Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Subject Name
Subject code
ME6501
Year
IIIrd year
Semester
Vth semester
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TEXT BOOKS:
1. Ibrahim Zeid Mastering CAD CAM Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.2007
REFERENCES:
1. Chris McMahon and Jimmie Browne CAD/CAM Principles", "Practice and Manufacturing
management Second Edition, Pearson Education, 1999.
2. William M Neumann and Robert F.Sproul Principles of Computer Graphics, McGraw Hill
Book Co. Singapore, 1989.
3. Donald Hearn and M. Pauline Baker Computer Graphics. Prentice Hall, Inc, 1992.
4. Foley, Wan Dam, Feiner and Hughes - "Computer graphics principles & practice" Pearson
Education - 2003.
UNIT 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
CLASS NOTES
1. Explain Product life cycle with design process. (Or) Briefly explain the conventional
process of the product cycle in the conventional manufacturing environment. (Nov
08)
Product Life Cycle:
Figure 1.1.shows the life cycle of a typical product. The product begins with a need
which is identified based on customers and markets demands. The product goes through two
main processes from the idea conceptualization to the finished product: The design process and
the manufacturing process.
Design process: The product goes through two main processes from inception to a finished
product: the design process and the manufacturing process. Synthesis and analysis are the two
main subprocesses of the design process.
Synthesis: The philosophy, functionality, and uniqueness of the product arc all determined
during synthesis. During synthesis, a design takes the form of sketches and layout drawings
that show the relationship among the various product parts. These sketches and drawings can
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be created using a CAD/CAM system or simply hand-drawn on paper. They are used during
brainstorming discussions among various design teams and for presentation purposes.
Analysis: The analysis subprocess begins with an attempt to put the conceptual design into the
context of engineering sciences to evaluate the performance of the expected product. This
requires design modeling and simulation. An important aspect of analysis is the "what if'
questions that help us to eliminate multiple design choices and find the best solution to each
design problem. The outcome of analysis is the design documentation in the form of engineering
drawings (also known as blueprints).
Manufacturing Process: The manufacturing process begins with the process planning and ends
with the actual product. Process planning is considered the backbone or the manufacturing
process since it attempts to determine the most efficient sequence in which to produce the
product. A process planner must be aware of the various aspects of manufacturing to plan
properly. The planner typically works with the blueprints and may communicate with the design
team to clarify or request changes in the design to fit manufacturing requirements. The outcome
of the process planning is a production plan, tools procurement, material order, and machine
programming. Other special manufacturing needs such as design or jigs and fixtures or
inspection gages are planned.
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production of a product can start. The parts that get iterated and the number of such design cycles
in any given project can be highly changeable.
One method of the engineering design process focuses on the following common aspects:
1. Research
A considerable amount of time is used on research, or finding information. Consideration
should be given to the available applicable literature, issues and successes linked with available
solutions, and need of marketplaces.
The basis of information should be significant, including existing results. Reverse engineering
can be a successful technique if other solutions are available in the market. Added sources of
information include the trade journals, available government documents, local libraries, vendor
catalogs and personal organizations.
2. Feasibility assessment
The feasibility study is an analysis and assessment of the possible of a proposed design
which is based on detail investigation and research to maintain the process of decision creation.
The feasibility assessment helps to focus the scope of the project to spot the best situation. The
purpose of a feasibility assessment is to verify whether the project can continue into the design
phase.
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Establishing design requirements is one of the most essential elements in the design
practice, and this task is usually performed at the same time as the feasibility analysis. The
design requirements control the design of the project all over the engineering design process. A
few design requirements comprise maintainability, hardware and software parameters,
availability, and testability.
5. Preliminary design
The preliminary design fills the gap between the design concept and the detailed design
phase. During this task, the system configuration is defined, and schematics, diagrams, and
layouts of the project will offer early project configuration. In detailed design and optimization,
the parameters of the part being produced will change, but the preliminary design focuses on
creating the common framework to construct the project.
6. Detailed design
The next phase of preliminary design is the Detailed Design which may include of
procurement also. This phase builds on the already developed preliminary design, aiming to
further develop each phase of the project by total description through drawings, modeling as well
as specifications.
The advancement CAD programs have made the detailed design phase more competent. This is
because a CAD program can offer optimization, where it can shrink volume without
compromising the part's quality. It can also calculate displacement and stress using the FEM to
find stresses throughout the part. It is the responsibility of designer to find whether these stresses
and displacements are acceptable, so the part is safe.
7. Production planning and tool design
The production planning and tool design is more than planning how to mass-produce the
project and which tools should be used in the manufacturing of the component. Tasks to
complete in this stage include material selection, identification of the production processes,
finalization of the sequence of operations, and selection of jigs, fixtures, and tooling. This stage
also includes testing a working prototype to confirm the created part meets qualification
standards.
With the finishing of qualification testing and prototype testing, the design process is completed.
(Or)
Design process---Shingley Model
It involves six steps
Recognition of need
Definition of problem
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Synthesis
Analysis and
Optimization
Yes
Evaluation
No
Presentation
1. Recognition of need
Realization of problem exists in the design or in the product
Identification of some defect in a current machine design
New product opportunity
2. Definition of problem
Specification of the item to be designed
Functional characteristics, cost, quality, performance, etc.
3. Synthesis
Preliminary ideas are developed through research of similar product or designs in use.
4. Analysis and Optimization
Suitability for the specified design constraints
If not suitable or design fails to satisfy the constraints
Then redesign or modified iteration continues until the proposed design meet the
specifications (or) until feasibility is achieved.
Then components, sub-assemblies or sub-systems are then synthesized into the
final overall system in a similar iterative manner.
5. Evaluation
Prototyping
Testing
Quality
Reliability testing
6. Presentation
Documentation of the design through drawings, material specifications, assembly lists,
etc.
Pahl and Beitz Model:
1. Clarification of the task: Collection of information, constraints on the design.
2. Conceptual design: establishment of the functions to be included in the design,
3. Embodiment design: problems are resolved and weak aspects are eliminated
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Sequential Engineering
Concurrent Engineering:
In concurrent engineering, various tasks are handled at the same time, and not essentially
in the standard order. This means that info found out later in the course can be added to
earlier parts, improving them, and also saving time.
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Concurrent engineering
Concurrent engineering is a method by which several groups within an organization work
simultaneously to create new products and services.
The concurrent engineering is a non-linear product design process during which all stages
of manufacturing operate at the same time. Both product and process design run in
parallel and take place in the same time.
Process and Product are coordinated to attain optimal matching of requirements for
effective quality and delivery.
Decision making involves full team involvement.
Fig.4.1.CAD
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CAD software for design uses either vector-based graphics to explain the objects of traditional
drafting, or may also develop raster graphics showing the overall look of designed objects.
During the manual drafting of engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey
information, like dimensions, materials, processes, and tolerances.
CAD is a significant industrial art used in many purposes, including industrial and architectural
design, shipbuilding, automotive, and aerospace industries, and many more. CAD is also
extensively used to create computer animation for special effects in movies, and technical
manuals, frequently called as Digital Content Creation.
CAD software packages provide the designer with a multi window environment with animation
which is regularly used in Digital Content Creation. The animations using wire frame modeling
helps the designer to see into the interior of object and to observe the behaviors of the inner
components of the assembly during the motion.
CAD Tools
The CAD tools are mainly using for graphics applications and modeling. Aids such a color, grids,
geometric modifiers and group facilitate structural geometric models. Visualization is achieved
through shaded components and animation which focus design conceptualization, communication and
interference detection. FEM packages provide optimization in shape and structure. Adding tolerances,
tolerance analysis and investigating the effect of manufacturing on the design can perform by
utilizing CAD tools.
CAD Tools
Geometric modeling, Graphics aids, visualization and
manipulation
Geometric modeling, Graphics aids, visualization and
manipulation, animation, assemblies
Analysis packages, customized programs
Structural optimization
Dimensioning, tolerance, bill of materials
Drafting and detailing , Shaded images
Design Process
Conceptualization
Modeling and Simulation
Design Analysis
Design Optimization
Design evaluation
Communication and Documentation
Uses of CAD
CAD is one of the tools used by designers and engineers and is used in different ways depending
on the profession of the customer and the type of software.
CAD is one of the Digital Product Development activities within the Product Lifecycle
Management practices with other tools, which are either integrated modules or individual, such as:
Computer Aided engineering (CAE) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Realistic Rendering and Simulation.
Product Data Management (PDM).
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CAD is also used for the development of photo simulations that are frequently necessary in the
preparation of Environmental Impact Reports, in which proposed CAD buildings are superimposed into
photographs of existing situation to represent what that conditions will be like, where the proposed
services are allowed to be built.
Parameters and constraints can be used to get the size, shape, and other properties of the modeling
elements. The features of the CAD system can be used for the several tools for measurement; such as
yield strength, tensile strength and electrical or electro-magnetic properties.
CAD System Architecture
Computer architecture is a pattern describing how a group of software and hardware technology
standards relate to form a computer system. In general, computer architecture refers to how a computer is
designed and what technologies it is compatible with. Computer architecture is likened to the art of
shaping the needs of the technology, and developing a logical design and standards based on needs.
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engage in arc model creation, cleanup, documentation, and printing/plotting. Shaded images can
be generated as part of model documentation.
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file in real time over the Web. One team can make changes that other teams can view and accept
or reject.
The various CAD/CAM systems support engineering design, analysis, and manufacturing
applications. They all have a flexible pricing structure that allows customers to add on
applications as needed.
6. Write short notes on: CAD, CAD process, components of CAD system, and
advantages of CAD systems.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to perform certain functions
in the design process. Use of computer systems to assist in the creation,
modification, analysis, and optimization of a design
In general, a Computer Aided Design (CAD) package has three components: a) Design, b)
Analysis, and c) Visualization. A brief description of these components follows.
a) Design: Design refers to geometric modeling, i.e., 2-D and 3-D modeling, including, drafting,
part creation, creation of drawings with various views of the part, assemblies of the parts, etc.
b) Analysis: Analysis refers to finite element analysis, optimization, and other number crunching
engineering analyses. In general, a geometric model is first created and then the model is
analyzed for loads, stresses, moment of inertia, and volume, etc.
c) Visualization: Visualization refers to computer graphics, which includes: rendering a model,
creation of pie charts, contour plots, shading a model, sizing, animation, etc.
Each of these three areas has been extensively developed in the last 30 years Several books are
written on each of these subjects and courses are available through the academic institutions and
the industry.
Typical tools:
Tolerance analysis
Mass property calculations
Finite-element modeling and visualization
Defines the geometry of the design
Computer-Aided Design Process
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light pen looks like a pen and contains a photocell, which emits an electronic signal. When the
pen is pointed at the monitor screen, it senses light, which is converted to a signal. The signal is
sent to the computer, for determination of the exact location of the pen on the monitor screen.
Touch Sensitive Screens: This device is embedded in the monitor screens, usually, in the form
of an overlay. The screen senses the physical contact of the user. The new generation of the
Laptop computers is a good example of this device.
Other Graphic Input Devices: In addition to the devices described above, some CAD software
will accept input via Image Scanners, which can copy a drawing or schematic with a camera and
light beam assembly and convert it into a pictorial database.
The devices just described are, in general, independent of the CAD package being used.
All commercial CAD software packages contain the device drivers for the most commonly used
input devices. The device drivers facilitate a smooth interaction between our input, the software,
and the computer. An input device is evaluated on the basis of the following factors:
Resolution
Accuracy
Repeatability
Linearity
Output Devices
After creating a CAD model, we often need a hard copy, using an output device. Plotters and
printers are used for this purpose.
A plotter is often used to produce large size drawings and assemblies, whereas, a laser jet printer
is adequate to provide a 3-D view of a model. Most CAD software require a plotter for producing
a shaded or a rendered view.
CAD Software
CAD software is written in FORTRAN and C languages. FORTRAN provides the
number crunching, whereas, C language provides the visual images.
The modern CAD software utilizes the open architecture system, i.e., software vendors
do not design and manufacture their own hardware. Third party software can be used to
augment the basic CAD package.
Most popular CAD package will facilitate integration of the Finite Element Analysis and
other CAD software from more than one vendor. For example, IDEAS preprocessor can
work with almost all the FEA packages for pre and post analyses.
Networking is an important consideration in applications of CAD software. A model
created by one engineer must be readily accessible to others in an organization, which is
linked by a LAN or other means. The designer, analyst, management, marketing, vendor,
and others generally share a model. This is the concurrent engineering in action,
mentioned earlier.
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CAD Platform
In general, we can run CAD software on three different CAD platforms: Mainframe,
Workstation, and PC.
When the CAD programs first became available, they could only be run on a mainframe
computer. However, as the PCs have become faster and cheaper, almost all the CAD
vendors have introduced a version of their CAD software that will effectively run on a
Pentium or higher computer. Currently, the most popular platforms are PCs and
Workstations.
Popularity of Workstations stems from their ability to network easily with other
computers, and also, due to their large memory storage capability. However, PC platform
is still the most preferred medium for most engineers.
Increasing popularity of the PC platform can be attributed to several factors, including,
total user control, the speed, capability of storing large memory, ease of hardware
upgrading and maintenance, and the overall reasonable cost.
CAD PLATFORMS
MAINFRAME
WORKSTATIONS
PCs
MAINFRAME
Large Data storage
Networked
Expensive
WORKSTATIONS
Medium size data storage
Networked
Relatively inexpensive
PCs
Limited data storage
Can be networked
Inexpensive
Runs on Unix
Run on MS-Windows
No user control
User controlled
No user control
Good for Large corporations
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Coordinate Systems
Three types of coordinate systems are needed in order to input, store, and display model
geometry and graphics. These are Model Coordinate System (MCS), Working Coordinate
System (WCS) and Screen Coordinate System (SCS), respectively. Other names for MCS are
database, master, or world coordinate system. Another name for SCS is device coordinate
system.
Model Coordinate System
The model coordinate system is defined as the reference space of the model with respect
to which all the model geometrical data is stored.
It is a Cartesian system which forms the default coordinate system used by a particular
software program. The X, Y, and Z axes of the MCS can be displayed on the computer
screen. The origin of the MCS can be arbitrarily chosen by the user while its orientation
is established by the software.
The three default sketch planes of a CAD/CAM system define the three planes of the
MCS, and their intersection point is the MCS origin. When a CAD designer begins
sketching, the origin becomes a corner point of the profile being sketched. The sketch
plane defines the orientation of the profile in the model 3D space.
In order for the user to communicate properly and effectively with a model database, the
relationship between the MCS orthogonal (sketch) planes and the model views must be
understood by the user. Typically, the software chooses one of two possible orientations
of the MCS in space.
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the first face of a model to be constructed becomes the top or front view, depending on
which MCS is used.
The MCS is the only coordinate system that the software recognizes when storing or
retrieving graphical information in or from a model database. Many existing software
packages allow the user to input coordinate information in cartesian (x, y. z) and
cylindrical (r, , z) coordinates. This input information is transformed to (x, y. z)
coordinates relative to the MCS before being stored in the database.
Obtaining views is a form of retrieving graphical information relative to the MCS. If the
MCS orientation does not match the desired orientation of the object being modeled,
users become puzzled and confused.
Another form of retrieving information is entity verification. Coordinates of points
defining the entity are given relative to MCS by default. However, existing software
allows users to obtain the coordinates relative to another system (WCS) by using the
proper commands or modifiers
Working Coordinate System
It is often convenient in the development of geometric models and the input of geometric
data to refer to an auxiliary coordinate system instead of the MCS. This is usually useful
when a desired plane (face) of construction is not easily defined as one of the MCS
orthogonal planes, as in the case of inclined faces of a model. The user can define a
Cartesian coordinate system whose XY plane is coincident with the desired plane of
construction. That system is the Working Coordinate System, WCS. It is a convenient
user-defined system that facilitates geometric construction.
It can be established at any position and orientation in space that the user desires. While
the user can input data in reference to the WCS, the CAD software performs the
necessary transformations to the MCS before storing the data.
The ability to use two separate coordinate systems within the same model database in
relation to one another gives the user great flexibility. Some commercial software refers
to the WCS as is Unigraphics offers an example. Other software refers to it as a sketch
plane (Pro/E and SolidWorks) or construction plane.
A WCS requires three noncollinear points to define its XYplane. The first defines the
origin, the first and the second define the X axis, and the third points with the first
define the Y axis. The Z axis is determined as the cross product of the two unit vectors in
the directions defined by the lines connecting the first and the second (the X axis), and
the first and the third points (Y axis). We will use the subscript w to distinguish the
WCS axes from those of the MCS. The X wYwplane becomes the active sketch (working)
or construction plane if the user defines a WCS.
In this case, the WCS and its corresponding Xw,Yw plane override the MCS and the
default sketch plane, respectively. As a matter of fact, the MCS with its default sketch
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plane is the default WCS with its Xw,Yw plane. All CAD/CAM software packages
provide users with three standard WCSs {sketch planes) that correspond to the three
standard views: Front, Top, and Right sides. The user can define other WCSs or sketch
planes.
There is only one active WCS (sketch plane) at any one time. If the user defines multiple
WCSs in one session during a model construction, the software recognizes only the last
one and stores it with the model database if the user stores the model. The model tree
displayed by the CAD software shows the last selected (activated) sketch plane.
Once a WCS is defined, user coordinate inputs are interpreted by the software in reference to this
system. The software calculates the corresponding homogeneous transformation matrix between
the WCS and the MCS to convert these input values into coordinates relative to the MCS before
storing them in the database. The transformation equation can be written as:
P m = T Pw
where Pm is the position vector of a point relative to the MCS and P w is the vector of the
point relative to the active WCS. Each vector is given by:
P = [x y z 1]
Where
and
[ R ] mw is the rotation matrix that definesthe orientation of the WCS relative to the MCS
m
[ P ] w org is the position vector that describes the origin of the WCS relative to the MCS.
m
The columns of [ R ] w : give the direction cosines of the unit vectors in the Xw, Yw and Zw
directions relative to the MCS as shown in Figure .These direction cosines are the components of
the unit vectors along the axes of the MCS.
If the WCS axes are along the MCS axes, then the direction cosines become 1, -1, or 0, and if X w
and Yw are aligned along the Z and X axes of the MCS, respectively, the transformation
between the WCS and MCS is given by:
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Observe that one of the matrix in eqn. is inverse of the other; their manipulation produces the
identity Matrix, I.
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Typical SCS
A transformation operation from MCS coordinates to SCS coordinates is performed by
the software before displaying the model views and graphics. Typically, for a geometric model,
there is a data structure to store its geometric data (relative to MCS), and a display file to store its
display data (relative to SCS).
9. Explain the concepts of translation, scaling and rotators in 2-D transformation.
(JAN 2014)
Geometric transformations have numerous applications in geometric modeling, e.g.,
manipulation of size, shape, and location of an object.
In CAD, transformation is also used to generate surfaces and solids by sweeping curves
and surfaces, respectively. The term sweeping refers to parametric transformations, which are
utilized to generate surfaces and solids. When we sweep a curve, it is transformed through
several positions along or around an axis, generating a surface.
The appearance of the generated surface depends on the number of instances of the
transformation.
There are two types of transformations:
Modeling Transformation:
This transformation alters the coordinate values of the object. Basic operations are
scaling, translation, rotation and, combination of one or more of these basic transformations.
Examples of these transformations can be easily found in any commercial CAD software. For
instance, AutoCAD uses SCALE, MOVE, and ROTATE commands for scaling, translation,
and rotation transformations, respectively.
Visual Transformation:
In this transformation there is no change in either the geometry or the coordinates of
the object. A copy of the object is placed at the desired sight, without changing the coordinate
values of the object. In AutoCAD, the ZOOM and PAN commands are good examples of
visual transformation.
Two-Dimensional (2D) Geometric Transformation:
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A geometric transformation is an operation that modifies its shape, size, position, orientation
etc. with respect to its current configuration operating on the vertices (position vectors).
Some of the important 2D transformations include:
1. Translation
2. Scaling
3. Rotation
4. Reflection
5. Shear
6. Twist
2D translation
Translation is nothing but moving an object across the screen from one position to another.
The translation transformation positions the object to a new location.
Translation is the process of moving an object from one position to another.
The translation transformation positions the object to a new location.
The translation is accomplished by adding the coordinates of each corner point the
distance through which the object is to moved.
Translation of a point:
Consider a 2D point P, having coordinates x, y. To translate point P by a distance x
in x-direction and
in y-direction,
P' (x ' , y ' ) a translation matrix T is added to the original matrix.
Now the point has new coordinates
The translation distance ( x , y) is called translation vector.
Translation of a point
Let
P= Original position of the point,
P= New position of the point, and
T= Translation matrix
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x x t x , y y t y
x
P , P
y
x
,
T
t x
t y
P P T
Translation of an object:
When the object is to moved, all the points of it are to be translated. The translation of
keypoints and connections of these points by other geometric entities like lines, arcs, etc.
A ' (x ' , y ' )
y
'
'
B ' (x , y )
A(x ,y )
B (x, y)
C(x ,y )
x
(0,0)
Object Translation
Ax ' Ay '
Cx ' By '
Cx ' Cy '
Ax
Cx
Cx
Ay
By
Cy
+ [ x y ]
Example: Translate
a triangle ABC with co-ordinates A (1,1), B(5,2), C(3,3), about the origin by 3 units in the xdirection and 2 units in the y-direction.
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Solution:
Given that x=3 y=2
And
Ax Ay
Cx By
Cx Cy
1 1
5 2
3 3
Ax ' Ay '
Cx ' By '
Cx ' Cy '
Ax ' Ay '
Cx ' By '
Cx ' Cy '
Ax Ay
Cx By
Cx Cy
1 1
5 2
3 3
+ [ x y ]
+ [3 2]
4
= 8
6
3
4
5
The new coordinates of the translated triangle are A(4,3), B(8,4) and C(6,5).
2D Rotation
Rotation refers to the movement an object in such a way that the distance between a
certain fixed point and any given point of that body remains constant.
Rotation transformation techniques is commonly used in rendering and animation
tehniques.
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Consider the rotation of a point from initial position a P(x,y) to a new position P(x,y)
by an angle about the origin
Here counterclockwise rotation is consider as positive and clockwise rotation as
negative.
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Scaling is the transformation used to change, increase or decrease, the size of an object.
Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the original coordinates of an object by the
scaling factor Sx along x-direction and Sy along y-direction.
Scaling factor is always positive, if scaling factor is less than 1, the object is
compressed; if more than 1, the object is stretched.
If scale factors are equal i.e., Sx=Sy=S, the object changes in size only and not in shape.
This scaling is known as uniform scaling.
If scale factors are different i.e., SxSy, the object changes in size only and not in shape.
This scaling is known as non-uniform scaling.
x x sx , y y s y
x sx
y 0
0 x
s y y
P S P
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Example:
If a triangle A(1,1), B(3,1), C(1,3) is scaled by a factor 2, find the new coordinates of the
triangle.
Given: A(1,1), B(3,1), C(1,3); uniform scale factor =2, the effect of scling is represented
graphically in Fig.
2D reflection
Reflection is a transformation in which the direction of one axis is reversed.
Reflection transformation produces a mirror image of an object.
The reflection transformation is useful in the construction of symmetric objects. If the
object is symmetric with respect to plane, only half of the geometry is created and then
the half model is copied by reflection to develop the full model.
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P=M.P
m11
0
0
0
m
22
0
M=
0
0
m33
Reflection about x axis:
1 0 0
M= 0 1 0
0 0 1
Reflection about y axis:
1 0 0
M= 0 1 0
0 0 1
Reflection about xy plane (origin):
1 0 0
M= 0 1 0
0
0 1
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Homogeneous Coordinates
Each of the above transformations with the exception of translation can be represented as a
row vector X, Y and a 2 X 2 matrix. However, all the four transformations discussed above can
be represented as a product of a 1 X 3 row vector and an appropriate 3 X 3 matrix. The
conversion of a two-dimensional co-ordinate pair (X, Y) into a 3-dimensional vector can be
achieved by representing the point as [X Y 1].
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x = x+ tx
y = y+ ty
z = z+ tz
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P=T.P
Rotation
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Scaling
The matrix expression for the scaling transformation of a position P = (x, y, z)
relative to coordinate origin can be written
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The matrix representation for an arbitrary fixed-point (xf, yf, zf) can be expressed as:
Reflection
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Parameters a and b can be assigned any real values. The effect of this transformation
is to alter x- and y- coordinate values by an amount that is proportional to the z value,
while leaving the z coordinate unchanged.
Shearing transformations for the x axis and y axis are defined similarly.
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A simple drawing
Graphics System
Graphics system consists of four subsystems:
a. Geometry engine subsystem b. Scan conversion subsystem
c. Raster subsystem
d. Display subsystem
These subsystems are shown in Fig schematically.
GE OM E TRY
SCAN CONVERSIO N
RASTER
DISPLAY
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Clipping
Clipping is the process of determining the visible portions of a drawing lying
within a window. In clipping each graphic element of the display is examined to
determine whether or not it is completely inside the window, completely outside
the window or crosses a window boundary.
Portions outside the boundary are not drawn. If the element of a drawing crosses
the boundary the point of inter-section is determined and only portions which lie
inside are drawn. Readers are advised to refer to books on computer graphics for
typical clipping algorithms like Cohen-Sutherland clipping algorithm. Fig shows
an example of clipping.
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Sutherland Algorithm
to encode the half-plane
Rules:
Trivial accept: outcode(end1) and outcode (end2) both zero
Trivial reject: outcode(end1) & (bitwise and) outcode (end2)
Nonzero Else subdivide
If neither trivial accept nor reject:
ME6501-COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
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Polygon clipping
Convert a polygon into one or more polygons that form the intersection of the
original with the clip window.
Sutherland-Hodgman
Polygon Clipping Algorithm
Subproblem:
Clip a polygon (vertex list) against a single clip plane
Output the vertex list(s) for the resulting clipped polygon(s)
Clip against all four planes
generalizes to 3D (6 planes)
generalizes to any convex clip polygon/polyhedron
To clip vertex list against one half-plane:
if first vertex is inside - output it
loop through list testing inside/outside transition - output
depends on transition:
in-to-in: output vertex
out-to-in: output intersection and vertex
out-to-out: no output
in-to-out: output intersection
View port
ME6501-COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
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Drawing of Lines
Straight line segments are used a great deal in computer generated pictures. The
following criteria have been stipulated for line drawing displays:
i. Lines should appear straight
ii. Lines should terminate accurately
iii. Lines should have constant density
iv. Line density should be independent of length and angle
v. Line should be drawn rapidly
The process of turning on the pixels for a line segment is called vector generation. If the end
points of the line segment are known, there are several schemes for selecting the pixels between
the end pixels. One method of generating a line segment is a symmetrical digital differential
analyzer (DDA).
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