.,

~~ >a:- 51 < (draw aJthe line)

c "t'

§ iJ'mLf'l±\.@ Ii ~ (eyes pop out (of one's head»

,,~

'A >a:- '5 /;!).@ (fill some (of the) holes)

tl''''

ml=S-:JiJ'.@ (hit (up against) theta wall)

~l'.J.. Dt L::¥

M:f!iO)*1l:H§!.@ (hold the purse strings)

t: "'5i;t, L-

.f-~ Hi'i!/;!).@ (keep a tight rein on -)

-I=.f->a:-~T (Iend a hand to+-)

-I=1j:>a:-~T (lend one's ears to »)

IJ.I(;

71< i:: nil 0) ~ '5 t:c_ (like oil and water)

t.t;;'7J'~

1BV~\>a:- iLL.@ (make waves)

-O)Ji:l:>a:-OO < (open the way for+-)

't't

~'.@ 1=71<>a:-B: (' (like water through a sieve)

(From Makino/Oka (Forthcoming))

Oka (2004) has shown that the frequency of metaphor use becomes higher as the learner's oral proficiency level goes up. For learners of Japanese, this suggests they should use metaphorical expressions as much as possible when they speak or write Japanese and pay special attention to metaphors when they read Japanese writings. As with Japanese onomatopoeia, the use of idiomatic metaphors makes communication more effective and often more creative.


6. Number Marking

Unlike Indo-European languages, Japanese does not have grammar rules requiring countable nouns to indicate number, such as "-s" or "a" in English. Thus, we cannot tell, for example, how many frogs jumped into the old pond in the haiku composed by the famous haiku poet, Matsuo Basho, which reads Furuike ya kawazu tobikomu mizu no oto Ct*J¥lli-'? !Il:Emlfi2;u 71< O){!f). Probably 99% of Japanese people would say one, but English translations are split between a frog and frogs: "The ancient pond / A frog leaps in/The sound of water" (Donald Keene), or "Old pond-frogs jumped in -sound of water" (Lafcadio Hearn). The choice isn't grammatical, but aesthetic. In daily conversation, the situation is the same. Marking a noun with regard to number is always optional in Japanese. But, as listed, by Martin (1975: 143-54), there are at least six ways to indicate plurality, as in (la-f) .

(1) a. Repetition of Nouns

OI:U!: {>i.<?i t. a r s l';Zl'x.

1\4 (people), w4 (mountains), /!ih4 (islands), ,*4 (houses),

~ ¥ 3tt!.?<J! h-tth-lt tJ'7;!.7N;. li/_tlft"

*4 (trees), f~4 (branches), !2:i4 (stores), 1$4 (deities), (FA

o [J J;: J;: t':t'1':l' t!:>tt:>

(flowers), B 4 (days), tt4 (f'\;4) (generations), II!J 4 (towns)

b. Suffixing -t:::.'0:

:: ct

~O)'J-t:::.'0 (boys), 'J-l;!c!it:::.'0 (children), Cjt~t:::.'0

E'd L il' C-?

(students), ~gflit:: '0 (teachers), fM:::. '0 (we), 1JDlli (~

-G[~l:

Iu) t: '0 (Kato and his group)

'-n

'J-l;!c!iG (children),fLG (we),1JJiG (they), 2::P-:JG

(these guys), 2::nG (these)

st::

-~ 'b[~l: 1"1 ~ t (guys), JlL~ t (demons), *~ t (dogs), fL~ t

(we)

nIt::. -ttAlit'i.l1t.: h(~ii.llt-=

-1J: 1G~1J (teachers), 1G¥1J (seniors), :to~f*1J

(customers)

c. Chinese Prefixes

t: to: J/,.A., 7J' t: hA.'f!< t: IJ:-?~;'_

~- : ~)(1~ (many cultures), ~£l.':1iJ€ (many races), ~1JUif

t::.lfA. ::'

(many directions), ~Elfjg (multiple languages)

l,J;; LJ:J/,.? 7J' L;:tJ!(tA-

ifIi-: ifIi%JfIffi (various prices), ifliCjtr,,~ (various branches of

L.Hi"l' 1::.0 LJo t td

learning), iflilliUIlt (various systems), ifIi$'M1f (various

LJ:7J>0/:''j LJ: IJ ;SA-

circumstances), ifliffii!J (various activities), ifIi:E!l!iliiii

lJ:t!.t'l'lt( LJ:-I!t'

(various theories), ifIi:;kCjt (various universities), ifliJ& C?

}ii; (various political parties)


d. Noun-Modifying Phrases

~ tift

PiS P is Id:A (various people), ~--7Id:~;t (all sorts of ideas), t:

ss-tft, iJ'A,=?~~< n"(;II'"9

< ~ A.,~f!A (a lot offish), *~~W!7t~ (many tourists), Wx: --7 ~

=?~t k<~? I±A~A,

W*'! (innumerable contributions), tl!Wx:~3I.lA (more than one

criminal)

e. Verbal/Adjectival Predicates

~;j:.@ /~~.@ (gather), t::.<l:riSTQ ((people) gather, get

!> iJ't.:.

together), 1!& Q /1!& tj T (scatter), 1t-5 < / 1t-5 (t.@ (be put in

iJ'i" ss

order / put S.t. in order), (Wx:) ~ P (many), torJtd.:c G P (a large

'/J'f! t

number of), Wx:;t W;h Id: P (countless)

f. Quantifier Expressions '(><

B*~,'l~"jtj:;b1i%J100APQo (There are about 100 students of

Japanese.)

c Ll't

tJ.f .ij.;bI1i.tTI;\) Q 0 (There are five mice.)

'-0

*~ 1i.fflTYl: ~ t::.o (I bought five books.)

t'AUt ::. J;.t.:

-=.tTI;~1"~ (three little pigs)

The examples of noun repetition are restricted almost entirely to those listed in (la). There are also restrictions regarding the use of the SinoJapanese prefix plural markers in (Ic). For the prefix te- (~) there are more examples such as teio (~'M1f) "Iit., many sentiments," tasai (~::t) "Iit., many talents" and tagei (~*) "Iit., many arts," but all these are usually used as the stem of na-adjectives meaning "passionate," "multi-talented" and "versatile," respectively.

The verbal and adjectival predicates in (l e) imply that the subject or direct object is plural, as shown in (2).

1,<

(2) a. l~(iW'f-~~(\f)n'.Qo

(I am collecting stamps.)

s (~ "I)

b. ;fk~1E;bIIii(~ l G;j: -::d::.o

(The cherry blossoms have already scattered.)

l:dll? ;lrf 7J'f! t

c. 'M1f~1j-1 r ~Wx:(itl!.:tW;hId:Po

(The number of information sites is countless.)

d. lY1l5!il~ Gld:p*"jtj:;bl~~'o

(Many college students don't study.)

r '>'EGAL .roncs tNADVANClliHAeANR'ffi GRAMMAR 149J

I,· Th' noon-moMying phrases in (ld) ><1'0 imply that the subject is plural, as

. shown in (3).

::,?~A, ~

(3) a. j}1II(=(i~';:'~';:'Id:1E;bI~P-CPt::.o

(In the park, all sorts of flowers were in bloom.)

('It ::.t' S~

b. .:c ~¥l!l(= (if::. < .~ A..(7)~!I!;bI¥.ik\ ) -c'\ ) t::.o

(In the pond, a lot of carp were swimming.)

c'<: tift '(> t ::"c

c. ;:~~if-, ~kld:,t*~;bl~~ t::.o

(In the past year, all kinds of incidents occurred.)

Number can also be indicated with suffixes, as shown in (lb). The examples in (4) are cases where the plural marker -tectii must be used if the speaker wants to express plurality. Note that in such cases, the ~lement that takes -techi is either a proper name, as in (4a), or a pronoun, as m (4b-e). In (4), the suffix always means a "person and his/her group."

-'?i t.:!.

(4) a. wB3 ~ A.,t.:'5;bI§;p(=*t::.o

(Yamada and his friends came to see me.)

b. fU.:'5(i!l!l'''::_:L -:3 -7 (=tr-::d::.o (We went to New York City by car.)

ip(J)lJ:

c. 1EZftt.:'5(ii'!]J..:;v7 r7/'-c'1t1Jp-CPQo

(Those women work in the same restaurant.)

~h t'~LJ:_ !It

d. 1EZt.:'5(iP--:J'6~,f\'I'i(=~~~tro

(They always drink together.)

e. ;Ii; Id: t::.t.: '5 (i~(i C' '5 T Q a>;

(What will you all be doing this summer?)

Kurafuji (2004) noted that there are cases where -techi cannot be attached to a noun, as shown in (5).

7.l'htc Lit r: ~d L

(5) a. }l1*!::~B3(i*"jt~~$ijj (*t::.-t,) t.:co

(Kawamoto and Shibata are college professors.)

ii'll -= c't,

b. 1EZ(=(i1"l:lt (*t::.-t,) ;bl;li; Qo

(He has a child / children.)

Except in the above cases, the attachment of the suffix -techi is optional. Its use is less appropriate when talking about animals; however, the plural marker can be attached to practically any noun if the speaker/writer feels close to whatever is expressed by the noun. (For details, see Makino (2007: 109-130).)


Another suffix, the plural marker -ra can be used interchangeably with -tachi, and, like -tachi, it cannot be used in the examples in (5). But in colloquial speech, -tachi tends to be used more frequently. Either -ra or -tachi may be preferred with certain personal pronouns, as shown in (6)-(8), or demonstrative pronouns, as in (9).

(Note: "A>B" indicates that A is used more frequently than B, and "A»B" indicates that A is used far more frequently than B.)

(6) a. vt.: L, 1 t.:"5» 6 f lifriIMaGiJ:il''':)t.:o (We didn't know anything about it.)

str

b. V L, 16» t.:"5 f liiJl!i;bl:kftH «.

(We love sake.)

i""?¥d{!t'

c. vt.:< L, 1 t.:"5» ??6 f li:':O):k"jtOY?f:~~L'To

(We are alumni of this college. / We graduated from this college.)

"'t' h L>1> fg' L",

d. vtLI6 /*t.:"5 f li¥-fO±~1llt2:o

(We are pacifists.)

(7) a. «, iJ: i: 1 t.:"5 > 6 f Ii E z ;b' G 31U.: 0) 0 (Where did you come from?)

b. «, Ad.: 1 6 » t.:"5 f Ii:.: :.: L'friI VC /v 0)0 (What are you up to here?)

"n

(8) a. 1Jj{ 16» t.:"5 Hi~R1Tffiilt2:o

(They are bankers.)

rJ'{J)C-t

b. 1Jj{:9," 1 t.:"5 > 6 f liJ:: < f±.:a-T~o

(They work very hard.)

-t(

(9) a. z tLl 6/ *t.:"5 f liT"'-CfftLHJf~t2:o

(These are all (examples of) excellent research studies.)

ffJvt-:Jl~

b. -ttLj 6 /*t.:"5 f lim~l¥JiJ:rp'Jmt2:o

(Those are realistic problems.)

1fA £;

c. «,tLl 6 /*t.:"5 f Ii 3:::$ 7 1'7:/" /L'To

(Those are all fiction.)

Finally, the plural suffix -domo has its unique usages. For one, it indicates the speaker's humbleness when used with the first person pronoun, as shown in (10).

r


ht~( L :: s s»:

(10) a. f1. E 't li:$'G~O) :':'JlliJ'i'N Bf~ l;;"I::: V( tal) ;t To

(We (lit., I and my in-group members) are looking forward to your lecture.)

hI:: (L fl' < 'I; !J ~ 'n)' < -ttl'

b. f1. E't O):k"jtl::: litltWO):f§.Jt!J;b' t:, W"jt~;bl*-C to I) ;t To

(Students are coming from all over the world to study at our university. )

ht~<l ~l?(~£" LdOA itA, 1)' I±Alit'

c. f1. E'tO)J2.iL'Iito~f*I:::3n.I:::A -:J -ct ,t.:1= It ~ il"fi,'ij', HfHilliL'l!&3'll L,

-cto I) iTo

(Our store sells (selected) merchandise at low prices to please our customers.)

The second and the third person pronouns and the demonstrative pronouns cannot be used with -domo, as shown in (11)-(13), respectively.

(11) a. «,iJ:t.: 1 t.:"5 / 6 /*c''t f liE :':;b'G*t.:O)o (= (7a))

b. «'/vt.: 16 /t.:"5 /*E't f Ii:.: :':l."friIl-C/vo)o (= (7b)) (12) a.1Jj{16/t.:"5/*E'tfli~1Tffi.!t=o (=(8a))

b. 1Jj{:9," 1 t.:"5 / 6 /-e« f liJ:: < f±*:a-T~o (= (8b))

(13) a. UL 16 /*t.:"5 /*c''t f liT"'-CfftLHJf~t2:o (= (9a))

b. -ttLI6/*t.:"5/*c·'tflim~l¥JiJ:rp'Jmt=o (=(9b))

c. «,tLl 6 /*t.:"5 /*E't f li3:::$7 1'7:/" /L'To (= (9c))

It is interesting that -domo can also be used to indicate that the speaker is looking down on people or, more frequently, on animals, as shown in the following examples.

t'-:>t.:;t' -ttt, t fI'

(14) a. ~f*:':O)OOO)I&1El*E'tlifriI:a-L,J::,)!::L,-CP~o);b'o

(What in the world are the politicians of this country up to?)

hf.pt,O) Itt' .:

b. ~E ~ O)if1llE't li~;mHIl G iJ:po

(Young people these days don't know how to use polite expressions. )

c. IliJifiO)7<:E't;bl,) ~ ~ < -Cf±11;bliJ:po

(The dogs in our neighborhood are unbearably noisy.)

Among the three plural suffixes, -tachi is the most widely and frequently used and -re is next. The use of -domo is limited.

A DICTIONARY OF ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(Main Entries)

T I

aete

3

aete il6;t"t

adv.

an adverb that expresses the speaker's/ writer's desire or will to dare to do s.t. in spite of difficulty, danger or opposition

daringly; boldly; dare to -; venture to -; force oneself to

[REL. omoikitte; shiite]

• Key Sentences (A)

J:;JjJ:') (j:}d:c' OJ
ilIHHt ;Ii,;tl" t±*(=Rx;j"J@:JH·;m/'(t~o
(The department head boldly expressed his opposing view directly to the
company president.) (B)

Vmasu
;fb1;l: ;t;tl" *iJl"/J' ~ id:~jf~~tj!!jj~ JL"t t=\\ t: ,'Gt '5 o
(I would like to take on a large-scale research proposal.) (C)

Vvol
~ "A- l' g c~
;t;tl" 7\:;:i:O)J'!!l.~(=~~~P§l;t l" JJJ:5 t:,'Gt '5 0
(I think 1 will try to oppose my professor's theory.) (D)

Vcond
~ 1.:1'1 C?7JA.
;Ii,;tl" ~;t (:f ;Ii, id:bf)"/f;;t lifJLJ:O)~fmid::o
(If 1 dare to say so, your idea is an unrealistic, ivory tower theory.) (E)

Vneg
'" tiAJ:t'
:i!O)Ej'5 z t: 1= ;Ii,;tT Rx;j"li L., id:\\ J:o
(I don't dare oppose what you're saying.) r

4 aete

aete 5

.;";11611,.11.

(i) C' 'E, P P;: t liiJ' I) C' 'E, 7d: iJL::d~C'To iI!> it -r~E3"P i -It lviJl, P"? 7d:;: t 'E, i: < ~ Iv iI!> I) i G tc ;

(Not everything went well. I won't venture to say now what, but there were many unpleasant things.)

il!>it-rv

j;l:A.t-:l'

iI!> it -r BZx-fT G (s.o. dares to disagree)

.;';;IIUI;.

.~mi;.

t!.i 't:.1v t :: Loo>t:d~

(a) 7 _)( I) j)C'I::l:l1!t\-:>-rPG tt!:ii-TGO)C', fbl::l:B;$:At G-ril!>it -r§D±'*

i- T G ;: t 1= G -r P G 0

(In the U.S., if I keep silent I lose out, so as a Japanese, I'm making a point of asserting myself.)

1. Aete is an adverb with which the speaker/writer expresses hislher desire or will to do something daringly, in spite of the fact that he or she is aware of the difficulty, danger or opposition in executing it.

2. The person who dares to do something has to be a person one is very familiar with, including the speaker/writer himselflherself. For example, in (1) watashi and chichi are acceptable, but ana tsckonin is not, because the speaker/writer is not on familiar terms with a passerby.

1,' I.'A:;';'I.' '!fA!.::'"').t t.r1/)\ LA. ~ 1.:( -Ct'i~)/;,

(b) ~~~O)JfIRlH1jlGo)l::l:BGPtiHal)-:J-:J'E" il!>it -r*Jf,j~MilJ0)8tl!l!iH!l!~

Gt~o

(Although I knew that it was hard to get approval from the committee, I dared to propose a brand new plan.)

~dJ'LA-::>,,) ht.:

(1) 1,1/ 5t / ??~O)lI~T.A. f 1::l:$;lfr'%t~ -:> t~o)l= if:d. l~H!h iz ;

( 1 1/ My father / ??The passerby f boldly crossed the street, even though the signal was red.)

[Related Expressions]

lJ'h l)dlA... [;!J>~~J: 'II' ~l"il.'(

(c) 1B{O)jjIIj~iJl iI!> it -rl1JiS Hr it i: 0) i::l:1B{O)i]&W i-~ it t~_l C' iI!> -:> t~o

(It was after his parents thought about his education that they made the bold move to change their residence.)

"itA-Lit' D

(d) Jll.\Ptl::l:}l!/,P-:J-:J'E" il!>it-r7t¥O):}~i-tiJl/li)t~G, "?-:>lil)-'CtL£)'i~, -'C

O)7t¥IHbtDi-~;6'7d:< 7d:-:>t~o

(While I knew I shouldn't have done so, I ventured to criticize my senior partner's wrongdoings. And, sure enough, he's stopped talking to me since.)

I. Omoikitte, which means "to do S.t. hard to do with strong determination," is similar in meaning to aete. The crucial difference, however, is that aete is used when one dares to do something that runs contrary to common sense in spite of difficulty, danger or opposition, but omoikitte is used when one resolutely does something which is difficult to do. So in KS(A)-(D) and Exs.(a)-(h) aete can be replaced by omoikitte, but with a slight change in nuance; that is, the aete versions don't imply strong determination, but the omoikitte versions do. As shown in [1] below, aete in KS(E) and Ex.(i) cannot be replaced by omoikitte, because the latter can be used only with an affirmative predicate.

~"

(e) fbl::l:iI!> it -rAtl::l:;'~ht~~i-Jltl;.t~PU!.\-:>-rPGo

(I'm thinking of daring to follow a path different from others.)

ttil; MtJt C 0-)

(f) a~l{;O)imtLi= iI!> it -r:t)\;to '5 t Ud\ 1JEjji=~h -:> tc;

(I dared to resist the flow of the times, but it was all in vain.)

[1] a. :g0)E3"'5;: Ci= l~;;t r /*,I!J~\tJhl f BZx-fl::l: G7d:PJ::o (= KS(E))

b. -C'E, P P ;: t Ii iJ' I) C' 'E, 7d: iJ' -> t: C'T 0 1 ~;;t l / *~, ~ \tJh l f ~E3" pi-ltlviJ', P"?7d:;:t'E,t~< ~lvil!>l)iGt~o (=Ex.(i))

(1)?~l< !>dLJ: 06

(g) il!>o)~l::l:l'I~:tJiJl7d:PlttLc, il!>it-rNJiJfi-¥.Uli, AO)J::~t~;S'5o

(That man has no talent, but if I force myself to single out his strong point, it would be his fine personality.)

-ttl.' tOe::/':: D liA Ii rr-> ::')c<-5

(h) iI!> it -r B ;$:O)i&1Eli-~E3"C'.fJt¥UT G t, ~~mO)fTiIJ t P '5 ;: t 1= 7d: G t~;S '50

(If I ventured to find fault with current Japanese politics, it would be to criticize the behavior of factions.)

There are also cases in which only omoikitte can be used, as in [2], because aete is used when one does something that runs counter to common sense, whereas omoikitte is used when one does something difficult to do, regardless of whether it is common sense or not. It is quite natural for a person to speak in English with an American as in [2a] or to talk to a girl as in [2b].

6 aete

[2] a. Ll!!,~ 'lW?""( 1*<I5;t ""( 17 _;< I) ;/] Ai::~~i!il"1li5l.., L" l!.t.: G, it.:: t.:O)

oh

l'i::L"t~il..,;!)'?t.:o

(I ventured to talk with an American in English and, because he understood, I was very happy.)

;Q'o)lJ; :hG

b. Ll!!,~'lW?""( 1*<I5;t""(I11llyplf>3:iJ,(tt.:G, f:?::::IJi::~?L"<n

t.:AJ:'o

(When I ventured to talk to her, she gave me a big smile!)

II. Another adverb with similar meaning is shiite, the V te of the verb shiiru "force s.o, to do s.t." Shiite is used to mean "to force oneself to do s.t." The crucial difference between the two is aete implies that an action may be met with opposition, danger, etc., but shiite doesn't have such an implication.

, L

[3] a. c:i:J GO)~O)1JiJlPPiJ'I;;!:E3Pf: < p(tnE, j ~~'""( 1??<I5;t""( 1

E3 ;,Ui, z o).Jc-fj': . .I'J. O)1Jt::'o

(It is hard for me to say which painting is better, but, if I have to choose one, I would say this Cezanne.)

L. "

b. :::: n i:: E3? L"fj;lji('*I;;!:;d: plv l"TiJl, 15~~ '""( 1??<I5;t ""( 1 E3;t Ii, {f

7l'A-LH

*1.i1tl'TiJ';/Jo

(I don't have any particular hobby, but, if you pressed me, I could say music appreciation.)

Conversely, in a context where choice doesn't exist, the use of shiite becomes marginal.

1.l't1, L ~ ItA- S7J' -t±A-~l?

[4] a. 11ll1;;!: j <I5;t ""( 1 ?~~'""( 1 ffi~>3: '& t. L" 1 '7 7 O)lIij;j:~I:l±\iJ' It L";(T?

tc;

(He went to the war zone in Iraq at great risk.)

7J'o)CJ; l)dLA ~tAt..:l' t:; ?!: 7l'n It"?':A

b.11llYI;;!: j <I5;t ""( 1 ??5~~ ,""( 1 jjIjj*Ji\O)}XXH:;ffil GtJJ? L"11ll i:: *5!&? t. tc.o

(She dared to oppose her parents and married him.)

ageku (ni)

7

ageku (ni) ilHf < U:)

adv. / con}.

in the end; finally; eventually; after

[REL. ue de; sue (ni); kekkal

an adverb/conjunction indicating that one spends an extended period of time before reaching a result


Vinf.past
LAn~<
~1v~1v ~;tt;:_ ;i)If'< 0:) :*CjtIl]'GA..J.!f',CjtT G :::: i:: I: L tz ;
(After thinking for a long time, I decided to go on to graduate school.) (B)

Vinf.past Noun
iJ'IJ)CJ; I') ::J,.. "f-5b.A. "" (t0t!'A_
11llyO)iIlIt!&?I;;!:~ij'. too A.. t.=' ;i) If' < 0) 5~~ t:.?tc.o
(Her divorce was a decision she made after agonizing for several years.) .«.1;;'6ht.II_

(i) Vinf.past e If' < (1:)

1li5 G t.:;i) If < 0:) (after s.o, talked) (ii) Vinf.past e If' < 0) N

tt"7t!.f,._

~;t t.:;i) If < O);lj(['jiJf (a decision made after deliberation)

.@",;;".I,;-

to:-'V' i;ll'L J; -::Jc. '\0

(a) fbi;;!: ~ Iv ~'lv'I"iSA.J::';i) If' < 1:~tm:1ii!J/;I)L"ptc.~f±>3:3¥/;I)tc.o

(I quit the company where I first worked after thinking very hard (about what to do).)

i.J'tl e c rZt, tJ;{!t'

(b) 11ll1;;!: 7:; 7, 3 -]:1 ") J~, ~t*;d: E p I', pI', ;d:~O)yt1i:: ":n'g it? bb If' <

It-::>~J;< ldtJ1t'c'( LA- 1""

1:, *8mil;;!:"ij!I~!R!tl"J&I::::" UC.o

(He dated women from various countries in Asia, Europe and North America, but in the end he spent his entire life single.)

8 ageku (ni)

-:::Ji <"':J !:J;:

(c) ~r;;tiV<1)1(ijt;blpp, 2:: <1)1(ijt;blpp,!::, PiSPiS'!::Jlipl,ij.t~iVrf'< 1::, en

t~:bfr::!i5;[-I:I'd~o

(Saying "I like this one" or "I like that one," my wife tried on all sorts of shoes, but after all that, she left the store without buying any of them.)

-,\,;1; t: '/)'7.. n r- Ol::::.C

(d) LlJEI3r;;tfL<1)!j[;[-~;b'Fl tf9!-::d~iVlf'<, ~Ta<f:totL<1)~§t§:btJ:;b'-::>t~o

(After using my car for a whole month, Yamada didn't say even a word of thanks when he returned it.)

'1 J: h'l[,~< ~~'it;;<

(e) ~ Iv ~- Ivlzb t: iV If' <, ~ipf*lf;l\l G l7 _;i I) :fJ l::i/"jtT -'52:: ,!:: r:: G tc;

(After weighing my options for a long time, I finally decided to take a one-year leave from my company to study abroad in the U.S.)

i.l'I[)t:J:. ~:.A- t':A.-t!t, ;:t' Sft t_:A.{f"t' t!.t' ti;

(f) fE{ftr;;tWC~<1)J~'Hi'!:: <1))'J.~r::l~nt~ MY < r::, § 5t<1)A~ ;[-;§l'1!tIi G r:: G l G i-::>

t~o

(After falling in love with a married man, her own life was in ruins.)

H

(g) /::'<1)7'" t- 1::';[-~:to -5;b' ,!::~-::> i: iV If' <, fPJ t ~:bfr::~ih l G i -::> tz;

(I couldn't decide which television I should buy, so (in the end) I went home without buying any.)

'iJ'h t.:~? t;r.'i.>

(h) fE{;b1 §*~ G t~ <1) ru: < J: < '1M/,ij.!Q P i: iV If' < <1) 2:: ,!:: t::. -::> t~<1)-C' iV is -5 0

(It must have been after really agonizing that he committed suicide.)

tt IJl') 1.::-?0( I_'; L lilt' !f.fv2? itt':tlA,I)I? rJ

(i) 1!tIifl<1);f.,) r-lT-r:;q::r;;t, -H&-;m 1:: tt)ilT, ail, C~i5i1l=~, ~ipFlB, iV

Ii n{<h~ :tlA.LI!I? :.-)1tt' ~t~i:: CAl;d!l? J:-')h'i

1f'< <1)51H 1:: r;;t"jtlM, ipJI1L ,*~ffiJllX:tJ:e, i*-'?tJ:fllIDNIf1f¥ltH:l!*Gl<-'5

t <1);bliV Go

(There are some free Internet services that require at the time of registration your address, name, telephone number, date of birth, and at the end, all sorts of personal information such as educational background, annual income and family size, etc.)

.¢mt;_

1. Ageku (ni) indicates that one spends an extended period of time before reaching some result. The verb preceding ageku (ni} has to be a Vinf.past, Notice that the entire verb phrase Vinf.past ageku (ni) usually represents something troubling, as shown in the KS and Exs. The following unacceptable sentences prove this point.

ageku (ni} 9

~h !.::t~~

(1) *fE{r;;t3~rs'('GPtlZll'!::7'"'::A;[-~Glvt::'ili)'t'< ((:), ,*t::!Jw-::>t~o

(After enjoying tennis with his friend, he went home.)

cf. fE{ r;;t 3 ~rs~ (' G P tlZll'!:: 7'".:: A ;[- ~ G Iv 1 -rITl iJ' S / f':'fte -r' l , '* 1::~-::>t~o

o "

(2) * u~rs'J: < ~;tt~ili)'t'< (,:::) -, ..:c<1)I±¥BI~)'tlt-'5 2::,!:: 1:: Gt~o

(After thinking hard for one week, 1 decided to take that job.)

cf. 1 ~ 1m J: < ~ ;t 1 (' / (' iJ' S / t.:fte"C' f, ..:c <1) I± ¥ B I ~ )'t It -'5 2:: ,!:: r:: Gt~o

2. Since the ageku (ni) construction indicates two past events in sequence, it cannot be used for events in the future.

::?7;A.

(3) *PiS PiS Dffifii;[- Gt~ili)'t' < ':=Ar;;tJjUnG 2:: ,!:: I::T G t::. is -50

(After having argued a lot, the two will decide to separate.)

3. As shown in KS(B) and Ex.(h), the pre-nominal form is "Vinf.past ageku no."

4. All the uses of ageku (ni} in the KS and Exs. can be rephrased using ageku no hate ni (wa) when the eventual outcome is a rather extreme one. Note that ageku no hate ni (wa) may be used without a preceding Vinf.past, Examples follow,

tdl.tlA Ijs '?-::l [;I:

(4) a. )(1;;t:ll1:ip§5t<1)!j[;[-§5t-CM:G*J'mt~;bI, ili)'1'< (7)*(',:,;1:, ,!:: -5'!::

-5 §5t-C'!j[;[-l'h l G i -::> iz ;

(My father had been repairing his own cars for many years, and in the end he made a whole new car himself.)

cf. )(1;;t:m:ip§5t<1)!j[;[-§5t-CM:GMGltt~ili)'t'< ':, ,!:: -5'!:: -5 §5t-C'!j[ ;[-l'F-::>lGi-::>t~o

ft~-j!:' tt':: -ttt'tr:J ~~'J J;. It

b . .t- -\' '/ -1;;tJir1f~<1).~<1)~li5(::5~p~I}j(;[-M-S, ili) '1' < (7)* (' ,: ';I:~

~ SA. lA.Ll( iJ'A.'e-:J

iprs'f~II-C.~ UI1t;[-,!:: t (:: G l, ..:c <1)~li5H~~ Gt~o

(Cathy was deeply interested in how the maiko live in Kyoto, and eventually she observed their lives while living under the same roof with them for a year in Gion.)

cf. .t- -\' '/ -1;;t~if~<1).~<1)~$I::~~p~l}j(;[-t~h i: ili)'f < ':, ~iprs' ~1I-C.'fU~1t;[-t ti:: i.r. ..:c<1)~$U~~U~o

10 ageku (ni)

akumade ma 11


akurnade rno d6 < ;I:: <:.'t;

adv.

There are three related expressions: ue de, which expresses a preparatory action for a relatively important action, sue (ni), which indicates the end of a period, and kekke, the neutral expression "as a result of s.t," The following examples show similarities and differences among these synonyms.

an adverb that represents the idea of "to the utmost degree"

to the end; persistently; insist; strictly; just; under any circumstance; absolutely; never; completely; ultimately

[REL. doko made ma; saiga made]

1-x_ [t-:> iJ'

[1] a. fLli ~ Iv (~"Iv'lflglvt:: 1 ;v., t1 < t: I*t: 1*6* 1* J: -r HI'Hm:::i!JIi:J-Cp

t.:;ii;t±Htli:Jt.:o (= Ex.(a))

b. iEUi 7:; 7, :'I - t1 "} J~, ;Jc7j(:id: c:' p IS p IS id:§;J0):9.'t1 (: -:J ~il'-:,t.: 1 ;v., t1' < t: 1 *t: 1 * J: -r 1 **6* l , *5rn1 li't¥)f~!Rj:fc:)@I z: LJ.:o

(= Ex.(b))


t'156'? ~l'iLIu f:.?t!.A.

d. ~J"!IHijjljjlli\(: J: < ffi~'ir LJ.: 1 J: l' 1*6* I**t: 1 *;v., t1' < t: f 7 _j

I) iJ O)*'f'I:::A'f'T'::;' =: (: I::: LJ.:o

(After he had discussed it thoroughly with his parents, Ichiro decided to enroll in an American college.)

x_ tc L l:1±"-:::> n'
¥I;;$:.ali ib<i~C''E> §~H;f';t id:;>j'-:,t.:o
(Mr. Emoto persistently maintained (lit., didn't change) his opinion.) .:::.-7 l:'? "1-:::>

c. J: < 1ij;tt:::. 1 J:T' 1**': 1**6*I*;v.,,1'< ,: f rr!WJI:::f$Gid: ~ Po

(Put it into action after you have given it careful thought.)

(B)

<'<

e. ~.IH!i'ir51 ~ T "J -C*~ 200 _j - I, }l-JE"J t.: 1 *,: 1 * J: T' 1 **6* 1

*;v., '1' < ,: f J: '5 ~ < 11: i "J t.:o

(The train finally stopped after dragging a car about 200 meters.)

Ue de is ungrammatical in [La, b, e] because in these examples no preparatory action for an important action is expressed. Ageku (ni) and sue (ni) are ungrammatical in [I.c, d], because S2 refers to an event not yet realized. In [l d] ue de is grammatical because the first event, i.e., discussion with his parents, is a preparatory action for an important action, i.e., choosing a college. Kekka is ungrammatical in [l b, c, e] because in these sentences the second event is not a direct result of the first event In [l e], ageku ni is unacceptable because the agent of the action is not explicitly human.

=: ;flli ib<ic'E> 'J\~ c: ib "J -c C-:::>"b
~ill5c:Ltid:, '0
(lit., This is strictly fiction and not a true story.) (C)

iJ'~t.:J:. Ldl:~
1El:9.' Ii ib<ic'E> §7JI:::lEiJ[t:: "J t.:o
(She was true to herself to the end.) .;.;1111.,,;.

(¢ (no) ue de (DUG: 547-50); sue (ni) (in this volume); kekka (DUG: 121-23))

f.l'tl tJ u-> LA

(a) fLliib< iC:'E>1ElO)#'\~H§~'::;'o

(I will believe in his innocence to the end.)

7i'h ;!()vtrA. I;I;AI:-l' J::.tJ -::>-5

(b) 1Elliib < ic''E> B;;$:0)~lii!i;I:::1lZj1'iro!lHj'mt.:o

(He kept opposing Japan's entry into the war up to the end.)

(c) ib < ic'~~A c'~'::;' un O)id: G ib;t -c.f.JV;'tli Gid:, '0

(If you insist on doing it by yourself, I won't venture to assist you.)

12 akumade ma

~~~~~~ ~t'=3 ~~

(d) EZi5L1f[l;tiV < ::I:c''b:f1£tJt'Hl'Cltt::o

(The insurgent troops continued their resistance to the end.)

~"'.J..-j ~ J;. ()

(e) ;g-;6I"f '7 P'7Ji\I=iV < iC"~I5L/€'IPH§:':;:TGO)te;:: is ;1= 'b1j;t;6liVGo

(If you persistently refuse to have a discussion (with me) like that, I'll make another plan.)

7')lp tt A.

(f) 71 HtiV< iC"'b§5tO)J}~I=::t~b-::d::o

(Kate was always particular about the way she looked.)

~ 6/u ~fA1:0 1;1 L~?

(g) ~ffij[j'tiV< iC"~ffij[jc'iV-::>"C m~;6I"fO)~I)'=teGC:P'7f*lliE'tc:::'='b

te \ '0

(Theories are strictly theories; there is no guarantee that reality turns out the way they predict)

o J:-j ~ 't''i :.1::.

(h) :::: '=~;6':ht::Jfffl It iV < i c' 'b EI ~C" iV I), -If ~ t::::'A ,= J; -::> "C iH·~te G:l~

{};6liV I) iTo

(The cost written here is strictly an estimate, It may differ depending on the service (you choosej.)

-S~'J7'J'A. {>;t: t: !,t;d,'I)' {>

(i) :::telt iV < i c' MLO)OO:~te Iv c'T;6I, ilJEB 20 Ivlt)lf:4 :: O)i;*±H'i'D6 G Iv

t_:; '" te \ ';6' U!H' i To

(This is just what my sixth sense tells me, but I think Mr. Yamada will quit this company soon.)

t,,:t'L.t

G) 1/' G;io1iZ:~fi:G"CPt::t~~ t::PO)c'T;6I, *~'=ItiV < iC"J*J*fll= G"CPt::

t~~t::PO)C"To

(I'd like to borrow some money from you, but I'd appreciate it if you would keep it absolutely secret from my family.)

T

(k) ~ItiV < ::I: C"'b 1f < m,;z,., ~ -::> "CPt::o

(The sky was completely blue and clear.)

.~mi;.

L Akumade ma can modify verbs, as in KS(A), Exs.raj-tf), G) and (k), adjectives, as in KS(C) or nouns followed by a copula, as in KS(B) and Exs,(g),,(i),

2, Akumade mo literally means "as much as one gets tired of," but the common meaning in today's use is "to the utmost extent" The specific meanings vary depending on the context, as seen in the examples above,

akumade ma 13

3, The meanings of akumade ma can be roughly grouped into four catego-

ries, (Some sentences can have more than one interpretation.)

(i) "to the end; persistently; always" (KS(A), (C), Exs.taj-rf) (ii) "strictly; just" (KS(B), Exs,(g)-(i»

(iii) "under any circumstance; absolutely" (KS(A), Ex,G» (iv) "completely; ultimately" (Ex.tk)

4, When akumade mo means "to the end," it is used only in contexts where someone does something despite the fact that the situation is against him/her, In Ex.ta), for example, the speaker maintains a position contrary to the opinion of others, Thus, akumade ma cannot be used in (1), (See Related Expression II,)

t!( ~ T {f',:d;t' ~L' :.' til?h

(1) a, l~It~jj B 0)7 '7 Y /' c'*@x11 *.:15 < ~n:''b / lI:1~ ~ l" f IE I) J1,( < "J 'b I)

»,

(I'll keep going (lit, run to the end) by any means in tomorrow's marathon.)

'I; h-Hd t, J)::' {tt'£'?

b. :ltM$J:I= 1 *.:15 < ~ l"'b / lI:1~~ T: f.ft ~ ~G.ft~Itfr.!Jt~ 7; '70

(I wonder what kinds of creatures will be able to survive on the earth until the end.)

5, The final ma sometimes drops, but the meaning or nuance does not change.


I, Doko made ma "to a limitless degree" is synonymous with akumade mo and can be used for akumade ma when it means "to the end; persistently; strictly; ultimately," as in [1].

[1] a. ¥I::$:.EUt 1.:15 < ~l"'b / E;:_ ~T:'b f §mHU te;6'-::> t::o (= KS(A» b. fLit 1 .:15 < ~ l"'b / E;:_ ~ T:'b f 1E{O)im~~f§ t_:; Go (= Ex.(a»

c. ~ffij[jlt 1.:15 < ~T: / E;:_ ~l"'b f ~ffij[jc'iV -::> "C, m~;6I"fO)~1) I=te G C: \, '7 f*Mltc::: 1= 'b te\ '0 (= Ex.Ig)

d. ~It 1.:15 < ~ l"'b / C';:_ ~ T:'b f 1f < m,;z,., ~ -::> "CPt::o (= Ex.(k»

II, Saiga made "until the end" can also be used for akumade mo when akumade ma means "to the end."

14 akumade ma / anagachi - nai

e.i- z:

[2] a.fAiileli)<*'t''bhi~:1l*''('·fiBlG')~~>a:-mt;;Go (=Ex.(a))

b.iBlii 1 eli) < * 't''b /m1f* "('. f B*G')~li!\ii:::&x1>a:-~I-l~JJmt.::,

(= Ex.(b))

str. <w>

a structure that indicates that S.t. is not necessarily the way the speaker/writer thought

(not) necessarily; (not) always [REL. kanarazushima - nail

• Key Sentence

.'n -tt't> t "Silt G') iJ"fJ G tlid: Po
iBlG');JtJ'll!t i!JiJ:;I;l'iS rdJit-:;lp iJ:p
(His guess may not necessarily be wrong.) .;.I;1i611"".

i 'Sill

i!JiJ:;(]l'iS rdJitpL:'iiiJ: I' (- isn't necessarily wrong)

.*;""Ih,_

L ~ L{>

(a) J~-T '1' )vjl'l:J1l!1"lY 7 r ;l;liJ'Gn lP G ~ ;:.:s >a:- ~ G~, -Itii1I'l:J1l!1"li::: iJ:"':)

It( ;IN.,I!?

l&.t.::P~P'5G')ii, i!JiJ:;I;l'iSf~t::itG')JliJ!~L:'iiiJ:PG GPo

(Judging by how well virtual conducting software has been selling, apparently I'm not necessarily the only one who'd like to try orchestra conducting at least once in my life.)

~T,'::: t'~Ld t! e c

(b) :IIf11&G')-jj[ii~~!I1t;R.~ t ,\sLt G;(]\ "CG').:r.1:::' Y - F ii~nlu "C'Pl~5t;(]lp

Po ~p'5;: ~ii, i!JiJ:;I;l'iS!I1t;R.Ui13itiJ:P~P'5;: ~;I;'o

(I felt like the last chapter wasn't quite necessary, but it feels good to read it. So, I guess it's not so superfluous after all.)

anagachi - nai 15

o .b t,:,'J;H j)' L t.:!.l' < 'S .. <r;

(c) St!liG')pH;I;lf*i~!IH::: J::"':) l t ~b G ~ Tnif, 1~5tiX~L:'~;I;l~b G D*IJ

H

~ P '5 G') t i!JiJ:;I;l 'is ~L:'iiiJ: Po

(If it's true that the pH of your skin changes depending on your health, then "the lipstick that changes its color depending on your mood" isn't necessarily a lie.)

iJ'fvtfA- ad c'::; :. i t\'JfJ

(d) 7t3'::i:::~31:5f~iJ:tt;i:;;I;l* G G') iim G ~ P '5 G') t, i!JiJ:;I;l 'is~"':) t.::~M''iS "C'

iiiJ:t '0

(It wouldn't be a total lie for me to say I would have difficulty with a society in which men and women are completely equal.)

lil'~? itA rg' t' :b tJ'lv Sit itALi)"'J

(e) ;:G')f~l'{fG')~:t3Zii'5tP;I;l, ~~it;fa~HUGG')ii, i!JiJ:;I;l'iSi'iirI±\G')-t±-p

~if;l;dJ ii13itiJ:p,

(This actor is talented, but sometimes his performances come off a little strange, and I don't think it's necessarily always the fault of the producer.)

{H' L ~iI'\' l$I,;~'Jt,~1 -ttA-clOl' sit

(f) 1:7EG')j:Jt >a:- ~ t J::"':) l P t.::}..;I;l*fi!\jI=j=tG');i:;1i:5 >a:-fWam:::Jt it l P t.::!J T G z ~

1\ll"5t::t' 'J t!"?Ii'ALd 0 on'

;1;' G, Itl!Jf*lilftlllim~ t i!JiJ:;I;l 'is ~JE"C' fg iJ: Po

(Since some people who've come close to dying say that they can clearly recall what was being said around them while they were on the operating table, we can't simply deny the occurrence of out-of-body experiences. )

M¢mi·e

The adverb anagachi is used with a negative predicate, indicating that the proposition implied in the context is not necessarily false. The writer of Ex.(a), for example, initially thought that there were not many people who would want to conduct an orchestra. But because software for virtual conducting is selling well, he modified his initial judgment.

[Related Expression]

The adverb kanarazushima - nai can also mean "not always" and can replace all the uses of anagachi - nai in the KS and Exs. But there are cases where kanarazushima - nai cannot be replaced by anagachi - nai, as shown in [1], where the speaker/writer doesn't give some objective reason. In [2], where the speaker/writer gives an objective reason in the preceding context, both adverbs can be used.

16 anagachi - nai / aruiwa

1J'ftt, ~A.

[1] a.)'tGiO), 11l-t'L.,'b/*cI?t.P'J~'t:> l-&L'iit!:~\o

(All that glitters is not gold.)

:>'HA

b. -&fifi:Jii I &,"f'L.,'b /*cI?t!:1it:> I {!tlt-C'fit!:~\o

(Rich people are not always arrogant.)

-C\'Ul'

c. B:$:Aii I &,"f'L.,'b /*cI?t.;.1it:> I T~-C'iit!:~\o

(Japanese are not always polite.)

tdt l,A,l;>::>

d.1Jj{O)llJliii I &,"f'L.,'b /*cI?t.;.1J~'t:> I ~~L'fit!:~\,

(He doesn't always tell the truth.)

::~tlv 1:.1;'( 1J'A,~-;; 0 t;l'i '(>~

[2] a. ibO)~ii, {~tltt::l:::§'btL'lPGitc, {~O)Wl.~-C'fi~k*~jjl;i={fG

mA. ~\Tj,t,

pj]jj ~ ~-1t G 0 I cI? t.;.1J~'t:> / &,"f' L., 'b I {~'ItL'ii t!: ~ \0) n, (cf. [1 b])

(They say that guy is arrogant, but sometimes I've seen him being very kind, He isn't always arrogant.)

;J.-?ct- ;Ld~ ::A-'l!); t;dl'l! Ld.::

b. UFOii3':: < i'IHii!O) f;n'.:: I::: t:: 1:::,' -) 0) iJ1jjl;mlIlt:: iJI, UFOO)lliEt1!I/~~

llvt"?

~ ~ G 1:::, I cI? t!:1J~'t:> / &,"f' L., 'b I ~~-C'iit!:~ \ I::: ii§'pWnt!:p J::

-) t::o (cf. [ld])

(It is widely believed that UFOs are sheer nonsense, But when you look at evidence of UFOs in photos, it seems that the claim isn't altogether groundless.)

(¢ kanarazushimo (DIJG: 92-96))

conj.

or; either - or; perhaps

[REL mata wa; moshikuwa; soretomo; mata; naishi (wall

a conjunction that marks alternatives

aruiwa 17


Nouni Nounz
;f-'-)v~/ (iJ') ib G Pii iA.tlA.O-::>
JJiF-. L' to.~r<'EPo
(Please write either with a ballpoint pen or a fountain pen.) (B)

Sentence!
Ld L 1J' "'1'
B:$:O) J:: -) id::t'T1~ttj';-C'fi, *~O)N&~:t'id:<TG iJ', ib'::;' Pii
Sentencez
)1.00AO)~~~~~T iJ' Gid:ftniiid:G i\ '0
(In a society l~ke Japan where the number of children is decreasing, we
may h~ve to either reduce the number of colleges or increase the number
of foreign students.) (C)

Adj (i) ! Adj(i)2
-ttt'1J'( tA.-t!-t, (}
'IimiJ1 1l,EI.Q ~ \ iJ' ib'::;'Pii a~~ \ iJ' i= J:: ':J ,,(, A~fH~
t:d "
jjl;f=~b':J"« '::;'0
(Depen~ing ?n whether someone's personality is cheerful or gloomy, his
or her life WIll change dramatically.) (D)

L~Hl'i 7;::_ ~ ;(£,. iJ' G
T/'("( O)*il&ii, ib'::;'Pfi (0)) iJ' 'Eo Gnid:po
*"(P'::;'
(Perhaps all religions originate from animism.) .;.1;,,611(" .•

(i) NI(iJ') -, ib'::;' Hi N2

)( (iJ') , ib.::;, \ 'ii£t (either my father or my mother)

'f'"

f

,

aruiwa 19

18 aruiwa

(ii) Viinf 'IJ', Ji:, ~ ()Ii Vamf 'IJ'

:;$:;[-lmtr'IJ', Ji:, ~ ()li'T'::'A ;[-T~ 'IJ' (either reading books or playing tennis)

(iii) \ Adj(i)inf I Adj(na)stem I 'IJ', Ji:, ~ () Ii \ Adj(i)inf I Adj(na)stem I 'IJ' OOf'3O''IJ', Ji:, ~ 0' Ii"'? ;jJ) ;>J:O''IJ' (interesting or boring)

hA,L~-C~ c'< ~l'-C~

l31;~=EJ8'IJ', Ji:, ~ I ) li~!R~I8'IJ' (democratic or dictatorial)

(iv) Ji:, ~ P Ii \ V I Adj(i) I inf(O)) 'IJ' t LtL;>J:O'

Ji:,~ Pli \ rr< Irr-:d:: 1(0)) 'IJ,t LtL;>J:O' (s.o. perhaps will go z' went there)

Ji:, ~ t )Ii \ llilal) I llila 'IJ'-:> t::.l (0)) 'IJ' t LtL;>J:l) (s.t. is/was perhaps interesting)

(v) Ji:, ~ ()Ii \ Adj(na)stem/N f \0 I t:::-:> t: (0)) f 'IJ,t LtL;>J:O'

Ji:, ~ ()Ii \ Jt3(t I Jt:l(iJ:::-:> t: (0)) f 'IJ,t LtL;>J:P (s.o. is/was perhaps healthy)

Ji:, ~ \ ) Ii \7'Glt I 7'Gltt::: -:> t: (0)) f 'IJ,t L tL;>J: l ) (s.o. is/was perhaps a teacher)

t':t'c-Hd lid t» ~G

(f) A~O)*~~JjO)iWflffililff~'IJ', ®~O'li, ~O''IJ'O)ctjG'IJ,t:::o

(People's assessment of the president is split: They either love him or hate him.)

IfA,~'I,' -ttt'C? GIv!)'? LdGt' ~~ t.~t -ttl c>

(g) m;t£ B:;$:O)i&}l;IUiL:ft L -cO' ~ 'lJl, ~\l'*® ~ Pli 7' _;I I) ::f7 O)J; '5 i:=*I&i

i:;>J:~'IJ't ltL;>J:O'o

(Right now there are too many political parties in Japan, but in the future, perhaps there will be two big parties like in the States.)

1. Aruiwa is a conjunction that marks alternatives or possibility, depending on the structure. When aruiwa occurs with kamoshirenai, as in KS(D) and Ex.(g), it means possibility, but otherwise it connects alternatives as shown in KS(A)-(C) and Exs.(a)-(f). '

2. In Formation (i), the use of ka is optional.

3. In the "alternative" interpretation, ka aruiwa can be merely ka, but the use of aruiwa makes the utterance more formal.

-ttl' t n~< Itl'~l'n;< -ttlv::.? ~t'J:?

(b) i&i'El:'?® ~ l ) iik&¥1f:'?H¥-Jj{ L t::.:'?lt;[-1*m liTo

(We will hire a student who has majored in either political science or economics.)

J;,~H>A, ;lJn>

(c) :::<1!Xli_ffili'IJ', ®~O'li1 ;';Y'-;t"y rl.":!oW,!\O'liTo

(Please place your order either by phone or by Internet.)

t!-t, ~ 1£ c?~1v

(d) :::O);§;tili*~]~;>J:I)A r'1;[-T~'IJ', ®~Pli, f~J;tgT~'IJ'l'IJ';>J:Po

(The only choice left for this company is to execute a large-scale restructuring or else go bankrupt.)

(1) a. tHUiWlnS(i:(i r - A r iJ' (it>.Q~ "i) T - r ~ -JL--;[-tl Ll::'lJl~o (= Ex.(a))

b. i&i'El"FiJ' (it>.Q ~ "i) k&¥1f"F;[-WJj{ L t::.:'?lt ;[-1*1'13 liTo (= Ex.(b))

In ~he case of the "possibility" interpretation, aruiwa retains its basic ~eaning of a~t~r~atives. For example, in Ex.(g), the speaker is expressing the possibility of a two-party system as an alternative to a multi-party system.


.",n'.II,.

Ih "

(a) *±*(iljiJjnS(i: Ii r - A r 'IJ'® ~ O'iiT - r ~ - JL--;[-tl LJ:;6l ~ 0

(For breakfast, the company president has either toast or oatmeal.)

-Ct';lJ1v '?

(e) 5.Eif-I:;>J: -:> i: G'ii B jll-c'f-] I) ;[-T ~ 'IJ', ® ~ p(i::OL--7 ~ L J; '5 t Ji1h-CP

iTo

(Once I retire, I'm thinking of fishing at the river or playing golf every

day.)

There are three conjunctions in addition to aruiwa with the meaning of "or": mata wa, moshikuwa and soretomo. All of them can replace aruiwa in the KS and Exs., in which the speaker is wondering which alternative is to be ~hosen, as shown in [1]. If not, soretomo cannot replace aruiwa, as shown III [2].

[1] a. B:;$:0)J;'5;>J:Y+1~*i;§;l."li, *:,?O)~~Y;>J:<T~'IJ', \it>.Q~"i I ~ t: 'i l't t. < 'i I t:h. t 't f 7HIIAO)"Flt ~:f.\!l'\"T'IJ' l;>J: (ttLLf ;>J: ~ i P, (= KS(B))

b. ::: O);§;t±li*~]~;>J: I) A r 7 ~T ~ 'IJ', \ it>.Q ~ "i I ~ f;:_'i l't (_, < 'i/t:h.t'tf, ~J;tgT~'IJ'l'IJ';>J:Po (=Ex.(d))

-

20 aruiwa

t '?1J'

c. ':O)::$:;lNJl;l-::>lPG;ip, 1.t>.Q~'t;t. / -fnc-t /*t.:';t. / -t l., < ,;t. f

fldNJl;l-::>lPGiJ', :fO)i:!.-SGiJ't!'.c

(It's either that this book is wrong, or that I am wrong.)

[2] a. ;f,~)!.-~:'; (iJ') 1.t>.Q~\';t. /*t.:';t. / -t l., < ,;t. /*-fnc-t f 7Jif."'Jl:' :!o.j'g~~po (=KS(A))

b. J&lil"¥'(iJ') 1.t>.Q~'t;t. / * t.:';t. / -t l., < ,;t. /*-fnc-t f ~lI"i"¥'iwJj( LJ~"¥'''ti:fHfll., i To (= Ex.(b))

c . .:"ttXli.~IS(iJ'), 1.t>.Q~\';t. / * t.:';t. / -t t. < ,;t. /*-fnc -t f 1 :,; )i~.t":J rl.':!omJiI,l.,iTo (=Ex.(c))

d . .:O)~:ttIi*~JiI.~~ I):J.. r '7 iTGiJ', l.t>.Q~\';t./*t.:,;t./-t l., <

,;t. /*-fn c -t f, ~tlggT G iJ' l.,iJ'~Po (= Ex.(d))

The hierarchy of formality among the four conjunctions is roughly moshikuwa > mata wa > aruiwa > soretomo, with moshikuwa as the most formal conjunction and soretomo as the least formal conjunction. The first two in the hierarchy are seldom used in spoken language, as shown in [3].

[3] ~f*.8.li':': I: P i TiJ'o 1.t>.Q ~,,;t. / -fn c -t /** t: ,;t. /*-t l., < ';t.f, 1Jt(rriJ'~lviJ'l.,iTiJ'o

(During winter break are you going to stay here? Or are you going on a trip or something?)

Note also that neither mata wa nor moshikuwa nor soretomo can be used with kamoshirenai, as shown below. In other words, they cannot indicate possibility.

[4] a. T"'lO)JjH!llli, 1.t>.Q~ 't;t. / ** t.:';t. / *-ed_, < ,;t. / *-fn c -t f 7:::' ~:J..··"'iJ'G*lPG(o))iJ,t l.,:h~Po (=KS(D))

b. 1].1:£ B ::$:0) J&R;lii5L:ft i. l P G iJl, ~8'* 1 .t>.Q ~ \,;t. / * * t: ,;t. / *-t L < ,;t. /*-fn c -t f 7 _j I) jJ O)J:: ':5 I:=*,&R;I:~ G iJ' t l.,:h~Po

(= Ex.(g))

(e> mata wa (DUG: 171-74); moshikuwa (in this volume); soretomo (DBJG: 421-22))

--

atakamo 21

atakamo iYJt.:7J''6

adv. <w>

an adverb used to present a counterfactual statement emphatically

(just) as if - were; (just) as if - did -; just like; just; exactly [REL. marude; ka no yoni]


Noun
,'n {t~t::IuL{' J,. •
1Jj{li iJbt~iJ,t JHf~ O)J:: ':5 I: jjG$l¥-::>lPGo
(He behaves as if he were the person in charge.) (B)

Vinf
1):::'7'f:~ :M
51 ~ jJ ~ Ii iJbt~iJ,t 71(0)1: i 9~.Q (iJ'O)) J:: ':5 I: AEGo
(The linear motor car runs as if it were gliding on ice.) (C)

Vinf Noun
t"-5 'I; (flu Ii 7PAiJ'<
.: O)~1itHb l, iJbt~iJ,t 1].t;)j)l: ~ \.Q (iJ'O)) J:: ':5 ~ ~Jt

'C"5t:o>'J
l:' 1].t;)j)U' G t1;i" ':J r H-IUfil.' j'g Go
(Using this device you can operate a robot at the site as if you were
actually there.) .i.i;IIAllm,_

(i) iJb t~ iJ' t N 0) 1 J:: ':5 I: / J:: ':5 ~ N f

~.l: 'i L

iJb i: iJ' t 1:P]0) 1 J:: ':5 I: / J:: ':5 ~~\ -n f (as if s.o. were a supervisor;

a way of talking as if s.o. were a supervisor)

(ii) iJb t~iJ' t 1 V / Adj(i) finf(iJ'O)) 1 J:: ':5 I: / J:: ':5 ~ N f

iJb t:::iJ' t J:: < 9;0-::> II PG / Pt~ f (iJ'O)) 1 J:: ':5 I: / J:: ':5 ~~P1i f (as if s.o. knew /had known S.t. well; a way of talking as if s.o.

knew /had known S.t. well)

22 atakamo

atakamo 23

;D t::.iJ' t 1 '!i:\) /'!i:n'--:; t::. f (n'O)) 1 J:: '5 (::: / J:: '5 ~a\)1J f (as if S.t. were / had been cheap; a way of talking as if s.o. were / had been cheap)

(iii) ;D t::.n' tiN / Adj(na)stem f 1 c';D G / c'ltn i: f (n'O)) 1 J:: '5 (::: / J:: '5 ~ Nf

-tt/d,A..tJ'

®t::.n'tw.r~* 1 C';D G /c'ih--:;t::. f (n'O)) 1 J:: '5 (::: / J:: '5 ~aP1J f (as

if s.o. were /had been a specialist; a way of talking as if s.o.

were / had been a specialist)

1;1 ~ -r

iht::.n't_l-f-l c'ihG /C'ih--:;t::. f (n'O)) 1 J:: '5 (::: / J:: '5 ~aP1J f (as

if s.o. were /had been good at s.t.; a way of talking as if s.o. were /had been good at s.t.)

~:A...fi' A. L"J ~ "

(g) ,:0)~@i(::t:::r/,\:::0.:L-:7' ~f'771 'J:7_)II:::J::--:;-C iht::.n'tAr.!lnl~~~(:::

n'0c'~ ~"') tJ'

AO)fi;;O)q,(:::A --:; -cmll!lJ G '"(\) G J:: '5 ~XfJ*oa-:i:1f.ili G -c P G 0

(Using computer graphics, this movie creates the effect of people actually working and playing inside someone's body.)

c ~ -;;-/)' ( sri

(h) fL/::tih t::.n' t ~HI~luc'\) G n'O)J:: '5 ~~I:'i'W;oa-Jtit ic.;

(I felt as if 1 were flying (lit., 1 had the illusion of flying) through the air.)

£:A.ld h:h:htt .J, -ttt, !"A.Ll'i &Jt.:

(i) z O))(1j!tI::tih i: n' t ilt~ n1/fiE Hi--:; -CP G n'O)':' (: H~~oa-lJ-it Go

(These sentences give people the impression that we are doing something dishonest.)

.~m(; •

• 3$""''';.

t L~< .iP~~~ c'-j ~

(a) ,: O)~:fi/::t ih t::.n' t 7:k~li.!HJO) J:: '5 (:::lI!IJi'FT G 0

(This magnet acts as if it were a permanent magnet.)

1. Atakamo is used to introduce a counterfactual statement emphatically.

This means that what is described in the atakamo phrase/clause is not real or true. Atakamo is usually paired with auxiliaries meaning "appear," such as vade and gotoshi. The use of gotoshi, however, is limited to formal written language. The noun-modifying and verbmodifying forms of gotoshi are gotoki (Ex.(i)) and gotoku, respectively.

(¢ gotosh; (in this volume))

2. Ka no before vode, gotoshi and their variations is optional. Ka no emphasizes counterfactuality.

3. Yana in "vone N" and gotoki in "gotoki N" can be omitted when N represents things like sensations and impressions. For example, (la) and (Ib) are acceptable without vone or gotoki, whereas in (Ic) vone cannot be omitted.

tJ{ thA. -r t /:_

~0~-~:::r/,~D-~~7~~m<O)PCo)~7:7~~~@i@oa-~O)ii-f-ft

oJ"? t!. i-'J a

O)PCI:::~GiliG, iht::.n't§5l'0)7"7:7 ~ ~~0)J::'5I:::~1tTG':(:nlC'j'g

Go

(A remote control software program displays the desktop of a remote personal computer on the computer in front of you and enables you to operate it as if it were your own computer's desktop.)

1.l'O)t;:.t .J.. £"

(c) :f1Hcl::tih t::'7P t §5l'0) '5"5 /:::PG J:: '5 /:::mG~lh -CP Go

(She behaves as if she were in her own house.)

Cl~ -r =? ttl' -ttA..lht'

(d) _l-f-~ll>l~jj)(/::t, iht::.n't §O)§u/:::~O):'lt:il(-nllAnl--:;-CPG J:: '5 /:::~¥~m:::1

yI- :/C'j'g G t O)c'To

(With well-written explanatory sentences, the reader can get vivid images, as if the scenes were spread out in front of his eyes.)

(I) a. == O)~~ oa-f~ --:; -c, .t>f.: 1J>'b~IIJ$j/::: P G 1 J:: oj fJ: / 0 f ~Jtc', fflJ$j(::: \)G D ~ 'J ~ oa-~*1iEC'~ Go (= KS(C))

b. == 0))(1j!t/::t ii i: 1J>'bilt~ nl/fiE oa-rr--:; -c P G n'O) 1 i: c ~ / 0 I t'P~ oalJ-itGo (=Ex.(i))

c. == O)~@i/::t:::r /' \:::0.:L -:7 . :7' '771 'J :7 7 (::: J:: --:; -c, ii t.: 1J>'bAre,;bl ~~/:::AO)fi;;O)q, /:::A--:; -cmll!lJ G -c P G 1 J:: oj fJ: / *0 f ';il1*oa-:i:1f.ili G-CPGo (=Ex.(g))

ii'n Cd L

(e) 11ll1::tih t::.;b' t §5l';bl_lP'lC' ih G ;b'0) J:: '5 /:::fLI::: f±:lJ ~aP-:J It G 0

(He gives me assignments as if he were my boss.)

hAlt'?O)')-tft'-l:H' c.' ~ ~d Ib tA. c G

(f) 1!*S,j1f!J'{llfljlji!t(:/::t, {£J1:_:7')",-~;bliht::.;b't~-:JO)'$;A C'ihG;b'O)J:: '5 I:::tjf

L (

it -C, ¥flJf>l6 -It G fHll1f. C'T 0

(The linked tax payment system is a mechanism by which a group of companies is viewed and made to pay taxes as if they were a single corporation. )

4. Besides the auxiliaries mentioned in Note 1, atakamo also occurs with verbs of thinking and perception, such as omou "think," kangaeru "think," ninshiki-suru "recognize," etc.

24 atakamo

(2) a. Z::O)7J(~o)@liN.>t.:iJ''b*$~,IG'.;b-lt~o

(The colors of the night sky make you think there is a fire.)

-\i"l'DA.- c < -r o ~ J/.A OA..L-J -!:tl'0)0t.tc· \''iSl;'' ~l'it,d -tf/d.:;l' ~-j

~.~O)*~~~O)~ •• tt.~#~L< •• ~~ N.>~~'b~~#.

!).t") ::: n't' [fl? t.:

ll! c' it> ~ i:: ~m ~ -It ~ J:: '5 id:::J\Zff> ~ L -r Ii id:: t) id:: Po

(Product labels must not be designed to mislead us into believing that the product as a whole is excellent by overemphasizing the quality and performance of particular parts.)

5. Atakamo is also used to mean "just" when nouns refer to specific times, as in (3).

L 19> 'i t. ~ (

(3) a.lf<fliN.>t.:iJ''bi,t.~-.:;(,/t:5o

(It (lit., The time) is exactly job hunting season now.)

~ (G e Ail't'

b. fMl B:$:I.:::lIU.:o)li. If<fN.>t.:iJ''bf¥(/,)ltr1ilJOOO)~~t:5 -::> t.:o

(When I came to Japan, it was just the time the cherry blossoms were peaking.)


Sentences with atakamo - y6da/gotoshi can be rephrased with marude _ y6da/gotoshi without changing the meaning, as shown in [1]. The only difference is that atakamo sounds more bookish.

[1] a.1EHi I N.> t.:iJ''b /:I:.Q '"(' I ii1£1!30) J:: '5 I.::JJR~ ~h -rp ~ 0 (= KS(A»

b. I).:: 71: - ::$1 - jJ -Ii I N.> t.: iJ' 'b / :I: .Q '"(' 171< 0) .L ~ T« ~ (/,), 0)) J:: '51.::j£~0 (= KS(B»

c. z:: O))(jjtli I N.> i: iJ''b /:1: .Q l"l f\t q /,)ll'JE ~ 11' -::> -r p ~ /')'0) Z::" i:: tg ~P~~~;t s. (= Ex.(i»)

I

bakari ni I;r:'iJ' f) I:

bakari ni 25

conj.

a conjunction indicating that a single factor causes a negative situation

simply because; just because; simply on account of -


Subordinate Clause Main Clause
Vinf.past
tNJ)i.:.< i,p/dtl.'
!!( Ol:::.C,,-;'_ ~?t.: If/,)' !) I.:: 1Jj{:&; i:: O)OO{#di~ < id::?-r
f~/,)l~E3~id:: 2: i:: ~ Li ?t.:o
(Just because I said one nasty thing to her, my relationship with her
deteriorated. ) (B)

Adj(i).inf
it>O)~li. ~/,)l 99~ \ If;?'!) I.:: /;I '77.;>1 - r I':: p t;; 1;6 t):h -r p ~ 0
(That child is being bullied by his classmates simply because he is
(physically) weak.) .kn;"p"m,_

(i) Vinf.past If;?' !) I.::

jt«t.:lf/,)'!) I.:: (simply because s.o, ate it) (ii) Adj(i)inf If;?'!) I.::

iLl t) / tJ'? t: II;ftJ'!) I.:: (simply because s.t. is/was difficult) (iii) Adj(na)stem I id:: / c' it> ~ / t:5? t.: / <: it> -::> t: lin,!) I.::

l'~ I id:: / <: it> ~ / t:5 -::> t: / <: it> -::> t: lin, !) I.:: (simply because S.t. is/was inconvenient)

(iv) N I c' it> ~ / t~? t.: / c'it> -::> t: II:ftJ'!) I.::

"jt:i: I c' it> ~ / t:5 -::> t: / c'it> ? i: lin, !) I.:: (simply because s.o. is/ was a student)

26 bakari ni

.;;illi,li;_

nA,G<

(a) £,0) B td tdl*1v c'Pt-::I£iI' tJ I:, *¥ti:~*lr-a:-r.IJ ~ .:cLfnt-::o

(I missed a really important announcement just because I happened to be absent that day.)

iJ'lJ)t;J:. ~ ,0 ::_,

(b) 1Hlt(;OI~Pt-::p,J::E3" -::> 'l ~ t-::~I:~PI:rr;(I'ti:/)'-::> t-::I::I:'/)' tJ I:, .:cniJl~f~

O)=}-"'r / A I: ti: -::> 'l0 i -::> t-::o

(Simply because I didn't go see her when she wanted to see me, it turned out to be my last chance to see her.)

~l'::"·A.. -t:-5t'( t:A t'tl-A.,Mt 1;l:?"CA.,

(c) JIlE3"iJlti: PliiJ' tJ I:,J;!jMCAO)F"'c'JIl£$p I:J6~T 0 ,J:: P -) z ,J:: iJl J:: < £, 00

(Disputes among heirs over an inheritance often develop simply because there is no will.)

(d) .to~iJlti:iJ'-::>tdiiJ,tJ I:, ~jl!jj'b;:' < I:Jr\Gnti:iJ'-:d-::o

(I couldn't even go to the movies just because I didn't have any money.)

LJ: 'S .h -r~-t:t-:J t.:T 1.l'/--I.::'(>

(e) ~f!O)y!}fliiJl/f')Ji;jt!.1l" £, -::> tdiiJ' tJ I:, !1JJiJ' 0 Jl!,\f! -a:-7Eti:'lt'l0 i -::> t-::o

(Simply because the doctor's treatment wasn't appropriate, the patient, who could have been helped, lost his life.)

tr'OJt;J; ::..< t:At;J;{!-l' tIvL~~ rZ-:J -ttl' ?

(f) 1Hlftli~A!.('I1l" £, -::> tdiiJ' tJ I:A1'I&JiU ,J:: 'I1&JiU -a:-'i¥:It iz ;

(She suffered from racial and sexual discrimination simply because she was a black woman.)

LI)-j1:16 il'A!tt' J:ID t:

(g) ft~,J:: O)~f*iJl!!, 'I£iI' tJ I:ft,iUiA r VA iJlitlli o , J:: < frS3n.I:ti:-::> t-::o

(Just because her relationship with her mother-in-law was so bad, she often fell ill from the stress.)

~dLA <5£ :: c''l, t; fJ-:J LA.,

(h) jjIj)~iJl1:tiJ'-::> tdiiJ' tJ I:i'-I:1tt-::'i:J Ii §JIA.\iJlti:Po

(Those children don't have a sense of independence just because they are spoiled so much by their parents.)

~dt'< < 0-)

(i) iWi.f'Q~{i;O)il&1"fiJl J:: < ti:iJ'-::> HfiJ' tJ I:, *"Jtl:A -::> 'liJ' G '@f%" 0 'l P 0 0

(I'm having a difficult time in college all because my high school education wasn't good.)

I. The conjunction bakari ni is used to indicate that a single factor causes a negative situation.

r

I

bakari ni / ba koso 27

The main clause indicates the resulting negative situation, _but when the

2. bakari ni clause takes the auxiliary adjective - tai, the mam clause can indicate effort, as shown in (1).

(1) a. £, P-:)Ii § ~'i:J t.:~ ,,;t:';I» ~JI;::I~!Vti:P~¥ti:~~-a:-~'l'.' 0~

(He is wearing a gaudy suit jacket that doesn t SUIt him Just because he is so eager to stand out.)

b. -\' /4'-- A O)~#*.-a:- Jr\H ',;f':IJ> ~J ,.::, V is'v is'B=*iJ' G~.:L - 3- :71:~-::>'l~i 0tco

(I came to New York all the way from Japan just to see the Yankees' Hideki Matsui.)

If bakari ni is preceded by the particle to, it has a totally different 3.

meaning "as if s.o. were saying -."

tJ'rJ)t;J: t, J:

(2) ~Ii~iJl=}-"'r /:7. t ,tt.l' ~J '.::1Btftl:E3"' '~-::> tco • • "

(Thinking that it was his best chance (ht., As If he were saymg now is my chance"), he made advances toward her.)

4. The negative of aru can be used either in the present tense, as in Ex.(c), or in the past tense, as in Ex.Id).

conj. <w>

a conjunction that emphasizes a reason

it is precisely because - that -; only because -; to the extent that -

[REL. kara koso]

• Key Sentence

Vcond
iJ'ldH l;i::: L t.: ~ 'n Ii ;:.:c hll**I: jJ -a:- An 'l P 0 0) t:: 0
f~~1*1lI-a:-)'[tIf 0 'l
(It is only because I support environmental protection so much that I put
my efforts into planting trees.) It ,

28 ba koso

.1";;'6 .. ", .•

(i) 1 v 1 Adj(i) f cond ~:f:: "f

im6f:l~:f:: "f (it is only because s.o. reads s.t.)

lii~ ~tn~:f:: "f (it is only because S.t. is interesting) (ii) lAdj(na)stem/Nfc·&.;n~:f::"f

jG3((.c·&.;n~:f:: "f (it is only because s.o. is healthy) 1G:1:.l' &.; nl:f:: "f (it is only because s.o. is a teacher)

.@.$",uit;W

.$ ~ , J:::':'

(a) I~J 7.l1&.;n~:n"f:1:.~-Q*lf7.l1&.;-Qo

(Only because there is love is there joy for living.)

tf~i:~t' -C'A,~t( t:.~J:? ~f;'" L ~dt;l:'::r('A, iJ'l..'tt-::> ,}- .-

(b) H~*;G:~1Jo)~~7.lI&.; n~:f:: Uj(j'-1JJe~~ OOJe-lt ~ -Q ~11't;g; PO)t::o

(It is precisely because of the enormous demand for electricity that we cannot help but develop atomic power plants.)

lJ."HA-t.::? V"-l..' ;Q'?tf? =-(hA. 'C"<:hIJ ~dtp ,

(c) <p)1f*O):fD'fHM'i~Tn~:f:: "f, OO~O)TJ,!'liiUH~H~ l,,;g; Itn~i;g; G;g;p t ,Il.(

'50

(It is only because I hope for peace in the Middle East as much as I do that I think we have to strengthen the role of the UN.)

(d) ~1il' &.; ni:f:: "f~i::: A..,;g; ~:T~tTIt t t o)7.lIEj;t -Q A..,t.:J::o

(It is precisely because I'm your close friend that I can talk straight to you like this.)

ti ~ "

(e) ~'/ 3 /~*,,:,t::tt:&l'&.;n~:f::"fttjiH:t.'*~w-::>-r1±$~ l-rP-QO)t::o

(It is precisely because he is a president with vision that his employees are working with high spirits.)

~[J il'

(f) Ali~A l'P-Qo)7.lI;f,j(l"Itnii':: "f.o.:: ';I r HllJ'5 or:

(To the extent a person feels lonely when he/she is alone, he/she will keep a pet.)

(jA-7:>A- t; I{D-j hAL~L~ 11 it.:

(g) Ej~7.l1 § El3l' &.; n~:f :: "f ]3;;:t:=J:J'jl1 ~i 11' -::> -r \ ' < 0) c· &.; -Q 0

(To the extent that there is freedom of speech, democracy will keep growing.)

1£( ~;,. l,J",I!t' '" ,~

(h) 1~7.l1:: A..,;g; :: t ~ Ej '50) t ~ ~ !1}l!2Tn~i z; "f t:: 0

(It is because I am really anxious about you that I am telling you such a thing.)

-

ba koso I bekarazulbekarazaru 29

.~mt;W

1. Ba koso is a subordinate conjunction that is used to give a precise reason.

2. In the ba koso structure, the main clause tends to end with noda as shown in most of the examples, because the emphatic reason which ba koso represents and the function of noda, i.e., the function of involving the hearer/reader in his or her statement, are mutually complementary.


Ba koso can be replaced by kara koso which can be used in both spoken and written language. However, kara koso cannot always be replaced by ba koso, because the kara koso clause can be negative, but the ba koso clause cannot, as shown in [1].

tJif ,

[1] a. ~~MIJ:~~: 1 ~5-lt;g;PiJ'6:.f 1*~5-lt;g;~tn'!:'f f AJ: ~~it~:

hIuL~J /_ '\

**~ l;g; ~tnl:f;g; G;g; \ '0

(It is precisely because you can't speak English well that you need to practice more than other people.)

lin' t""¥lJ ;fit L7:>

b.1t!J0)~~7.lI"fn'f~ 1 ooEi < ;g;piJ'S:'f I*OOEi< ;g;(tn'i':'f l z

"'~

O)~~'iOOEi< ~t.:: Gn-Qo

(Precisely because other classes are not so interesting I find this class interesting.)

bekarazu / bekarazaru /'(iJ'lS 9" / /'(iJ' IS t!:".Q

aux. <w>

an auxiliary verb that indicates a strong prohibition

shouldn't; must not; ought not to -; cannot; Don't-

[REL. Vinf.nonpast na; 0 kinzuiru); -kinshi; te wa ikemasen; nai de kudasai; nai voni shite kudasai]

30 bekarazulbekarazaru

• Key Sentences

(A)

Vinf.nonpast
LIt k «1;'l)fo
~"ti: A..Q
(Keep off the lawn. (lit., Don't enter the lawn.)) (B)

Vinf.nonpast Noun
rfA L ~d
IJjH·::tJi::t.:r.;j',}v "' «1;'1) ~G 'b~ tld:-:>"{i>Go
If~ X<
qo-i)jj\t G"{
(Atomic energy has become indispensable as a source of energy.) .in;;;@lIinl•

(i) Vinf.nonpast «I;' I) f a (Exception: i" G ..... 1 i" / i" G I «I;' I) f) :mU«I;' I) f 0 (You shouldn't read it.)

it«G«I;' I) f 0 (Don't eat (it).)

M11i~-t (0 )«,/p G f 0 (You shouldn't plagiarize.)

(ii) Vinf.nonpast «I;' I) ~'G N (Exception: i" G ..... i"«I;' I) t!' G) it> G« 1;' I) 23" G ~iIi (a situation that shouldn't exist)

;'0i3Z < «I;' I) ~'G 'Eo 0) (an indispensable thing (lit., a thing that is necessary and that one cannot lack))

iiJiii"«I;' I) t!' G.~ (an undeniable fact)

.;:;", .. )(;.

ltt't..:t'

(a) ~!j[0)*1'l'IHFi1U5{d~ '5 «I;' I) f 0

(You ought not to use your cell phone in the train.)

(b) 2:::: "e:*dtll:: 23 -ItG«I;' I) fo

(Don't let your dog go (to the bathroom) here.)

tl'l>~dt,9'J Cf.l) L ::' "

(c) :J'ji~*i:~0)1"IUAllBII::i"G«I;'l)fo

(You shouldn't talk in class with your neighbors.)

trJ:-5 "

(d) 1!lIffl0)1"I, AG«I;'I)To

(No trespassing. (lit., Don't enter if you aren't on business.))

bekerezu/bekerezeru 31

~J:(fA Ii

(e) blfi~lI::ll±< «1;'l)fo

(Don't tell a lie.)

L~'J t'AJ:-j

(f) -1 /'51-* 'J r II::f~'5 ~O) 1«;6'l)f~J 1;' I) P < -:J 1;'5 Iffl G"{.ij_~ '5 0 7'

::-5;)'" &,,? .h

'7 -1 J~:/ - 1I::;l}1~IH G «I;' I) fo '[I G If'ld: 77 -1 }vi:l9!ilnG «I;' I) fa -1 /'

tr 1:A.,lfA vi"

51-;j', 'J r O)rDl::: '5 I: Ardl;61p G 2: til:: ;GinG «I;' I) fo

(Let me quote some of the Internet don'ts from this collection: Don't make private matters public. Don't touch suspicious-looking files. Don't forget that there are people on the other end of the Internet.)

t.i'fl 19l7.> ::'5 t, i;;:t. t.:t'tJl(

(g) 1EU::t"l""t t G "(~ti"«I;' I) ~'G rr;f.gHT-:> i: t G "(*"l"II::)fl"l" 23 -It I) nt~o

(He was expelled from college because he committed an unpardonable act for a student.)

J: t.til' (} liA tJl(-tt"?

(h) 2: O)t!tJJ * i: l::tjj:ti'Ui"«1;' I) t!' G "l"~I::t Ii t Iv E ld: p t ~ -:>"( ~ p tc:;) '50

(One could say that there are very few theories we cannot criticize.)

~ -tt~ Dl:-=.l: S oj t: t o

(i) *JlifFtl::t~~i: G"{i>it l;f, iIil::: IJf'(.f«I;'1) ~"G.~l;lilil2: GJ:JlrEl-O)2: tl'

it> Go

(In a nutshell, a miracle is when an utterly unexpected and unlikely event happens.)

.~m';.

1. Bekarazu is a negative form of beshi that means "should; ought to." It expresses a strong prohibition and is used only in written language.

2. The prenominal form of bekarazu is bekarazaru, which is the written version of bekide nai. Examples follow:

-t"-j 1') t!t't..:A- uo IfA

(1) -'fnl::tkt:E!l!*g;:t G"{i" 1 /'(tI'6~.Q / /'(~"t-'t:>~\ I J6~tc:-:>t~o

(It was a statement that the Prime Minister shouldn't have made. (lit., he shouldn't have made as Prime Minister.))

c c""Jh(t..:t' lQl7.> ::1 t'

(2) IJ1\jfml~ld: E l::t~ti" 1 /'(1J> 6 ~"G / /'( ~ -r";tt:>~ \ I rr;f.gtC:o

(Child abuse is an act that nobody should condone.)

(¢ bekida (DUG: 11-15))


There are expressions synonymous to bekarazu such as - ne, - 0 kinzuiru), -kinshi, -te wa ikemasen, -riei de kudasai, and -riei yoni shite kudasai.

32 bekarazulbekarazaru I beku

>A

[1] a. Z:":H= 1 A..Q "iJ' S l' / A..Q t;r. / A..Q':' C ~~1"(.Q) / A.? ;stt~,~tt

*-ttA/A.St;r.~\I:'""F~~\/A.St;r.~\J:?t:vr""F~~\1 /Z:":tIAJ:li:

l' !fJA. L,

t,A.~J~.!I:.o (= KS(A))

b. ~.o)CPl:'~1if'!IU5~ 1 ~?"iJ'S 1'/~? t;r. /il?.:. C ~~1'(.Q)/ ~?-rt;H"t *-ttA /~:ht;r.~\T'""F~ ~\ /~:ht;r.~\J:? t: t. -r""F~ ~ \ I /~.O)CP-z'0)~1if~~5~m~.!I:.o (= Ex.(a))

The six synonymous expressions can be ordered by the degre.e of prohibitive expression they express as follows: na > bekarazu > kinzutru) > -kinshi> te wa ikemasen > nai de kudasai > nai yoni shite kudasai.

(¢ na (DBJG: 266-67); -kudasai (DBJG: 209-10); -yoni suru (DBJG: 562-64))

beku ,,<

aux. <w>

beku 33

.;.%';"01;.

lJdtA.. D ~ c fflv t!_t' ~ t£ J:. "(1,'

(a) Kt±fi)d4'.'H!u~Tr;;;< ::fdJ1,~ti: I) 7, r '7 i-1T?TlEt::,

(K Company plans to execute large-scale restructuring in order to reduce personnel expenses.)

c-? L~ h< t::. J:.'5 t::.t'S-') ~t'lA. -It"::) [,If l:.·'jl:~-j

(b) ~t±fipi)'f'. < to'i? ~ i 0)~1*ti:.::. -7,"f=x-fEGTr;;; <. ~UJfO)~~i-zy,tA G

-Cipl) i Gt-::,

(We (lit., our company) have installed the newest facilities so that we can quickly respond to our customers' various needs.)

~: u ~f Iv ~t' c' < I:J "'.J

(c) =%O)tlt~l:'T;bI, m:tt7 "J r -l: '7 1::' 7, r C: G -c)!ltiLTr;;; < MJ5.§iCPl:'To

(I am a mother of two children and am currently studying to start my own practice as a foot therapist (lit., to become independent as a foot therapist).)

ltt'i'ft'LE: IJ ~-j ~l'Jt'< -') I'l>?L~"i E:

(d) *"jtfi, *ItiHt\J ti:J'lI!El3-z'*"jt~lCi§j' B'l:(-t ij nti: P1$7!-O)I**ti:"jt":tf= -t O)~

IJ'L' iht::. LJ 'J 1'Jl < '!:; Iv ~ ~ 'J J:

ioi-lJ..:t.Q r;;; <, ~"jt~i-I~lJ. G -CP.Q,

(We (lit., our university) provide scholarships to give educational opportunities to excellent students from overseas who cannot go on to higher education for financial reasons.)

L>9>'Jt':t' t;:: !j:·:::d!t' ~H~t iP;A.-t!A-'lJ'<!l ~t'i?l?1:tA. tA.i-< t: t';8 "5

(e) 1i*ti:$!,&;bIJE":t U-::tJ!l~, to'i?1*O)~3:::lifl*H~:f*9Gc: G-Cill1*ti:x-fEGi-

L't',t:t' h f.:t:l

1T?r;;;<, t±IAJ~7,-rhO)Jl1,i!lGi-1Tpi i.»,

(We have reexamined our internal systems so that we can rapidly respond to major accidents in a manner that gives highest priority to customer safety.)

ltt,*-t't.I'< LA, OjA.J:"') t; tt t!.

(f) J:: I) ;l!tAd::*I'§~*ffi-1T? t: /;t) f= fi, Y':t, ~ ;< /' r s- 7, -r h ~FIH,,¥O)~,\[ti-

Ii.$; J)H..h( t.:~1J:,,)

1!ii'< r;;;<, s- A-rhrdlO)1i:fJ!i-ti:< TZ: C:;bI1i~-z';O.Q,

(In order to engage in management innovation that is more advanced, it is important to remove redundancy in management systems so that we can eliminate unnecessary operations.)

.~mi;.

1. Beku is the verb modification form of bekida "should." However, when beku is used to modify the verbs of main clauses, it means "in order to" rather than "should."

2. Beku is a highly formal expression and is usually used in written

language. (¢ bekida (DUG: 11-15))

in order to; to; for the purpose of; for; so that - (can)

[REL. tame (ni)]

the verb modification form of the auxiliary bekida, which is used to indicate a purpose or aim

• Key Sentence

Vinf.nonpast
;/)1-:. ~ -\!t' " ~~A. rJ
z: O)*"Jtl:'fi, 2 "jtWHIliJI= ~5t.Q «< ~lf~;b;;l!t/;t) ij n -c \' 0 0
(At this university, preparation is under way for changing (the current
system) to a semester system.) .;"I"#III.JI_

Vinf.nonpast r;;; < (Exception: T.Q -> 1 T / T.Q I « < ) 85T« < (in order to talk (to s.o.))

MJ5.§iT (.Q) «< (in order to study)

34 beku / beku ma nai

(Related Expression]

Beku can be replaced with tame (ni} without changing the meaning of the sentence. Tame (ni} can be used in informal situations, too.

[l] a . .:::O)*"Jt-C'Lt, 2"JtWlilllJl:::?j£.:t.:511'« /t.:ilbt:l~iflfli;/}l~66G;h L"P.:5o (= KS)

b. Ktl:I;l:)d4'iH:)!jIj~ 19"1'« /9".Q t.:ilbt: I km~id: I) A r '7;[-rr '5 TJE t:: 0 (= Ex.ta)

Note that suru, not su, precedes tame (ni} in this structure.

(¢ tame (ni) (DBJG: 447-51»

beku mo nai '" < 4:J f;t. ~ \

phr. «sr»

beku ma nai 35

_'4'';'"t;.

t:J:-trl' l'

(a) 1O'¥iWl:::5JiJ;ht,:3CIi0)f.Iic':::;Sid:cffi.:5«< tid:po

(There is no way for me to know the whereabouts of the woman I split up with 10 years ago.)

l~-j-t.tA- ::' O)~

(b) ~~i:HtM7j.M<rrid:c"i'1tr«< tid:;/},-:;t.:o

(In the post-war era, one could not even hope to make a trip abroad.)

lJ:I=!J ~A,'l)d (J):P J:(t:-::> Ii li<1iA. ~\tf~

~WBUffi~~mU"i'1tr«<tid:~-:;k~, ~BU~-:;~~~~ ~.1:::~<

::0,::'-) 1'J(

~li1$l? L P~ L 2: t:: -:; t.:o

(On the first day, it was impossible to view the summit because of rain, but on the following day, the weather was perfect, and the mountain was shining silvery white. It was sublimely beautiful.)

:h:hhh ~-JL~-j::? 1;1 ip

(d) ;fl(;l? 0) J: '5 id:~~PT - A ;/}lff~ijf{!~HIIlO)TT - A 1::: gj-:) « < t id:l'o

(A weak team like ours simply cannot be expected to beat Team T, one of the competitors for the championship.)

e (tA-

(e) "to).{H'il1l~t.:anLI;l:M7j.M<rrr:pl"ffiG«< tid:;/},-:;t.:o

(The incident occurred when I was traveling abroad, so there was no way for me to know about it.)

~t'~A t: If-5 i; t.:t,

(f) ~1.II1;l:~'tt~*;[-MEtr~r,,'id: CWl1~~« < tid:, \0

(Lately I've been so busy that it is impossible to find (lit., to expect to have) time to read books.)

_¢tiii·

Beku ma nai means that there is "no way for s.o. to do s.t." The phrase is used exclusively in written Japanese. The verbs preceding the phrase appear to be limited to nozomu "desire," shiru "get to know," and katsu "win." In terms of frequency, nozomu beku ma nai appears to be the most frequently used.

(Related Expressions]

Vpot.inf.nonpast wake ga nai and Vpot.inf.nonpast hazu ga nai mean "there is no reason to believe that S.t. is possible" and "s.t. isn't expected to be possible," respectively. Verbs can be practically any verb for the two constructions. However, the verb of Vinf.nonpast beku mo nai is usually limited to nozomu, shiru or katsu, as stated in Note. So, beku ma nai can be replaced by wake ga nai and hazu ga nai, but not the other way around, as shown in [1] and [2], respectively.

impossible; there is no way for s.o. to -; cannot be expected to

(REL. Vpot wake ga nai; Vpot hazu ga nail

a phrase meaning "it is impossible to do s.t."

• Key Sentence

Vinf.nonpast
t'!>S()'_)'_ CJ)", «< tid:Po
fL;/}l~{jfIlO)*;[-~'5 id:c, ~t,'
(It is impossible for me to hope to buy a hundred million yen house.) .inlhbh[n .•

Vinf.nonpast «< tid:, \ (Exception: ~.:5 -+ 1 ~ / ~.:5 I «< tid:, l)

.'

gj-:)« < tid:, \ (it is impossible to win)

(}"n'

'6JE~ (.:5) «< tid:, \ (it is impossible to deny)

36 beku rna nai / beku shite

[1] a. ~~i&{tifijJj.m<rrid:E 1 ac-« 'bid-tJ'?t;:. lfiJ.If.JQb~ttJ~'id-tJ'?t;:. I fiJ.1f.J Q ,t TtJ~id- tJ, o t: I 0 (= Ex.(b))

b. !It);> J) J:: -) id:§~il '7 -£,. hlff~!iff~*IIlJ)T7 -:». I::: 1 ~'?,", < 'b id-~ \ I ~T Qb~ttJ~'id-~\ I~T Q'tt'tJ~'id-~\ 10 (= Ex.(d))

of'

[2] a. =: A.,id:lm G P B :<$:~iJl nl'C1f.J Q b ~ttJ~'id-~ \ 1~l'C1f.J Q ,t t'tJ~'id-~ \ I *~l'CC

'"'< 'bid-~'l 0

( 1 There is no reason why I can I I cannot be expected to be able to I read such difficult Japanese.)

1£< L

b. f~ I::: ~i'i iJl 1 • ~t Q b ~t tJ~' id- ~ \ I. ~t Q ~t t' tJ~' id- ~ \ 1*. < '"' < 'b id-

~ '10

( 1 There is no reason why I can I I cannot be expected to be able to I write poems.)

beku shite '" < ~-r

phr.

,

f

,!

beku shite 37

a phrase used when S.t. occurs/occurred exactly as expected

exactly as expected [REL. yahari/yappari]

.">I"Ii.it;.

idt t':""-:?~H

(a) 1BUt:*)~1E~Jj{:::id:.::5«< VCid:?t~o

(He became president, exactly as expected.)

:t !> ::. 1t"1:!"~ li-:J(';" C?t!(,

(b) J!:9;OT{ii@j~J)aU' t:,pj(;*lhl:J;U¥{:::J:: <. **(:::A.::5« < G -c Ao::d:!:: p-)

"J..

~J.:;L'it> .::50

(Machiko distinguished herself as an excellent academic achiever in her high school days. As expected, she got into the University of Tokyo.)

-ttl'1J'( Lc ff iJl( h~ tv o -Is (j"?::'/v

(c) =A{i'i"t:m, ~I}j(, "]tHll'hl-t«-C-§&G-CP.::5o =A{t*MIH.::5«< G-C*B

~Gt~J)t':o

(Their personalities, hobbies and academic backgrounds match. Just as (we) expected, those two got married.)

hG JjJ:? 1., t

(d) ~h.J)~lji);{tPJ'bm?{J:'PG, x///'b:1'v-4''b&IHhl~h>..::d~o.

I'tUHg=: .::5«< G-cIt9=: ?t~o

(Yumi's driving was always wild, and her car's engine and brakes weren't in good condition, An accident occurred, exactly as expected.)

(tL'~t' t?~A.

(e) it> J)~ti{i;f&'§hlf 2' A.,t.:? t~h' t:,fl'UffE-t.::5« < G -Cfl'iJffE G t~J)t':o

(The management of the company has been so careless that it went bankrupt, exactly as expected.)

t.: t;;( -> f

(f) f'&{iE'PEshlifijJ)-t<,'l!i< J)t~/1), f-Jl:Hr~{:::id:.::5«< G-Cid:?t~!::§?-cP

Pl"GJ:-)o

(You could say that I became fond of fishing, exactly as expected, because my home is so close to the ocean.)

1. The phrase beku shite is used in the construction "Vjinf.nonpast beku shite V2," where VI and V2 are identical. The construction means S.t. was expected to happen and it actually did. For example, in KS, World War II was expected to occur and, in fact, it did.

2. Beku shite cannot be used with Adj(i/na) nor with N + Copula nor with Vneg nai, as shown in (1) .

(1) a.*B:<$:J)rv-tG{irvPGP,",< l-TrvPGPo (As I expected, Japanese sushi is good.) cf. B:<$:J)rv-tGU:,{!>,tvJrvPGPo

• Key Sentence

V iinf.nonpast V2 (= VI)
t.!.t, (: t t.:t'-ttA,
~C~i!fJJj! *~ {t ~;:Q «<G-C ~;:? ic;
(World War II occurred, exactly as expected.) • 9.,;;;6\11."_

Viinf.nonpast «< G-C V2 (where VI = V2) (Exception: -t.::5 -+ 1 -t l-t

.::51«<G-C)

1t9=: .::5« < G -c1t9=:.::5 (s.t. occurs exactly as expected)

-tH>:.-J

pj(;J)]-t (.::5)« < G -c pj(;J)]-t.::5 (s.t./s.o, succeeds exactly as expected)

38 beku shite

beku shite 39

b. *)1.lfl.li B;;fs;:)d::lfl.;t 0]:1 -1 . ~"75l~ Iv t. 7 _)I I) n A --C-~ 0'"'< (_,""( 7 _)II) nAt::',

(Mr. Roy Yamada, who looks Japanese, is really American.)

cf. )1.lfl.li B;;fs;:AI::Ifl.;t 0]:1 -1 . ~"7 "l ~ Iv t l{!>"? 'i~J 7 _)I I) nAt::',

the underlying expectation is based more on objective facts, whereas in the yahari/yappari version it is based more on subjective intuition.

[1] a. ~fC<:i\tltW*~li 1 E.: 0,", < t. r / l{!>'i ~J / l{!>"? 'i~J 1if9z.:"? iz ;

(= KS)

b.11:Illi**ft~]jI:: 1 ~0,",< i.r /l{!>'i~J /l{!>"?'i~J I id."?t~o (=Ex.(a)) c.~9;rH·liii1li,flt0)~;(I'I)nX:;Whl1Rf¥I::J:<, **1::1A.0,",< L.,""( /» ';PJ /l{!>"?'i~J IA"?t~i::POj~GC'~0o (=Ex.(b))

(¢ yahari(DBJG: 538-40))

c. */'( -1 I) - ~ Ivli*id.P,", < L., ""(*id. h'-::,t~o (As expected, Mr. Bailey didn't show up.)

cf. /'( -1 I) - ~ Iv Ii l{!>';J: ~J *id. h'-::,t~o

3. Verbs that precede beku shite are limited to intransitive verbs such as naru "become," okoru "happen," kawaru "change," hairu "enter," katsu "win," tosan-suru "go bankrupt," and others. Note that these verbs all represent something that goes beyond human control, except for kekkonsuru "get married" in Ex.(c). But notice that musubareru, a synonym for kekkon-suru, is a non-controllable verb.

Note also that a passive verb, which is in essence an intransitive verb, can be used, as in (2).

iJ'n ~;

(2) 11:Illi~:bn0,",< (_,""(~:bn-rP0o

(He is hated, exactly as expected.)

4. Beku shite is used primarily in formal written language.

5. The phrase is usually employed with Vinf.past, but it is also used with Vinf.nonpast in a generic statement, as in (3).

u- L~l'J't' ~ llA,"Cl~ -r e il'

(3) a. ~*±~Ii, ~;;fs;:B91:: § 5t~)1.liT/'(-r~t::' h' I), HlIf-:J~-:J liHJf-:J,", <

•

L., ""( HJf-:J G, Jr( IH ~-:J liJr( It 0'"' < L ""(Jr( It 0,

(In the real world, everybody is basically your enemy, so, as one would expect, the winners will win and the losers will lose.)

-:J-)t>./c. fl' !:. t,~ ¥d-ttt'"(~

b. t±~~~li?t:b0 '"' < L., ""(?tv 0 O)t::'h' I), tl!lJJll<*±~O)~~~rrJ&B9

f.!'t'il'< tr I)

1::Q£1i'i G J: OJ i:: G -r t AAU!I!t:3. 0

(It is impossible to revise the accepted ideas of a regional community by administrative means, because those ideas change anyway, as they are meant to.)


All the examples of beku shite in the KS and Exs, can be rephrased by yahari/yappari, as shown in [1]. But there is an important difference between the two expressions. For example in [Ib], in the beku shite version

~----------------------------------------------------------~-----------------------------------------------------------

40 chinami ni

chinami ni -s t.i: Ji. ,;: conj.

incidentally; in this connection

a conjunction to indicate that what follows is additional information related to the previously stated main theme

• Key Sentence

Sentencei Sentences
.'11 -0 t:.t'''-;''_ B" tN'l>:'\ J: -c
.~~m~~~~~y~~~*~~ m~,RiJIMG;z;.-¥ I: fllJ t~;fd. t) n l') ~ i::
r- ;: ;S iJld;: Po
I:A"JlP~o
Sentences
t.:!.t, i-
1:,id:;z;.,:, ~~~~~~«~~~~-.l~~"J~o
(I love his post-modern novels. 1 like the way he leaves the interpre-
tation to the reader. Incidentally, his work published last year topped
the best-seller list.) .;.1;;;@;;lni•

s., (S2o ...... 0) 1:, id:;z;.I: s., (¢ KS)

.;%"n:][;.

?.t (]) rJ ~~-:>1J'A. t'A-lH Ii 1'.r·(' "/)1 -t ); "

(a) 7t3!!!!iJ>t)l:!I!Y~~:vI\i~"'C'~p~i1R~~[EIljmiJIOOiJ>nl;jQl), }t-/7-}t-, ~-1'_'

y tid: c~r~*H'iJllli~~ n lP~o 1:, id:;z;.I:, At~;fSHi*-A 3,500 fIl, cf

~.

ff!; 1,000 fIll";b ~ 0

(An exhibit of Impressionists' paintings opened last week at an art museum in Ueno and representative works of Renoir, Monet and Manet, among others, are displayed there. Incidentally, the admission fee is 3,500 yen for adults and 1,000 yen for children.)

c.?~H ::UH'ltAiS(tJl-::>iH' t:AJfA tJ' ...

(b) 7'GJ'l ~ 26 B i:: 27 B I:*ff:~OO~~Uf:~~-§;iJIOOiJ>nt::o Jf:~~Ara'f~ i:: P")

tf,A -II' l,~T? -'<'(

~iJIT-yt~"J tz; 1:, id:;z;.I:~1J[]1"l~'i¥J 1,500 At~"J tc;

(On the 26th and 27th of last month, there was an international conference on architecture in Tokyo. The theme of the conference was

chinami ni 41

"The humanization of architecture." Incidentally, about 1,500 people attended.)

~dt:$ h'i '/), ~ tJ'/v

(c) 7;{ 1) :7J~*~~'lcl'lt'i 7~I:~1l, ~Jf~f*P~~i:: ~;: i::iJ1l"\! Go .:r~MFIlJ

l_;~? LI,)?t~?-c~ h?~d

q:q:~Jf~~~r:p~I:'? G ;blt~;b Go 1:, id:;z;.I:.:c~FIlJ~~;fSHi, f*P~iJll ~

1;!:A.fJt( -tf/vt;1( L ~!J>'i

ra'id: t)~m'I, ~~id: t) 'f.Lf:1tljiJlx~~ nGo

(A professor in the U.S. can take a sabbatical every seventh year. During that period the professor concentrates on research. Incidentally, professors are paid half their salary for a year's sabbatical or their full salary for half a year.)

.~ml·.

Chinami ni is a coordinate conjunction that is used to introduce an incidental remark related obliquely to the main theme of the preceding parts of the discourse. This conjunction is quite different from tokoro de, because the latter is used to change the subject while the former is used to give additional information without changing the subject.

42 dake

dake 43

dake tc.'tt

(E)

prt.

Adverb
llJ>~ L, 6/,.£).,. ttl..'J:'5 ("
f~±8iiii:>tO)l1r~n:--:J' 'e l'"~:::5 t::lt ~¥G < ~!i L-el' ~ P,
(Tell me about your MA thesis in as much detail as possible.) as much as; as - as possible; as much as one wants

a particle meaning "to the extent that s.o. (can/wants to) do S.t. or S.t. can happen"


.«.1;;'611(.11_

Vipot.inf. V2 (=VI)
nonpast
"n' ~j'CA "t :jQpt~11;bIJ:Po
..§'p-) t:il:*-a- ~j'C1lb G t::(t
(You'd better read as many books as you can while you are young.) (i) Vipot.inf.nonpast t:: It V2 (where VI = V2)

$«t);h.:::5t::lt$«:::5 (s.o. eats as much/many S.t. as he or she can) (ii) Viinf.nonpast t:: It V2 (where VI = V2)

§-)t::lt§-) (s.o. says as much as he or she wants to say)

(iii) Viinf.nonpast t:: It V2 (where V = non-volitional intransitive verb; VI = V2)

(B)

.b(

H~ t) tJt:: It H~ t) tJ (s.t. swells as much as it can)

(iv) l'" ~ :::51= It Adj(i/na) / Adv.

l'" ~ :::5 t:: It *~, '7 ~ '1' (as big a cake as possible)

"'"

l'" ~ :::5 t:: It X! < $ < (walk as fast as s.o. can)

Vlinf V2
nonpast (= VI)
''',
.~G t::(t .~G t, tL t §vfl:'!iiI"':) e L- i"':) t~o
(After he had eaten as much as he wanted, he went home without even
thanking me.) .ifF,'; .. ii;_

(C)

(a) ~ 0) -) liT L-~l"T L- -a-$« t);h.:::5 t:: It$«t~o

(Yesterday I ate as much sushi as I could at a sushi restaurant.)

(b) ~1:.0) -) t:i i:l'fij7f.I:fTlt:::5 t:: ItfT"':) e ,:t;.t~P C:J~P i To

(I think I want to go abroad as often as I can while I'm a student.)

() .::. ~ s( C.

(c) )!ni~~!v, mfT.fI1I!I:)!!;h.eL-i-)O)l'\ ml:t:'-tt:::5t=ltmi:t:'L-el'~Po

(Driver, I may miss my plane, so please go as fast as you can.)

Vlmasu V2
.~ t~P t::lt .~G O);bl f~O) ±:~l"T 0
(My principle is to eat as much as I want to.) (D)

V rinf.nonpast V2 (=Vl)
(intransitive)
"' J) n'~
-) t:i O)j'-li'W;b1 f$ViG t::lt f$Vit.: ~t_:;l"To
(It looks like my child has grown as much as he is going to.) s-r: s: .s.c

(d) mr;b> t):f2lPePt~:;r;~~-a-§ -) t:: It§"':) t: t) T -) "':) t L-t~o

(When I freely gave vent to my longstanding complaints (lit., as much as I wanted to) it felt so good.)

:: LH

(e) :jQ-jtlifl!! -) t:: Itfl!!"':) e t i'&~fO)y)j:, '.;bIffi!pt~Po

(I'd like to buy a trouble-free car no matter how much it costs.)

"

(f) ~o)-)liQJt~pt::(t;r.it~O)l'\ II)tf.~HT"':)~1) L-t~o

(Yesterday I slept as much as I wanted, so my mind and body are refreshed. )

44 dake

"?,?..&."j ;!3'("i1lU Ii

(g) Jii!iJJir:tJ: .. :,t=~, ofLO)7E_0)*!'1J1'l1illln-9 Btllltv( G i piG tc;

(When 1 got gout my big toe really swelled up (lit., as much as it could

swell).)

vf

(h) ~i 't'~~C§;O)~lvrtt-r!::: l t --j -9 ~ iJ> ~ t=O)-c°, ~lt 1i't' j1! -9 t:: 1tijlliJ>tJ: !:::

z ;S1:{i~t=p't'i'0

(Until now, we have lived in the midst of a big, noisy town, so now we would like to live in as quiet a place as possible.)

I') ~?

(i) z O)C§;tu:A t) i: PJ'!l!E8, i t=AU G i: G ~ t) t: p;::: !::: 1i{iiJ-C°i'iJ>, -Co j1! -9

(, t.:"-C~

t:: 1t ~'f*if\J1:to.j1!r ~"o

(Why do you want to join this company and what do you want to do once you join the company? Please write down your answers in as

much detail as possible.)

'IF':)7J't' LI»::l-it~

(j) "f 0) "¥'C§; 1: 1i't'j1! -9t::1tl±llmi'-9 J:: --j 1: Gii'o

(I will do my best to attend the academic conference.)

.~mi'.

1. Dake in "V .mf.nonpast dake V 2" (V I = V 2) indicates the extent to which someone (can / wants to) do something or something can happen.

2. The VI can take a potential form explicitly, as in KS(A) and Exs.(a)(c), or can have a potential meaning, as in KS(D) and Ex.(g), when the verb is a non-volitional intransitive verb such as nobiru (grow), hareru (swell), chijimu (shrink), mori-agaru (get lively), among others. More

examples follow:

-it~~< ~~

(1) a. \9G~ G t: G, :_.,- -\' 'YiJ1*liit,' f'::Lt*i1v 't' G i ~ t;:o

(When I washed the shirt, it shrank to nothing (lit., as much as it

could).)

. '"

b. :&k~C§;1i~ fJ ..tii.Q f':: tt IJ£ t) 1:iJ1 ~ tz;

(The drinking party grew very lively (lit., as lively as it could).)

If the V I is a volitional transitive verb it means "as much as one wants to _," as in KS(B), (C) and Ex.(f), or "as much as one can," as in Ex.(e).

3. Dekiru is a potential form of suru, but dekiru dake is a set phrase followed by an adjective or an adverb, as shown in KS(E), Exs.(h) and (i).

dake atte 45

dake atte t~ tt .t> -:> -c phr.

a phrase that means "and as one would expect" or "for good reason"

and as one would expect; so (naturally); for good reason [REL. dake no koto wa ette: dake nil '


Noun
iJ'a'JL:J: !:Jv ~ tJ:~-j
18l:tdi .Am"k1l t~ 1teO--:Jl i':::op --) '5 1:{ilv 't'P -9 0
(She i~ a popular actress and, as one would expect she li .
splendid house.) , ives III a
B ( )

I Vinf
[ ~®4-1ifJ\ ~ P~iJ> GJ~ V.I. >a: L.,T~\.Q t::1t eO--:Jl <'to
'f*iJl,* G iJ>, '0
(~atoko has practiced ballet since she was a child so naturall h .
limber.) , y s e IS
C ( )

Vinf
"n L: iA 18l0);t71 AiJ>GO)~l/;t)1i'5 J: ~ !:::1iiJ>
18liJ' l3it9.Q t::lt eO --:J l,
-r1i~ GntJ:" t O)t::~ t;:o
(Hel~s proud of his office for good reason: The view is something you
cou never see from other offices.) .Wn;';Piinii_

(i) Vinf t:: 1t eO ~ l

l~;t lP -9 /~;t lPt;: f t:: 1t eO --:J l (s.o. is/was teaching s.t., and as one would expect)

(ii) Adj(i)inft:: 1t eO --:J l

to"

ll"f" /l"fiJ> ~ i: f t:: It eO --:J l (s.o. is/was young, and as one would

expect)

46 dake atte

(iii) Adj(na)stem! tJ: / t.::. -:d:. I t.::. it J5 -:J c:

~l 'J l'

_l~ ! tJ: / t.::. -:J t::. I t.::. it J5 -:J c: (s.o. is/was good at s.t., and as one

would expect)

(iv) N! 0 / t.::. -:J i: I t.::. it J5 -:J c:

1G"t. ! 0 / t.::. -:J i: I t.::. it i/5 -:J c: (s.o. is/was a teacher, and as one would expect)

.;1"""'4_

11' ;tA::< .tl.A.t;~1 t LA- t:

(a) B*ii*w~t'::'lt i/5 -:J c:if.r:ptt!l.1JW~.:t tJ:po

(Japan is a volcanic country, and, as one would expect, earthquakes occur constantly throughout the year.)

-?~£ .l6t'.:~ M~t, ~ o );

(b) 2: O)jili ~ T1Jl;gIO)f'F~t'::'lt i/5 -:J C:@-'?%i:~~1Jli/5 Go

(This pot was made by a master craftsman, so naturally its colors and shape are graceful.)

t.tA.t:.A. r->

(c) :;t - A " '7 I) 7 J¥jYffijO) tt!lt.::. it i/5 -:J c: 8 fI 0) _,( )l-,f)l- /' ii~i:;tn '0

(Melbourne, as one would expect from its location in the southern corner of Australia, is really cold in August.)

!;tf .. U f:::t'7pt' ~!f ~jl,'l:~'J-ttI,' ,

(d) ~T1J1B*-0):ffi*jdi;i::~:b;fLGt'::'ltJ5-:JC:, J;]:f!i'i,~f,frr'i"I:'i,T(iG L,P

'i,O)t'::'-:Jt::.o

((i) As one would expect from what people call the best fireworks in Japan, the scale and artistry were both amazing.

(ii) People call it the best fireworks show in Japan for good reason: Its scale and artistic quality were both excellent.)

;/),;~qi; -tT

(e) i/5 0) t- A " '7 /' ii3ii* ~ A,O)toJl~t'::' it i/5 -:J c: toP L,1J'-:J t::.l"To

((i) Ms. Kasahara recommended that restaurant, and, as one would expect, the food was delicious.

(ii) Ms. Kasahara recommended that restaurant for good reason: The food was delicious. [Ms. Kasahara is known as a gourmet.])

MJe ftt'~J:1

(f) 2:O)~(iil'bpt'::'lti/5-:>C:MfttppL,f'F1J t L,-:J1J'1J L,c:pGo

((i) As one would expect from the (high) price of this bag, the material is good and it's also well made.

(ii) This bag is expensive for good reason: The material is good and it's well made.)

dake atte / dake ni 47

LA-';'t' tdt U LJ; \;-:J ~?G1))

(g) i/50)-j G ~pt±:Ilt1J1FaJ¥J!TGt'::'lti/5-:JC:, :fB(O)1'lH!J(i~I::fjfl§t'::'o

((i) As you can guess from the way that president, who is so critical, relies on his secretary, she is truly capable.

(ii) That president, who is so critical, relies on his secretary for good reason: She is truly capable.)

_¢MI;W

1. Two interpretations are possible from dake atte. One is "and as one would expect; so, naturally" and the other is "for good reason." In some cases both interpretations are possible, as in Exs.(d)-(g).

2. The adverb sasuga sometimes occurs with dake atte, as seen in Exs.(b) and (d). This adverb indicates that the speaker is impressed by what S2 represents.


Dake no koto wa atte, the te-form of dake no koto wa aru, can be used in place of dake atte without changing the meaning, as shown in [1].

[1] a. :fB(:9:(iA~:9:ift':'(t (0)':' c tt);Ii) -:> IT 2:"1' -j ij (:tEA, -C'P G 0

(= KS(A»

b. ~~Tii/J\~ PIl\f1J' GJ\Vx~ L, C:PG t~"(t (0)':' c,t);Ii) '?If*1Jl~G 1J'Po (= KS(B»

c. i/50)-j G ~p*±:Ilt1Jlf§*J!TGt':'(t(O).:.Ctt);Ii)-:>l, :fB(O)f~IHi~(: :fjfl§ t.::. 0 (= Ex.rg)

(¢ dake no koto wa aru (in this volume»

dake ni f':' (t ,: phr.

a phrase that carries the idea "as one would expect"

and as one would expect; so (naturally); because

[REL. dake atte]

48 dake ni


Noun

tc ~~L~

~)~I:t :7(;7 'Y "*-)v~'f- t::IH::

(Bill used be a football player and, as one would expect, he runs fast)

(B)

Vinf
B*O)::!::~J:<
* '71 I- '2: Ivl:t:i'ltpFdl B *1:: 11ft. -n\f~ t::ltl:: %l-::>lp.Qo
(Mr. White lived in Japan for a long time, so naturally he is very familiar
with things related to Japan.) .1.,;;;6I1u],.

(i) Vinft:: It I::

1 ~;it l o'.Q / ~;it l 0 »t: f t:: It (:: (s.o. is/was teaching and as one would expect)

(ii) Adj(i)inft:: (t (::

1 io ' / ;f'fip -::> i: f t:: (t (:: (s.o. is/was young and as one would expect)

(iii) Adj(na)stem 1 ;/J: / t:: -> t: f t:: (t (::

1cf.l ;/J: / t:: -::> t:: f t:: It (:: (s.o. is/was good at s.t. and as one would expect)

(iv) N 1 0 / t:: -::> t: f t:: (t (::

7ttf..l 0 / t:: -::> t: f t:: It (:: (s.o. is/was a teacher and as one would expect)

.;:F,;,;.Jt;_

(a) iiil:t5hTrJ /'-t}--t::lt(::F"iJ'J: < iI.Qo

(He used to be an announcer, so naturally his voice carries well.)

{o'i' 'is _ .,I'A-I!)

(b) LlJfi'l7ttf..(:t:'%~O)7ttf..t:: -::> t::1:: (t I:::'%~O))O*~ J: < J;O-::> l \'.Q 0

(As one would expect from her having be~n an English teacher, Ms. Yamauchi is very knowledgeable about English grammar.)

dake ni 49

e a C ib£

(c) ~fltA.(:t- A -::>-f-t:: (t 1::-::> pif-'? iJ' G l G i -) 0

(Masato is our only child and, as you might expect, we tend to spoil him (without meaning to).)

t;:i)' j'-; -t t'j

(d) #~I:t",lttf..pH{;(::f§}~~-,?-::> lO ,td::(t(::ffiJl*~ \ '0

(Takao was a sumo wrestler when he was a student, so naturally he is big.)

i-'?~l'i r:d1"

(e) +»: /' t<: 1v1:t7 _)II) ;QO)*",lt~$~Gtd::(tl:::'%~M'..l.-¥t::o

(Ms. Chen graduated from an American university, so naturally her English is good.)

(f) l\ 1) 7, t<: Ivl:t B *O)*",ltL':i'ltPFs'~;it l pt::1:: It I:: B *O)*",ltO)F,,'IH!~ J: < %l-::>lp.Qo

(Mr. Harris taught at a university in Japan for a long time so, as one would expect, he knows a lot about the problems of Japanese universities.)

117.> ;i:

(g) *fflf1:t/"\' 7,'iJlfPJ J: i) tH~ ;/J:t::(tl:: /"\' 7.", ~.::L - /'Y"\' /'O)i'tmI~ J: <

J;O-::>lp.Qo

(Haruki likes jazz more than anything, so naturally he knows the names of many jazz musicians.)

iJ'r})t;J; L\HI n»

(h) 1J!{ftiJl!:: l Mt G 1':: !:: ~ J: < J;O-::> lp.Q t:: (tl::, 1J!{ft(::I:t:: O)f±¥~!IllIij

(:: < \ '0

(Because we know she's very busy, it's hard to ask her to do this job.)

.~mi'_

1. "Sj dake ni S2" is used when S2 is something that can be expected from SI, where Sj represents a fact

2. The adverb sasuga sometimes occurs with dake ni. This adverb indicates that the speaker is impressed by what S2 represents. Sasuga can be placed either before or right after the topic.

(1) a.1J!{(:t ~ 9""i.Jj'5C7 T rJ /' -t}- - f.='tH:F"iJ1 J: < iI.Q 0

b. ~ 9"" i.Jj 1J!{(:t5C 7 T rJ /' -t}- - f.=tt t:FiiJ' J: < iI.Q 0 (cf. Ex.(a)) (2) a, #~I:t ~ 9"" i.Jj''',lttf..P~f{; I::*§}~ ~ -'? -::> l 0' t: f'= tt t: ffiJl* ~ \ '0 b. ~ 9""i.Jj'#~I:t",lttf..~f{;l::f!H~~-'?-::> l\ ,t::t'=ttt:f;~iJl*~ 0 '0

(cf. Ex,(d))

50 dake ni

Because sasuga indicates that the speaker is impressed by what S2 represents, this adverb cannot be used with sentences like Exs.(c) and (h), where there is nothing impressive to the speaker in S2.

(3) a. *~Ali ~ 'tfi- A -:J't-t':'~t t:")p1:t~iJ' J.., "C J.., i '50 (cf, Ex.(c))

b. * ~ 'tfPI1113ciJl C: "C <Edt J.., I' z C: ~ ~ < ?;[h "CP G tE~tt:, 11Itft(:Ii =:

O)f±*~~.ij_I: < 1', (cf. Ex,(h))

(¢ sasuga (DUG: 374-78))

(Related Expression]

Dake atte is synonymous with dake ni when they are used to mean "as one would expect," as in [1],

[1] a. Lili;I;J7t1:1i5€~0)7t1:t:: -:J t::.l tnt t: / t':'~t <If>"? "( 15€~0))(l:ft~ ~ <9ih"CpG, (= Ex.(b))

b. J\ 1) A ~ !vIi B*O):*"jtc'*pra~?&it "CPt::. 1 t':'~tt: / tE~t <If>"? "( I B *O):*"jtO)r,,~Ji!!~ ~ < ?;h "CP G 0 (= Ex,(f»)

However, "SI dake atte S2" cannot be used when S2 represents something undesirable, as in [2], or when a whole sentence is about a negative expectation, as in [3a]. Note that when a whole sentence represents a positive expectation, both dake ni and dake atte can be used, as in [3b],

[2] a. ~Ali- A -:J't-l t':'~tt: / *tE~t <If>"? "( I ")p1:t~iJ' J.., "C J.., i '50

(= Ex.(c))

b.11ll3ciJl C: "C ttt J..,p z C: ~ ~ < ?;Ih "CP G 1 t':'~tt: /*t':'~t <If> -:J "( I, 11ll3cI: Ii z O)f±*Ii~.ij_I: < "0 (= Ex.(h))

Sl~ s-t" ld LA.

[3] a, ~ " ~ ~ lif±*O)'fl it iJl)!ip 1 tE ~t t: / * tE ~t <If> "? 'r I ~)i, t )!iiJ'-:J

tc;

(George was slow to learn (new) jobs and, as one would expect, his advancement was also slow.)

slf lit-' Ll1lA

b. }\ 1) ~ lif±*O)'fl it iJl!f. I' 1 t.:' ~t t: / tE ~t <If> -:J "( I ~)i, t !f.iJ' -:J ic ;

(Harry was quick to learn (new) jobs and, as one would expect, his rise (in the organization) was also quick.)

Conversely, when X dake atte means "there is a reason for X," dake ni cannot be used, as in shown [4].

dake ni / dake no koto wa aru 51

otLs;lp TT

[4] a. EfIi>1J ~ !v iJlt,i 1;6 G 1 t':'~t <If>"? "( / * t':'~t t: I=:=: O)16!-J1.IlIi t J:: -:J C: -'t z

G c'(i~« G tLt;n '0

(Mr. Yoshioka recommended the food here for good reason (lit., There is a reason Mr. Yoshioka recommended the food here); you can hardly taste food of the same quality anywhere else.)

i.Pfl L; itA. t: iJ{ I

b. 11ll iJl § '~T G 1 tE ~t <If> "? "( / * t.:' ~t t: 111ll 0) :t 7 1 A iJ' G 0) Wt 1;6 Ii

t J:: -:J C: iU'<:'IiJjl, G nt;n' t O)t:: -:J t::.o

(He is proud of his office for good reason: The view is something you could never have in other offices.)

(¢ dake atte (in this volume))

dake no koto wa aru ti:.' (t (J);: t (1.t> .Q

phr.

don't do s.t. for nothing; - explains it; no wonder; it's no surprise

(REL. dake atte]

a phrase expressing an evaluative comment regarding how S.t. is contributing to an expected, remarkable result


Sentence: Sentences
,H:: '11'''-= < z:
~JHliljil§iJ~iJl ~TiJq: 2 ipra~ ') '7 )I..-:*"f: (:
~J? 1" ~O}? i.l1 < t= It 0) =: C: Ii zt;, Go
C: "C t_l*t=o li"f: J.., "C, ,t::.
(Akiko is very good at Korean. She didn't study at Seoul National Uni-
versity for two years for nothing.) 52 dake no koto wa aru

(B)

-tl.'.tt' "n .,'
iB: B 1 'f- rr ~_bJ<j* t::_ It c!):= t Ii iV --:> -r, 1Jjzli 90 ~C!)~ t iJ' < G'7 <
~G-r~t:: t G-rPGo
(He has been swimming more than I kilometer every day. No wonder he
is still in such good shape at 90 (years old).) .in;;;AiluJI_

(i) 1 V / Adj(i) I inf z; Itc!):= t liiV G

limtr /lmlvt::_ I t::_ Itc!):= UiiV G (s.o. doesn't/didn't read S.t. for nothing)

1 ~P /~iJ'--:> i: I t::_ Itc!):= t Ii iV G (s.t. isn't/wasn't expensive for nothing)

(ii) Adj(na) 1 td: / t::_ --:> t:: I t::_ It oi : Ui iV G

H ~ 1 td: / t::_ --:> t: I t::_ Itc!):= t Ii iV G (it's no surprise s.o. likes/liked it) (iii) N 1 0 / t!:. --:> t: I t!:. It as : t Ii iV G

f tr ::]")1--7 7 - 1 0 / t!:. --:> i: I t!:. It c!):= t Ii iV G (it's no surprise s.o. is/ was a professional golfer)

.4:'''''''';.

-\"1 f': I,;.t"j l'

(a) wB37tltliB*~;'jC!)~.:t:11iJl1:CPt!:.0 7;;/ 1) iJC!)*"Jt-c'20iJ'-Jll:< B*~~

~.:t -rPG Gt::t!:.ltc!):= tliiVGo

(Prof. Yamada is good at teaching Japanese. She didn't teach it at a U.S. university for nearly 20 years for nothing.)

ltl'~t'tlHH

(b) T"r' ;,; ~ Iv lititWC!)*f11i~:iUH.~ J:: < -:JiJ'lv <:'1' G 0 *f11i::J;'; -I)- )1-->' ;,; r t G

10 ",

-rtitW HIW'1ill --:> -r" G t!:. It os : t Ii iV Go

(Ms. Chang has a firm grip on the world economic situation. She doesn't fly around the world as a finance consultant for nothing.)

I:ft~ :: /.:_'{, 1.;"".:) h~ ~ ~rJ

(c) 1IlftC!)*C!)i'-{j:fd::'51i~l:rrfiiJlppo ~C!) G-:Jlt;I)lilIXGPt!:.ltc!):= UiiVGo

(The kids next door have very good manners. Strict parental discipline explains it.)

t.::.!;t.tJ' ~I,'O)-j L~~I,A [;.I;1L ~<I! f.::.(

(d) B3 9=1 Ii ~ G -r::t~g t td: I' C!) I:~JltiJl.!f. Po 1: Pj"'-C!)3{tlJia I) iJ10';;" td: t!:. It C!) :=

t liiV Go

dake no koto wa aru 53

(Tanaka's rise has been quick, although he isn't that talented. His careful attention to his boss explains it.)

IJ 6A. "ltl,' ~ (fA~t'

(e) 71 ;,; / .:1. 51 1 ;,; C!) J'll1llilii Ii 21 titiiIGC!):gl\{E-C' t YEIv -C'P td:Po ~ TiJII: 20 tit

~t,t':t' ,40;0 I'J

iiIG.*C!).J'll1"JtWt~bhG~~C!):=t~iVGo

(Einstein'S theory is still alive, even in the 21st century. No wonder he is called the greatest physicist of the 20th century.)

~L'n

(f) ¥pB*<:'B*~~)@~G-r, iJ'td:I)~li-ltGJ::71:td:I)::I:;Gt::o B*I:11'--:>

t::t!:. It C!) := Ui iV I) ::I:; G i: 0

(Fortunately, I studied Japanese in Japan and now I can speak it fairly well. I didn't go to Japan for nothing.)

1.,,*1 tl1)' lit' < L 1:!'A t.::I,'

(g) 1JjzlHn,:= I) iJ' G 10JHv ~fh -r ~ t::t!:. Itc!):= t Ii iV --:> -r, ~ TiJl(: § ~I::xj

'IJ'A-~-.:JiJlA. HI:'

T G lll*n~iJl~ll.po

(He has been composing haiku since his younger days. No wonder he has such a sharp eye for nature.)

_~nile.

1. Dake no koto wa aru is used to express an evaluative comment about how someone's achievement, skills, habits or experience contributes to an positively-expected, remarkable state of affairs. In short, in S dake no koto wa aru, S gives a reason. If there are two sentences, S. and Sz, as in KS(A) and Exs.(a)-(f), S, represents a remarkable result and Sz, a good reason for it. But if there is a single, coordinated sentence that consists of S, and S2, as in KS(B) and Ex.(g), the subordinate clause represents a good reason for the remarkable result expressed in the main clause.

2. As in KS(A), Exs.(e) and (g), the adverb sasuga ni "as expected" is often used with dake no koto wa aru and dake no koto wa atte. By using both, the meaning of "expectedness" is doubly emphasized. Note that the adverb is located in S2 in all the examples in which sasuga is used.

(¢ sasuga(DUG: 374-78»

3. Dake no koto wa atte is a continuative form of dake no koto wa aru.

The continuative version means that what precedes the phrase naturally results in what follows it, as shown in KS(B) and Ex.(g). In fact, all the rest of the example sentences can be rewritten using dake no koto wa atte by reversing the order of S, and S2.

(1) a. 2iJ'-ra~:;ry)I--*"Jtl:jj"JtG-rPt::t.:·~tO),:,c'iiV"?l, ~TiJl(:~Jji'IHffOO~;'jiJlt-rt1:cpt!:.o (cf. KS(A»

54 dake no koto wa aru / dani

b. ~t1'i:J /' -tf')L-?1 /' l- C: G L"tiJJ'f ~:mV'l!!k)n ,'{;, t~' ~H!);: c ,;I: cv., -:> -r, T-'f /' ~ A.,'it!tWV')~11'itktJL~J:: < -:JipA.,-C'P'{;,o (cf. Ex.fb)

dani t~";:

prt. «»r»

just; (not) even

[REL. dake demo; sae; sural

a particle indicating that S.t. expressed by the preceding verb alone produces a certain feeling or the meaning "(not) even doing s.t.; doesn't even occur"


Vinf.nonpast
L":dil' "
;l;im~V')*~ ~*=l'&'i }~,~\tl:l9 te:'= J[.Gfip GPo
(Just remembering the big mistake 1 made at that time makes me feel
embarrassed.) (B)

VN
-00
1TO~;I;I, 84 SfllIHJtPt::/ =] ~ / • 'C-5i'-j
e v t: ~A., t!. ~ 6( <'-" ~~ te:'= Gid:;I;L::d::o
/7 '7 ~V')lli§;~tnc*,~~Jili'l'{;, C: 'i
(I couldn't (lit., didn't) even imagine that Ichiro would break George
Sisler's 84-year-old record for the most hits in one season.) _knl"bUl.iI_

(i) Vinf.nonpast te: ,=

,I!.( '5 te: ,= Gust to think)

(ii) VNt=I=G~P

':-J~J;

~lItt= ,= G ~ P (s.o. doesn't even consider)

ttJ.il:t=i= G~P (s.o. doesn't even warn)

dani 55

.1'4,","t;.

t::.t, L It-51:)0 Hi:

(a) fAV')1*~i'lJl1J*'i~~;fl< Gp;I;i'{;,A.,te:6 '5 t»; ~;t0te:'=, ~6 GPo

(I wonder what my percentage of body fat is right now? Just the thought of it scares me.)

J: ;tJ i:'H') :::6!~i-

(b) fMIX:V')J!.:fQL~ GL"Pt:: G, ~A.,~:: C: '=~-:>t::;I;'o ;WflT'{;, t=i={,\*lHP'E,

V');I;I;I;i I) iTo

(What would have happened if 1 had followed in my father's footsteps? Just imagining it makes me feel uneasy.)

t -) L.I:. D LJ: "5

(c) ::V')3i~V')rp, ;1ZAiil!!¥~tt!ll'f*B~*GA.,l'P'{;,C:'i, ,\ll,'5t='='5G~i

GPo

(It makes me envious just to think that my friend is enjoying her holiday at a summer resort while I'm stuck here in this scorching heat.)

L c"") l~ t!.t, t: T) /;l:-:>-t±l' tJ, O)-)-t±t' .:"5

(d) 7.J I) ;/] V')1i'll~4lt:: 'I) V')*§;~ii 9111 V') J:: '5 ~ TO ;l;ljE"tT '{;, O]'ijI§tl: ~~

'"

lItt=,= G~;I;'-:>t:: G GPo

(It appears that the majority of U.S. leaders didn't even consider the possibility that terrorism like 9/11 could occur.)

trl.l"E,O) J:t'liA,

(e) ;a'1!1It:: 'I) 'iffl:PJj7 'r ~ r ;f> ~ F -c',~RiWV') 0 ~ ?1 I) ~ bE: I) [fi] -:> L" p '{;, V') i=,

ltt'7J'A-

W1§'iittJtt=i= G~Po

(Every night the young men skateboard around the rotary in front of the station, but the police don't even warn them not to.)

lj:?~ldt-) t.: tph £/dt/dil(-C~1:i?1:i?0A. D "(t'''(~[}d fj, oj LA-t.lA. lY t')

(f) jE,*~~, 1BtV'))(i¥R~B9:1Ji:*~ii~JEB98'1'fIffi~~itt::;I;1, 1BtV')f§~ii1J'&ilJt=

i=G~;I;'-:>t::o

(His philological method received negative reviews at the time it was published, but his faith has not wavered even an inch.)

:: lIN t,d: Lfdil'::'c t'iS"'"":)

(g) INfii{iJJ;I;'JL\l!tl:ljl:;I;I;I;i'{;,V')/)\, Wp~/~~ GL", :: 'I) G ~~lft=i= G~/)\-:>t::o

(Kobayashi looked pale and didn't even cast a glance in my direction, seeming as if something was bothering him.)

1= JdfA. i:tn' L$ -tl''?Y:l'? 7i'A..~d t--o ::

(h) Ar,,~iift!lV')fiU§~ ~ -tt'{;, J:: '5 ~l~~~1'F I) Ie G L" 'E, ~Ji!!t= i= Un '0

(Even though humans have created an environment that drives other species into extinction, they don't give it a second thought.)

1. The particle dani has two meanings. First, it can mean that just engaging in a cognitive process, expressed by cognitive verbs, such as

....

56 dani

kangaeru "think," omou "feel," omoidasu "remember/recall" and sozosuru "imagine," produces a certain feeling such as shamefulness, fearfulness, uneasiness or happiness.

Secondly, dani can mean "even" with regard to the action expressed by a Sino-Japanese verb (i.e., Sino-Japanese word + suru), as shown in KS(B) and Exs.(d)-(h). Note that the Sino-Japanese verbs used with dani are mostly limited to sozo-suru "imagine" (KS(B», korvo-suru "take S.t. into consideration" (Ex.tdj), ctiui-suru "warn" (Ex.tej), bidosuru "budge; waver" (Ex.(f», ichibetsu-suru "cast a glance" (Ex.Ig) and ikko-suru "give S.t. a thought" (Ex.Ihj). As pointed out in Formation (ii), the structure is VN dani shinai. Non-Sino-Japanese verbs cannot be used like Sino-Japanese verbs.

rY'::'-J

(1) a.*I1J~t':t:l..,;/Jpo (cf.~l1Jt':t:l..,;/Jp,)

2. The particle dani is used almost exclusively in written Japanese.


1. In sentences where dani is used to mean "just doing s.t.," dake demo can also be used interchangeably, as shown in [1]. But, as shown in [2], dani cannot replace dake demo, because the verb used before dani must be a cognitive verb, whereas there is no restriction on verbs used before dake demo.

[1] a. it>O)a'!fO)*~ ;/JIkl&LLI!:tpilii" 1 t.:t: !t;;:W"(:'b I )f.Gf,o, U '0

(= KS(A»

b. fLO)l*Hi'lJl1J¥':J:~cn< 6 Pit> Glvt::.1S 7 ,0'0 ~;t.:;, 1 tc:t: Itc:W"(: 'b I, f&1S t. '0 (= Ex.(a»

70

(Lately just going from Tokyo to Kyoto by Shinkansen makes me tired.)

!!< t.1'0)t..: J;: "'21"

b. l'llU:J:iHlfrO) -t 'it: P':;' 1 t.:trr:''b 1 * tc:t: 13i\:j'ljd) ,ol~ 6 <",

(Just being close to her makes me feel relaxed.)

II. In sentences where dani means "someone doesn't even do something," it can be replaced by sae or sura, but, as in [4], not all uses of sae and sura can be replaced with dani, because dani is used with a very limited

dani / dana 57

number of Sino-Japanese verbs, while sae and sura can be used freely with any verb, noun or particle (except gal.

[3] a.1 70-,01, 84:¥r,,'*l'Gpt~~ Ol-~':/A 7-O)JIJt~~H§c~~li&':;' C ':J:~1~ 1 t.:·t: / ~;t 1'9 S I l..,;/J ,oL:d~, (= KS(B»

b. fi1'it~ '5 ':J:iij:a~A 'T - r # - F C',~llfjO) 0 - /J 1) - ~j£: I) [8J -:J "n'':;' 0)':, Wl'n:J:tiJ'&:lt.:·t:/~;t/'9S I l..,;/JPo (=Ex.(e»

:r,A.,I;f'

[4] a.)O:J:1lY:$l~;t/'9S/*t':t:Il..,;/Jpo

(My father doesn't even go on walks.)

"n

b.iHl':J:O G ,ol;/J 1 ~;t 1'9 S 1 *t.:·t: I ~l'G/lt);/Jpo

(He can't even read hiragana.)

Note also that bido dani shinai (Ex.(f», ichibetsu dani shinai (Ex.(g) and ikko dani shinai (Ex.(h)) are idiomatic phrases. In these cases, sae or sura cannot be used in place of dani.

(¢ sae (DIJG: 363-69»

dana t':'(J)

conj.

a conjunction that lists nouns/quotes inexhaustively

and (- and); or (- or); and things like that

[REL. taka; val


Nouni NOUll2 NOUll3
l:tJ
)g':':J: '9JJ.n t:.O) 7-2-1) ':;70 t:.O) "?"?[; t:.O),

•
115,olt~ < ~ Iv~P-cpt~o
(In the garden, many flowers such as pansies, tulips, azaleas and others,
were in bloom.) 58 dana

(B)

Sentence: (Quote) Sentence, (Quote)
LJ:( c'-) C .... ¥l1
"P:C!'.t~ -Ij Ii ~~O)':::"i&ii* 9'\ \ t!:: oi. ~~ii'?*SId:~\

.s. ,,~,
t!::O) 1::, P-::> '6 7!''f-:8:E3" -:> 'LP.::5 0
(The students are always complaining that the food at the cafeteria isn't
good, or their classes are boring and so on.) .;.I;;;6I1t.,;.

(i) Nl t!::(/) N2 t!::(/) (N3 no»

:c 1ft!::(/), '5 E.lvt!::(/), T G t!::(/) (saba and udon and sushi, and things like that)

(ii) 1 V I Adj(i) f linft!::(/) 1 V I Adj(i) [zinf t!::(/)

0'IJ' T

Jllln.::5 t!::(/), to7d::iJ'iJl~ < t!:: (/) I:: (saying that S.o. gets tired or

hungry, and things like that)

Jlllhtd!::(/), to ld:iJ'iJl~ptd!::(/) I:: (saying that s.o. got tired or hungry, and things like that)

~"t!::(/), rniJ1§';, ,t!::(/) I:: (saying that it is hot or it rains too much, and things like that)

~iJ' -:> t~ t!:: (/), rn iJl §'; iJ' -:> t~ t!:: (/) I:: (saying that it was hot or it rained too much, and things like that)

(iii) lAdj(na)stem/Nf 10It!::-:>t~ft!::(/), lAdj(na)stem/Nf 10It!::-:>t~f t!:: (/) I::

s. ItA'::? 0 .u'1tL'-C~

7!'#tll!t 1 0 It!:: -:> i: f t!:: o». ~Fm:C!'.891 0 It!:: -> i: f t!:: (/) I:: (saying that

S.t. is/was unhealthy and unhygienic, and so on)

),. "

IfiJ'W 1 0 It!:: -:> t~ f i: (/), J!IIlttilt 1 0 It!:: -:> t~ f t!:: (/) I:: (saying that s.o.

is/was a fool or an idiot, among other things)

.M%,,jJ.it;_

I~< t6A_Qt'

(a) f~li:Cln!::(/), '5 [lvt!::(/), '7-;} /,t!::(/)I::P-:>H@l);J!iJ1jdHt!::o

(I like noodles such as saba, udon and ramen.i

rr

It

11

n 'i

dana 59

(High school students now are addicted to things like cell phones and computer games.)

n'h !!< s e vt: '\"(.:c(

(c) fB{lif~iJl~l>.I=rr 2: '5 iJ' U%-:> 'L '6, P'? '6 ~lliJl!itip n», *'-131{iJl it> .::5 t!::(/)

L' :bIt

I:: E3"pliR:8:T.::5 0

(Whenever I invite him to go out for a drink, he has an excuse: he's got r:'I

a headache or another appointment or something.) L:JI

iJ'rJ)LJ: It-:>:..;.", ,?-j 'II' "(t'{tt'ii''? iA(¥d ~j'i

(d) fB{:Rlif±$iJ1ftH t!::iJ' G*6ft~ G'L '6f±$H5Ht.::5 t!::(/), *l@:C!'.ml::~~Hjj

1)0 L~i)~'i

JL-c' ~ .::5 t!::(/) I:::±* G 'LPt~o

(She used to claim that she would keep working after she got married because she liked her work and could manage both family life and her career.)

1.1'0)i.;J:. Cd l' L V,-

(e) fB{:Rli§7tiJ1T'::'7iJll:~t!::(/), 1:::'7 /iJ1'5 ;j;Pt!::(/)I::§'!jIH'o G'LP.::5o

(She's always boasting that she's good at tennis and (also good at) piano, and things like that.)

i;<9>lt/vttt' 1;.,,( H-iJl;l';(

(f) §'l:~!i:C!'.t~-Ijli~t!::(/)T 7 r t!::(/)I::'~GPm:B :8:~~b'LP.::5o

(Students preparing for the examination are spending busy days stuffed with cram school and tests.)

_¢mi;_

1. Dana is a marker of inexhaustive listing. The listed items can be either nouns, as in KS(A), Exs.(a), (b) and (f), or quotes, as in KS(B) or Exs.(c)-(e).

2. When dana is used in "- dana - dana to -," the speaker/writer is usually critical of the situations stated, as shown in KS(B) and Exs.(c)-(f).


The conjunctions taka and ya can replace all but the final dana in the KS and Exs., as in [1].

[1] a. 1@1=liTl>.h 1 no: I c:l:)' I ~ f T _l - I) 'y 7' 1 BJ) I c i» I ~ f-::>-::> t_:; It.:·O) /u:» I??~ l , niJlt~ < 2' lv®i:p'Lpt~o (= KS(A))

b. f~ li:C If 1 fc_' 0) I c fJ> I ~ l , '5 [ Iv 1 fc_' 0) I c fJ> I ~ l , '7 -;} /' 1 fc_' 0) l?cfJ> I??~ f I:: \ '-:>t~m~IW*H~ t!::o (= Ex.(a))

As shown in [2], ya cannot replace dana when dana is followed by a quote, as in KS(B) and Exs.(c)-(e). Note also that the use of taka for the last quote should be avoided, but without the quote marker to, taka is acceptable.

60 dana / datte'

[2] a. "f::1:.t~ 1) ii1\t¥:O) ;:'mR:61 i fp 1 fi:,'{l) / C tJ' / *'\'" f, .j>jt~:6I-? i G '" pi fi:.'(1) /??ctJ' /*'\'" f t, p-?t~'f~El-:J-ep.:;,o (= KS(B»

cf."f::1:.t~1)ii1\t¥:O);:'mR:6lifpc7J', .j>jt~:6I-?iG",pC7J', p -? t~'f~El-:J -e\ '':;'0

b.1EHii~:6IM:;;"i=1T;: '5 :6,t~-:J-e t, P-? t~~:6111iP 1 eo: / C7J' / *'\"'f, ~*:6I£,':;'lf':·(J)/??C7J'/*'\"'ftElP~~T':;', (=Ex.(c»

cf.1Btiii~:6IM:;;"I=1T;: '5 :6' t ~-:J -e t, \ n t ~~:6111i\' C 7J', ~* :61£,.:;,C7J', ElP~~T':;'o

(¢ toka (DBJG: 488-90); ya (DBJG: 536-38»

conj. <s>

datte' 61

:BtL?)

t!~-:J -e llIDEJ\' /lIDB:6'-:J t~ f Ivte:: (1 to) / t Iv f) (because S.t. is/was

interesting)

te:: -:J -e llIDBP /lIDB:6' -:J t~ fit 0) / t Iv f (because S.t. is/was interesting)

(ii) te::-:J-elN/Adj(na)stemf l"'/te::-:Jt~flvte::(l to)/tlvf) te:: -:J -e 1 N / Adj(na)stem f 1 te:: / te:: -:J t: fit 0) / t Iv f

te:: -:J -e "f::1:. 1 '" / te:: -:J t: f Iv te:: ( 1 t 0) / t Iv f) (because s.o. is/was a student)

te:: -:J -e"f::1:.1 te:: / te:: -:J i: fit 0) / t Iv f (because s.o. is/was a student)

~"

te:: -:J -e N' 1 '" / te:: -:J t: f Iv te:: ( 1 t 0) / t Iv f) (because s.t.ls.o. is/was

strange)

te:: -:J -e N' 1 te:: / te:: -:J t: fit 0) / t Iv f (because s.t.ls.o. is/was strange)

a conjunction that indicates a reason

because

.;oo",;.it;.

(a) fiJ:: ~~, E'5 G-et-:Jt;:'mR1\t«",PO),

(Mother: Saya, how come you aren't eating more?) "t

~~: te::-:J-eto"':6', ~p-ep",ptlvo

(Saya: 'Cause I'm not hungry.)

·:::d.: ttA- t:

(b) ~: i7!*~ lv, ~B liE '5 G-e~'}"7i=1T:6''''Po)o

(Wife: Kenta, how come you're not going golfing today? )

s,,1: hI '!:'A~'

x: s-. -e, ~B liiltUN~l":'§!:1\t~ t G'" i'! v'" G "'Plvte::o

(Husband: 'Cause I have to have lunch with a client in Ginza.)

h-iS.:. hi:, :"c

(c) A: ~T, ~P~'H:;v"'PJ::o

(Michiko, it's no laughing matter!)

:BtL?)

B: te::-:J -e =AO)~i5G-eP':;'O)~lifIp-ep.:;, tlIDBPlvte:: t lv,

(But it's so funny just listening to you guys talk.)

s/:".:] nA-t-:J! SA, s

(d) t'5 35!l!'t:vJt:6''''P:fJo te::-:J-eJ!!B3{tilIiUi35!l!', 36!l!', 37!l!':61~t~V)

;I: i ~dt-:l'

llfjO);j;!(i'M1'" Ivte:: t 0),

(3SO(C) isn't anything surprising, because the temperature is normally 35°(C), 36°(C), 37°(C) every day.)

li< ?-o:---'I;~

(e) A: "'lvl', i~te::it,~ijI1Jk"'lvl"T:6'?

(How come you put oolong tea only in my glass?)

h -tt~,tlA-

B: te:: -:J -e, to llfj Ii i te::*j.jl(;ipte::;:>'5 ?

(Because you are not an adult yet, are you?)

• Key Sentence

A:
E'5G-e~-:J-e<n"'pO)?
(Why won't you see me?)
B:
I'" \." I
te:: -:J -e , i~, ~ B ott G P Iv te:: 0
('Cause I'm busy today.) .1.1;';&"1"'.

(i) te:: -:J -e 1 V / Adj(i) l inf Iv te:: ( 1 to) / t Iv f) te:: -:J -e 1 V / Adj(i) [inf 1 to) / t Iv f

te:: -:J -e 11\t«.::;, / 1\t« t~ f Iv te:: ( 1 to) / t Iv f) (because s.o. eats/ate s.t.)

te:: -:J -e 11\t«.::;, / 1\t«t~ fit 0) / t Iv f (because s.o. eats/ate s.t.)

62 datte'

~h *~

(f) ;jE(;/)!P G 1ifO)J;t;I=~-:> 'l ~ tc:iJl, AG« ~;/)' I!. "5 ;/)'~2Ih 'lPt2:o t~ -:> 'l,

z :: 1=* G t is < ti: z t ;/)l ti: Po

(I came to the restaurant where I knew he'd be, but I wondered whether I should go in or not, because something bad always occurs there.)

1. Datte is a conjunction that indicates a reason for something in casual speech.

2. Datte is used only in highly colloquial speech in informal situations.

Typically it is used in conversation between two very close people, such as close friends, as in the KS, parent and child, as in Ex.(a), or a married couple, as in Ex.(b).

3. Datte often ends with nda, nda monto), or monto), as in Exs.(a), (c) and (d). Note also that it can be used with kara (da), as in (1).

,''':;dfAli!> A..A, -r -::;I") If( ~Al)di.n::

(1) ~liJlHJ91=illil~JjjjfjO)1J;/)l-:) G P G G P1Hel!., 1~1= Ii:: O)~*~O)1J;/)l-:)

t't.:: t'ls .s: 7J't.::A.

GPo t~"?-r r~Jj;/)ljjfjpJ tP"50);/)lT"l"1=A" vAO)~flIl1=.f,iJ;fl'!G'l

PGiJ'<:>o

(Generally speaking, a migraine is supposedly harder to put up with, but to me these stress headaches are worse. That's because the headache just adds to the stress.)

4. There are two other uses of datte that are distinct from its use as a reason-conjunction. One is a concession-conjunction, as shown in (2), and the other is a hearsay-conjunction, as shown in (3). Note that datte as a reason-conjunction always comes at the sentence-initial position, but datte as a concession-conjunction or a hearsay-conjunction occurs at the end of a subordinate clause or the end of a sentence, respectively.

(2) a. )j! < 'll'fft.:'"? -r Y' -1 * - t, ti: G;/)' i P i -tt Ivo =)j! < 'll'ff-r''l> Y' -1 * - t, ti: G;/)' i pi -tt Ivo

(If it's my own home, it doesn't matter if it is far away and inconvenient.)

$: "lSi.l'

b. I!. Ivti: 1= P P7\:;'tt.:' -:> -r~.q r8~)j;p i To

= I!. Ivti: U' \ '7\:;'t1:''l>~.q r8~)j;\' i To

(No matter how good a teacher may be, he sometimes makes mistakes.)

(¢ -tette (DBJG: 461-63))

datte' / dette' 63

i1'~ ,t

(3) a. ¥~, *ti:Plvt~"?-ro

=¥~li*ti:P-t oj -r"9o

(I heard that Yukie isn't coming.)

ill.> T 1\tJ~

b. aJj B li*t.:·"? -r ~ 0

= aJj B li*t~ -t oj 1:'"90

(They say it's going to snow tomorrow.)

datte' fc.'"?-c2

prt. <s>

a particle meaning "too" or "even"

too; also; (not) - either; even; any; no matter what/who/how/ etc.

[REL. mo; demo]


Noun Prt.
aA.~<
::O)tJIT~ti: G fJ,. t: t~-:>'l -C'~ iTo
((i) I could do this translation, too. (lit., If it's this translation, I can do it,
too. (ii) Even I could do this translation. (lit., If it's this translation, even
I can do it.) (B)

Noun
i.Pi"ss ,,( tr-r~\
~g; \ 'toi§: ~ Iv 0) 9=' 1= 1iH G \ , A t~-:>'l PGo
(In a large group of customers, there will be difficult people(, too).) (C)

Noun Prt.
.6- M .'n
7 iJ'<:> t~-:>'l ~< ti:P;/)'G, ;jE(1=1I~IliG'llJ,t2:G ?
(It's not too late now (lit., It is not late, even from now), so why don't
you call him?) 64 datte'

(D)

Wh-word
tin
-'f Iv""" 'f±¥t~~ i: ij ~ t~-=>L ~V)t::."o
(Anyone would want a good job like that.) .;.1;;'6I1t.) .•

(i) N (Prt.) t~ ') L

H,

11llt~ ~ L (he, too; even he)

z= hiJ> ij t~ ~ L (from now on, too; even from now on) (ii) Wh-word t~ ~ L

t-':h

ffitt~ ~ L ~ "i (anyone would buy)

.;;,,",Jt;.

~h :. c"t

(a) jfljt~~Li'-{:JlioK i::li~;t LPGt~;S "io

((i) You're thinking about your children, too, aren't you? (ii) Even you are thinking about your children, aren't you?)

£'sd

(b) -'fhlil1~*t~~ Lm ij id:P z= i:: t~o

((i) This is something the division head doesn't know, either. (ii) This is something even the division head doesn't know. )

~l'~1v ('int

(c) ~l1tli'ItGPO)-CBait~~L{*/Ji)id:PZ= i::iJl~po

((i) Because I have been very busy recently, often I haven't been able to take a day off on Sunday, either.

(ii) Because I've been very busy recently, often I haven't even taken Sunday off.)

lJ' ~fA ~?> i.ptl h-3 ~.

(d) t"iPP1J[J~I=§lfGL~hJ::o 11llt~~LJ!3(tiJliO~L~~t::.:blte",id:plv

t~iJ> s.

(Why don't you forgive him now? He didn't mean anything bad when he did it.)

t.d1 t:.rJJ

(e) z= hiJ> ij t~~L11llI=liP;S p;S*J!i id:Pi:: Pltid:plvt~iJ> ij, -'f 1vid:1=11ll0)

::i::iJ!<~"i tlve",id:pJ::o

(We're going to have to ask a lot of favors from him from now on, too, so don't talk so ill of him.)

If

I

datte' 65

(£( t)'x.

(f) z= O)rJlt~ ~ L -'f "i t~o {~O)'/ - r Htf V) td i~:bhG i -c;g ~ id:Plvt~o

(It happened the other day, too. He borrowed my notebook and didn't return it until I asked him to.)

~! < ~;s.. oJ.l(-

(g) ~llt~ ~ Lf~iJljfljl=u~i-:_)pt::.:: i:: iJ1iO G iJ>po

(Have I ever lied to you, even once?)

(h) -'fht~lt B*~HlhLPt::. ij~At~~ L-Cro G iJ> ij~~ L .: ij lv,

(If you know that much Japanese, you can do it even on your own, so give it a try.)

:: c't a II' 0t::. £" !:oill

(i) fLlii'-{:JliiJ1fiXGiJ1G to)lifPJt~~L~pl:Ht::., ~iJ>ij,llali-'fhlifl,')j;p

t~~t::.iJ>t Ghid:Po

(I bought my child anything he wanted. When I think about it now, I feel that might have been the wrong thing to do.)

•

U) [~1)t~~LlRlet~;S"io .!f!<1f(/Ji)1)",;tJ::,

(It's the same either way, isn't it (lit., Anyone of which is the same, isn't it)? Make up your mind, quick.)

• O~~1v

(k) ,nt::.~ L iO id:t::.O)~ V) t::.P z= i:: HI1G G L ro t: e '" id:PO),

(Haven't I always given priority to what you want to do?)

_¢mi,.

1. Datte is a particle that is used primarily in spoken language.

2. Datte means either "too" or "even," depending on the context. In some cases, datte can be interpreted either way, as in KS(A) and Exs.(a)-(c). The context and/or situation determines the meaning of the sentence.

3. In some cases, datte can be interpreted only as "too," as in KS(B) and Exs.(d)-(f), or only as "even," as in KS(C), Exs.(g) and (h).

4. When a Wh-word precedes datte, it usually means "any." Nan datte "why; how come," as shown in (1), is a different use.

Ii 1]'

(1) Wt.:· ~ 't -'f 1vid:,\!iI)ff,id: z i:: i Gt::.lvt~o

(How come you did such a stupid thing?)


1. Mo "too; also; even" can replace datte in many situations, as shown in [1]. Note that when the meaning of the sentence is ambiguous, as in KS(A) and Ex.(a), ma's meaning is limited to "too."

1'1""

66 dstte'

[1] a. z O)liJljlVd: ; 'fAf= 1 f':? -r / 'b I C' ~ ;l:: To (= KS(A))

b. ~~ p;fo~ ~ /v0)r:p f= Lift L, pA 1 f':·? -r / 'b I p.:Q 0 (= KS(B))

c. ~ 1 f.:·?-r / 'b I i"f:Jl;O)z::: C: fi~;t -Cp.:Q tCi7:> -)0 (= Ex.(a))

d. t -) ppllU/filIU=i\t L, -c-'\'tLJ:o 1E!Z 1 f':·? -r / 'b I !!!.\3((,iJl &,? -C-'\'? t.: vH t.:: '" id:p/vtCiiJ';o (= Ex.(d))

However, when datte means only "even," mo cannot be used in its place, as shown in [2].

[2] a. ~iJ'; 1 f':·? -r / *'b I ~ < id:PiJ';, 1E!ZUliilli G -c dot.:; ?

(= KS(C))

b. ~1l1 f.:·? -r /*'b I f~iJl~n!li~-::>pt.: z::: C: iJl&,.:Q iJ'Po (= Ex.(g))

c. of tLtCi ft B*~gHU? -cpt.: ;~A 1 f':'? -r /=« I c~ .:QiJ'; -'\'?-C z:::.; /va (= Ex.(h))

Conversely, datte cannot be used in place of mo in the following situations, where mo is used as an emphatic marker:

[3] a.ofO)~i~f=fi500Al'b/*f.:?-rI~;l::?t.:o (As many as 500 people joined the gathering.)

b. J'\- T 1 - f=7t.ttiJl~ Al 'b / *f':'? -r I *id:iJ'-::> t.:o (Not a single teacher came to the party.)

iJ'A..t::.A-

c. of /vid:M1I!id: z C: 1 'b / * f':'? 'r I c ~ id: PO)iJ'o

(Can't you do such a simple thing?)

7J''51?

d,ljIIHHi,fbO) v;f, - r Hll 'b / * f':? -r I L, id: iJ' -::> t.:o

(My section chief didn't even look at my report.)

(¢ mo' (DBJG: 247-50); mo2 (DBJG: 250-53)) II. Demo can be used in place of datte when datte means "even," as shown in [4].

[4] a. ~iJ'; 1 f':? -r /"(''b I ~ < id:PiJ';, 1E!ZUltilli L, -c dot.:; ?

(= KS(C))

b. ~1l1 f':'? -r / -r-''b l1~iJl~n.!li~-::>pt.: z C: iJl&,.:Q iJ'Po (= Ex.(g))

datte2 / de are 67

c. oftLtCift B*~g~~lh -cpt.:; ~ Al f':? -r /"(''b I C~.:Q iJ';-'\'? -c Z:::"; /vo (= Ex.thj)

Demo can also replace datte when datte follows a Wh-word, meaning "any," as in [5],

[5] a. of /Vid:ppfHUCi-::> t.:;:m 1 f':? -r / -r-''b I-'\' ~ t.:Po (= KS(D))

b. ,fb fi i"f:Jl;iJliik L, iJl.:Q to) fifPJ 1 f':? -r /"(''b I ~ plJ-;t iz; ~iJ';,~ HfoftLIU,,~)lptCi-::>t.:iJ't L,tLid:Po (=Ex.(i))

c.C'?'51f.:?-r/-r-''bIIPlt.::t:::7:>-)0 !f!<~/;t)1)",;tJ:o (=Ex.(j)) (¢ demo (DBJG: 111-13))

phr. <w>

a conjunctive phrase that expresses the idea of concession

even; even if; even though; no matter what/who/how/etc. - may be; whatever/whoever/ etc. - may be

[REL. de mo; de atte mo; de ero ga/to]


Noun
.::-51,' ~.
i: i:: ;t *1:& -C®~~, ofO)J: -) id:rr~liillf~ tLid:po
(Even the (company) president shouldn't be allowed to do things
like that. (lit., Even if it is the president, such conduct should not be
allowed.)) 68 de are

(B)

Noun
~'A,;g; r",n: t!'fJ~ If-)=<
citn, <0ffAl='*'i5 G "Cf ~ t '0
(Whatever kind of problem it may be, please report it to me without faiL) (C)

Adj(na)stem
"?? ~A- ",
~i!Jnl t )n'l= 1'1£ citn, ~O)*~~:bQ-:Ji IJ li;g;po
(No matter how inconvenient my commute is, I do not intend to move
(lit., from our current housej.) (D)

Adj(i)inf.nonpast Noun
Me tJ't'lt'?
(!'fil' 1B<;g; r, ~ -:J U¥~c ~ Q
t )n'l= tIHA' r",n: -Citn
lift::.o
(No matter how difficult the problem may be, he certainly should be
able to solve it.) .1.111,#"'.1,.

(i) N citn

t.: C ~.J~~c'itn (even if s.o, is ill)

t!h

MtC'itn (no matter who it may be)

t 'n'I=§§t 'T ~ 1>. cit n (no matter how weak a team it may be) Lf

pn'l=ijjIn';g; 7 J~~ r c'itn (no matter how quiet an apartment it may be)

(ii) Adj(na)stem c'itn

1;' 0)-)

t.: cit OJtl§c' it n (even if S.t. is possible)

t 'n' I=/f'1t:c it n (no matter how inconvenient S.t. may be)

.;@IIII"[;.

hAl~:i t'""J.J..A.1J>h

(a) Z'::O)**~Ii, t.:cU&:5tFa,citn, 4lJ:BTQZ'::cnl*Wc'To

(It is important to practice this every day, even if it is only for a few minutes.)

de are 69

ii'n "(t'lfA- L-:>-='-) .J.. iJ' 0)-) ~t:\\

(b) 1B<O);j'ii!Ejli, t.:tit-fnnl~:fY/f'OJtl§citn, 00< I=f!lTQo

(His suggestions are worth listening to even if they cannot be carried out.)

SA::::? og e~"'J t;;A, ~ tJ'A. ~ lo»'Ji:»:J E!" -tH'

(c) 1l'if%1~vrrrl=-:JP'lli, t.: C UlH!flF<llO)f~!fIc'itn, -fO)~mAHUU G'lP

QOOn'it IJ iTo

(Some countries regulate the export and import of cryptographic technology, even when it is intended for short-term use.)

C!:::::~ ~t'~,? G(

(d) frlJ~H'itn, -fO)f±$c'<:t.mTQc;g;nlillR;g;io)Ii;g;po

(Whatever kind it may be, if you make a living from it, there is no such thing as easy work.)

i')~? t,J;~(~-:J k(-1±-t' 't;J:t:OtA- LA.n!t'

(e) [O)J: '5 ;g;J'!Il.EI3cit n, ~l'F!JWH~~TQ,*Ii, ~f'FmO)~W'=1±JlG;g;It

nli;g; r, ;g;po

(Whatever the reason (for making copies) may be, when you duplicate copyrighted materials, you have to be careful not to infringe on the copyright. )

C::-? L (';"'1;;t' l:dt.l'A. IOt'ttt' I) .h t:A- tl' h1"-t' Lb)1

(f) "3p,fO).~%cli..l,§,O)iIJ~nlpn' I=J'!Il./f'~ c' &i n, ~kt&fi<Ii -f nl=vt"5 G n'

;g;n'-:J i: 0) t::.o

(In the army in those days, no matter how unreasonable the senior officers' commands, the soldiers under them had no choice but to obey them.)

.~ml;.

1. De are is the imperative form of de aru. When de are is used in a subordinate clause, it indicates concession, i.e., "even if; even though."

(¢ ni shiro/seyo (in this volume); to wa ie (in this volume); de aru (DIJG: 30-33»

2. Only nouns and na-adjective stems precede de are.

3. The emphatic adverb tatoe "admitting, granting, supposing" often occurs with de are when de are is not preceded by a Wh-word (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a)-(c».

4, The emphatic adverb ikani "how" occurs with i-adjectives or naadjectives. When ikani occurs with i-adjectives, they are always noun modifiers, as in KS(D) and (1).

-\:tA.L'll> -r c t;;t,{tt, trfl!'

(1) ~'iJ>t= ~,~ ')iiIJ~,¥- Z';v.,;fl., flnt.: ~ ~ Tnl p;g; Itnl;J:'*ffl<:T Q 0) Ii ill

i.»,

70 de are I - de are - de are

(No matter how good an athlete may be, it is difficult for himJher to become a great athlete without a good coach.)

5. De are is also used in the phrase "X de are Y de are" to mean "whether

X or Y." (¢ - de are - de are (in this volume))


De ma, de atte ma, and de ero qe/to can be used in place of de are without changing the meaning of a sentence. De atte ma is less formal than de are, and de ma is even less formal.

[1] a. 'i: t ;t t±;Ilt 1 -r'iIi);f1. / -r'-t / -r iIi)"? -r -t / -r iIi):5 ? itO c I I, f: CO J:: '5 ;g;rr~Ii~t~n;g;po (= KS(A))

b. c!v;g;r,,~J\!!ll-r'iIi);f1./-r'-t/-rili)"?-r-t/-rili):5? liO c II, ~'f fLI:W15 t. Lr ~ Po (= KS(B))

c. ]ii!JiJ'piJ'I:/f-1J! 1 -r'iIi);f1. / -r'-t / -r'iIi)"? 'r -t / -r'iIi):5? liO c I I, ~CO*\t-~bG-:J tv) li;g;po (= KS(C))

(¢ yo tolga (in this volume))

str. <w>

r

- de are - de are 71

a structure that means "no matter which one is the case"

whether X or Y ; be it X or Y; or

[REL. - de ero to - de ero to; - de ma - de ma; - to iwazu

- to iwazu]

(B)

Adj(na)lstem Adj(na)2stem
U lOl' lA-ltt'
;fj"~ c'iI?n, 1!!t~ -(iI?n, A"tlHR\'o
(No matter if one is famous or nameless, life is short.) .in;;;HlIuil_

(i) NI c'iI?n, N2 l"iI?n

~c' iI? n, ~ C' iI? n (whether it is summer or winter) (ii) Adj(na)lstem C iI? n, Adj(na)2stem -( iI? n

--<A.i]

1J!flJl" iI? n, /f-1J!c' iI? n (whether S.t. is convenient or inconvenient)

.;%,,· .. Jt4_

j-:J< fpA.=-) u

(a) z= z= li*l" il?nf1ll" iI? n~ L \ ,iJ' GWl.7tl:[iij\ 'L\' G 0

(Whether spring or fall, this place is beautiful, so it is a good sightseeing spot.)

...... \':h O).p

(b) 1A'7J..)"Ac'iI?n, j{vA7'-TAc'iI?n, ffD\t-~!vc'pGU::l"IilmC

lift;:o

(Whether an Israeli or a Palestinian, their hope for peace should be the same.)

jJ>h :h L~(

(c) lBllifD1tl"iI?n, t¥1tl"iI?n, 1PJc't1t""L [_,;J, '50

(He eats anything, Japanese- or Western-style food.)

~~h\( lA.~l'#( -l±-t,~-?

(d) il?CO"J!:1'3'Iifl.f"J!:l"iI?n, 1§im"-jtl"iI?n, Nt~"J!:l"iI?n, 1m C J:: '5 I:~]i l..,L

pGo

(That scholar is well-versed in a number of subjects, whether it be philosophy, linguistics or anthropology.)

"'-t'l>? L>J>"J;:0 ItA. r: S

(e) fBl"iI?n, ))!ij*l"iI?n, %t*Ii{±:J:n11bn LPGo

(Whether weekday or weekend, Kenta is always pressed by work.)

t C Od

(f) ¥~c'iI?n, :J/'c.'::L-:7~l'771 ')7Ac'iI?n, *06 Gnt.::1 ~-:;\t-*

If A. L'1'Ii\

JJi!-t G CO Ii i: \ ,-"!viii t. \ '0

(Whether in photography or in computer graphics, it is hard to produce an image as requested.)


Noun: NOUll2
t':A.-l±-t' l J:-l±-t' 1:/vlfA. ItJ..., IJ
~11 c'iI?t"l, 3<11 ciI?n, Ars' t t. LcofiEflJlilm Clift;:o
(Whether one is a man or a woman, one's rights as a human being
should be the same.) ,f

72 - de are - de are

«A. ~

(g) t~?}j-iJli'1!fUl";v;f1., /Fi'1!l";V;f1., -y1 *-t-,iJlMf-t,t.::Po

(Whether the location is convenient or inconvenient, I'd like to have my own house.)

1. "Nj de are N2 de are" is used to mean "whether it be N, or N2."

2. If an i-adjective is used, the formation changes to "Adj(i)jstem kare Adj(i)zstem kare," which is almost limited to such phrases as osokare hayakare in (La), yokare ashikare in (1b) or okere sukunakare in (Ic). Those three are virtually idioms. The ending kare is a contraction of ku are.

t:;i: ip(ao,'

(1) a. ~iJ':h..!f.iJ':h., :::O)iEl"tIT1i'i1l/i;bl/til::: -i5t:5iS 70

(Sooner or later, the information technology revolution will take place in this country, too.)

::"J~d \, l,~ '51" J: S

b.1 /' ~ -;t,'J )-- O)f~ml"iE~0)J'U1Wli;f1.-i5iJ' G, ~iJ':h.~l,;iJ':h.,

;l;ll';f:lA. ')1""

iEO)It~ t li G Pl"P < t:5 is 70

(Because our awareness of national boundaries will fade due to our use of the Internet, for better or worse, the concept of nation will also continue to weaken.)

,U'td oj

c. a~g"jtill;:J:~iJ':h.~id: iJ':h.-1- 01 t-, A 4' -O)Jl!:;ti':a-~WC\ \ -i5 0

(Linguists have been influenced to a greater or lesser degree by Chomsky.)

There are similar idiomatic phrases that take the form of "Adj(i)jstem kara to Adj(i)zstem kero to," as in (2).

1."*1. ttfi?> ~d.tl-.:::>

(2) a.1SWdo ~ .r, 7 )-- iJlB l,; iJ'6 oj c '{!> ~ l,; iJ'6 oj C, IRl C J: 7 tJ:'Mlfw-H'

V·.!::_'

-,[;f1.(::::t-J~tro

(Whether a project is hard or easy, he tackles it with the same passion.)

71'0)CJ; t:;J;

b. ~iJ'6 oj c'/J;iJ'6 oj C, 1BZ3(I::J:~~CP1lk<-°o

(Whether it is hot or cold, she swims all year round.)

;tJt!.A.

c. filll'\tiJlil1l;iJ'6 oj C il1l; < id: iJ'6 oj c toP G I' t O)iJl1§t"'Zt.:: Po

(I want to eat good food, whether or not it is expensive.)

Note the contrast in meaning in (3a, b) and (4a, b).

- de are - de are 73

'l

-ttA. z: J: ib il'~d -)

(3) a. B::$:WiiJtl:lt7 _)i I) jJiJ'G~iJ':h.~l,;iJ':h., PiSPiStJ:Jl!:;W:a-~lt-c~

t.::o

(For better or for worse, post-war Japan received all sorts of influence from the U.S.)

(Tc;> iJ' J: :b.Q

b. *B*iJl~iJ'6 oj c~iJ'6 oj C, 5JUI:::iJ,:t btJ:po

(Whether the result is good or bad, I don't care.)

t1'(-CA-

(4) a. fM.::-t,(::J:~iJ':h.~id:iJ'M§,¢(:a-:f-f-:J-CP-i5o

(Whether many or few, we all have our weak points.)

h'i~H iJ' 'l; J;tJ{

b. i%€i1Sl-iJl~iJ'6 oj c~tJ:iJ'6 oj C, -'[O)AO)-fiffifill(:::)J;pI::J:tJ:po

(Whether someone's salary is high or low, his value as a person remains the same.)


I. - de ero to - de oro to can replace - de are - de are without changing the meaning, as shown in [1].

[1] a. !l-H'tT'! iI6:h. / iI6 6 oj CI, 3(ttT·! iI6:h. / iI6 6 oj c f, AflIl i:: V( 0) ;j;UUI::J:1Rl t:: 1::J:·ft:5o (= KS(A))

b.;ff1;T·! iI6:h. / il66 oj c f, ~;f;To! iI6:h. / il66 oj c l , A:'tI::J:~RPo (= KS(B))

The second de ! are / ero to f may change to the negative form (- de) nekero to, but nakare, the negative form of are, cannot be used, as shown in [2].

[2] a.~'I1:'Z'!iI66ojc/iI6:h.f, (~t't'Z')!id:iJ'6oj/*id:iJ':h.fi::, Ara' i:: G-CO)flfUI::J:IRlCI::J:ft::o (cf. KS(A))

(Whether or not one is a man, one's rights as a human being should be the same as the next person's.)

b.;ff;f; To! iI6 6 oj c / iI6:h. l , (;ff;f; TO) ! tJ: iJ' 6 oj c / *id: iJ':h. f A:'tI::J: ~R\ '0 (cf. KS(B))

(Whether one is famous or not, life is short.)

II. - de mo - de mo can replace - de are - de are quite freely. The only difference between the two is that the former is used in both spoken and written Japanese while the latter is used primarily in written Japanese.

74 - de are - de are / de mo/ja aru mai shi

de mo/ja aru mai shi 75

[3] a. ~'11:-(" ! ~;h. / 'b l , 3c'I1:"{'! ~;h. / 'b l , AFdI t t. r O):tlfU Ii IPl C; Ii ft2:o (= KS(A»

b.:ff~"t·!~;h./'bf, ~~"{,!~;h./'bf, A1::li~EPo (=KS(B»

(ii) Vinf bit! c't / C; '\, f iD :£d, P G

'(> h-i 1:!"A-ll)JI

7°o!I!YJ-*0)~~I=! t:J:;;, / t:J:-:Jf:: f bit! l"t / C; '" f iD Q::loP G (it isn't the case that s.o. willihas become a professional baseball player, so -)

(iii) Adj(i)inf bit 1 c t / C; '" f iD;;, i \ \ G

stl.:?

1 lIDS P / lIDS iJ' -s t: f bit! c't / C; '" f iD ;;, i P G (it isn't the case that s. t. is/was interesting, so -)

(iv) Adj(na)stem 1 t:J: / t2: -s t: f bit! l" t / C; '" f eV);;' i P G

:ff~ ! t:J: / t2: -::d::: f bit! 'r: t / t.:; '\, f iD Q i \\ G (it isn'tthe case that s.o. is/was famous, so -)

(v) N! c'&,;;' / t2: -:d::: f bit! '-c t. / t.:; '\' f iD Q i P G

ti1it! l" iD ;;, / t2: -:d::: f bit! c t / C; '(c f &, Q i \ \ t. (it isn't the case that s.o. is/was a company president, so -)

de rno / ja aru rnai shi T''b / 1.5 'i" if;j.Q;I: \, \ L.,

phr. <s>

you are not -, so; it isn't -, so

a phrase expressing the speaker's belief that s.o.'s action is based on mistaken identity of himself/herself and also expressing the speaker's critical comments about s.o.'s behavior


.;:%,,;;.)(; •

~"

(a) '¥'1::C;",&,;;,ipG, f±.c'tm'Gt:::t)E'5t2:o

(You are not a student; why don't you look for ajob or something?)

Noun
J::j 'S x.A- C
fJJflt~!,'r. ! c't / t.:;", f iDQipG ~A c''¥'~I=ff~ t:J: i: 1',
(You are not a kindergarten pupil. Go to school by yourself.) -ttt, u 1;' e e

(b) l&lil,*c't iD G i P G, P~'3:---:JiJ't:J:Pl"r i: Po

(You aren't a politician. Don't tell a lie.)

(c) j;:C;",&,;;,ipG, -'[1vt:J:I=AI=C;'2nGJ::'5t:J:::Ui~Is6t:J:i:Po (You aren't a dog, you know. Stop being so playful with me.)

(B)

Vinf
7'7 /,7.1= frtt .Q bit ! »« / c'\, f &'GiPG,

E'5 G"l-'[Ivt:J:I=7 '7 /' 7.~g'3:-Y11l5~G"lPQO)o
(There's no way you can get to France. How come you're studying
French so hard?) {-?L-~

(d) :to~:r\:l" t &, G i P G, -'[ 1vt:J: 1= G fill Iv t G t:J:Pc'r i: Po

(It's not a funeral service. Don't be depressingly quiet!)

If A... t:.

(e) lJ,ltlllO)1j!f~'¥'~I=A -::> i: t), B *AO)3cO)'fiJl1j!f~gl" i7J-iJ' t) t:J: \ \:: t iJ' &'-::>

C"'~Ht,~1

i: t) jj!JP"l J t § -::>"l ~ ic; -t€~<P C; '" &,;;, i P G, B*~l"§;t 1£1'1'0)1=0

(When I went inside an English language school there, a Japanese girl said to me in English, "If you have anything you don't understand, ask me." It wasn't even a class. She could have talked to me in Japanese!)

t,~HA.,

(f) :: 0) '5 E lv~c'IHt)( G "liJ' t), '5 E' lviJl < ;;, i l"jit < 1M::: i: n, P t) P t)

TGo 7'7 /' 7.;jSj-J'!I!l"t &,;;, ip G······o

(At this noodle shop it takes so long from the time you order noodles to the time they bring them to the table that I get annoyed. It's not French cuisine, you know.)

.ijn;;'Allm,_

(i) NIl" t / C; '2 f iD Gil' G

= ct

'ffff; 1 c't / C; '(0 f &, G i \ ) G (you aren't a child, so - (lit., you

couldn't possibly be a child, so -»

~

,

76 de mo/ja aru mai shi / _ demo [Wh-word] demo

ti'"t::: ttA.:::'J ,~ i-"?¥~1

(g) ,\\'l,-Tliif~~WJ5l G --0' -15 Iv C; ,?;j;_, -15 iI' G, -¥ !l-LJ:;I)' I) ~ljil ''LI ''L¥*

c'~ -15lvt!:. IS '5 ;1)'0

(My son isn't majoring in music, but he's always playing the guitar. I wonder if he can finish school.)

.~m(;W

1. De mo / ja aru mai shi is a phrase expressing the speaker's belief that someone's action is based on mistaken identity of himselflherself, as in KS(A) and Exs.(a)-(c), and expressing the speaker's critical comments about someone's behavior, as in KS(B) and Exs.(d)-(g).

2. De mo / ja aru mai shi is preceded either by nouns or by a wake clause or n clause, as shown in KS(B) and Ex.(g).

3. The de mo of the phrase can be replaced by ja without changing the meaning.

4. Wake can be replaced by n. For the difference in meaning refer to wake da (DIJG: 570-74) and no da (DBJG: 325-28).

~ demo [Wh-wordl demo ~"(,'t [Wh-wordl "(''t

str:

_ demo [Wh-word] demo 77

7"7 I) fl (;I), G) <! '6, 1::':= (;I), G) c' '6 ((from) Africa or (from) anywhere) -t G c' '6, {iif-e t (sushi or whatever)

~ T

~jJ B <! t, p-:n:' t (tomorrow or whenever)

_ whatever; _ whoever; _ whenever; _ whichever

.i!hiuJi;W

(a) fA-:J 'L'Y / fl<! t {iif<! t §7l:li-ttl-t i::lU G id::P!l1 fid:: a>;

(I'm the type of person who cannot stop reading manga or whatever once I start.)

(b) T:/-\' 'YJ):*tg ~ liM<!tL <!t, I::''t;. Gc't;l)'i pi-ltlvo

(It doesn't matter to me whether (the size of) the T-shirt is M or L (lit., or whichever).)

;8-5",,0' i') 7)' "(-::J (;,,£ \, -r t-:"9"

(c) BX7[<:c'li, /'7 c''f,JtlfH5\c't, ~~Ltiii-TC'I::':=A..c't1Tft-15o 1::''5 G'LtWJ

00J;:-') t':h t:JJ)

IHl&;'~id::il'fli, ill;l)'I=*Jll>6litc:: c ;t B*AI=<! t illl=c' t ~~J;: G'L < :h

-150

(In Europe and America you can go anywhere in a wheelchair by bus or by subway. When you find you need help, just ask anyone. People there will lend a hand to anyone who asks, Japanese or otherwise.)

~t'~A ~\l1tJl<-tH' f'::11 s ): fJ' t~-?

(d) lIBIIJ)/\-T 1 -li1¥/"Jt1:.c't B*A"Jt1:.<!tillc't$iJO§E8<!, *-15Ali

~li-ifWJ, if~, §5.tJ)l'htc::;jSj-:El!H4f-:J'L< -15cP'5J::'5I=G'LPi-to

(At our recent parties we've made it so all students, whether Japanese or from abroad, can freely participate and ask everyone to bring drinks, music or food they've made.)

ItA t§ tt"? 7J'

(e) A: -tli-i-ltlv;l)l, *~, ~~J)*5*;I)lttltc::G, t. '5~!li!'*'LPtd!:.ltiT;I)'o

(Can you come back next week when we get the result of the examination?)

-ltd!

B: 5.t;l)'1) i Gtc::o *~<!t 1'J<!tfPlPiTo

(Yes, I can come next week or whenever.)

1. ,,_ demo [Wh-word] demo" can be used when what is expressed in the main/subordinate clause is applicable to anyone, anything, any place or any time .

2. As shown in the Formation, demo can be preceded by a particle. (1) provides more examples.

a structure indicating that what is expressed in the main/subordinate clause is applicable to anyone, anything, any place or any time

• Key Sentence

Noun Wh-word
:: ,!:_'t f':h
.if Ivid:::: c Ii 7-#1: ct ~ c' '6 9ilh'LP-15J::o
(That sort of thing is known even to a child or to anybody.) • I.1;';6"U".

N (Prt.) c t, (N (Prt.) c't,) Wh-word (Prt.) c t

t-:h

IJ\"Jt1:. (1=) c' t.. ill 0=) c' t ((to) an elementary pupil or (to) anybody)

78 - demo [Wh-word] demo / dochira ka to iu to

-? h+ttA...l$ t::h !:A, ~

(1) a. ;:O)ff:E*~'f-li/J\"1'~I:"t'-t, MH:-r-·-tJdi\1Jl;lf,.c,o

(This baseball player is popular with elementary school students and everyone else.)

i.dt nt;' .!: L .!: t!h

b.iBHHrPAt"t'-t, iF-.tlil-:,t.::At"t'-t, M[!::-c·t-5i<~i5-li".c,o

(He can talk comfortably with anyone, young and old alike.)

c. ;:0)7°0:):L7 rli~fltJ'S-r-·-t, *fltJ'S"t'-t, P--:J1J'G<::tMHo Gn.c,o

(We can begin this project this month, next month or whenever.)

C'

dochira ka to iu to c' t> .;, tJ, t ~ oj t

phr.

dochira ka to iu to 79

(C)

Adj(i)inf
£]:li f_ -t, G h' i:: B -5 i::, tstt.tl-~\ Ji -C'To
(My mother is rather on the quiet side.) rather; more like - ; more of - ; rather on the - side; rather than otherwise; more - than - [REL. dochira ka to ieba; mushiro]

(D)

Noun
h L./:(
1¥~tl!< liiJ:P1J\ f_-t, G1J'i:: Fd i::, ~1l1t 0)); 1J\ \ ,\ '0
(It's not that Western-style food is bad, but 1 prefer Japanese-style food.) eWn;;'@UUh_

(i) I:: -t, G h' i:: ri -5 i:: (X i:: \\ -5 J: IJ Ii) Yo (where X = N 1 0 I t::. It::. '? i: I I Adj(i)inf I Adj(na)stem 1 0 I t::. I t::. '? i: I ; Y = N 1 t::. I t::. '? i: I I Adj(i)inf I Adj(na) 1 t::. I t::. '? t.:: I)

L 1:A

I:: -t, r) 1J'!::r=i -5 i:: (~~A (t::.) i:: \, -5 J: IJ Ii) "1'1?ft::.o (S.o. is more of a

scholar than a poet.)

I:: -t, G 1J' i:: B -5 i:: (~~At::' '? t.:: i:: \\ -5 J: IJ Ii) "1'1?ft::. '? t.::o (S.o. was more of a scholar than a poet.)

#~ la

I:: -t, G 1J' i:: a -5 i:: (1't G \ '!:: \ , -5 J: IJ Ii) iJijt G \ '0 (I'm lonely rather

than sad.)

/:" -t, G 1J. i:: r=i -] i:: (1't G 1J. '? i: i:: \ , -5 J: IJ Ii) iJijt G 1J' '? i: 0 (I was lonely rather than sad.)

"-:"J,_ I)

I:: -t, G 1J' i:: 15 -5 i:: (/FfJ! (t::.) !:: \' -5 J: IJ Ii) fJ!'flJt::'o (S.t. is convenient

rather than incovenient.)

I:: -t, G 1J'!:: Fi -] i:: (/FfJ!t::' '? iz ]: \, -5 J: IJ Ii) fJ!'flJt::. '? tz ; (S.t. was convenient rather than inconvenient.)

(ii) I:: -t, G 1J' i:: ~. -) !::, X 1J 1 t::. It::. '? i: I 0 (where X = Vinf.nonpast I Adj(i)inf.nonpastl Adj(na)stem iJ:)

1::1:, Gh'!::a-] i::, *~J: < Mf.tJ1J 1 t::. I t::.,? i: I 0 (S.o. is/was an avid reader.)

I:: 1:, G 1J'!:: ,;;- -] i::, 7C~ \ '1J 1 t::. It::. '? i: 10 (S.t./s.o. is/was rather on the big side.)

I:: -t, G h' i:: E, -] i::, ~l}]iJ:1J I t::. I t::. '? t.:: 10 (S.o. is/was more of the kind type.)

a phrase indicating that the speaker/ writer chooses one alternative over another in a tentative way


Nouni Nouns
M, ~d,'< t.v i:: P -5 J: IJ (Ii)
fB{ Ii f_ 1:, G 1J' i:: § -] i:: fiW'1!t liJf~'1!t 1::;
~o
(He is more like a researcher than an educator.) (B)

Adj(na)lstem
i.l;".:.-j-r~
'fbli f_ 1:, G 1J' !:: B -5 i:: ~j.r6Jtf.J i:: P -] J: I) (Ii)
Adj(na)2stem
t.t";::?-r~
~r6Jtf.J s:
(I'm more of an introvert than an extrovert.) 80 dochira ka to iu to

(iii) c' -t, G I)' i:: E§ 7 i::, (X J: I) Ii) Y tfiJl-o (where X, Y = Vinf.nonpast / Adj(i)infnonpast / Adj(na)stem 0:)

c'-t,GiJ'i::E\7 i::, (--9GJ:1)1i)~GtfiJIH~t2'o (Llike watching s.t, rather than playing it.)

~a ~t:

f_-t, GiJ'i::E§7 i::, 7t:"Ht('*GPJ: I) 1ilffGPtfiJIPPo (I like a

teacher to be kind rather than strict.)

t: A, 1:,'I).f." .b( x-» st L6

f_-t, GiJ'i::i§7 i::, j"-t.1i(**<li0:J: I) 1ilfJUl0:tfiJ1ffilBPo (I like

complex games rather than simple ones.)

(iv) f_-t,GiJ'i::1§7i::, (NIJ:1)1i) N2 (IJ)tf)1Jl-o

be

f_-t, GiJ'i::137 i::, (*J: I) 1i)5i\'i(O)tf) iJIH~t2'o (I like cats rather

than dogs.)

• ;$", .. Jt;.

?ttc ft? (J)A, ~ L/dtt'L-::J

(a) Llpls.:(i~ VCtFm0:~L'1i0:Po f_ -t, G iJ' i::E§7 i::*fi*I~0:~t2'o

(Yamamoto is far from easygoing. He's more of a nervous type of guy.)

-lit'l.: 7;' iH: IjIL,:

(b) ;t,1J)i&1El:~<:IJ)"\c'l)tf1iE-t, GiJ'i::E§7 i::'J{P i::P 7 J: I) 1iTG'J{Po

(The way that politician behaves is more cunning than wise.)

~h G?iJ'A."C'/f o iJ;A,"(~

(c) {3 Ii E -t, G iJ' i:: E§ 7 i:: *WlI¥J i:: P 7 J: I) Ii rlWl I¥J t2';/d.o

(You're more pessimistic than optimistic, aren't you?)

n'(J)t.:J; -ttl'LA.-r%!- 1::A.11A. .-

(d) 1BZ3(1i E -t, G iJ' i::13 7 i::, f±.'=~ ~ G ?' l' 7'L', :f1!i*fi1¥J1= t 5~pAF"V;: i::

}Gt '5 0

(More than anything, I think she's the type who lives to work, and is quite mentally strong.)

(e) ;t,1J):k"lt1iE-t, GiJ'i::E§7 i::A"ltiJl"\c'~ GPtft2'o (Entering that college is rather easy.)

fit.: 't"(

(f) 1'L1i)~-T1-0:EIJ)~"'l)c'1i, E-t,GiJ'i::E§7i::, ffi5(1)i'L'1i0:<, 00

~ 1)i'lJ)tft2' 0

(At parties or other gatherings I am more of a listener than a speaker.)

Ij:-:> (/) 't-?-tt~ ~(t:tr~:bIJ~'i (J) 9~t L>3> 1;;.

(g) f_-t, GiJ'i::E§7 i::, ~§jj!j(;fiJ: I) 1i:fFJIIJj~ZfllJ)tfiJqLIJ)JEl!3~1=if-::)lPGo

(If I had to choose I'd say Ryunosuke Akutagawa matches my tastes better than Soseki Natsume.)

t<-c~

(h) =1J):k"ltIJ)B*[jgIJ)"lt~1i, E-t, GiJ'i::E§7 i:: §1¥J'it-M'-:)ll@5~V(PG i::

L. "

P 7 J: I) 1iJEl!3~i:: VC B*~'it-l@5~ VCPGo

dochira ka to iu to 81

(At this university the students of Japanese are studying it more as a hobby than for a certain objective.)

1.l'n c < t'

(i) 1BZ1iE-t, GiJ'i::E§7 /::11<5--9 J: 1).< tfiJl1~fi!:t2'o

(He is better at writing than speaking.)

e¢mi(W [[I

1. Dochira ka to iu to is a phrase used when the speaker/writer chooses one alternative over another in a tentative way.

2. When X and Y are used in Formation (i) and (iii) they are usually the same part of speech. But when an adjective is used, the combination of X (= Adj(i» and Y (= Adjm») or X (= Adjms) and Y (= Adj(i» is allowed, as shown in (la, b) below .

-r O)-?l6t'-I±~ J;:?~d

(1) a. 1BZ1i f_ -t, G iJ' i:: E§ 7 i:: iiJiBI29BJllllJit2' i:: P 7 J: I) 1ilJ!~fjiJS\ \~ \0

(He is more of a shrewd person than a bright one.)

N

b.1BZ3(1if_-t, GiJ'i::137 i::A1=ilG~\i::p 7 J: I) 1istt-:JtJ'~\t.:o

(She is nosey rather than kind.)

3. According to Formation (ii), the past tense is expressed at the end of the sentence, but there is another version in which the past tense is expressed within X, as in (2). Virtually there is no difference in meaning between the two versions.

(2) a. E-t, GiJ'i::E§7 i::, *'it-J: OltAt.:tft2'o

b. E-t, GiJ'i::E§7 i::, *rsiJ'-:Jf;:.tft2'o

c. E-t, GiJ'i::E§7 i::, fj!t]Jt':-:Jf;:.tft2'o

4. In colloquial speech dochira is often replaced by dotchi. [Related Expressions]

I. Dochira ka to iu to can be replaced by dochira ka to ieba. Examples follow.

[1] 1BZ1i Et, 5 t» C 1 ~ oj C / ~:it ,;t:' I ~lCI'f~ i::,) 7 J: I) 1i~ff~~t2'o

(= KS(A»

[2] 1'L1i c't, 5 iJ' C 1 ~ oj C /~ ;ut:" I JHtJl¥J i:: P 7 J: I) 1iil'JrtJl¥Jt2'o

(= KS(B»

82 dochira ka to iu to / do ka

Dochira ka to ieba sounds more formal than dochira ka to iu to. Dochira ka to ieba is used typically for public surveys, as shown in [3].

liil' < i;, hl'

[3] £,;g:tdiftllO)AU~~-r, rlE~~TGJ tP'5~ffl-s'i%lP1:ft~t}is\p

iT;O'o 1. jF1ik5~P 2. C'"5StJ'cl~;t';O?~?CI%lp 3. C'"5StJ'c l~;t'!/?~?C l~~p 4. ~Fm'=~~p

(Compared to others, do you think your patriotism is strong?

1. Very strong, 2. Strong, 3. Weak, 4. Very weak.)

(c> ba (DBJG: 81-83); to' (DBJG: 480-83))

II. Mushiro indicates the speaker's/writer's choice of one alternative over another. This adverb implies a more definitive choice than dochira ka to iu to. In [4a, b] the use of dochira ka to iu to is unnatural because the speaker/writer here expresses a very definitive choice.

..

[4] a. ;:O)*"jto) B*~O)"jttt'i;!.f!l.::t G E;: 0;0', 1 t: [.;-:, /??E"5 S tJ,~

?C li-:J-r~-rPGo

(The enrollment of Japanese language students at this college is far from increasing; it is rather on the decrease.)

It.,,:.;..,

b. £'O)AUM~TG <~ G p;g: G, 1 t: [.;-:, /*c'-s S tJ'C~? c 17Elvt~

1:f;oIPPo

(I'd rather die than marry him.)

(e> mushiro (in this volume))

adv.

do ka 83

(B)

Vneg
" T
E'5;O' fb~ J!~"t ~t\c' rel; Po
(Please don't abandon me.) (C)

Vmasu
...
E '5;0' to ~[.; rel;Po
(Please forgive me.) .,";II@II(,II •

E '5 ;O'~ lVte/Vneg ~Pl:' /ts Vmasul rel; Po

iJ'*-

E '5 ;O')g t. -rr c\; t,o (Please return it to me.)

E '5 ;O':fT;O,~t 'c'r c\; t,o (Please don't go.)

E '5 ;O'tsffl-s1W I') T c\; \'0 (Please take it home.)

.;%''''''''-

(a) E'5;O';:n'=~l')f'=it::,\'G l,-rrc\;\'o

(We'd love to have you over again. (lit, I hope you'll see fit to overlook our meager hospitality and come again.j)

liA..!: -j

(b) E '5 ;O'*~O);: t Hilil, -rr c\; Po

(Please tell me the truth.)

(c) E '5 ;O'tsft~*tJ:n= (l, -rr el; p) 0 (Please take good care of yourself.)

(d) E'5;O'ts~~{~:b~Pl:'rc\;Po (Please don't bother.)

::-jiJ'A- 31)

(e) iPJ~0)1fi';lpG, E'5;O'tsft'=ts~~-::J'trc\;Po

(It's getting cold, so please take good care of yourself.)

l'Oli; t.:T

(f) E '5 ;O'ill~tsWJ'trc\; Po

(Please spare my life! )

an adverb indicating a polite yet very strong request

please [REL dozo]


Vte
t, .J.i.fv
E '5;0' fbO)/3" \ '71~ OO~ \"t fel;po
(Please listen to what I have to say.) -

84 do ka

o»

(g) ~ '5 n'~1&!::: t J:: IS L, < to!.!!ppt:: VfTc

(lit., Please let me ask for your kind help and considerateness from now

on, too.)

1. Do ka is an adverb that expresses the speaker's/writer's polite yet very strong request or plea.

2. The final predicate is typically in polite request form such as V te kudasai, as in KS(A) and Exs.(a)-(c), or its negative version, Vneg nai de kudasai, as in KS(B) and Ex.(d), or 0 V masu kudasai, as in KS(C), Exs.(e) and (f). Exs.(a), (e) and (g) need some explanation. Ex.(a) is used when a host humbly refers to his or her hospitality. In essence, it means "Please come back again." Ex.(e) is used in written Japanese, more specifically in the final paragraph of a letter. Ex.(g) is used when one wants to formally and politely express one's desire for future assistance or cooperation.


Doze can replace all uses of do ka in the KS and Exs. because both dozo and do ka can express request, but note that the former doesn't indicate a very strong request or plea, rather it is used to indicate politeness in making a request, extending an invitation or giving permission. Thus, there are many cases where do ka cannot replace dozo. [1] provides some examples.

[1] a. 'i ~ 6/) ~ i. r. ! E oj·f / * c' oj i:J> I J:: IS L, < 0 [Request] (I am pleased to meet you.)

b. ! c' oj 't" / * c' oj i:J> I to1Gr:: (\' G L, --Cr ~ \ ,) c [Request] (Please go ahead.)

LOj>~ i -> hi-

C, ! E oj 'f / * E oj i:J> I JJ!!!*'::lllf'Lft:: \' G L, --Cr ~ \ '0 [Invitation]

(Please come and see us on the weekend.)

d. A: t '5it""---C t J:: IS L, p-C'Tn'o (Can I eat now?)

B: it it, ! E oj 'f / * c' oj i:J> I 0 [Permission] (Yes, please go ahead.)

On the other hand, when one is pleading, dozo can't be used,

t.t:B

[2] a,1G"!::, ! c' oj i:J' / ??C' oj 't"l Bj:O)JFJ:j(H:1a VCr ~ P !

(Doctor, please cure my mother's illness!)

do ka / dokoro de wa nai 85

L'To

(Honorable Judge, please don't sentence my son to death! I beg you.)

phr.

a phrase indicating that an action/state is simply impossible due to an adverse situation

cannot; be simply impossible; simply don't/doesn't have time; be far from -; anything but -; no way; far from; be out of question

[REL. dokoroka; dokoro no hanashi de wa nail


Vinf.nonpast
-Ii \ ' I' .:>li' ~ ,
§7t0)::!::: L'*f!j~;j}fL', AO)::!:::~~ ~;t.Q C':: IS -c"i~Po
(I'm so busy with my own things that I simply can't think of other
people's matters (right nowj.) (B)

Noun
.tJA.;):-? t::. t!-j
if'.*~O)'.:::~ttL', i1i}9UHf (~T-:;,) ~:: IS -l"'i~n'·::,f::c
(I was so busy toward the end of the year that there was no way I could
travel abroad.) -

86 dokoro de wa nai

(e)

Adj(i)inf.
nonpast
-?t.th- <bl' or.
~'j!llL'~T 0!$ ~ tJ'1;t c:' 2:!6 cli;d:\ '0 7£1= t: \ \3«,ffl'G t~ 0
" ~l.,~\
r; < L"!:c 0) C',
(I lost my beloved daughter in the tsunami. I'm not just sad. I feel like
killing myself.) (D)

Adj(na)stem
'Ci< ;tt'
"(t'bA. Oi iif: B !I'Y~fF Vl I=~i!i~
JE"I'-I=;d:-::>'l 'b n~ E 2: !6c'li;d:Po i:lH,'lP00
(I have retired, but I can't say I have any free time. Every day I put all
my energy into vegetable gardening.) .;.1;;;@;;t.1l.

(i) 1 V / Adj(i) [inf.nonpast E 2: !6 C' li;d: p

~jj!jj ~ ~ 0 E 2: !6 c'li;d: P (s.o. simply doesn't have time to see a movie)

®l'3 \ \ E 2: !6 c'li;d: \ \ (s.t. is far from being interesting)

(ii) N(~T0) E 2: !6c'li;d:P (where N is typically an action noun) =01/7 (~T0) E 2: !6c'li;d:\ \ (I simply don't have time to play golf)

~A.l£ have ti k

Wl$(~T0)E2:!6c'li;d:P (I simply don't ave time to ta ea

walk)

(iii) Adj(na)stem E 2: !6L'li;d:P

~ Ei3 ~~ =: 6 -r 1i ~ ~ \ (s.t./s.o. is hardly free)

.8:%11;;'''4_

(a) iif:BO)imd&k!::G'lP'l, tti~JI:-jE2:!6L'lij;,Vli-1ilvo .

(My everyday life is so tight financially that I simply can't consider buying stocks.)

dokoro de wa nai 87

~I,,~A,SS (j 7)\

(b) fLliT::"7,IJ;*H~ t~IJI, ~Jli:*t¥llt~ G 'IT::''7, E 2: 16 L'li;d:, \0

(I love tennis, but I sustained a severe injury recently, and playing tennis is now out of the question.)

.::/dfA-

(c) A: toP, ~a5B, fiJ;:l;.I=rr2: -j IJ'o

(Hey, why don't we go drinking tonight?)

"i

B: -'tnE 2: 16 G ~ ;d:Plvt~o ~IJ; A~Jt G t:clvt~o

(No way. My wife has been hospitalized.)

e > tJo tl 1)'1.' z:

(d) §r;@ft:c~ VlO){jJ:O)fiillL', 7"f.I:llE2:!6L'li;d:PlvL'To

(Right now I'm taking care of my bed-ridden mother, so I simply don't have time to leave the house.)

L~161v L c'-5

(e) 2:0)!:: 2: 16~:'I:O)f~lmfi:t!'l~c'~Jf3U' 2:!6 G ~ ;d:plvt~ J;o

(I've been advising MA students on their theses lately and I simply don't have time to do research.)

"?* 1-",,1*-? ;tt:::.7;.. sA.-ttA.

(f) ~: j;,;d:t:c, 2:O)J!!!*I=W·!l;ii1¥O)jg,IRl=c''brrIJ';d:P?

(Wife: Honey, why don't we go to the hot springs in Atami this week-

end?)

t:l?i; 1fA::? L ~

1C : -'tnE 2: 16 G ~;d: Plvt~ J;o JJRmO)~b/)W Vl IJI*J!!!O) Jilli B;d: Ivt~o

(Husband: No way! The deadline for the manuscript is next Monday.)

(g) 7,1 :f]"'7'7'}/'li, v-7,CP+v-7,i~I=7,1 }JIJ;jz-""l)n0o L''E" ~Vl t>tb-::>t:cl), A..!::A..!::L', !::'l'b7,1 }J~jz-""0c:'2:16L'li;d:P-'t'5t~0

(In the watermelon marathon, runners can eat watermelon during or after the race, but I hear that when they're done running they're so tired that there's no way they can eat the watermelon.)

() Cd M~r~

(h) ~BIHFml=~IJ'-::>t:co 'b-jaj'IJ'pE2:16L'li;d:Po

(It was extremely hot today. You can't just call it warm anymore.)

l;l:t' ~ -r ltA,':?

(i) 'bO)T2:"ptJ~3«,jJ 7, H!b'lP0 IJ' I), fJ!ff!tE 2: 16L'li;d:Po

(I am breathing in all these awful exhaust fumes, so I am far from being healthy.)

1. Dokoro de wa nai is a phrase expressing that an action or state is simply impossible due to an adverse situation.

2. Dokoro de wa nai can be used in its contracted form dokoro ja nai in colloquial speech, as in Exs.(c), (e) and (f).

88 dokoro de wa nai / domo

3. As shown in Exs.(c) and (f), the pronoun sore can replace S.t. expressed previously.


The use of dokoroka "far from" is very similar to that of d?koro de

I. ai The former is a clause-final conjunction, and the mam clause

wa n . hr th t i sed at the end of a

follows it, but dokoro de wa nai is a p ase a ~s u .

sentence. The following examples demonstrate this point,

[1] a.A:1~~, B*~g, ~~-\t00)?

(Can she speak Japanese?) • ,

B: p~, ~~-\t0 c';::' ~ \15 '\" t.t~ \0/ 'IJ>, I-il t~5§\ lJ.:;: i:: iJ>~,

Ivtc:.o

(No, hardly. She's never studied it.)

b. ~f:18{c"~T 0 f;JH'L < lJ.:O)c', rJ G I' r: ~ \-r'ti t.t~ \0/ 'IJ>, lYE I:::t,:p3n.:t~id)tc:.o (= KS(C))

c. n:'"F-I:::~':)"( tPl1Zc';::'~ \-r'tit.t~\o /'IJ>, I~B!I'Y~{'FI) I:::*~~ili G "(1'00 (=KS(D))

(¢ dokoroka (DUG: 34-36))

Dokoro no hanashi de wa nai can always replace dokoro de wa nai.

n. .

However, the former is more emphatIc.

[2] 6/.:'-0);: i:: c'~-;ffc', AO);: i:: ~ c~;t 0 c';::' ~ (O)~~) -r'tit.t~ \0

a. I=I./J (= KS(A))

b. '"F-*~O) I:::~'ttc', lii¥7f.1*rr r: ~ (O)~~) -r'tit.t 'IJ>,:) tz; (= KS(B))

domo t.''b

conj. <w>

even though; although; though; no matter how muchloftenl hard/etc.

[REL. tomo; te mol

a conjunction that indicates con~ession based on an actual state or actlOn

domo 89

~ I

I

I r

• Key Sentences

(A)

Vcond
J;A.Ld 'l:)i.l' 1§:iD"J i:: G"(P0;: Uil<1l
z O)=-:JO))(:Ji'i:I:t1§, 'tii:t li~ Et, J.:;tc:. 0
(Although the way in which these two compositions are written is
different, their claims are the same.) (B)

Vicond Vzcond
(Vi = V2)
tA.. tJ'
rrtt c''£, ~Ttt c'£, A*iJ1Jjl,;t "( == 7d;Po
(No matter how far we go, we still can't see houses.) .in;;'bilm,.

Vcond c' '£,

rrlt E '£, (even though s.o. goes) Jjl,nE t (even though s.o. sees s.t.) Tnc't (even though s.o. does s.t.) *nc t (even though s.o. comes)

.;:£11 ... ](;-

'0 l~ nl( s r- ))1< tlv

(a) fLI;J:9;a~I:til0nc t"jt:::riJl~ <, ~i:li:"jtrp~O)i!tWc'~':) ,,(PIt 0 i:: l:tJG\;t 7d;Po

(Although I have (a good amount of) knowledge, I have no scholastic talent, so I don't think I can survive in academia (in the future).)

< -:::> L'fl;. i,J>tt ?¥"?~ 1')( J~( iJ' -:J-j

(b) ylHoc t~~Iid.JRO)~ "J I:::, 1Jj{I:tlXl? i::~ U'EtllH . .f~Mmt.:o

(Just like a spring which never dries up no matter how much water is taken out, he kept writing beautiful songs, one after another.)

h II- h

(c) JjI,'/f.!:n"(\ '0 t O)i:: P "J o)I:t, tJi\nc tJjl,;t Tc" ~BJjI,"(p"( t .:cO)rp~Ji!!!

I:::3(tiJl-:JiJ>~\' t 0)(!i10 00

(Regarding things you are used to seeing, even though you look at them, you don't really see them. So, you don't notice their problems even if you see them every day.)

--

90 domo

,: ~<t t~l,' so) In 11>0

(d) ~i::: p;t e: t1'"-f:lli':x1L- l-'f luiJ:i1Ii~'::l:.~1ft; niJ:po

(Even parents shouldn't be allowed to exercise such tyranny over their children.)

s t' '!:-j I;!:,(, ltA.C'-jt;d t;"h

(e) 12;pt.: t) i::: p;t e: t, W!Ii5l:;,tt,::l:. i t'::ilnl! t ~ <. ;: O)~UJ~}!lO) A'::l:.~ t 51:;

n'

,tt':!m-::>;: i:::;lJ"1.'~ iJ:po

(Although Master Ito is old, he still moves swiftly, and no one at this Japanese fencing school can beat him.)

-tt-::>lflv -::00

(f) :none: t:none: t~JJR:6\~PlP.::st.::'tt'::'::,t.:o

(No matter how far I drove, the snow (Iit., snowfields) never ended.)

_@m';_

1. Domo is a classical conjunction that carries the meaning of concession but is still used in contemporary Japanese. Its use is mostly limited to written language.

2. In "S, domo S2," S2 represents an actual state or action, meaning "Even though S), S2."

3. For some reason, Gr. 2 verbs cannot be paired with domo as easily as Gr. 1 verbs and irregular verbs.

4. Domo often occurs as part of the phrase to iedomo "even though (lit., even though they say)," as in Exs.(d) and (e).

(¢ to ie domo (in this volume»

5. When Vcond domo is repeated, it means "no matter how much/far/etc.," as in KS(B) and Ex.(f).

6. Domo occurs in proverbs and common phrases:

(1) a.I)!);:;:'::&G~·n'i, fi;hc'<b~;tf, .ttc·<bJj!j;:;tf, :&:6~C'

-t ~'J L

<b~O)g;j(;bP~?;OGfoJ -:fL1'"-

("When the mind is not present, we look and do not see; we hear and do not understand; we eat and do not know the taste of what we eat."-Confucius)

s? (A'v)A- co) i_:,

b. :f'::l:.~1!;i9;hc·<b,fVtlil-t±-fo

(The (British) sovereign reigns, but does not rule.)

tiJlt;

c. F'::l:.9;hc·<b~'::l:.~;t fo

(I hear someone, but don't see him.)

domo 91

7. Do is another classical concessive conjunction, but in contemporary Japanese it appears only as part of proverbs or set phrases, as in (2).

J..x. J.,. sc·

(2) a. i'f'iiIX't E~iIl G fo

(We have provided the music (lit., played the flute), but you have not danced.)

< ;/)'O)!;J: "'-Iv t;

b.1<fl EWG-t±-c'1BI'3(:6' GiK$=:6I*iJ::6'--::> iz ;

(Though I waited for so long, no reply came from her.)


I. While domo always represents concession based on an actual state/ action, tomo "even if; even though" can represent concession based on either an unknown (i.e., future or unknown present) state/action or an actual one, as shown in [1].

i,'/:'i')

[1] a. fpJ:6Iil'Q;:,:, ') C: <bJt:6'iJ:Po

(No matter what happens, I won't be surprised.)

b. to~:6IiJ:PO)l:'1fj7l-1*tr~ Gt.: < c:<bl:'~ iJ:po

(Even though I want to travel abroad, I can't do it because I have no money.)

(¢ tomo (DUG: 507-10))

II. Te mo is also a concessive conjunction. It can represent both concession based on an actual state or action and concession based on an unknown state or action. Thus, domo can be rephrased using te mo, as shown in [2]. Note that te mo is used in both spoken and written language.

[2] az 0)=-::>0):Z1j'i:'::l:.~p1Ht lit~ E<b lit? 'r <b I, ~to ') i::: G lP .::s;: i::: '::l:.IRll'; t.::o (= KS(A))

b. 1 ~Ttt E<b~Ttt E<b I~T? l'<b~T? l'<b I A~WJU -r z iJ:po

(= KS(B))

(¢ te mo (DBJG: 468-70»

92 do ni mo - nai

str.

not - by any means; no matter how hard - try, - cannot -; there is no way to -; cannot do - at all

[REL. do ni ma ko ni ma - nail

a structure indicating that no matter how hard s.o. may try, S.t. is impossible


Vpot.neg
,fix I: Ll:JN5l1d: c: Ii c:-jl:'6 !ttt Id: \ '0
(I'd never be able to write something like a novel, no matter how hard 1
try.) (B)

Vmasu
:t -sil Its iJl Id: \ '0
z; O)l'F)(I:trd!~\ 'iJlO c: < -c E-jl:'6 j1[L., d:;-j
(This composition has such awful mistakes that there is no way to fix it.) (C)

Noun
~ ~\~ Iv ~t , ' t: l \ c: -j I: t 1±$ I: Id:G Id: \ '0
:I&)5:Ii~*iJlld:pe
(Lately we can't work without a cell phone.) .4"1;;611'.1,.

(i) c: -j 1= '6 Vpot.neg Id: \.

c: -j I: '6 lli5{!:" Id: \ \ (can't speak no matter how hard s.o. tries) (ii) [_' -j I: t Vmasu d:; -j iJ1ld:P

[_' -j (: t it« d:; -j iJ11d: \ • (there is no way to eat it) (iii) E -j I: '6 N I: Id: G Id: I'

EO -j (: '6~iJ~I:1d: G Id:\ \ (can't study at all)

do ni mo - nai 93

eKMiI,,'h;W

LJ:_Ql' \'Jv~"".J

(a) z m!f~Iim,\jltliJl!lli\ < -c c: -j (: t im06 Id: \'0

(This document is printed so poorly, there's no way we can read it.) ?t, ~

(b) £, O)Ali £, i IJ (: t p;J3(tl' E -j I: t H ~ I: Id:nld: Po

(He is so introverted, 1 don't think I'll ever grow to like him.)

P.Q('S ~.Q

(c) AO)!Ili\[J~iJ'If'l'§-j 1d:C: ep -j:= e liE -j (: tilt{!:"1d:Po

(I can't possibly tolerate someone speaking ill of me behind my back.)

lH'il' Ii t.::iu"t/vtff.., "9(

(d) ~t±*I'§l"~lUJE>tmril'*.::5 e E -j (: t;j&PJ:: -j hlld:Po

(When a company's management is on the verge of bankruptcy, there is no way to salvage it.)

t: iJ'l'Ld

(e) :=nt~lt7, !-!/7,iJliiilji.::5e, E-j(:tM¥l'lL,J::-jiJl;(j:po

(When stress piles up this much, there's no way to relieve it.)

ltt'~l\!l-)i,H' :: "(t'/1)('

(f) J\f)l-*I¥1'iJm~f~O) B *O)*I¥1'iO)fj.f;~~ IJ liO E I' t 0) t~ Itn E, c: -j (: t

Id:Gld:Po

(The Japanese economic slump since the bubble economy burst is terrible, but there is no help for it.)

.ftC' =.!:: ff

(g) p;S p;S tot~O)§~H!f:= -j Ush -cp i: o)l"TiJl, c: -j I: t §~(: Id: IJ i

lilvl::: ?

{!:".ft.,o ~il"*~I:£' IJ iJle -j :="~'pi L,t::o

(I was going to send you a thank-you note but 1 just couldn't find the words to say what 1 meant. Thank you very much!)

.~ml_

Do ni ma - nai is used to express the idea that s.o. cannot do S.t. no matter how hard he or she tries. The verb after do ni mo is a Vpot.neg, as shown in KS(A) and Exs.(a)-(c), V masu yo ga nai, as shown in KS(B), Exs.(d) and (e), or - ni naranai, as shown in KS(C) and Ex.(g). However, there is an idiomatic phrase, do ni mo naranai, used in the sense of shikata ga nai, as in Ex.(f).


Do ni ma ko ni mo - nai, a more emphatic version of do ni mo - nei, can replace the latter if emphasis is warranted, as in KS(B), Exs.td) and (e).

[1] a, =: O)fF)(IUB~~piJIO E < -c 1 E oj t: <t / E oj t:<t;: oj t:<t I @: L, J:: -j iJ1ld:Po (= KS(B))

94 da ni rna - nai / -doshi

b. -§;U*l'§-C-1i!1liti'i"iW i -C-* ~ ~ I c: oj c: 'b / c: oj c: e : oj c: 'b 13l&,' J::"5 iJ1fon '0 (= Ex.(d))

c. z h t.= tt A I- i- A iJlf;j'j i ~ ~, I e oj c: 'b / c' oj c: 'b ;: ? C: 'b I MWl L,J::"5 iJl 7j: Po (= Ex,(e))

c'-j L

-doshi 1I5l±

sui

-doshi 95

(D)
Noun
i) ~ (it":) ::-,)i"(
z (1)7 -7·}'v~ 1:>') L.- @:~'":)7j:P-C-il'lil!7 71 }'v'ini
J~~:J ;...- IRI± ~
~"5 t, ~ -t ~ ::: t iJl-C' ~ ~ 0
(With this cable, you can connect personal computers directly and
transfer files (from one computer to another) at high speed.) a suffix that adds the meaning of "the same things/people"

each other; between/among (things/people of the same kind, group, etc.); together; with

[REL. to; isshoni]

.«";;;9""".

1:>') L

N ll'il::l:

fi:~IRI.1:: (the friends do Sot. to/for each other / together)

• ",;;;.it;W

1" Co? L &>~, "'( tpA.

(a) tdi'::: H&"5 ~1RI±ti, fpJ t 7j: < 1'I'I-f.t=~ L,l< ~~ t:;.~-tPo

(Smokers somehow find it easier to feel close to each other.)

stL:? i::a it C'? L tJ:tJ·

(b) ffiisp::: t ,=, ~ i') il--:) t.::OOIRl±tifrfliJIJlp::: t iJl~po

(Interestingly, adjacent countries often have poor relations with each other.)

t'l!~ ~ s~ IJ' t-.:::>itAc-? L ldc"? L It? ~ < .t J., dJ\'

(c) ~;l)ft19'-c'J!i!I&J!iJ'dlRl±iJljjj~, 2 A7Et: 4 Arr1il'aJlo [Newspaper headline]

(Two cargo ships collide off (the coast of) Ibaraki; two killed, four missing)

J:;A, l /::'-j l I.,.t-j/::-? (fA,Ld

(d) :::hti:5.1'1"IRI±iJljjj~V[ml::: ~m~u.=o

(This is a phenomenon caused by molecules colliding (lit., against each other).)

C? L-

(e) :'1J1RI±-C'1i1'(1Tt=rr-:) 'l t '":) i G 7j: Po

(It's boring if we travel together as a group of all men.)

'1;';"'::( Ib~"? tJ, c·_:Htl'C:-')l., i.:$-) It?':A

(f) ~OO-C-ti 1997 ip'=l'*fI!:iJl?i£:b i') IRIttlRl±-C- t. § E±H=*8~-C- ~ ~ J:: "5 t= 7j:-:)

tz ;

(In South Korea the laws changed in 1997, and people with the same family name can freely marry each other now.)

c? L !t."::;,, l;t-')"(i!f hi::

(g) ::: (1)OO-C'ti p t z 1RI±(1)*8~'il'*i¥J,=~,li,b6 G h 'lP ~ 0

(In this country, marriage between cousins is legally recognized.)


Noun
t.: L1'( .,' /::'-') L liAli-.:::>
~:fi(1) N~ (*t.:CiSm) 1I'i]± ti &~-t~o
(North poles (or south poles) of magnets repel each other.) (B)

Noun
I::tt!'l:; 1::°-'] L 1fjjf.1i1'(rrt=rr < ::: t t= 7j: -> iz ;
il'litt~{1;;(1) ~~ IPJ± -Co
(We've decided that we high school friends will travel abroad together.) (C)

Noun Noun
It-::>L.tc;HtA. -ttA.J..,~ 1:::"-') L t;;l'lt-.:::>
lk:JlIlI!j;{i 7' }vit';"'-7 ;"'-l.R~ IRI± 0) M5* ,=7j:-:)t.::o
(The final turned out to be a battle between (two) Argentine players.) 96 -doshi

c'~ L

(h) fPTtffiG 7d:P1"l1Rl±;61~liL,il--::>l t pp~;it_li.tl::' 7d:\ '0

(Discussions among those who don't know anything will never lead to a good solution.)

tit: <b,';:(

(i) B*-rliJ{v/,511 /'T-I:ftO)-'f;61~0)-'fI:T3 ::11.-'- r ~l'IJL,l~~i!r

U( t'-::>!!A--C~ J...') k :::t'U'c.c·? L

a+ GO) ;61-JilI!'I¥JI: 7d: -::> l p;t T;61, 7 JI 1) j; -rli:t:.Jif;"\,'~AIRl±li t -s ;s

c. ott.::!:, :: c. If

/V0)::' t:, ;t~Ji"\,'*Jjj(IRl±c't ::'O)B, ~~E3~I: L,;tTo

(It is common in Japan for girls to confess their love to boys on St. Valentine's Day by giving them chocolates. However, in America, not only married couples and lovers but also friends and family members verbally express their love to each other.)

t-o ~t,!;t?c.>? L trt ~<:bf)

(j) ::. 0) ?I /' J{ j 'Ji(li*l!l~IRl±H8U-::J It G -t JI /' r 0) J: '5 7d:1Si'~U~T G 0

(This protein acts like cement in joining cells.)

c"-) L t:.t~h\ ii"::)!fl'

(k) 'f: /' A 51-IRl±~~b-ttG::I /' l:::'_:1.- 51'j'-t,;61Fe,t 7d: < '16:m~tLGo

(A computer game in which monsters fight against each other (lit., which makes monsters fight against each other) will be on sale soon.)

1. Doshi itself means "fellow(s)." However, X-doshi is used for both animate and inanimate things.

2. X-doshi is used when two or more Xs do something to/for/against each other, as in KS(A), (C), Exs.(c), (d) and (f)-(i); do something together, as in KS(B) and Ex.(e); or are in a reciprocal relationship, as in Exs.(a) and (b). X-doshi is also used when someone/something joins Xs together in some way, as in KS(D) and Ex.(j), or causes Xs to do something together or to/for/against each other, as in Ex.(k).

3. The interpretation of X-doshi depends on the situation. When the action of X is a reciprocal action, such as butsukaru "to collide" or kenkesuru "to fight," X-doshi means "between/among," or "(to) each other." When it is not a reciprocal action, X-doshi means "together." When two or more Xs are in a reciprocal relationship, X-doshi means "(to) each other."

4. When X-doshi means "together," the action of the Xs must be interactive between the Xs. Thus, the sentences in (1) are unacceptable.

C? L

(1) a."1'''I:10/*flil±f;61J'l.-SJ:.;6L",::0

(The students stood up together.)

,

I J

:j

-doshi 97

~ C:'-5t.:l' s-f

b. :tiIi!I!IJ~kt 10 /*flil± f ;61"1'''I:I:)lP;6';6'-::>t.:o

(The riot police attacked the students together.)

t t:

c. A. 1)::I 7' 51-10 /*flil± f ;61muJ'l.-::> tz;

(The helicopters took off together.)

5. Numbers do not occur before X-doshi, as demonstrated in (2).

c') L Ldc-:J

(2) a. 3 ;30).1 0 / *flil± f ;611ifij~ L, t.:o

(Three cars collided with one another.)

ctt!.-Is

b. 5 AO);tz)! 10 /*flil± f -r~@jl:rr-::> iz;

(We five friends went to a movie together.)

However, note that numbers can follow X-doshiwhen it means "together," as in (3).

ctt!.'!; c'o) L

(3) ;tz)! 1 0/ flil± f 5 A -r~@jl:rr-::> t.:o

(We five friends went to a movie together.)

6. As seen in the translations of KS(B) and Ex.te), when X-doshi means "together" and the subject is omitted, the sentence is considered to be in the first person unless there is some context to indicate otherwise, as in (4).

x. 1) ::: c tt:!-sc.» L h~L$'i

(4) ,fii;11Hli J: < tiKrrT G 0 5tJ=l t ;tz)!flil±c'JL1+1I:rr-::> t.:o

(Eriko travels often. Just last month she went to Kyushu with her friends.)


I. When X-doshi means "(to) each other," it can be restated using the particle to, as shown in [1].

[1] a.lii1:fio)N~c N~(;t t.:liS~c S~) li£Z'16TGo (cf. KS(A))

b. i'J(~nx;li)7 Jldi'/T /l~r:f C)7 Jlrlt'/T /~'f.O)xJ~ t: 7d: -::> iz ;

(cf. KS(C»)

c. ;-X:~1rpc'J;i!f@ilGcJ;i!f@JttG;6l1ifij~, 2 AYEL:: 4 Arr1J:;r-~}-L (cf. Ex.tel) (¢ to! (DBJG: 473-76))

r

l

I

II. When X-doshi means "together," it cannot necessarily be rephrased using the synonymous adverb issh otii "together." For example, in [2], if the speaker/writer is male, the sentence is equivalent to Ex.(e).

98 -doshi

However, if the speaker/writer is female, it means something different.

tv o l",

[2] ~.!:: -tiIII:1*ffl=ff-? -r t "J i Ij Id: Po (cf. Ex.(e))

(It's boring to travel with a man (or men).)

ga hevei ka 99

r~>y

ga hayai ka ii!f.~ \7'J)

con}. <w>

a conjunction indicating that as soon as S.t. happens, S.t. else happens

as soon as; the moment; no sooner - than

[REL. va ina va]

• Key Sentence

Vinf.nonpast Vpast (action)
"n "
~I;J: lji}j re~G ;Q''f.\ \;Q', :/-\''7-1i:- ~V't.::o
(As soon as he woke up he took a shower.) .«,,;IIHII[,"_

Vinf.nonpast ;QI 'f. \ \;Q'

-:t-A:;.Q ;Q1!f.\ \;Q' (as soon as s.o. ate)

.'4''' .. '';-

ti'fJ)l.);

(a) ~:9:I;J:B*I=l'f< ;Q1!f.p;Q'1ZAU~~I5Ii:-;Q'ltt::o

(The moment she arrived in Japan she called her friend.)

~h ~ ~

(b) ~lifMI\\.QO)Ii:-Jjl..Q;QI!f.\\;Q', l5Il~li:-l±l-rff-?-rL,i-?t::o

(As soon as he saw me, he left the room.)

P::' -:J-n'

(c) 5ilHitrf;t;. Hill i ;t.Q ;Q1!f.\ \;Q', -:t-A:;~il/il) tc;

(The moment the cat caught the mouse, it started to eat it.)

(d) ~.I;J:~ 3 /';QI*.Q;QI!f.p;Q" i!J~~il/il)t::b

(As soon as John got on the train, it started to move.)

~ .. "

t (e) T1-/,I;J:~;fl\\1d::9:0)-1-Ii:-Jjl.;Q'lt.Q;QI!f.p;Q', )5:*-?-rff-?-r~I5L,;Q'Itt::o

(No sooner did Dean see the pretty girl than he approached her and started talking to her.)

::. ct '(.> {fA. ~

(f) -1-ftl<t::i)I;J:;'/';Qlmlt.Q;QI!f.p;Q', 3'::l5Il-:t-A:;-rL,i-?t::o

(As soon as the bread was baked, the children ate it all.)

If"" I

ii

Ii

1-

-

100 ga hayai ka / gai

-5 I! I:

(g) v-~t::.< f)li1ir:>a:-~':'J7J'!f.p;6', §'i.c'~1f't::.o

(As soon as the thief (lit snatcher) snatched my money, he fled by bike.)

1. Ga hayai ka is a conjunctive phrase meaning that as soon as what is expressed in the subordinate clause (i.e., the clause that ends with ga hayai ka) takes place, what is expressed in the main clause takes place. For example, in the KS, getting up in the morning is followed almost immediately by taking a shower.

2. The tense of the main clause can't be nonpast in contrast to - tara sugu or - to sugu which can take both nonpast and past verbs in the main clause. Observe the following examples.

(1) a.1BZli~JI~~.QiJs'!f.~\:/J>, :,_..-\' '7- >a:-l mlFt::. /?mlF{, 10 (= KS)

cf. 1BZ IHJll ~ ~ i: S / ~ ~ .Q t:. 1 "9 C :,_.. -\' '7 - >a:- 1 i'ftlF t: / mlF {, 1 c

b.1BZ:9:1i B *1=~ < iJS'!f.~ \iJ>RAI=~llr5>a:- 1 ;6' It t: / ?;6' It {, 10 cf.1BZ:9:1i B*I= 1 ~~\t;:, S /~ < t:. 1"9 C RAI=~llr5>a:-l ;6'(t/::. /

;6'(tG 10 (=Ex.(a))

3. The subjects for the subordinate clause and the main clause can be different, as in Exs.(d) and (f).

4. The subject of the main clause can't be the first person singular pronoun.

t.dl 1£<

b. 1 fBi /??~ 1 (i'*I=J)WG :/JS'!f.~ \:/J> e'- )~HxAJ::,

(As soon as 1 he /??I 1 came home 1 he /??I 1 drank beer.)

gai fH \ [ff33!l

(¢ kai/gaiin this volume)

- g8 - nara 101

~ ga ~ nara ~fi~f;t. <:) str.

if s.o./s.t were a really good! appropriate one; if s.t, is right

a structure presenting a counterfactual situation which indicates that things would be better if s. t. were really good or appropriate

• Key Sentence

Noum Nounz
(= Nouni)
~IH~.<?
~U ;6' ~t± ;Q:G t7YGiG;Q:*€'i#>a:- 1::157
ill VC < nG C') ;6',
(If my company were a really good one, it would probably pay a bit
better salary, but ... ) .in;;;glluil_

Nl;6' N2;Q: to ~ (t= 15 7/;6' t Gn;Q:\ \) (where Ni = N2)

Itt:;

~~3M\~~Jt;Q: G l'a~ -c pt::. 1 t:: 15 7 /;6' t Gn;Q:p 1 (if that hospital

were a really good one, s.o. might have been cured)

.;;'iI .. it;.

~~~l'< oJ L~1L~(

(a) *"'f:;6'*,#;Q: G t ~ i::PP~W;6'5l:1t t,n -c, PP)ji,;tJlt L'~ t::.C')t::15 70

(If the university had been a really good one, it would have given me a much better education, and I could have gotten a good job.)

?< t: C,tlfA.

(b) RA;6'RA;Q: t" j)!:I=:lz:-::J!!irl3>a:- G-C < nt::.;6't Gni-lt/v,

(If your friend were a true friend, he might have given you useful advice.)

~ -i±-:J -n'Iv= ') i:j

(c) ,*W;6',*W;Q: G, z= z= liTI!t, GPW!7'tJ:lll;Q:/vc'T;6\ ~li~T~"-CW!7'tI=

"

lirPlP-CP;Q:\ \/VL'T J:,

(If we were here in the right season, this place would be a wonderful sightseeing spot, but now it's not a good place to take tourists because it is too cold. [It's winter now.])

102 - ga - nara

.J.,<i-~

(d) M'{i;i.lIM'ft7J:i), -tlv7J:ijIU~tJ!< ,t7J:PO)i.I,t Gn7J:pi.ll, ~C"t:toJ;-t

.b;;'<~

r±l~Po

(At the appropriate time, that sort of clothing would not have looked so bad, but now it is too old-fashioned looking.)

J: f.t~ {tl'1P""? -t

(e) tlJ:i.llt!f:7J:i), ;:lv7J:'i'lHt7J:p:i:frS'tG7J:< -ct¥tl'lvt::O)':o

(If I were living in a really good time, I wouldn't need to live such a miserable life.)

_¢tfti,.

1. N ga N nara is used to express a counterfactual situation indicating that things would be better if S.t. identified by N were a really good or appropriate one. Usually conjectural expressions such as aero or kamoshirenai occur with this clause, as shown in the KS, Exs.(a), (b) and (d).

2. Usually N in the construction is hypothesized as good, as shown in the KS and Exs., but sometimes it can be negative, as in (1). Note that there is no counterfactual meaning here.

:: }::'&

(1) a. ~iJ~'~1d: S, T{:lt t TiM:: 0

(The parents are really bad, but the children are the same.)

tJ'A-::' L

b, 12S1"IiJ~'12S1"I1d: S, 'if~~l1lt 'if~~ijlt::o

(The doctors are terrible, but the nurses are the same.)

Nt I

, .

gotoshi 103

gotoshi .: t t.

aux. ad}. <w>

like; look like

[REL. yode; mitaida; ka no yoni]

an auxiliary adjective that indicates a resemblance of s.t.ls.o. to s.t.zs.o. or indicates how s.t.Is.o. appears to speaker/writer


Noun
t:/vl:rt' 1* ;::"/:: Go
A:i:'t 0)
(Life is like a journey.) (B)

Vinf.nonpast
trrn .::? ~, i)''S'? C
-t 0)~~7J: rr~'t* r:p ,: mV'lbt.' I i.I\ / i.I'O) I ;::'/:: Go
(Acting recklessly like that is like jumping into the fire.) (C)

Noun
iJ'!J)J.;J: l;J:t;l *-
1EZ:tc't ~T I)-If 0) ;::'/:: < \nt~~lvl"\'Qo
(She is like Mona Lisa, always smiling.) (D)

Noun! NOUll2
l iJHtA-
x au i§lA. 0) ;::"/:: ~ A. t.~
~o
(Mr. X is like a superrnan.) (E)

Vinf.nonpast Noun
iJ'!J)t;J: t;;:< tf/vtfA- Sft J;:-j T
1EZ:tc'ti~O);: /:: ~if:.~ ~;l-r~\Id:~\ i.I'O) ;::'/:: ~ ~T t::--:;dc::o
(She looked as if she didn't remember me at all.) 104 gotoshi

.;.I;"@,,uh_

(i) N O):::_'C: i.,

~if'!j,

~O):::_" i:: L 0 (S,o./s.t is like (a) fish.)

(ii) Vinf.nonpast 1 ;(11/ ;(1,0) I :::_ C: L 0

"'"

~ Jj!. G 1 ;(II / n' 0) I z: C: L 0 (It is like dreaming / as if s.o. were

dreaming.)

(iii) N (z») O):::_" C: <

,,~

~O):::_ (~ < i* (' (s.o. swims like a fish)

~n'O):::_'i:: < i*<' (s.o. swims as ifhe/she were a fish) (iv) N (n') O):::_' C: ~ N

CA-ttl'

~O):::_' C: ~ A1: (life like a dream)

~n'O):::_' i:: ;l< A1: (life like a dream)

(v) 1 Vinf.nonpast / Nl:' to Gil ;(11/ »-o: I c: ,,:: fi N

OJl! C/vtH'

wl:1f~ 1 ;(11/ n'O) I :~ i:: ;l< A1: (life like climbing a mountain)

~l:' to ~ 1 ;(II / n' 0) I := C: ;l< A1: (life like a dream)

• ;;"n.h;.

::~l'A.. {>

(a) J't~5'(0);:' i:: t.,

(Time flies like an arrow. (lit., Time is like an arrow.))

CA,-i±"V' ::-);)'1,'

(b) A1:I;l:!iDt1fJ¥O);:'i:: i.,

(Life is like a voyage.)

l::-j~dCIv lfA..l:::A-

(c) !10i!:AI;l:7JAAE-::>LP~n'0);:'i:: Go

(Tokyoites all look as if they were always running.)

!tl,~I,' lj~t;OJ>') I)'t'..£..( 7J. ::

(d) B *O);ft£1*I;l:, _bztlo) ;:" i:: <, ~f& L If G < I;l:@]jJi[ G;IJ: PJj!.0d-l:' to Go

(As stated above, the Japanese economy is not expected to recover for some time.)

lJ'OJe.t L:J:s-j 1{I.'O)-:;t.l't, < hlJ;.,.,

(e) :fHlfrl;l:3C=(0);:"i:: < ¥;fl~'J'fI:~I!if.GLPGo

(She dominates the showbusiness world as if she were a queen.)

Ii' 'lJl? l::'J-tfA GJ:-i±"l' L.t(l'A..

(f) iJ!!!~I;l:"3~O);:"i:: < fr'I1O)I!llU'll::to~< d-i ~{!-LPGo

(The section chief has female staff members serve tea as if it were in their job description (lit., as if it were a matter of course).)

gotoshi 105

~Ib lA::,I,.,-I±t'1J''':J u- If~ tl:f

(g) ~O);:' i:: ~ ~ft~1:m0)1&I:i&~MI~M'ltco

(Their dream-like, newly-wedded bliss was followed by tragedy.)

;/p.n DC, l,'H'h , Igc-? 1§":t,

(h) :fHlI;l:SftH'l;IJ:o)I:t±~l:'tO .QlJ'O);:' i:: ~EH!lJi-tGo)l:'d-!U;IJ:I:~:b;fL L\'

Go

(He is just a regular employee, but he talks and acts as if he were the president, so nobody likes him.)

o .b ~ +» ::-5 t' 1i'~t.:t,

(i) BU'O)13t~ Itl:'&:'5U-t ~ nl;:' i:: ~ rr~I;l:*fljx;fl: to -::> L I;l:;IJ: G liJ.o

(Behavior such as discriminating against people merely on the basis of skin color simply shouldn't exist.)

- c·t liJv5't' sip J..-jJ;H lild'A..

U) tm~*Ao)~~;lJ:m~im-t~~i::~.m~~~~~;lJ:O)~~~~o

(I wonder what causes trends such as children committing adult crimes.)

_¢mt;.

1. Gotoshi indicates similarity. As shown in the Formations, it changes form depending on its grammatical function. That is, the sentence-final form is gotoshi, as shown in Formation (i) and (ii); the adverbial form is gotoku, as in Formation (iii); and the noun-modifying form is gotoki, as in Formation (iv) and (v) .

2. One of the functions of gotoshi is to mark a simile, as seen in KS(A)(D), Exs.(a) and (b). When ka is inserted, as in KS(B), (E), Exs.(c) and (h), it adds the nuance of doubt on the part of the speaker.

3. Gotoshi and its variations are used exclusively in written language. In colloquial speech, vods or mitaida is used. (See Related Expressions.)

4. Jojutsu no gotoku "as stated above" (Ex.(d)) and tozen no gotoku "as if it were a matter of course" (Ex.(f)) are idiomatic phrases.


Yode and mitaida can replace gotoshi as shown in [1]. Note that mitaida is highly colloquial.

[1] a.A1:I;l:D«lO);::"tL.,/o)J:ojt'::'/JJt.:~\t':lo (=KS(A))

b. )lr*AI;l:7JAAE-::> LP G 1 7:I'O);::"t L., / 7J'0)J: oj t.::· / JJH \t.:l 0

(= Ex.(c))

106 gotoshi

c. :fB{R-I::t:tcCEI (J);:' C < / (J)J: oj t: / JJ. t: ~'t: f ~ij§Wr:;¥"il&l\\ G -0' 0 0 (= Ex.(e))

d. ~ 1 (J);::_' c ~ / (J)J: oj fd. / JJ.H 'fd. f *JT~:'t$O)f&I:1t@H'ID'Jht::o

(= Ex.(g))

e. :fB{1::t'fti~7d::O)I:tH~l'&> 01 tJ'(J);::_"c ~ /tJ,(J)J: oj fd. / JJ.H'fd. f Ejgi}J-a-T 0 o)l';1;.Iv7d::I:~:bh LP 00 (= Ex.(h))

(¢ yoda (DBJG: 547-52); ka no yoni (in this volume); mitaida (DBJG: 250))

hanmen 107

r1!1..N)/"

han men &iilii

conj. «sr»

a conjunction used to contrast the positive and negative sides of s.t.!s.o.

while; on the other hand [REL. ni taishite; ni hanshite; ippo (de)]


Topic Adjectivei Adjectives
!tt't.;t' ";"_ ~ rileY)/,--
;j1HiH~1l15 l::t 11:~IJfd. EZffij, f)9.'Sf)(_,~' 2:: i:: t &> 00
(While cell phones are convenient, they are also sometimes annoying.) (B)

Topic Clauser Clauses
:: lA- C' L 'e1vi)i'5 likMA j")~ ~ 7' i:: G L O):i i:: :i IJ
2:: 0) 00 l::t {[!'It" 0) J&: ,i[!.( ;6'~:m ~ :h 0 J3Z:ffij, ;6'llll\ '0
(In this society, while the individual's will is respected, group unity is
weak.) (C)

Topic Clause:
stL;:' LII-jt\l? l.tkmk
2:: 0){±$1::t IDa < L~;ZA t PI' ;6', (-f 0)) Ii lID ,
Clauses
t'tbl
,tt G < L §:Jj-O)~Fs';6\7d::;6'7d::;6'ML7d::P i:: \' '7 F,,~Jm t &> 00
(This job is interesting and pays well; on the other hand, being so busy, I
hardly ever (lit., cannot) have time for myself and that is a problem.) 108 hanmen

(D)

Sentence! Sentencea
ji'l'~A~-:J
z z (i1fj~!IWJ;61* < , it:: < t:!.'t(J)
L'1>7.>l' 1;:tA., ~ 1;):/c~l)k !l!fm;~*!IWJ{i
fj~H ~ < -r*±l:'{iit« (l;6'lJ ( "C 0)) &Iirk il11iPl:''t 0
Gt17d:P~tiV!)i'to
(Seafood is cheap and plentiful in variety here, and there are also fish
that you cannot eat on the mainland, On the other hand, fruits and veg-
etables are expensive.) .ijU;;;PIIUJI_

liA,IbA

(i) 1 V 1 Adj(i) I inf.nonpast &illI

~;61l:' ~ 0 &illI (while s.o, can do -)

>l'

~ l, '&ffil (while s.o, is strict)

(ii) Adj(na)stem 1 )j: 1 l:' iV 0 I &lti

«A,IJ

~;fU l)j: ll:'iV 0 I &rm (while s.t, is convenient)

(iii) N l:' iV 0 &tiO

J9l~ IJ t.iJ L

~;fIJ)j:j)):~l:'iV 0 &rm (while s.t, is a good investment)

.;;;""Ih;.

(a) ;: O)f±~{i~ It ,&1'iL )@%H::)j: 0 U~ t ~ Po (While this job is tough, it teaches me a lot)

i.lll,'Ll( -c ill;;' tl:AIi'lA ill'J:..iJ h'tJ. S-'C

(b) 7I-it{i~~)j:&rm, *If;61i\1li0?cJ;;h;61iV 00

(While eating out is easy, it can lead to an unbalanced diet)

'0 l'~ IAH'~~ 1,,~.t") .J:;.A., tJ, L -1:!-:) IJ J:~ <): IJ liA.li'lA- L -ti'AiJ'/d17

~ ;:O)~~~ •• ~~~ ~re.~)j:~O)~ffl#~~)j:&rm, ~~.m~iVi

Cl)f!

!) "i'HI) )j: I' 0

(In this region, while the commercial, medical and cultural facilities are convenient to use, you cannot expect much in terms of the natural environment)

n »< -r~ "-':> ~ O)-j--C~ iiAd.lA Jr.A- 1,'

(d) 7/11):JJ:;;; -1 fo);f;TJI.--{i~!lWJtj:,"~I¥J*fil < g~@;6\~~§I¥J)j:&rm, :}'f1Hi

i,:3(,tG C:::: 01J~® 'J iTo

(While American-style hotels provide functional rooms in relatively new buildings, they are somehow lacking in (good) atmosphere.)

hanmen 109

!''l5' ;Q-:J liA-IVA -ttt'''(".I,_ ~ ii.,,1:tt'

(e) ,f1)X_ATJl.--o):JJ-T:;{iiliiil;t;_{::< <. ¥I·!H::t5&lp;6\ &rm, ~1It3(\;61~:i:

J;.::'

l-rf!5;h;61",:) ~ ~'t, '0

(While polyester curtains do not shrink easily and are heat-resistant, they attract dirt easily because of static electricity.)

L:l'l( T(' t.: ~c.<-tH' ~;I;'t'~di;:' liAlhA- ~

(f) ;:O)jijrE{iff;hNii3(\!M"Ii~:Mfij, ~~%lllt;61*~po &rm, &f!flf~'tC

::.iJ:l';A l~

il11i1Mt l:'O)f5!!ffl I:: {i~ ~ )j:, '0

(This magnet has superb magnetic properties and excellent mechanical strength, On the other hand, it rusts easily and should not be used at high temperatures.)

IJ i".iJ l~ '$ 1t>A.. IiAIiJA

(g) J'f;t\t±~{i iV 0 rml:'{i't{;f G lp;6\ "C O)&rm, "C ;h;6L/T ~ 't ~'-r P;:' P;:'

)j:rp'jj!!;61il'Q;: 0;: i:: t iV 00

(Idealism is wonderful in some ways; on the other hand, when it goes too far, it can cause problems.)

::L'Ut!# ~A-CA

(h) -1 :; ;; - * 'y "O);@A.J;i! l-lj- - \::'_A ~f~ '5 :llijit, /flitp i:: P '5 Wj!,¢,(;6' G 5B

1±?!~(--C~ il)ll-j.:? t» 1"~ liA

i::, z ij G 17' G lilil¥J{:: 7 fo - 7- ~'t 0 l1i.*{H')j: !) 5I};*I¥Jl:''t 0 "c 0)&

~A .; t.:A~l~ll? ~~?LI/>'J ~ !tA-ttl'

jii- f[Q)A'II1¥RO)i1rtili i:: , ' '5 m:~'1i t iV !) i 't 0

(When you use online services to search for a boyfriend or girlfriend, taking the active approach is quite effective in terms of meeting people. On the other hand, there is the danger that your personal information will be Ieaked.)

L The literal meaning of han men is "the other side,' Hanmen is used to contrast positive and negative sides of something or someone. The negative side is usually stated in the main clause or in a second sentence.

2, Hanmen can appear either at the end of the first clause or at the beginning of the second sentence. In the latter case, sana before hanmen is optional,

3, As seen in KS(D), hanmen is sometimes preceded by a demonstrative adjective. In this case, only sana can precede hanmen, as shown in (1),

(1) z z (iiil¥~!IWJ;61* <. i t::fj~Il t :J; < -r*± l:'{i]t« G;h)j:,,~ t iV !) i'to (l;6' i.). 1 (f<7)) 1*;:(7) I*NJ(7) l'&mL !l!fm;~*!IWJ'iil11iPC''to (= KS (D))

110 hanmen


I. Ni taishite is also used for contrasting statements. However, ni taishite is commonly used to contrast two different things rather than two sides of one thing. Thus, ni taishite and hanmen are not interchangeable, as shown in [1].

,'-:>liA, t.:" lilv

[1] a. ~AA'I:::, B:;$:O)"l""tI;l::*"l"I:::AGwfl:::J:: < §i\M~TG 1 (7)t:MI..,"t 1*&

"'A-

00 I, T _) I) :fJ O)"l""tli:*"l"I:::A-:> "'[;1.1' G J:: < ~iMlT G J:: 7 s,

(It appears that, in general, Japanese students study hard before entering college whereas American students study hard after entering college.)

b. z 0) 00 liill!lAO)jf,JG(h\tnl:l: ~ tLG 1 &00 1 *(7)t:::M t r I, ,eJ"}v-7' C t. l" 0);;1; c ;;I; IJ h\!9!9l', (= KS(B))

(¢ ni taishite/taishi (DIJG: 275 ... 78))

II. Ni hanshite can be used to present two propositions in opposition.

When ni hanshite presents two opposing propositions about one thing, ni hanshite and hanmen are interchangeable, but when ni hanshite pre ... sents two opposing propositions about two different things, ni hanshite cannot be replaced by hanmen, as shown in [2].

t> L~ -j I9l (f) 1:tA-l/JA- IVv

[2] a.'flth\t±liTV~·O)%tLrr~hlf$U'l"PG l&OO/(7)t:&I..,"tI, :t-

-\tt'l.I'A..

T -{ :t~~O)%tLrr~ h\~h\-:>l"PG,

(In our company, in contrast to the increase in sales of TV sets, sales of audio products are decreasing.)

tr!'n' .f"?~' l 'i

b. B:;$:l"IiPP:*"l"I:::AG O)Ii'* 0 Phlzf:~T G 0) Ii'\" ~ 0 Pc a:btL

LPG, 1 ;:nt:&I..,"t l*f(7)&OOI, T _) I) :fJl"IiPP:*"l"C''E,A

D Ii'< -rr. of? 1::')

"l"li.lURB9,\" ~ U 'hlzf:~T Q I::: li;f§~~5§l 0 ld: IttLlild: G ~n '0

(It is said that to enter a good university in Japan is difficult but to graduate is easy. In contrast, in America even good universities are relatively easy to enter, but students must study quite hard to graduate.)

(¢ ni hanshite/hansuru (DIJG: 241 ... 45))

hatashite 111

hatashite 'it.:: L, l

adv. <w>

an adverb indicating that S.t. occurred as the writer expected, or expressing in a concession clause the writer's strong doubt

just as - thought; as expected; really; in fact; sure enough; indeed; at all; 10 and behold [REL. yahari/yappari; an no jo]


Noun
t!.A-C?
~:¥O)~'E, ai~t2: ca:btLl"l ,t::.hl, lit::0l" !!J~ t2:-:>t.::,
(They said this would be a warm winter, and indeed it has been.) (B)

Vinf
~dt'< n't'tJ'(
lit'::Gl" B:;$:O)~Wli Cl!l:*~n.Q (0)) t2: 7S 7 h',
(I wonder if Japanese education will really be reformed at all.) (C)

Vinf
L:J:-ttt, ~ \. tJ't,~A.
lit'::Gl" 3('11 O):till ill hI Cl!l:~~n.Q C0l"'E, Il<fFa'hlh'h'Gt2:7S 70
(Even if women's status improves, as expected, it may take time.) .4.1;';6I1uil.

(i) IU: Gl" 1 V 1 Adj(i) I inf.past

l"?lit'

lit:: Gl" *=1& 0 t.:: (s.o. failed as expected)

Ii i: Gl"'!;i;h' -:> i: (s.t. was indeed inexpensive) (ii) lit.:: Gl" 1 Adj(na)stem/N 1 t2:-:>t.::

'J? Ii

Ii t: Gl":sLlliUc: -:> t: (s.o./s.t. really was magnificent)

Ii t.:: Gl" ffit2: -:> t: (it rained (lit., it was rain), as expected)

112 hatashite

(iii) fite: G l 1 v I Adj(i) linf(O)) te: 'S "5;/)'

lit:: G l iii 1 * G I *te: f (0)) te: 'S "5 71' (I wonder if he really is coming I came)

fit:: G l1S{li~1:t;/)1 1 p pi J:.. ;/),~ t: f (0)) te: 'S "5;/)' (I wonder if he really is/was smart)

(iv) fite: Gl lAdj(na)stem/Nf 10 It;;.O) Ite:~tdO)) f te:'S"5;/)'

lite: G l1S{li5t7il.l 0 I «o: I te: ~ tdO)) f te: 'S "5;/)' (I wonder if he really is/was healthy)

lit:: G l1S{Ii:'jt~ 10 I t;;.0) I te: ~ i: (0)) f te: 'S"5;/)' (I wonder if he really is/was a student)

(v) lite: G l 1 V I Adj(i/na) IN + Cop. f inf !:: G l t

lite: G l1S{;/)I*MH~f::: 1 t;;. G I t;;. ~ i: f !:: G l t (even if he really becomes I became president)

fit: G l1S{;/)1 dip Iff;/)'~ t: f !:: G l t (even ifhe were Ihad been really young)

(it:: G l1S{;/)1 15t7il.te: 15t7il.te: ~ t: f !:: G l t (even ifhe were Ihad been really healthy)

(it:: Gl1S{;/)115~~te: 11!RJ;j-te:~te: f !:: Gl t (even if he really were I had been a single)

J:: f:')CS

(a) 'liw F 1 'Yk,i"::(iPfn(iil'Q2:: G !::J~h lPte:;/)\ lite: G IT;t~~~P)il'Q~ tt: ;

(I thought that sooner or later East and West Germany would be united, and, just as I expected, it happened.)

(b) =AO)f~liJil;aO).~-c', p-:J;/)'Ii=f-)H ;r9G !::,I!hlPt:: G, lite: G l.:cO)}iI),:::t;;.~te:o

(Everyone knew about their relationship, and, just as we expected, they got married.)

(c) .:c 2:: 0) i- A l- 7 ;.; li~fl-:E!Il-C':ff1~de: ~ te:;/)l, lite: G l ,\\),~ te:}i I) O):!DP G P fl-:E!Il;/)ll±\l ~ te: 0

(That restaurant was famous for its fish dishes, and the food really was as good as we had expected.)

~d=< LA, ,,\':h ,~/:t ",_

(d) 1 A 7 .x.)~ !::;{ i- kfTjjIjj~O)r,,'f:::lite: G l~O)'f;fO;/)'MnG O)te: 'S ") ~'~

(I wonder if real peace will indeed come to Israel and the Palestinian territories.)

-

l

I:

::1 • t

hatashite 113

(tt'if't, l;::')';t' J,"?::,)

(e) lite: Gl B::$:*liJ'lli)li:pi\'f*f:::fJ.!lJ"l!TG te:'S"5 ;/)'0

(I wonder if the Japanese economy really will revive in the near future.)

-ttt' %!-

(f) 21 t!t*Glilit::GlC'O)~O)t!t;)1G(:::t;;.GO)te:'S"5;/)'o

(To which country will the 21st century really belong?)

-ttL' t 7;.

(g) (ite: GlJ&~*te:1)O)i3"5 2:: !::;/)\"5 b«te:(to) 2:: !:: -c'zt, G!:: Gl t, ~3>0)

LJ,..,C-?

~~(izt, G!::~;t t::, '0

(Even if what politicians say really is just lip service, I would like to think that there is some truth in it.)

-¢m4- i]J

1. Hatashite is used in three ways, as shown in KS(A), (B) and (C), but the basic meaning of "as expected" stays the same. The examples for Formation (i) (ii), (iii) (iv) and (v) are KS(A) and Exs.(a)-(c), KS(B) and Exs.(d)-(f), and KS(C) and Ex.(g), respectively.

2. Hatashite is used only in written or formal spoken Japanese. It could not be used in the following colloquial sentences.

t.p.fl Mn

(1) a. *1S{(i*t;;.p Ulh te: (t E, tH.: t. ·t:Eflnt;;.;/)'~ i: J:..o

(cf. [la] in Related Expressions) (I didn't think he was coming, and, just as I expected, he didn't show up.)

t,~'J l .t''£, t 1ji)1

b. *If[O)ilIliI-j'-;/)I,'!pt;;.!:: ,IS\~ l Pte: G, tit.: t. "(§:W:::1T < )iCP-C'.x.;.; A

r ~ il'Q 2:: G 1) "? ~ te: A.Je: 0 (cf. [1 b] in Related Expressions)

(I thought something was wrong with my car, and, 10 and behold, the engine stopped on my way to the office.)


The colloquial adverb yahari/yappari can replace hatashite in Formation (i)-(iv), as shown in [1]-[3], but not in (v), as shown in [4], simply because yahari/yappari cannot be used in a dependent clause. There is another adverb, an no io, which means "s.t. undesirable has occurred as expected." An no io can replace hatashite in Formation (i) and (ii), if what occurred is undesirable, as shown in [1]. It cannot replace hatashite, however, if what occurred is recognized as desirable, as shown in [2]. In [3] and [4], in which something may occur in the future, an no io is unacceptable, because it implies that something has already occurred as expected.

114 hatashite / hiite wa

[1] a.iB{ ti;lIUJ: p CJG\ -:) t: tt E, 1 ,it.: t. r / *O):M / '{!> 'i f) / '{!> -:) ,! f) I JJ1.tuJ:;()' -:) t: 0

(I didn't think he was coming, and in fact he never did show up.)

b. 1{'i:O)i\f.lI1'";I;lj!piJ: !:::,I!hlPt;: 6, 1 ,it.: i.r /~O)~ / '{!>'i f) / '{!>-:) 'if) I, i::W:rr < ~9rc'.x. /' A r ~itil::. G l G i -:) t;:o

(I thought something was wrong with my car, and, 10 and behold, the engine stopped on my way to the office.)

[2] a. ~if.O)~ta~~tcE!:::~bnlPt;:;()l, 1 'it.:vr /'{!>'if) /,{!>-:),!f) /

~/.,_ t:d

*~O)~ I a~~tcE -:) tz; (= KS(A))

b. Jlf5 F -1 'YilVE-tipi"ntiitil::'.Q !:::J~hlPt;:;()I, 1 ,it.: v-r /'{!>'i f) /'{!>?,!f) /*~O)~Ii";WJj!)itil~t;:o (=Ex.(a))

iJ!,A- [;11

[3] a. 1 'it.:vr /'{!>'if) /,{!>-:),!f) /*~O)~l B:$:O)~fJtiD:I(~~n.QO)

tcE;:, "') ;()'o (= KS(B))

b. 1 ,it.: L..""( /'{!>'if) /'{!>?,!f) /*~O)~ I B:$:~~ti~p~q*t:1!l!!"l!

T.Q tcE;:, "') »; (= Ex.(e))

iJ!,A., tl'i

[4] a. 1 ,it.: L..""( / ??'{!>'i f) rn» -:) ,! f) / *~O)~ I 31,"'j1:O)t1!JflL;()lQ\(:iIf ~ n

.Q t G l t ~fl!I;()I;I;';()'.Q tcE;:, "') 0 (= KS(C))

b. 1 ,it.: L..""( /??"""if) /??,{!>-:),!f) /*~O)~ I i&lil~U;:"i)O)~"')::'!::: ;1;1"') b«tcE tto)::' !::: '"(';I».Q !::: G l t: g:;-':J;-O)J!;~ti;l».Q t~ ;U;:Po (= Ex.(g))

(e> yahari(DBJG: 538-40))

hiite wa tH \ -c 'i adv.

eventually (lead to) - ; even [REL. sara ni (wa)]

an adverb indicating that S.t. is perceived to eventually lead to a significant result

hiite wa 115


Vmasu
.: ?!f~ 4;f A. t: ~ , -ItA,.:t; 1>0
-1 '7 /;1 A.O):rj(~li ii' -1 A'7j.,t±i::1f:f*tO)~"Jl-t:J6
.: I)-:J m~, vPlti ·u. ,,~
7 _)I I) jJ O)iJJtSL ~ III G l t ) < ;'&';n;l;I;I» .Q 0
(There is fear that an attack against Iraq will bring about American
isolation, and eventually will lead to a war with Muslim society as a
whole.) (B)

Noun! Nouns
,," ,!:'-jl)d t' l~ ~-:J t' vr:
iB{lill'!l~l: 71 /'\Jv;lil.~, lJt )cLt ~;Iil. T6j{ijPlPt;:o
(He regarded his colleague as a rival, even to the point of considering
murder.) .inll,AIit.iI_

(i) -Vmasu, vPlti So (e> KS(A»)

(ii) Nl, VPl ti N2

(¢ KS(B))

.;%,1,11)(;.

I;:·Hd ':;i:'-j "(~-tt-:J -rAJ)';'" n'''::dtl' 'h'

(a) JIO~~·O)ilit~~~~~WI:'iJ!t!GlP<::' UI, JIO?,O)gi'L~~$'j1:1~~-It, V

~tt'~\'l)l( ~d 7J'

Pl Ii B:$:O)~~jJO)iJ!lH~I:-:JiJ:;()I-:) lP < 0

(Addressing the appropriate restructuring of Tokyo's industrial structure will revitalize Tokyo's industry and eventually lead to the strengthening of the Japanese economy.)

t.:tL L: LA, O);1)i( t:l.'t!t'!fA, t - Mfp -tt?~t(''(~

(b) l~t;l;1 §5t§ ,!to)ijI§jJ ~~*~Ri:$;()' G l, § 6fl!l;fojfl\)I:~ G P::' 1:::1: T-V

=< "'t'

V/,/Gl, J:!)J:<'t~lP<J !:::p"')~;t~, B:$:IEV], vPltitltW

1;1: ~"1

1:1HOk ~ -Itt;: t)!::: }[!;,,-:) l\) i To

(Life will improve when everyone uses their abilities to the greatest extent and actively takes on new challenges. I would like this idea to spread within Japan, and, eventually, in the world.)

116 hiite wa

I

~

I I

-tt rtf,. ~ ;¥l;HH'.tt' ~;~t'< 1j;A...~t' b t,;t'

(c) mr,,'-Cli, ::i£J'UI-g;lpG, ~fl\ V-P-CliJB~il'\ ~~mli1 /51-;t"y r

~<-ttA., ~A

iJq!lt~ G-CPG C P '5 ~t::-c'-to

(Throughout society, in business management and ,educa~ion, a,nd even crime, it seems like the Internet is the dominant tOpIC of discussion.)

(d) m{r~p-cp-c, lt~JtJ:io)AiJlrtu=:'5iJ'G~P-C< GC, /G*tJ:Xtti(1J1::

'~A..li'1v 1£'j.tJ,' ~ 0)-') ,.,..

tJ:Go UlliJ.,JJ", V-P-Clill!lJ!j&J0)il1J1fIJ~II~0)--:Jt2:;:'7o

(If a person with a strange figure walks towards you on the .street, yo.u might start to feel uneasy. This is a human defense mechamsm, and IS used even by animals.)

J: If"?

(e) *.iiJlii1liP~O)tO){r.toPG<1lt""G=:Cli, V-P-CliJFJXt{r'Yil1JTGo

(Food eaten in season is richer in nutrition, and thus can help prevent disease.)

- tic. /i6T.' J: .J.. C-J LAhl)" ~~Hd-:J-j

(f) Y A.JI T -1 7iJlilAO)ii.~7°71 J~~- (r/G"l1::f5t%,TG;jR1~iJl*r.Ht1;C

11')1:'') t:.t' ItA.~~< 1'J't'I~~'! ::-')l-? hi::..... '7 _

V-P-C li¥Rm1::J-r G -C;f;i1JiJlj)- A -t G D~{rlJ.A G ~ C ktJ: G 0

(If the media continues to violate people's reputations and privacy unjustly, some day it could provide an excuse for the government to intervene.)

1. The adverb hiite wa is used when it is believed something will eventually lead to some significant result. For example, in KS(A), "an atta~k against Iraq" causes "American isolation," but the speaker fears that m turn it will lead to "a war with Muslim society as a whole."

2. As indicated in Formation (ii), hiite wa can combine two or more nouns, as in KS(B) and Exs.(b)-(d). But strictly speaking, Formation (ii) is the result of ellipsis. For example, KS(B) and Ex.(d) are shortened from the forms shown in (1) below.

(1) a.1IJ(Iill'lJ~I::71 J~)"~~~(:~':j'2!~), V-~'"ltHj'~-tGfclp-cpt::o

(= KS(B»

b. Ul1iAr", (O)IlJj~*R~O)--:J-('d()fJ), V-~ vr till!lJ!j&J0)il1J1fIJ~II~0)-:Jt::.;:, '50 (= second sentence of Ex.td)

3. The adverb hiite wa can be preceded by S koto wa, as in Ex.(e), or by Vcond ba, as in Ex.(f).

hiite wa I hito/ichi [Counter] to shite - nai 117


The adverb sara ni (wa), "in addition," can replace the adverb hiite wa in all the KS and Exs. above. Meanwhile, sara ni (wa) can be replaced by hiite wa only when sara ni (wa) means "in addition." [la] and [lb] below refer to number and quantity, respectively, so hiite wa cannot be used.

d.'>t, (0

[1] a. iH'.! Ii 37 ii t::. -s t: iJl, I ~ .;, ,: / *V-~'"l ,;I: f 12 iiiJ[]:b-::J -c 49 ii I::

tJ: -::J t::o

(There were 37 members, but another 12 people joined, for a total of 49.)

b. =Ali-t-C1:: t:-)"{r+*t~lv-cpt::iJl, I ~.;, ,: /*lH'"l'i f r'J

,ld:;UIv

1 A "\' - t =J!!I~ (t t:: 0

(The two had already drunk 10 bottles of beer, but, in addition, they drank two bottles of whiskey.)

(¢ sara ni (in this volume»

Dc flIt,

hito / ichi [Counter] to shite ~ nai [Counter] t G l ~~~,

str. <w>

a structure that means "not a single one"

not a single -; not even one; not any-

[REL. [Wh-word] hito/ich i [Counter] - nai; hito/ichi [Counter] tari to rna - nail

• Key Sentence

Counter
" ut ~
'5 'i) O)B*(:: Ii A cl-C ~~,'iH~-1:±'G~iJlp tJ:po
(Not a single person in my section can speak English.) -

I.

~

I

,--

118 hito/ichi [Counter] to shite - nai

.;.1;,;@"u1l_

- [Counter] I:: L,l-~P

--:J I:: L, l {.Ie.:t ~, ' (not a single one can be used)

.;@,,,,,,,;_

L ~dL-? t;?~-::::> '2( t:

(a) :::0)~ff¥1=Ii--mr1:: L,l{:I!:I=j[_7*;/)l~po

(There's not a single useful book in this library.)

~* t:~

(b) fM'tN-::>lPt~II~\ -AI:: L,lfb~l!bltl< n01'11;/)lp~;/),-::>t~0

(Not a single person helped me when I was having trouble.)

IA1~J';

(c) ::: O)*~Ii, t: O)i!±O)CPl=Ii--:J I:: L, l 1"15t0) i o)Ii~P I::~.:t lP 00

(This religion teaches that nothing in this world belongs to you.)

It A.. l:'''j l/di}"" c'tJOd ?O. ~~

(d) §iU~mifU1i-fYI:: L,l3(tH~<::: I::Ii~t~n~po

(A kendo (Japanese fencing) judge will not be forgiven for losing his concentration for even a second.)

t:.AlJ... .J., 1:A.'lJ~1

(e) ~Jtil1{fcp, -BI::L,l*~O):::I::Hl.(;b~PBli~;/)'-::>t~o

(While I was assigned to another city (lit., When I lived on my own away from my family for business), there was not a single day I didn't think of my family.)

n'OJt;.l: iA..f;OJ T,d_)SA. 0 ~l( ~

(f) lEl:9:O)~~*Ii-{f1:: L,l;fo6-'f;/)'I=slji;/)'n0::: I:: li~ <, cO)flljilll!i< 1'111=

ki.l' lJ'A..li)t, i.Jt:;

~"~~ ~-§..:t~, 'l"Ii;fo;/)'~, '0

(In her performances, she never plays a single note carelessly, and no matter what the piece, her audience can't help being deeply impressed.)

_¢mi·p

Hito/ichi [Counter] to shite - nai is used to indicate total negation, i.e., "not a single" or "not any."


I. A Wh-word followed by hito/ichi "one" and a counter expresses the same idea as hito/ichi [Counter] to shite - nai, as shown in [1].

[1] a. '5 "i)O)BlI!I=Ii I-At L.,T /~-AI :5€~H5{i-01'11;/)lp~po

(= KS)

hito/ichi [Counter] to shite - nai / hitotsu 119

b. z O)~ff¥I=Ii I-$t L., T / E:h-$ I {:I!:1=j[_-::n$:;/)l~po

(= Ex.ta)

t.d:

c. ::: O)*~Ii, z O)i!±O)CP 1= Ii I-"? t L., T /foJ-"? I 1"15t0) i o)Ii~

\ 'I::~.:t l\ '00 (= Ex.Ic)

II. Expressions with tari to mo are similar to to shite, as shown in [2]. [2] a. '5 "i)O)BlI!1=Ii-AI t L.,T /t~~) t'b 1:5€~gH5{i-01'11;/)lp~po

(= KS)

b. :::o)*~Ii, ::: O)i!±O)CPl=Ii-"? It L.,T / t;::~) t'b 1 1"15t0) i 0) Ii ~PI::~.:t lp00 (= Ex.(c))

c. §iU~O)'ljf~U li-f1> I t L., T / t: ~) t'b 13(t H~ < ::: I:: li~H n~ Po

(= Ex.td)

Tari to mo is more bookish than to shite and indicates even stronger negation than to shite.

Tari to mo is also used with nanibito or nanpito "anyone," as shown in

[3].

t''5 .M l: .l:-t!l' i:tA..r.n:. tJ>l;. [t t: ~:A.

[3] -ilIlO) l' .A '71>. i!±W l"Ii, :9:'i1'IifoJAt;::~) t 'b~O)oe ~ftt!AI=~{i- 0 :::

...

I:: li~t~ n~\ '0

(In part of the Muslim world, no woman is allowed to show her hair to others.)

hitotsu V> t-:>

adv. <s>

an adverb used when the speaker intends to do s.t., or asks s.o. a favor, or makes a suggestion or gives advice to S.o.

give S.t. a try

120 hitotsu


Vte
ft_1,'''V' (
'O'C:"J B *O)/NllO)~~ ~ '(!>?T h-J: '70
(I will try to translate a Japanese novel into English.) (B)

Noun Vinf.past
'O'C:"J ::f)l;7 c't '(!>?t~ C, E '7 c'T7J'o
(How about giving golf a try?) (C)

Vte
f::St!.J,.
'O'C:"J ,f§~I= (J)?T r2' Po
(Please give me your advice.) .i.t;';@ilin,_

(i) 'O'C:"J Vte h-J: '70

V' C: "J:; 3 4' /' ~f ~ G 'l h-J: '7 0 (I will give jogging a try.) (ii) V' C: "J N c't 1 V te Ii / Vinf.past C, I E '7 --eT7J'o

~A 1£

V' C: "Jl-iZ~c' t 1 G'l Ii / G t~ C, I E '7 t:T7J'o (How about taking a

walk or something?)

(iii) V' C: "J V masu i -t±-!v 7J' 0

V' C: "J~;5l/1"!\' i -t±- !v7J'o (How about discussing it?) (iv) V' C: "J Vte T 2' Po

V' C: "J$;"\' I=*'lr 2' \ '0 (Please come see me.)

• a·fun,hi.

(a) 'O'C:"J1 /';<-;t,,) J.--et1'-::>'lh-J:'7o (I will try the Internet or something.)

I:: ~t.:!_I,' ?

(b) 'O'C:"J*:*~5tlt'lh-t~PUl.(piTo

(I'd like to give the entrance exam for the University of Tokyo a try.)

hitotsu 121

stL6 L'«?

(c) ,Shall we :?f/'A?J C:P'7jIijBP~l®~JU~O)t:, 'O'C:"Jt±:5t:7"/'AC't

1'-::> 'l h-J: '7 7J' C: p '7 3(t1=id:-::> tc;

(Now that I've seen the (interesting) movie Shall We Dance?, I want to give social dancing a try.)

(d) 'O'C:"J~l®t:t~l=rr~ ;t-t±-!v7J'0 (Why don't we go see a movie?)

1J,_g

(e) V' C: "Jf*c' t l' -::> 'l h-;t -t±- !v7J'o

(Don't you want to try stocks?)

'"

(f) A:~mn;:c:id:EIj{J~t~<id:PJ:o

(I don't want to listen to what you have to say.)

B: ;t;b, -t"'78bid:pt:, 'O'C:"JIj{JP'lr2'PJ:o

(Don't say that. Just give me a chance (lit., please try to listen).)

IOn'

(g) -t";:0)C:;:0~, 'O'C:"JJ:0G<toJJiJlpPt~G;tTo

(I'm well aware of the difficulty, but I would appreciate anything you can do to help me.)

(h) t;;-?;b, ;:O)f±*~'O'C:"J1'-::>'lt c,p;t GJ: '77J'0 (So, can I ask for your help with this work?)

.@Mi,.

1. The Number-Counter combination hito-tsu "one piece" is used as an adverb when the speaker intends to do something, as in KS(A) and Exs.(a)--(c), asks a favor of someone, as in KS(C) and Exs.(f)--(h), or makes a suggestion or gives advice to someone, as in KS(B), Exs.(d) and (e). This expression seems to convey the meaning "give it a try."

2. The use of hitotsu in (1)--(3) below is different from that in the KS and Exs. because the adverb here somehow retains the meaning of "one piece." The sentences in (1) are negative potential sentences, and those in (2) are plain negative sentences. In both, the negative meaning is reinforced by hitotsu. That is, in both (1) and (2) the meaning of hitotsu is "(not) even one." (3) are affirmative sentences in which something is accomplished solely by its own virtues .

~0t~ £J,.~<

(1) a. 11!li;(li-'f*JW t ,?iJ1iljjEI=lm id: \ '0

(She cannot even write a letter properly.)

tr T = 3!>L'~--:J

b .. ~3·li t '7 :*Aid:o)l=, 1~1J!'(}t "::n"~ id:Po

(My son is already an adult, but he cannot even greet people properly.)

122 hitotsu / hitotsu ni wa

M

(2) a. ;::OX::oi50):E'p'j'-0)7 7 "} s- '-' :';;IJ:!v7~I'V>C"?t pp~ i:J:J.st;b;IJ:po

(I don't like young people's fashion these days at all.)

;BtL,')

b. z 0) '7 :,; jJ, V> C "? t jij B < ;IJ: I' tJ.o

(This comic isn't interesting at all.)

non c.i

c.1Sn:J:1PJv>c"?![IUJ;flJ3;6I;IJ:po

(He doesn't have a single strong suit.)

i.N!)!.:.!: (fIn l-dl.,A

(3) a.1EZ3(i:J:~~V>c ,,?-C'~)!E G L'P ·::,1':0

(She has been rising in rank simply because of her beauty.)

sM ... -z' c !::°t Jf.:t!.

b. ffl:i:J:3('PV> c "?l''j'-{#i1iAI.rfij'L' t.:o

(My mother brought up five kids all by herself.)

U't

hitotsu ni wa --::>'':'1 adv.

an adverb meaning "partly" in a context where s.o. gives one or two objectives, benefits, examples or reasons for S.t.

partly; for one thing

hitotsu ni wa 123


Topic
~ l ') CO <
*"jt~fij'0) 1;1:1£06 ~dJ:'5 -ttA.tA,-C~ ~ L. 0) OJ u l ( '1'
t<l:~ -,,?I=li $~!t\ ,~.umB':J;lJ:m~~ ·lIg1JI.r~ltG;::~,
§B':Ji:J:,

::'jltA. L c-? L~ t'(-\tt,
--"? 1= Ii tH,I=J'tJ¥RT G11'l1Jl\~1.rfij')j\(;T G ;:: ~ s,
(The objective of college education is partly to provide broad schooling
and professional knowledge and ability, and partly to train and produce
leaders who will contribute to society.) (B)

Vinf

(One reason he likes studying foreign languages is because he likes to learn about different cultures.)

.kn;IIHiitn,_

(i) -~-::>I=li-(t 7)--::>I=li-

--::> 1= Ii El7t0) t.:/;6, t 7 --::> 1= 1:J:*~O)t.: /;6 (partly for oneself and partly for one's family)

IJ !qJ'j

(ii) 1 V 1 Adj(i) l inf 10) 1 J'Ill.ffil i:J:-::> l=Ii-1 ;6' G 1 t.:/;61 tco

~,,;lJ:t, 1 0) IJ'Ill.ffilli-o,,?I=li :iTt' 1;6' G 1 t.:/;61 tco (One reason why s.o. doesn't eat S.t. is because it doesn't taste good.)

~";lJ:77'·:,t.: 1 0) IJ'Ill.ffill:J:--::>I=li:iT77'-:>t.: 1 17'G It.:/;61 », (One reason why s.o. didn't eat S.t. was because it didn't taste good.)

1:- ~t,

:fop G 1'10) IJ'Ill.ffilli-::>l= li*M77lpp 177' G 1 t.:/;61 tco (One

reason why S.t. is delicious is because the ingredients are good.)

:fop G17'-:>t.: 1 0) IJ'Ill.ffill:J:--::>I=li*i'J17IJ::77,-:>t.: 1 17'G It::./;61 s, (One reason why S.t. was delicious was because the ingredients were good.)

(iii) Adj(na)stem 1 ;IJ: 1 tc -:> t.: 1 10) 1 J'Ill.ffilli--::> l=Ii-l77' G 1 t::./;6 1 tco

T-?1JI( C < t'

~"jt1711{j!Jlt;IJ: 1 0) IJ'II!ffilli-"?I=liH~ 1 tC77' G 1 ;lJ:t::./;61 tco (One

reason why he excels in math is because he likes it.)

~"jt1711{j!J1ttc -:> i: 1 0) 1 J'II!ffi 1 i:J:-::> 1= (Hf ~ tc -:> t.: 1 77' G 1 t::./;6 1 tc a (One reason why he excelled in math was because he liked it.)

(iv) N 1;IJ:0) I-C'j) GJ'II!ffil i:J:-::>I=ii-1 17' G 1 t::./;61 t~o

L-:;.tfl.' Itt'I'J'( J> i-<

~J'& 1 ;lJ:O) 1 -Co j) M!j!ffil ii--::> 1= iiilt@j~JE 1 tC77' G 1 O)t::./;6 1 t~o

(One reason for the failure is lack of planning.)

(v) Ntc-:>t::.10)IJ'II!ffilii-::>l=ii-177'Glt::./;6lt~o

~J'&tc-:>t::.1 0) IJ'II!ffil ii--::>(::Iiilt@j~JEtc-:>t.: 177'0, It::./;61 s, (One reason for the failure was lack of planning.)

124 hitotsu ni wa

.;OO"Il.Jt;_

"n

(a) 1Eun: < *1fi:t1*tTI:l±\i;>lt.:5o)li, ~-::>I:'i§7tO)t::<I6, ~-:JI:li*1fi:O)

i: <16 t~o

(He travels so frequently with his family, partly for himself and partly for his family.)

tA- 'II"

(b) B*A;61::kAi C'~l®~mUv C'P.:5 o)li, ~-:JI:li, ::kA;6'+7tlltb it.:5 J:

'5 id:~l®;61 iO .:5;6' Ij t~ 0

(One reason even Japanese adults read comics is because there are comics that adults can fully enjoy.)

Il'n ~ ~? iprJJt:J:

(c) 1Et;61"f0)'j'-Hf~ id:J'I.!!E!3liP0P0 t iO .:5;61, ~-:JI:li1Et3<0)~i5t_,1J;61p-:J

t1=.~1=.~ t VCP0t::<I6t~o

(He likes that girl for many reasons, but partly because her talk is always lively.)

'J !9J? f.ll( f_,A., u $-5

(d) 'fMly.J 1)}] I: * t: J'l.!!E!3 Ii, ~-:JI:li, -e z 1:"jtF,,'0)§E!3;61iO.:5 U!.\-:d::;6'

Ij t~o

(One reason I came to the U.S. was because I thought there was academic freedom here.)

-ltc' C iJ'~; I) lIiJ-5 -t!A-~J:;';' ~.t(-C~ .::-5,(=>(

(e) i&l'a*;61Mlb;fl0 J'l.!!E!3li, ~-:JI: Ii, 31~0)*1: 'ill\t:1JI¥Jid:0i%"J ~§ -50) I:,

c-5-ttA, e~;:?

~31T G t "f;fl~~rr t_,id:P;6' Ij t~o

(Part of the reason politicians are disliked is because they make attractive promises when campaigning but don't put them into practice once they are elected.)

t.:t'ltA

(f) B*I:*t::jj.IEA;61f*,1~~T G }]jL.-7'- -1' - /3 'J 71:liP0 1'0 iO 0 t ,1(\.\ '5 ;61,

- .

~-:J I: Ii, B *A;611Et Ij ~ jj 1 ~ /' , -:J i !) '} r 0) A t U¥~ t I' '5 ;: t ;61 iO .:5 0

(Foreigners experience a variety of culture shocks when they come to Japan, one of which is being called gaijin, or "outside people," by the Japanese.)

(.::." ~

(g) 110 '¥ B 8cJ ~~ -:)l ,ij.t:: I' t J: < ,liSt. -5 ;61, i t~~;';<16 -c I' id: Po "f ;flli~-:J

1:li, llfJO)'¥0)1J;61", ,'¥t~-::> t: Ij, ,~t~;6' Ij t~o

(I've often thought of keeping a "1O-year diary," but I've never gotten around to doing it. That's partly because I wouldn't like it if the previous year was better.)

hitotsu ni wa 125

.~mI4_

1. The adverb hitotsu ni wa is used either to give one reason, implying that there are more reasons, as in KS(B), Exs.(b)-(e) and (g), or to give one example, implying that there are more examples, as in Ex.(f), or to give objectives or benefits, as in KS(A) and Ex.(a).

2. The sentence ending can be other than - kara da or - tame da. Some examples follow.

~ '!J,( {n'~H < t; t' -,- ij

(1) a. YJ~- r 1:~<I6t::0)Ii--:Jt;:Ci"jt1=.Ji\!I:j:~/'(-cg;6till;61PPb\?;:

t-til!>~a9o

(One of the reasons I have decided on an apartment is that it is more comfortable than the students' dorm.)

"(A,tJt( J:-) t',1,I,c 'J i9J? HI

h;:0)1EC'~0)::k"jt~0)~"jt#3~1:~<I61j;fl0J'1.!!E!30)--:J~~. Rt_,

t t,tj

,'::k"jtA~;61id:,' t ~ \? $,ti1J~'il!> 00

(One of the reasons that transferring to another university is easy (lit., readily approved) in this country is the fact that there aren't tough entrance examinations here.)

c. "f 0) B *~i'lO)"jt1=.li, I' 0 P 0 F,,'JIl.!!;61 iO 0 O)t~;61, --:Jt;:Ci i t~~~i

"' ~(

;61/f'}E t. -CP.:5 t ~ \?;: t 1J~'il!> 00

(That student of Japanese has many problems; one is his poor vocabulary.)

r

126 icnio

~\"!SS?

ichio -J;b

adv. <8>

I

; ~

I~

for the time being; for the present; for now; tentatively; for formality's sake; nominally; kind of; sort of

[REL. toriaezu]

an adverb indicating that an action or state is only temporary or tentative or is superficially conceived

• Key Sentence

1~l't' '!! [} t: "_~~2; . -
f<~0) BJ'IIP) ~ *~0)*~Bt~~L~~i~~7o
(Let's tentatively set our meeting date for next Wednesday.) .;iJ""''';.

(>"1;;8-') t.::.A-l:.-')

(a) fLli~1AS r ld=.:cO)f±$HJ3.~ ~-t±':;':.: u= Gt~o

(I've put Tom in charge of the project for the time being.)

?if 7jfv J: t> t'-ISs')

(b) z O)r,,~JmI=":H 'L Ii i t~~fniiO)~j:lllli &,.:;, t liJ(SI, ':)7)\, ~IE:'::': '"fIt I) ~-:J

Itt~ p t J(SI, -? 0

(I believe that on this issue there is still a lot to be discussed, but I'd like to bring it to a close for the time being.)

(c) ~f,i*"l"~iliL~Pt~117'!\~:.g.7'!\PP tJG(p, *"l"I=Ji"l" U~1v '"fTo

(I thought it would be better for me to graduate from college, to keep up appearances. That's why I went on to college.)

(d) A: ::I /' \:::'::L -?1 ~frJ!"")LPi)"") ~-?piT7'!'o

(Are you using a computer?)

t'"t;s"j

B: Ii&', i&" ~lASlifrJ!"")LPiT7'!\o

(Well, I'm kind of using one, but ... )

t:dti-5 'I! 1,;0)-:1

(e) A: &, 7'j: t: li'It¥IH5tiirITO)~Jr~1!'Il"T7'!'o

(Are you an IT researcher?)

t'iSS?

B: i iV, ~1AS.:c -? P -? z t '"fTo

(Yes, sort of.)

icnio 127

(f) A: z 0) ~~ E -? T.:;, 0) ?

(What are you going to do with this money?)

stl. t''l;s-')

B: ill!;7'!I~IAS~rrl=An L~ < J::o

(I will put it in the bank for now.)

l'"t;S7 c: ~ Ld -ISIl'

(g) =AliJG~ t 13 -? t.= It 1=ItJl(i, i &" --lASiIH p.:;, 0 L 7'!' ~3((,'I1:Ii7'!' 7'j: I))i -? 0

(The two are brothers, so their faces do sort of resemble each other. But, their temperaments are quite different.)

t'iSs') ~~'J L

(h) T,;z;.i-t±lvo :':n'"ft~IAS*"l"~Ull7'j:Iv'"fTo

(Sorry, (I know I don't look like one.) but I am in fact a college professor.)

~-:;J t: l'"t;s'j SIl:'

(i) l!lll~nll:b7'j:pJ;l:it'=ltE, ;g;mr< i)Pli~IASJ't:){_ Lt i)"")LP':;'7'!'i)~< t.

L<n':;'7'!'t ~n7'j:po

(It's a store where I seldom buy things, but they sort of know my name, so they might discount the price for me.)

.¢mi,.

1. tcnio is an adverb used frequently and primarily in spoken Japanese. It means that an action or a state is temporary, tentative or superficially conceived.

2. The marker rna and lchio are used together when the speaker wants to convey a sense of indecisiveness, as shown in Exs.(d), (e) and (g).


Toriaezu is an adverb used in spoken Japanese with a meaning similar to icnio. It basically indicates that an action is temporary, tentative or introductory. It can replace ichio in all instances except when the latter expresses a vague state, as shown below.

c

[1] a.f<~O)Bl'!'Z1) ~ !-};ti/l&~J cv.,x 9"I*~O)*~B t~~L~~ i

L ~ -? 0 (= KS)

b. fLli ! -};ti /l&~J cv., X 9"1 r b.1=.:c O)i±¥HJ3.~ ~ -t±.:;, :.: t 1= Gt~o

(= Ex.(a))

c. :.:O)r,,~Jm'="::J\ 'Llii t'=~fniiO)~j:lllli&'':;' t li,1jS( -? 7'!1, ! -};ti/l&~J cv.,x9'-1 :'::':l"ltl)~-:J'tt~PU(Sl,-?o (=Ex.(b))

128 ichio / ichi [Counter] to shite - nai / ikan (da)

d. A: £, ~ t: li'IJ!f¥IHxi®O)~Jf~~-C'T;/)'o

B: ;1£" l-Jib/*J&~JiV.>5t9'·I{-"5P"5::i::-C'To (=Ex.(e))

When toriaezu expresses an introductory action, as in [2], it cannot be replaced by ichio.

[2] a.A:fPJ~iiJ\t"5;/)'o

(What shall we drink?)

c "'iSs'S

B: 1 J&~J iV.>5t 9" /*-Jib I e:'-)~-c'~ilbi:lJ:"5 J:o

(Let's start with beer for now.)

ichi [Counter] to shite ~ nai ~ [Counter] t L, l ~ It ~ \ (¢ hito/ichi [Counter] to shite - naiin this volume)

ikan (da) ~ \ t1' It- (tZ:.') [~ofoJ (t.:) J

adv. <w>

ikan (da) 129

(B)

Noun Phrase
lHGl' •
? '" z O)~t±O)~~31d)I#c
~~O)fJj."l1iO)7'C:f1.~T ~ \ \;/)'Iv ll'/I=J:-:Jll
,nH"5t~o
(It looks like this company's future will be determined by this year's
new car sales (lit., how new car sales are this year).) (C)

Noun Phrase
f:"?~'d
It? tJ' ~ij'.¥~-C"!~P;/),t Gn
;:"O)TAI-O)*6* \ \;/)'Iv I=J: -:Jl Ii
~Po
(Depending on the results of this test, I may not be able to graduate this
year (lit., depending on what the result of the test is.). (D)

Noun
Phrase
,
0)") 1:~1 »< o I) ~? 1 Hp~bf / "'A..~\'<
*fSA U::."f''fili, I!m 0) \ \;/)'Iv 7)'iJ' ~*P G i -tt Ivo
I=OObGfl
(The tuition and fees you have paid will not be returned, no matter what
the reason.) .kn; .. Ahin,_

(i) NP;/)'lvt~

It? n'

*6*\\;/)'lvt~ (s.t. depends on the result of s.t.)

(ii) N (0)) \ \;/)'Iv l-c' / i= J: -:J l (Ii) / etc. I

IJ ~-j

flllE13 (0)) I \;/)'Iv -Co (depending on (what) the reason (is))

1l)1l?

1ft* (0)) \ \;/)'lvi= J: -:J l (Ii) (depending on (what) the means (is))

.8>;';'1.)(;.

tl.A..~H"'C·A, is ..!r. h-j tp ip(

(a) ;w'\#~tj!H3l1l!1.;/)11lf&T Q;/)' c' "5 ;/)'iififfiiB i:: J~ '7 - P;/)'Iv -Co £, Q 0

(Whether fuel-cell cars spread or not depends on their price and power.)

a classic form of the adverb dono yo ni "in what way"

how; what; (depending on) howl what; (according to) how/what; depend on

[REL. shidai; ni yoru/yotte]


Noun Phrase
~ t'J:-::' d.lA.."\t-:J (t? rJ' t~o
,fLiJl:: O)~W=tlU§ ~ nQ;/)' E "5 ;/)' ii, ffii~O)*6* I \;/)'Iv
(Whether or not I'll be hired by this company depends on the results of
my interview.) I

I

!

,

130 ikan (da)

::. c:t L~t£,; tri" {tl'i).:.? 1J'l

(b) T{:Il:O)~J'&~-'\'Qml=;f:6lf-:Jitpj(;:m:"O)1'i!l=l'~ Q77'1::' -5 77'i;L .:cO)~O)m

t.:t' c'

O)!mlin )77'lvt~o

(Whether or not children's failures can be connected to their motivation and cast as food for growth depends on their parents' attitude at the time.)

i: l.,~ Ldt,t' i) l~O)-jl)J;( ~

(c) OO-'\'*J3.*~O)~\'f;jW: 1) - 31" - O)?;oB"1!lg)]P77'1v l"~i Q !:: E3;t Q 0

(We can say that the future of a country or organization is determined by the intellectual ability of its leader (lit., how strong the intellectual ability of its leader is).)

C-:>ltA... It" 7)' t!t'Ij:-:)ltA n' O)-j-ti"l'

(d) "JiJ5J10);f:65f':P77'lvi= J: -::)L Ii, jd£~I= t.d <lJf!lgt1 t ib Q 0

(Depending on the result of the experiment, this could be a great discovery. )

-ttl'tp0IH'-tt' ;1:,' -tt' lJ; I) 11')11-) IAj"'A.;/)'A...~l'J S"? n'

(e) :!tm:tj~::1(;1;i:: I::' O)1§7Kli, .:c O)~J!:!Ji*P77'lvi= J: "? l" ii, }j'ij)2l~:ijI;O)fllj\11:: ~

ii,

ttl < 2:!:: c:;1;i:: I) iTo

(Depending on the treatment method, residential sewage and other wastewater can lead to the worsening of the surrounding environment.)

LH h ~ If A. L..t(OA...r..l' iJ'T.'k) ;;. 1J't'''&''') trl1' A.AJ.JAt:.t' LdiJ1t'

(f) .. IPt:M~Jl1O) ib Q itdMiJlii~H . *~;Mm) 77' Iv i= ~b G T~,§bX;j'~Jj. Ui: I)

iTo

(Food products with an expiration date are not returnable (lit., outside those which may be returned), (regardless of) whether the package has been opened or not.)

k(-ttt' 1:J:?!a:') I£t't.:t, c 'l!A... L

(g) 2:O):::r/T/'YO)~~ii, :!J1*, ~1*O)P77'IvHp'bT~tIt~Z,;fLl"PQo

(Copying this content is prohibited, regardless of the method or the medium.)

t t:.t' dt>-:. t»

(h) :<¥!m77l2: 2: il'fllj\11:: Gl"ii, P77'Iv!:: t G77lt::Po

(Now that the situation has worsened to this extent, we cannot do anything (lit., in whatever way we do it, it's difficult).)

_~tlj('_

l. Ikan is derived from ikani "how; in what way." Thus, X ikan is equivalent to X ga do dearu ka or X ga dono yo dearu ka "how/what X is."

2. Although X ikan da, as in KS(A), does not contain a word that carries the meaning of "to depend," it is equivalent to X ikan ni yoru "depend on how X is." Similarly, X ikan de, as in KS(B), is equivalent to X ikan ni yotte "depending on how X is."

ikan (da) 131

3. Ikan has the property of a noun and is sometimes preceded by N no, as in KS(D).

4. Ikan tomo in Ex.(h) is equivalent to dono yo ni rna "in whatever way." [Related Expressions]

1. When shidai means "depend on," it can be used in place of ikan except that shidai ni yotte is not acceptable, as shown in [1].

[1] a. ;f1.;6l2: O)1£t±I=-I*ffl z, ;fLQ77'1::' -5 77'ii, ffijt~M;f:65f': 1 ~\iJ'A./~m f r: (= KS(A))

b. ~iJ'.O)*JTlj[O)7G;fLfT ~ 1 ~ \iJ'A. T: / ~ \iJ'A. t:J:? l / ~~In:' /*~mt:

J:?l f 2:O)1£t±O)~tr*77l~i I).:c -5 s, (= KS(B)) [Ii

(¢ shidai(DIJG: 385-90))

II. Ikan da and ikan de can be rephrased using ni yoru "depend on" and ni

yotte "depending on," respectively.

[2] a. ;fL77l2: O)1£t±I=-I*ffl z,;fLQ 77'1::' -5 77'ii, ffij~O)*s5f': 1 ~\iJ'A.tf. /t:J: .Q f 0 (= KS(A))

b. ~iJ'.O)*'Tlj[O)7G;fLrr ~ 1 ~ \ iJ' A. T: / t: J:? l f 2: 0)1£t±0)~\'f*771~ i I).:c -5 t~o (= KS(B))

(¢ ni yotte/yori(DIJG: 292-301))

I~

I

1-

132 ikanaru

ikanaru ~'iJ'~.Q

noun modifier <w>

ikanaru 133

e@';;611t."_

a noun modifier that means either "what kind of" or "no matter what"

what kind of -; no matter what - ; whatever; any kind of [REL. donna; dono yona]

(i) \ 1-/}'7J: G N (Prt.) --/}'

-tH'~ < ii;;,

\ \-/}' 7J: GJ&~It-J!~/'{ ~ -/}' (what kind of policy should we choose?)

P-/}'7J: Gl&~ (7J:0)) -/}' (what kind of policy is that?)

(ii) \ \ -/}' 7J: G N (Prt.) t

\ \-/}' 7J: G ~'!!I'ti§(:: '0 (at any kind of library) \ \-/}'7J: G ~'!!I'ti§ '0 (any library)

(iii) P-/}'7J:G N ll."'0 /-C'j;,n/l."j;, 0 ')!::: ('0) I

P-/}'7J: GA ll." '0/ -C'j;,n / l."j;, 0 ') !::: ('0) I (no matter what kind of person (s.o. may be»

(iv) P-/}'7J:G N + Prt.1Vte '0 /Vvol!::: ('0) I

P-/}'7J: G:k"1'l." l~;{_ ---c '0 / ~LJ:: ') !::: ('0) I (at whatever college s.o. may teach)

.1%""1)(;_

OJ A-J:: -J O)? ~ l < ! t~J,. Iii)'

(a) B*~;'B1I!mlll§:tJ(iP-/}'7J: G¥$-C'i!lUG/'{ H'o

(By what kind of standards should we assess proficiency in Japanese?)

~a ~-J~0 ~~

(b) ~ t. Pj((i P-/}'7J: G D~ '0 ~t t. ---c < n7J: -/}L:dc::o

(My strict father never allowed me to make any kind of excuse.)

Ji,fv 1'1' ll)"Hl) tA...jf~,

(c) p-/}'7J:G)(1~(:: '0*~(i1'f;(:ETGo

(There is religion in any culture.)

l·::di,' ;!: .J-. L ;~? J:t,dli

(d) j;,O)1jj(iP-/}'7J: G~l&(:: MWT, ::r;7E,~0)J; ') (:: ~ Go

(No matter what the failure, he is undefeated, rising like a phoenix.)

}(./,_'IJ'

(e) P-/}'7J: G7i-~~"1'Wi-c' '0 {- 0)~0))(1~-/}IH~ (:: 7J: -:> ---c < G '0O)t::'o

(When learning any foreign language, one will begin to like the country's culture.)

I: < t.:l' itl'LA. '!!1::.

(f) A ~- 'Y (ip-/}'7J: G A ~- 'Y-C'j;,n, ~f-*t::"t-C'(i7J: <*~f!I!lt- MU ---c < n

Go

(Sports, no matter what kind, train not only your body but also your spirit.)

C-J '!! 1)' 1;,

(g) P-/}'7J: Q 7 -1 T'1 'r t: '0, lI-lv7J:-c'~t~T Q1iffifi-/}1 j;, Go

(No matter what the idea is, it is worth discussing together.)


Noun
{i"t'£0 -j)l( tA,)!'A-X"
~:t1n*±~"1'c (i P-/}'7J:Q ~r,,'~!f (7J:0)) -/}'o
(What kind of academic field is bio-sociology?) (B)

Noun Prt.
.'n 'Ij~):.: <
1el(i P-/}'7J:Q lie'S" (t:) '0 !f1t-1'l:~ 7J:-/}'-:>tc::o
(He didn't lend an ear to any kind of advice.) (C)

Noun
" 6i-- ,,~
P-/}'7J:Q !!~ ll."'0 /-C'ji,n/-C'ji,0')C('0) I 1Gij;,Q '0O)t::'o
(No matter what the theory is, it will have holes in it.) (D)

Noun Prt. Vte
c t.:t, -otl 5J..,r;,~<
j((i P-/}'7J:Q $~ t: iJ-:>l t 11'n::ttl!ft::' -:> tc::o
(My father was always calm no matter what situation he found himself
in.) (E)

Noun Prt. Vvol
t~? J: oJ
m~7J: If o fi' •
P-/}'7J:G iMi* tJ~- :±:J:-5 (:(t) § Jj--c'l:Ic~ i: Po
=: c (i,
(I would like to make my own decisions about important matters, no
matter what happens as a result.) 134 ikanaru

tJ:-i±t, is t' tJ: tJ: :::-5td

(h) t 'i.I'id: 15t±;it;:r I)jI. -c t, ~d:1O)tt!lf:\Llif;J'<k !=rcl.Lll -Ct, 150

(No matter what society one observes, the status of women is gradually improving.)

ld ;l btl .: tlv

(i) fAO)~Jf3';;;61P77'id:151{';:r1~.1'5(:t" ..z-O)1{'IHMIiID.A.O)t,o)--C'liid:<, fa

:/:r.j rT-.hO)t,O)t~o

(No matter what prize my research may win, it is not mine alone; it belongs to my project team.)

(j) c.",,

:t 'J :,; 1::0') j . .r; 'J 71=.toP-C Ii, P77'id: 15fj'j;.!!O)r'''f: t" P77'id: 15fj'j;'!!O)

-ttt' t -C~ L~;Hl1"{~ tA..LIg>"('! -tt/u-r::'AtJ'"?l:.:"J h/:

i&itli¥], *~i¥] t, t. < li.A.fji¥]id:~fiml1Jt, ~;(?'1i6 G ;flid:Po

(In Olympic areas, no kind of demonstration nor any political, religious or racially-biased propaganda activities are allowed.)

1. Ikanaru is a noun modifier that is always followed by a noun. It means either "what kind of _" or "no matter what _," and is used in formal spoken and written language.

2. Ikanaru is primarily used in the four constructions shown in KS(A)-(E).

The examples in Formation (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) are KS(A) and Ex.(a), KS(B), Exs.(b)-(d) and (j), KS(C), Exs.(e)-(g) and (i), and KS(D), (E) and Ex.(h), respectively.

3. Formation (iii) and (iv) include alternative forms, i.e., demo vs. de are and Vte rna vs. Vvol to (rna), respectively. Both alternative forms are more formal than the original; i.e., de are is more formal than demo, and Vvol to (rna) is more formal than Vte mo.


Donna and dono vone take the place of ikanaru in spoken and less formal written Japanese.

[1] a. :!:!J~t±;it"l"(: Ii 1 ~'iJ'id:.Q / c'Aid: / E(7),J::. oj fd. f "l"Fp'5t!I!Jid: 0) 77'0

(= KS(A»

b. 1BZli 1 ~'iJ' fd..Q / E A fd. / E (7),J::. oj fd. f ,~151= t, If Hh~ id: 77L:,tc:o

(= KS(B»

c. 1 ~'iJ' fd. .Q / c' A fd. / c' (7),J::. oj fd. f t1Illiili 1 t: t, / --C';ii,;fl / --C';ii, 15 '5 (: f 1Cli;ii,15t,O)t~o (=KS(C»

ikanaru / ikani 135

d. x: Ii 1 ~'iJ' fd..Q / E A fd. / E (7),J::. oj fd. f .m1I= id: -::> -c t, ~ 1= tttf t~ -::> ic; (= KS(D»

adv. <w>

an adverb meaning "how"

how; how much; how hard [REL. donnani; nanto]


iIi

Adj(i)inf
trflJ> !:f z:
1'77'1= B*~M' ft(_,~, 77' li"l"~1'§-O)£:j:MH=.115 0
(How difficult Japanese is (for someone) depends on the learner's
mother tongue.) (B)

Vte
/;ttJ1t, iJ'~
1'77'1= ~11J(_,l t, ft"t ~ --C' ~ 15 (: li~.Ili G id: t '0
(No matter how hard one exercises, it doesn't guarantee a long life.) (C)

Vvol
t'?Ll')ltA-I61.' t'?:: r:
1'77'1= ~"t~iP tb.:oj (:t, ~p~-Co)*liJ!l}{, id:t '0
(No matter how hard I work I cannot buy a single house.) (D)

Adj(i)inf
t:A..i:tt'
.A."tli t '77'1= ~.li~ , =: (: 77'0
(How short life is!) 136 ikani

.4.11;;6I1u),.

(i) \ ) i)' (::: I V / Adj(i) f inf iJ'

\ )iJ' (::: 1:Ct ~ G /:Ct ~ i: f t» (how s.o. livesllived)

1"?{

\ ) i.p (::: I ~ G \) / ~ G iJ'--:> t: f iJ' (how beautiful s.o./s.t. is/was)

(ii) PiJ'(::: I Adj(na)stem/Nf 10 /t2:--:>t:: f iJ'

PiJ'(:::;ffog I 0 / t2: --:> t: f iJ' (how famous s.o./s.t. is/was)

-CA..~t,

\ )iJ' (:::::R:t I 0/ t2: --:> i: f iJ' (how much of a genius s.o. is/was)

(iii) PiJ'(::: !Vte t /Vvol i:: (t) f

\ ) 7)' (:::W1l~~! G l t / G J; '5 i:: ( t) f (no matter how hard s.o. studies s.t.)

(iv) PiJ'(:::Adj(i)stem < I l t / i:: t f

\ );6>(:::;fo\) G < I l t / i:: t f (no matter how delicious S.t. is) (v) PiJ'(::: I Adj(na)stem /N f -e t

\ )iJ'(:::5tm'"C' t (no matter how healthy s.o. is) PiJ'(:::::R:t'"C't (no matter how much of a genius s.o. is) (vi) \' iJ' I::: Adj(i)inf z: i:: iJ'o

:Bt.L.?

\ 'iJ'(::: I miEn' /miE!iJ'--:> i: f z: i:: iJ'o (How interesting S.t. is/was!)

(vii) \ 'iJ'l::: I Adj(na)stem/N f I '"C';f; G /'"C';f; --:> i: / t2:--:> t:: f z i:: iJ'o PiJ,(:::~tL\' I '"C';f;G /'"C';f;--:>t:: /t2:--:>t:: f z i::iJ'o (How pretty s.o. is/was!)

\ 'iJ' (:::::R:t I '"C';f; G / -C0;f; --:> t: / t2: --:> i: f z: i:: iJ'o (What a genius s.o. is/was!)

.;.;,,; .. 0;.

(a) PiJ'I:::7E!tl.iJ'liPiJ'(::::Ct~ GiJ'i::II'1Jt.::J; '5 1:::*$t2:o (How one dies is as important as how one lives.)

1.l'h:( '::A-lfA..-C~ -is ~d O"?J:-')

(b) ~ H'o / j"O)M1miJlfpgmO)tR::$:f8ld:1El~I::: PiJ'I:::&'~iJ'iJl5tiJ'--:> l ~ t::o

(We began to understand how important decoding the human genome is for the basic treatment of illness.)

ikani 137

(:/vlfA- -:J( I) rN' I)A. I) 1:tt'

(c) ;J P - /' AFs'iJlpiJ'(:::ilU G fLG O)iJ'IHL(::: (iJ'il!M'"C' ~ ld:PiJl, "CO)ilfBJ'iI!'i'i(:::

,c,A-i:? ~l? Ii- slf

-:J\ 'lO)~~(:::(i~~\ )~~'l\:-1t;{_ Go

(I cannot comprehend how human clones are created, but I have a strong interest in the debate over the ethics of cloning.)

::'c Ii -C~Il'< {t-::J?,;')t' L t./.h

(d) jit«t::!l&JiJlPiJ' (:::;foP G iJ' --:> t::iJ' 'l\:-13~'"C').Iliil::: ,jll~tlT G ;::: i:: (i3']llO):b~'

t2:o

(It is extremely difficult for one to describe in words how delicious the food he/she ate was.)

l;;:' ~J:( ~I.'O)-J ~dt'-! IfA;')'t'

(e) PiJ' (::::'§§:fJ G l t § 5tO):tfigO) ld: p~JV~t2: --:> t:: G ~RWiJl;f; G t2:;:, '50

(No matter how much effort you make, you will face limits when you deal with areas beyond your own talent.)

-n'Jd17 L.}-jJ:"j{!t, ~dtJ:-j

(f) PiJ'(:::J)\!!ffl;r,,'IH1O)m~ti'l\:-~~WIlGJ; '5 i:: t~~WIlGT~'G z: i::(ild:Po

(No matter how much you emphasize the importance of environmental issues you can never emphasize it too much.)

-CA.'tE r- "JA.

(g) PiJ'(:::::R:t'"C't, liiJlJ!ltfL(fpp1±$li'"C'~ ld:Po

(No matter how much of a genius you may be, if you have bad luck, you won't be able to accomplish much.)

itt'~t' tIS

(h) B::$:O)*.I$?iliPiJ'(:::)JJgpz: i::iJ'!

(How fragile the Japanese economy is!)

Ikani means "how" and is used in three different structures, as shown in the KS and Exs., i.e., first in an embedded question, as in KS(A) and Exs.(a)(d); second, in a "no matter how" sentence (sentence of concession), as in KS(B), (C) and Exs.(e)-(g); third, in an exclamatory sentence, as in KS(D) and Ex.(h). Note that in the second structure ikani means not "how" but "how hard/much."


I. Ikani in Formation (i)-(v) can be replaced by donnani. Donnani can be used in both written and spoken Japanese.

[1] a. I ~17.J't: / C'Ald:t: f B::$:~iJlHGPiJ'(i~~1"lO)f¥HiH:::J; Go

(= KS(A»

b. I ~ I 7.J' t: / C'Ald: t: f lill1'l\:- G l t~:Ct ~ -Co ~ G i:: li~RG ld:Po

(= KS(B»

138 ikani / ikura

t,'f))\ -:;>-?

c. B;$:iffin1l ~'iJ,t: / EAJJt: f HL., < r r t / /:: t f lY1J%1>S:MEIH:P,

(No matter how hard Japanese is I would like to continue to study it.)

II. Ikani in Formation (vi) can be replaced by nanto. Nanto can be used in both written and spoken Japanese.

[2] a. Al'.li 1 ~ 'iJ't: / ~t\, t f il-lp:: /:: n', (= KS(D»

b. B;$:(T)k!¥1'ililpiJ't:/~t\,t f!lft?;p::/::n'! (=Ex.(h»

ikura ~,< S

Wh-word

ikura 139

(D)

Vneg
",0
~ )1-:7 Ii '6 '5 P<G t ~'?'t'~, tJ:, '0
(There is barely any milk left.) (E)

4JB Ii P<G n' 3(t7}nl, '\ '0
(I feel somewhat better today.) .«.11;;6111.11_

(i) \' < G 1 Vte / Adj(i)stem < l' / Adj(na)stem -r: f t \ l < G Wzlv --C' t (no matter how much s.o. drinks)

L'i'b'

\' < G H L., < l't (no matter how hard S.t. is)

p < G fg np-r: '6 (no matter how beautiful s.t/s.o. is) (ii) P < G -r: t 1 Adj(i/na) / V f

\ ,< G 't: t \ '\ , (any amount of s. t. is fine)

~t?.: ?

\ l < G -r: t *5~t~ (any amount is fine)

;foslZ:li \ ,< G -r: t iI6 G (there is an enormous amount of money) (iii) \' < G t Vneg ~"

\, < G t~:b"n' (s.o. doesn't buy much) \ ,< G t 11t,,~ \ , (s.o. doesn't eat much)

.;:,"';;,,;.

(a) -{(T).liP< G--C'L.,t::n', (How much was the car?)

• b

(b) A: ~Nli\' < G <' G \ 'Tnlfi '\ '--C' L., J: '5 n'o (About how much money should I donate?)

~t,,:: ?

B: P < G -c t *5~--C'T,

(Any amount would be fine.)

a Wh-word that asks about the amount of S.t.

how much; how [REL. donnani]


/::·Ht"i P<G <" G P --C'Tn'o
*~(T) 3DK ore> s- 3 ;,; Ii
(Approximately how much is a 3DK (3 rooms with a dining room /
kitchen) apartment in Tokyo?) (B)

Vte
t:
P<G iIIJ~ ''t' t ;foslZ:nlltri G 7J:Po
(No matter how much I work I can't save money.) (C)

Verb
]H*h. t~ n' G ~rl3' Ii P<G --C'6 it; .Qo
(It's summer vacation, so I have tons of time.) 140 ikura

(c) I' < t) If-\'f!,' I:: ;jQ:i:~ ;/),(t'l t {- 0)7'0:/ _I:7 r (i~b.Q i: Po

(No matter how much time and money we spend on this project, it probably won't end.)

1!'l' 'if

(d) ~~(ip < t)* < 'l t~a~r,jj (' t) pt:: IS '50

(The meeting should last for an hour at the most (lit., no matter how long it may last).)

-r O)?l6t'1±~ l t:? L{> "IJ'¥

(e) P< t)l1J:!ijia~fll!jifl'tJ::1'!:tiil~1!'li=ti;fl.Ql::ii~Rt)tipo

(No matter how bright someone is they won't necessarily become a good leader.)

"t

(f) ;jQ~iip< t)l't£>IJi:T;/)'t), f.'5{-'t::.< ~Iu~luc'r~po

(There is really plenty of sake, so please drink as much as you like.)

!tt'ltA, h~ I;I:? L~)

(g) fL(i i: t::;\\U!i;I;I¥,%p(7)l'¥IHill/(ip < t) l' t PPl'To

(I don't have much experience, so any amount of compensation is fine.)

~ .s, t-=l'~d £

(h) 'lll'N(iP< t)c't*:t:1<:l'To

(As for donations, any amount will be fine.)

I:f< SJ: t:A.,lfA

(i) f~,;t;J::.' 'i=~B1Jl<, 'c', '.QAra'ii" < t) t, 'ti, '0

(Very few people swim every day like I do.)

h:hhh I: A., If A {'tom:

U) ilt--?(7)J:: '5 (=, P < t) tf*;t;,;/)ltipAra,t:: 1::, f. lutii=LlJ!r1J ~ LJ::. < 'l t

If-\'ra,;/)I ti, ,(7) c' £> .Q 0

(People like us who don't have many days off can't afford the time to climb mountains, no matter how much we'd like to.)

;BtL.?

(k) P< t);/)'B*~(7)j_!jjE!~;/)I:51;/)'-:J'l1'!t::.o

(I have (now) come to appreciate some of the fascinating aspects of the Japanese language.)

_¢M;,_

1. Ikura, a Wh-word meaning "how much," can be used in five patterns with somewhat distinct meanings, as shown in the KS. KS(A) presents the straightforward question "how much"," as in Exs.(a) and (b). KS(B) is an example in which ikura is followed by the te-form of verbs or adjectives + mo, yielding the concessive meaning "no matter how much -," as exemplified by Exs.(c)-(e). KS(C) is an example of the pattern where ikura demo is followed by the verb, as shown in Ex.(f), or Adj(i/na), as shown in Exs.(g) and (h). In KS(D), ikura is immediately followed by mo with a negative verb, meaning "not much/many," as

•

l

ikura / imasara 141

in Exs.(i) and (j). Lastly, KS(E) is an example of ikura followed by ka meaning "some; somewhat," as shown in Ex.(k).

2. Ikura de mo aru/iru is often shortened to ikura mo eru/iru, as in (1).

~ (tA

(1) a.m~tit(7)iii:U'i=~\< <:)(<:")-tilf>.Qo

(There are plenty of other dangerous things.)

b. z lutif±*~ L.J::.pAii~ \ < <:) (<:") -t~ \.Qo

(People who want to do this kind of work are quite common.)


In all the examples of ikura - te/de mo (i.e., Formation (ij), the expression can be replaced by donnani - te/de mo, as shown below.

[1] a.l~\< <:)/C'A,id:t:fth~\l-t;jQ:i:;/)lltTi:t)tipo (=KS(B»

b. ~~ii 1 ~ \ < <:) / c'A,id: t: f :Ill: < l-t~lf-\'ra' <' t) pt:: IS '5 0 (= Ex.(d»

c. 1 ~ \ < <:) / C'A,id: t: f WlDIi9I!ijIlfJiT'-t J:: 1'! :tiil~1!'li= ti;fl.Q I:: ii~R t) ti Po (= Ex.te)

imasara \,\;j; ~ <:) [-:!f~J

adv.

an adverb indicating that s.o. feels that it is too late to do s. t.

too late (for/to -); now [REL. ima ni nattel


Wh-word Sentence (Aff.)
z (7)~~ii=~ t wJi=i't~ id:A, T', Pi:~C:J I'UG~~H~-t,8H
l/§--:J t: G -? ti, ';/)'0 lut::o
(Didn't we discuss this issue two years back? How come you are bring-
ing it up after such a long time?) 142 imasara

(B)

Vneg
ltl'~< tJ't'Ll'i
p't~c, ~~ ~M¥l'lT -!J b (t r: (i ~ \ fl' ~p,
(It is too late to cancel the contract.) (C)

Vte
::'')i.l'l'
p't~c, 1~'1'fi¥ i..,T '0 f±1J;/)1 ~\ '0
(It is useless now to regret what you have done.) (D)

Vinf.past
z.:O)rp~Ji!!i~ 'If 7)A- tr t' 11-
\\'t~c, ~I~i..,t;:. e: z.: I',c' mt~,*c: G J: '5,
(It would be meaningless to discuss this issue now.) (E)

It::.') ~ J: 'i t, < l-?
i:-?~H tlJ:~O)~lC~O)'WO) J; ~ ;/)15t
?:§1n-c;/), c, 20 '¥t::;/)l p't~c, ~tJl C,
tJ,-:; -c ~ tc::.o
(It's been 20 years since I graduated, (lit., it is too late) but now I've
finally come to appreciate the educational quality of my alma mater.) .ij';;;;6;;'.I,.

(i) j p 't ~ C, + Wh-word /Wh-word + p i ~ c, I + Predicate (Aff.) (z») 0 j p 't ~ C, {iiJ;/)1 / {iiJ ;/)11' 't '" c, I ~ptc::. PO)tJ'o (What do you want to say now (at this late date)?)

(ii) \ \ 't '" C, + Predicate (Neg.),

pi '" C,rr(t~po (It's too late to go (there).)

(iii) I' 't '" G j Vte'b /Vinf.past e: z I', c'l + Predicate (Neg.),

pi'" C, j ~-c t / ~tc::. e: z.: I', c: 1f±1J;/)I~Po (It is no use looking at it now.)

imasara 143

_",;; .. Jt;.

(a) ;v~tc::.ii;vO)~Ui~ -::,(il)21Untc::.iif~O)i:, P't ~ G~/vc:jl;:to7 e: G -CP-!JO),

(I thought you had broken up with that guy. Why in the world are you still trying to see him?)

(b) P't ~ GC:TiJl, iaJHt't G-C;f.Hl)c'e: '5 z.:"~·p'tTJ,

(I'm afraid it is too late, but let me wish you a Happy New Year.)

~'j L h-t.t. e): iJ't.: LHii't' D-::lJ::-'j

(c) ~BO)~~ijjii~~ /vJ; < z.:"t¥l';O)1JC:TiJ' G, P't ~ G z.:\m:1rT-!J<0'l:l!ii~

\ \ e: iiJ,!H \ i TiJl o

(All of you know today's lecturer very well, so I believe it is not nee- iIi essary to introduce him now, but ... )

iJ'l'_'!f c e-rv- >!A.t'iv -r:/v L -?? t, "'-A.

(d) jl;li!i0) B ~iiTC:i:3£J'.u:1IH· ~ - )l--c:}i9;[JHl1 G tc::.O)t::iJ' G, P i ~ G ~

~T-!J U:: iic'~ ~P,

(Because we have already e-mailed information on the conference schedule to everybody, it is impossible to change it now.)

l:J:,: (;h -c tA. :/:b

(e) */vC:7°0~x:7 ri:1J[]bl)tc::.pe:~-:,tdO_jliL Pi~GWin~pJ;o

(Because I told them that I would participate in the project with great pleasure, I can't decline now.)

1,1O>t;1)? ftS

(f) ;/)1/viJl z.: z.: 't c:~tr.l::, P 't ~ G~vr.j~ G -c ti'El G ~p Ustp iT,

(With the cancer this far advanced, even if I operate now I don't think it will help.)

.: !:_'cb T t:1'

(g) j'-{It~f-l;;i:~z.:· G td1~Mtltc::.P Ul:t-:; -CP 't TiJl, Pi'" G rr-:; i: ): z.: I',

0)=

c:, ilpto)ii{iiJt~-:;-cp~Pc'GJ: '5tl,

(I'd like to visit the village where I spent my childhood, but even if I go, I guess nothing of the old times will still be there.)

Htt S'(".b. -)

(h) tlJ:~~*=-:;-C10,¥, §5tt~i:~-:;-C';;"-C, P't ~ G~iJIG, ~~~t::-:;

1;l:A.1:tt'

i: z.: e: ~&:1IiI G-CPiTo

(It has been 10 years since I lost my mother, and I am now a parent myself. It is too late, but I regret that I was not a devoted son.)

.~mi;.

1. The adverb imasara that consists of ima "now" and sara "again" is used to indicate that someone is feeling it is too late to do something. The adverb is used in four ways. In KS(A), it is used with an affirmative

144 imasara

predicate, as also shown in Exs.(a) and (b). In most cases, such patterns yield a rhetorical question with a negative implication. So, KS(A) and Ex.(a) carry the implication that one shouldn't do what is indicated by the predicate (i.e., "bringing up the issue already discussed" in KS(A), and "meeting the guy you broke up with" in Ex.(a)). In KS(B), the adverb is used with a negative predicate, i.e., "not do s.t.," as also shown in Exs.(c)-(e). In some contexts, imasara is used with Vte ma or Vinf.past takaro de followed by a negative predicate, as in KS(C), (D), Exs.(f) and (g). Imasara nagara used in KS(E) and Ex.(h) means that someone feels belatedly thankful or sorry about something.

2. With the exception of imasara's use in rhetorical questions with negative implications, as explained above, imasara cannot be used with affirmative predicates, as shown in (1). (See Related Expression.)

(1) a. *~ \;1;: ~ 6 F,,~Jmn'f;t -:> ~ V) lJ::o (The problem is now clear to me.)

;/)'0)1.':.): l;:f< tfi;

b. *~ \;1;: ~ 6 id:'lf1Bl:Rnlf~~~-:> t::n':6'5hJ'-::d::o

(Now I understand why she hated me.)

3. Imasara is used when S.t. cannot be done due to certain circumstances created by a preceding action. KS(B), Exs.(d) and (e) are examples of this. The adverb cannot be used when someone is simply not in time for something, as shown in (2) below.

(2) 1 'b oJ / *~ \;1;: ~ 6 f -t O)~!I!':: f;:j:jF~;fLid: Po (I'm too late for the train.)

4. Imasara nagara in KS(E) is actually an idiomatic phrase, also used in Ex.(h), in which someone has strong feelings about something belatedly.


Ima ni natte can always be used in place of imasara, as shown in [1] below, with no semantic difference.

[1] a. =:0)ffi51i=:tf.'6MI::ilI5Gil--:>t::t::'I'id:P:6'o id:lvc\ 1~\;1;:~6/~ ,:id: -:> -r f IRl nl5~:0'i'i) /hi" Ivt=o (= KS(A))

b. 1 ~ \;1;: ~ 6 / ~':7d: -:> -r f ~*"1~m¥~i" G bit 1::1ip:6'id: Po

(= KS(B))

imasara 145

c. 1 ~\;I;: ~ 6 /~':7d:-:>-r H~t'lm 1 VC'6 / Gt:: i:: =: 0C f 1±1J:6'id:Po (= KS(C))

As explained in Note 2, imasara cannot be used with affirmative predicates except when it is used in rhetorical questions with negative implications. However, ima ni natte does not have this restriction, as shown in [2].

[2] a. 1 ~':7d:-::>-r /*~\;I;: ~ 6 f F,,~Jm:6l(i-:> ~ V) Gt::o (= (1a))

b. 1 ~':7d: -:> -r / *~ \;1;: ~ 6 f id:{f1Bl:R:611~H*h t:::6'nvjj-:6'-:> tz;

(= (1b))

Ima ni natte can be used if the verb it modifies is present, as shown in [3]. [3] a.l~\;1;:~6/~':7d:-::>-rf~;tl~l'6, c'5GJ:'5'6id:Po

(It's no use thinking about it now.)

b. 1 ~\;I;: ~ 6 /~':id:";-r f ~0 '5 i::}G\-::>l'6, #!ltlttao (It's waste of time trying to do it now.)

c. frH 1 ~\;I;: ~ 6 /~':7d:-::>-r f GJ: '5 i::a'5 O);6';/;J.o (What do you think you are going to do at this point?)

However, ima ni natte cannot be used if the verb it modifies has been omitted, as shown in [4]. This is not the case with imasara.

[4] a. 1 ~\;I;: ~ 6 /??~':7d:-::>-r f c'5 GJ: '5 '6 id:Po (cf. [3a]) (You can't do anything about it now.)

tr r:

b. 1 ~\;I;: ~ 6 /??~':7d:-:>-r f ~,~jJao (cf. [3b])

(It's waste of time to do it now.)

c. frH 1 ~\;I;: ~ 6 /?~':7d:-:>-r f 0 (cf. [3c]) (What are you going to do at this point?)

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A DICTIONARY