i Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani Lecture on Teaching and Learning and Answer to Renan Sayyid Jamal a-Din agian’ (ran, (838-1897) was perhaps the most famous propo- nent of modernist Islam, and has enjoyed the sablest popularity ofall modemists in the century since his death. om in Asadabad in northwestern Iran, he adopted the name "Afghani" in order to distance himself from his Shit origins, He was educated at serinar- iesin ran and iraq then stucied moder sciences in India before coming to prominence 35a royal adviser in Alghaistan in the late 18606, Upon his expusion, jamal al-Din then Spent a decade associated with academic reform—briefy in Istanbul, then for almost a cade in Coir, before being expelled yet again. He spent much ofthe 1880s in Eu rope-—in Paris, where he publshed the famous journal al-Unva aseuthgo (The Strongest Link) with Muibammad 'Abduh (See chapter 3): and later in Russia Hs fal years were spent as 2 would-be adviser tothe rulers of tran and, after yet another expulsion, the (Ottoman Empire, though both monarchs were suspicious of his loyalty and piety. As with his name, Jamal al-Din reinvented his poltical postions when necessary—supporting and ‘oppesing absolute monarchy, for example, and denouncing and oferingto assist the Bish Empire. His consistent aim, however, was to revive the power and image of the llamic world through moder-syle reforms. The tex presented here—addressed to Hindus, in the frst selection, and Crristians in the second—offe Jamal a-Dir's ew that Masts can and must adopt modem science as Lecture on Teaching and Learning On Thursday, November 8 (1882), in Albert Hall, Calcutta, he said: [...] Allow me to express my pleasure that so many In- ian youths are here all adorned with virtue and at- tainments, and all making great efforts to acquire Knowledge, Certainly T must be happy to see such offspring of Inia, since they are the offshoots of that India that was the cradle of humanity. Human val- ‘ues spread out from India to the whole world. These youths are from the very land where the meridian Cirle was first determined. They are from the same realm that first understood the zodiac, Everyone Sayyid Jamal ad-Din sl-Afghan, An Islamic Response 10 Imperialism: Pollical and Religious Wrings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afhan, ale fom Persian and French bby NIKKI R. Kee Berkeley: Univesity of California Press, 1868), pp. 101-108, 181-187. The fst selection was a le- tue dalvered in 1882; the second piece was fst plished fn 1883, fovoduction by Charles Kurzman ‘means of civizational suniva! knows thatthe determination of these two circles is. impossible until perfection in geometry is achieved. ‘Thus we can say that the Indians were the inventors of arithmetic and geometry, Note how Indian numer- als were transferred from here tothe Arabs, and from there to Europe, ‘These youths are also the sons of land that was the sourve of all the laws and rules of the world. If one observes closely, he will see that the “Code Romain,” the mother ofall Wester codes, was taken. from the four vedas and the shastras. The Greeks ‘were the pupils of the Indians in literary ideas, lim= pid poetry, and lofty thoughts. One of these pupils, Pythagoras [Greek mathematician, cisea 569-475 B.C], spread sciences and wisdom in Greece and reached such a height that his word was accepted ‘without proof as an inspiration from heaven. 1. Nikki R. Keddie, Sayyid Fama! ad-Din “aaa: 4 Political Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972; Blie Kedouri, Afghani and ‘Abdu: An Essay ‘on Religious Unbellef and Poca! Acrlvin in Modern sam (London: Cass, 1966), 10304 Sayyid Jamal aLDin al-Afphani (The Indians] reached the highest level in philo- sophic thought. The soil of India isthe same soil; the air of India isthe same air, and these youths who are present here ae fruits of the same earth and climate, ‘So Lam very happy that they, having awakened after a long sleep, aie reclaiming their inheritance and gathering the fruits oftheir own tee. ‘Now T would like to speak of science, teaching, and learning. How dificult itis to speak about sci- cence. There is no end of limit to science. The bene fits of science are immeasurable; and these finite thoughts cannot encompass wat is infinite. Besides, Uousands of eloquent speakers and sages have al- ready expressed their thoughts to explain seience and its nobility. Despite tis, nature does not permit me not to explain is virtues, ‘Thus I say: Ifsomeone looks deeply into the ques- tion, he wil see that science rules the world. T was, is, and willbe no ruler in the world but science. If we look at the Chaldean conquerors, like Semi- amis [Sammu-ramat, Assyrian queen, ninth century 1c), sho reached the borders of Tatary and India, the true conquerors were not the Chaldeans but sci- ence and knowlodge. “The Egyptians who increased their realm, and Ramses MT [Egyptian king, led 1279-1213 ac, called Sosestis, who reached Mesopotamia accord- {ng to some and India according to others—it was not ‘the Egyptians but science that dd it The Phoenicians who, with ther ships, gradually made colonies of the British Isles, Span, Portugal, and Greece—in reality ‘twas science, not the Phoenicians which so expanded their power. Alexander [Macedonian king, 356-323, ‘Bc:] never came to India or conquered the Indians; rather what conquered the Indians was science. ‘The Europeans have now put their hands on every part ofthe World, The English have reached Afghan stan; the French have seized Tunisia, In reality tis ‘usurpation, aggression, and conquest have not come from the French or the English. Rather i is science ‘that everywhere manifests its greatness end power. Tgnorance had no alternative to prostrating itself humbly before science and acknowledging its sub- rission, In reality, sovercignty has never left the abode of science, However, tis true ruler, which is ssience is continually changing capitals. Sometimes its moved from East to West, and other times from ‘West to East. More than this, if we study the riches of the world, we learn that wealth is the result of commerce, industry, and agriculture. Agriculture is 2 RESET achieved only with agricultural science, botanical chemistry, and geometry. Industry is produced only ‘with physics, chemistry, mechanics, geometry, and ‘mathematics; and commerce is based on agricultre and industry. “Thus its evident that all wealth and riches arethe result of science, There are no riches inthe world ‘without science, and there is no wealth in the world other than science. In sum, the whole world ofl ‘manity isan industrial world, meaning thatthe word ig a world of science. If science were removed from the human sphere, no man would continue to remain in the world, Since it s thus, science makes one man have the strength of ten, one hundred, one thousand, and ten thousand persons. The acquisitions of men for them selves andtheir governments ae proportional to thet science, Thus, every government for its own benefit ‘must strive to lay the foundation of the sciences and (o disseminate knowledge, Just as an individual who has an orchard must, fr his own profit, work to level the ground and improve its tees and plants aceon ing to the laws of agronomy, just so rulers, for tir ‘own benefit, must strive forthe dissemination of the sciences. lust as, ifthe owner of an orchard neglects totend it according tothe laws of agronomy, the loss ill revert to him, so, ifa ruler neglects the dissemi nation of the sciences among his subjects, the harm will revert to that government. What advantage is there to & Zalu king from ruling a society poor and barefoot, and how can one call such a government ‘government? AAs the nobility of science has been somewhat clarified, we now wish to say some words about the relations between science, teaching, and learning “You must know that each science has a special sub ject and deals with nothing but the necessities amd accidents of that special subject. For example, pys- ies treats the special features of bodies that exist in the extemal world, and with its own special quali- ties, and does not enter into other matters that are necessary to the human world, Kimiva, or “ehemts try,” speaks of the special features of bodies with regard to analysis and composition. Plant science. or “otany,” fixes only plants asthe sujet of its dis cussion, Arithmetic deals with separate quantitesand geometry with interconnected quantities, and sini larly the other sciences, None of these stiences deals ‘with matters outside its own subject. If we observe well, we will learn that each oneTEACHING AND LEARNING AND ANSWER TO RENAN, 105 ‘of these sciences whose subject is special matter is like a limb of the body of science, Not one of them cean maintain its existence individually and sepa- rately, of be the cause of benefit for the human world. For the existence of cach one of these sci- ences is related to another seience, like the relation of arithmetic to geometry. ‘This need of one science for other sciences can- not be understood from the one science itself, Thus it is thatif that science were isolated, progress would not be achieved in it, nor would it remain stable. Thus a science is needed to be the comprehensive soul {or all the sciences, so that it can preserve their ex- istence, apply each of them in its proper place, and become the cause ofthe progress of each one of those ‘The science that has the position of « comprehen- sive soul and the rank of a preserving force is the science of falsafa, or “philosophy,” because its sub- ject is universal. It is philosophy that shows man Fbuman prerequisites. It shows the sciences what is necessary. It employs each of the sciences in its proper place. If a community did not have philosophy, and all the individuals ofthat community were learned inthe sciences with particular subjects, those sciences ‘could not last in that community for a century, that is, a hundred years. That community without the spirit of philosophy could not deduce conclusions from these sciences, ‘The Ottoman Government and the Khedivate of Egypt have been opening schools For the teaching of the new sciences for period of sixty yeas, and watil now they have not received any benefit from those sciences. The reason is that teaching the philosophi- cal sciences was impossible in those schools, and because ofthe nonexistence of philosophy, no fruit ‘was obtained from those sciences that ae like limbs. ‘Undoubtedly, i the spirit of philosophy had been in those schools during this period of sixty years, they themselves, independent of the European counties, ‘would have striven to reform their kingdoms in ac~ cord with science. Also, they would not send their sons each year o European countries for education, and they would not invite teachers from thereto theit schools. [may say that if the spirit of philosophy were found in a community, even if that community did fot have one of those sciences whose subject is par- ticular, undoubtedly their philosophic spirit would call forthe acquisition of all the sciences. ‘The first Muslims had no science, but, thanks to the Islamic religion, aphilosophie spirit arose among, them, and owing to that philosophic spirit they began to discuss the general affairs of the world and human necessities. This was why they acquired in a short time all the sciences with particular subjects that they ‘ranslated from the Syriac, Persian, and Greek into the Arabic language atthe time of [AbuJa'far] Man- sur Davanagi (caliph, 754-775]? is philosophy that makes man understandable ‘oman, explains human nobility, and shows man the pptoper road. The frst defect appearing in any nation that is headed toward decline is in the philosophic spirit. After that, deficiencies spread into the other sciences, arts, and associations. {As the relationship between the preeminence of philosophy and the sciences has been explained, we now wish to say something about the quality of teach ing and learning among the Muslims, Thus, I say that the Muslims these days do not see any benefit from their education. For example, they study grammer, ‘and the purpose of grammaris that someone who has acquired the Arabic language be capable of speak- ing and writing. The Muslims now make grammar a ‘goal in itself. For long years they expend philo- sophie thought on grammarto no avail, and after fin- ishing they are unable to speak, write, or understand Arabic. Rhetoric, which they call “literature,” isthe sei- cence that enables a man to become a writer, speaker, ‘and poet. However, we see these days that after studying that science they are incapable of comrect- ing their everyday speech. Logie, whichis the balance for ideas, should make everyone who acquires it capable of distinguishing every uth from falsehood and every right from ‘wrong. However, we see thatthe minds of our Mus- lim logicians are full of every superstition and van- ity, and no difference exists between their ideas and the ideas of the masses of the bazaar. Philosophy is the seience that deals with the state ‘of extemal beings, and their causes, reasons, needs, and requisites, Iis suange that our ‘alam’ (religious scholars] read Sadra [that is, Sharh al- Hidaya, or Explanation of “Guidance,” by Mulla Sadra, 1571~ 1640] and Shams al-bari‘a [probably Shams al bacigha, The Rising Sun, by Mahmud Jawnpuri 2: fn fect, the main transatons were dane Iter under sl-Ma'mn eaiph, 913-833) —Trags.]10g Sayyid Jamel abDin al-Afghani Faruqi died 1652] and vaingloriusly call them- selves sages, and despite this they cannot iting their eft hand fom thei ight hand, and thoy do not ask: Who are we and whats right and proper for us? ‘They never ask the cases of electricity, the steam- boat, and loads Even stranger, rom eat evening until morning they study the Shams a-bar‘e with a lamp placed before them, and they do not ones consider why if ‘we remove its glss cover, much smoke comes out fit and when We leave the glass, there is no smoke. Shame on such a philosopher, and shame on such philosopiy! A philosopher is someone whose mind is stimulated by all he events and pars ofthe world, notone wi travels along aroad like a blind man who does not know where its beginning and end are. Turgprudence among the Muslims includes all lomestie, municipal, and state laws, Thus a pezson who bas studied jrsprudence profoundly is wosthy of being prime minster ofthe realm or chief ambas- sador ofthe slat, whereas We see our jurisconslts after studying this science unable to manage their own households, although they are proud oftheir own folishnes. ‘The scence of principles consists ofthe piloso- ply of te shar’ or philosophy of lav In it are explained the tuth regarding right and wrong, benefit and los andthe causes forthe promulgation of avs Certainly, a person who studies this science should be capable of establishing laws and enforcing civil zation. However, we see that those who stady this Science among the Muslims are deprived of under- sfanding ofthe benefits of laws, the rule of civii- zation, andthe reform ofthe world, Since the ate of these ‘ulama” has been demon- strated We can say that our ‘lama this time are like a very narrow wick, on top of whichis @ very svall Mame that either lights its surroundings not gives ight to others. A scholar isa tre light i eis a solar Ths, fascholais a scholarhe must shed Tight on the whole work, and if his light does not reach the whole world, atleast it should light up his region, his city, hs village, or bis home, What kind of scholar is it who doesnot enlighten even his own home? ‘The sangest thing of alist our ‘lama these days have divided sience into two pats. One they call Muslim seience, and one European science. Because ofthis they forbid others to teach some of the useful sciences. They have not understood that sciences that noble thing thathasno connection with any ation, and is not distinguished by anything but ‘eI Rather, everyting tha is krown is know by science, and every nation that becomes renowned becomes renowned through science. Men must be rolsed to science, not science 10 men, How very strange isthat the Mustims study thase sciences that are ascribed to Aristotle (Greskpilaso- per, circa 384-322 nc) with he greatest delight, as Jf Arinole were one ofthe pillars ofthe Muslims, However ifthe discussion relates to Galileo [alin astronomer, 1564-1642], [Isaac] Newton {English physicist, 1642-1727], end (Johannes) Kepler (Cer- roan astronomer, 1571-1630), they consider them infidels ‘The Father and mother of science is proof, and proof is neither Aristole nor Galileo. The teh is here tere is proof, snd those wo forbid seience and knowledge in the belie that they are safeguard- ing the Isamie elgion are realy the enemies ofthat religion. The Islamic religion isthe closest of wel sous to science and knowledge, and there is no in- compatibility between science and knowledge and the foundation ofthe Islamic fait ‘As foe [Abu Hamid Mubsrad] Ghszzli 1058— 1117], who was called the Prof of Islam, he says in the book Mungiah min al-dalal (The Deliverer from Error that someone who claims tat the Islamic re= ligion is incompatible with geometric proots, pilo- sophical demonstration, andthe laws of nature is sn ignorant tiend of Islam. The harm ofthis igno- ‘ant rend to Islam is greater than the harm of the heroics and enemies of Islam. For the laws of na- ture, geometric proofs, and philosophic demonsira- tionsare self-evident wuts. Thus, someone witosays. “My religions inconsistent with sel-eviden ths, has inevitably passed judgment on the falsity of is religion. ‘The first education obained by man was religious elucation, since philosophical education can only be obtained by @ society that has studied some science and sable to understand proofs and demonstrations Hence we can say that reform willnever be achieved by the Muslims except if the leaders of our religion frst reform themselves and gather the frit of these science and knowledge Fone considers, one wil understand this ruth, thatthe vin and corruption we have experienced est reached ou ‘lama and religious leaders, and then peneuated the rest of the community.TEACHING AND LEARNING AND ANSWER TO RENAN 107, {now wish to excuse myself, since, contrary to his promise, the principal caused this talk to be de- livered only in an abbreviated form, ‘Answer of jamal ad-Din to Renan Sir, have read in your estimable journal of last March 29 [1883] a akon Islam and Science, given in the Sorbonne before a distinguished audience by the great hiker of our ime, de ilustious Mfonsicur) {Emnest] Renan (French Orientalis, 1823-1892], ‘whose renown has filled the West and penetrated into te farthest counties ofthe East. Since this speech suggested to me some observations, I took the lib- eaty of formulating them in his eter, whic have the honor of addressing to you with request that you accommodate itn your columns. ‘Monsieur Rens wanted to clarify a point ofthe history ofthe Arabs which had remained unclear uatil now and 0 throw a live light on their pas, a ight that may be somewhat troubling for those who ven- erat these people, though one cannot say that he has sured the place and rank that they formerly o2cv- piedinthe world, Monsieur Renn has notatalltried, we believe, to destroy the glory ofthe Arabs, which is indestructible; he has applid himself to discover- {ng historical rth and making it known to those who do not know it, as well as to those who study the influence of religions inthe history of nations, and in panicular in that of civilization. I hasten to ree- ognize that Monsieur Renan has aequited himself marvelously ofthis very difficult task, in iting cee- tain fats that have passed unnoticed und this time. find in his tale remarkable observations, new pex- ceptions, and an indescribable charm. However, I have under my eyes only a more of ls fitful rans- Jaton of tis tal IFT had had the opportunity to read itn the French text, I could have penetated beter the ideas of this peat hiker. He receives my humble salutation as an homage that is due him and as the sincere expression of my admiration. would say to him, finally, in these circumstances, what al- ‘Mutanabb [915-965], a poet who loved philosophy ‘wrote several centuries ago to a high personage ‘hase actions he celebrated: “Receive,” he said to him, “the praises that I can give you; donot force me to bestow on you the praises that you merit” ‘Monsieur Renan's talk covered two principal points. The eminent philosopher applied himself to proving that the Muslim religion was by its very es- sence opposed to the development of seience, and that the Arab people, by their nature, do not like ei- ther metaphysical sciences or philosophy. This pre- cious plant, Monsieur Renan seems to say, dried in ‘heir hands as if bumt up by the breath of the desert wind, But after reading this talk one cannot refrain ‘rom asking oneselfif these obstacles come uniquely ‘rom the Muslim religion itself or from the manner in which it was propagated in the world; from the character, manners, and aptitudes ofthe peoples who adopted this religion, or of those on whose nations it was imposed by force. It is no doubt the lack of, time that ept Monsieur Renan from elucidating these points; but the harm is no less for that, and if itis dificult to determine its causes in a precise manner and by irrefutable proofs, itis even more difficult to indicate the remedy. Asto the fist point, Twill say that no nation at its origin is capable of leting itself be guided by pure reason. Haunted by terrors that it cannot escape, itis Incapable of distinguishing good from evil, of distin- guishing that which could make it happy from that which might be the unfailing source of its unhap- piness and misfortune. It does not know, in a word, either how to trace back causes orto discern effects. ‘This lacuna means that it cannot be led either by force or persuasion to practice the actions that would pethaps be the most profitable fort, or to avoid what ‘is harmful. It was therefore necessary that humanity look outside itself for a place of refuge, a peaceful comer where its tormented conscience could find repose, It was then that there arose some edueater or other who, not having, as I said above, the necessary power fo force humanity to follow the inspirations of reason, hurled it into the unknown and opened to it vast horizons where the imagination was pleased, and where it found, if not the complete satisfaction ofits desizes, a least an unlimited field for its hopes. ‘And, since humanity, a its origin, did not know the causes of the events that passed under its eyes and the secrets of things, i was perforee led to follow the advice of its teachers and the orders they gave, This ‘obedience was imposed in the name of the supreme Being to whom the educators attributed all events, without permitting men to discuss its utility or its disadvantages. This is no doubt for man one of the Deaviest and most humiliating yokes, as I recognize;108 Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani ‘but one cannot deny that its by this religious edu- cation, whether it be Muslim, Christian, or pagan, that all nations have emerged from barbarism and smarched toward a more advanced civilization If tis tue that the Muslim religion isan obstacle to the development of siences, can one ait that this obstacle will not disappear someday? How does the “Maslim seligion differ on this point from other reli- gions? Alleligions are intolerant, each one in its way ‘The Chistian zligion (mean the society that follows its inspirations and its teachings and is formed in its ‘nmage) has emerged from the frst period to which T Ihave just alluded; thenceforth free and independent, itseems to advance rapidly onthe road of progress and science, whereas Muslim society has not yet freed it- self from the tutelage of religion. Realizing, however, that the Christi religion preceded the Muslim reli- gion in the world by many centuries, Tcannot keep from hoping that Mahammadan society will succeed someday ia breaking ts bonds and marching resolutely inthe path of civilization afterthe manner of Western society, for which the Christan faith, despite its rig- ‘ors and intolerance, was not at allan invincible ob- stale, No, 1 cannot admit that tis hope be denied to Islam, Iplead here with Monsieur Renan not the cause ‘of the Muslim religion, but that of several hundreds ‘of millions of men, who would tus be condemned to live in barbarism and ignorance. In truth, the Muslim religion has tried to stifle science and stop its progress. It has thus succeeded in halting te philosophical or intellectual movement and in turning minds from the search for scientific truth, A similar attempt, if 1am not mistaken, was sade by the Christian religion, and the venerated leaders of the Catholic chureh have not yet disarmed so far as Tknow. They continue to fight energetically ‘against what they call the spirit of vertigo and erro. Tknow all the difficulties thatthe Muslims will have {o surmount to achieve the same degree of eviliza- tion, access tothe truth withthe help of philosophic and scientific methods being forbidden them. A true believer must, in fact, turn from the path of studies that have for their object scientific truth, studies on ‘which all truth must depend, aecording to an opin- jon accepted at least by some people in Europe. Yooked, like an ox tothe plow, to the dogma whose slave bes, he must walk eternally inthe furrow that has been traced for him in advance by the intepret- ers of the law. Convinced, besides, that his religion contains in itself all morality and all sciences, he at- taches himself resolutely it and makes no effort 0 go beyond, Why should he exhaust himself in vain attempts? ‘What would be the benefit of seeking truth when he believes he possesses it all? Will he be happier on the day when he has lost his faith, the day when he hhas stopped believing that all perfections are inthe religion he practices and not in another? Wherefore hhe despises science. 1 know all this, but I know equally that this Muslim and Arab child whose por- trait Monsiour Renan traces in such vigorous tems and who, ata later age, becomes “a fanatic, full of foolish pride in possessing what he believes to be absolute truth,” belongs to s race that has marked its passage in the world, not only by fie and blood, but by biliant and fruitful achievements that prove its taste for science, for all the sciences, including philosophy (with which, I must recognize, it was ‘unable to live happily for Tong). Tam led here to speak of the second point that ‘Monsiour Renan treated in his lecture with an incon- testable authority. No one denies that the Arab people, while sil in the state of barbarism, rushed imo the road of intellectual and scientific progress ‘with a rapidity only equaled by the speed ofits con- quests, since inthe space of a century, it acquired and assimilated almostall the Greek and Persian sciences that had developed slowly during several centuries on their native soil, just as it extended its domina- tion from the Arabian peninsula up to the mountains of the Himalaya and the summit ofthe Pyrenees. ‘One might say that in allthis period the sciences ‘made astonishing progress among the Arabs and in all the counties under their domination. Rome nd Byzantium were then the seats of theological and philosophical sciences, as well asthe shining center and buming hearth ofall human knowledge. Having followed for several centuries the path of civilization, the Greeks and Romans walked with assurance over the vast field af science and philosophy. There came however atime when their researches were aban dloned and their studies interrupted. ‘The monuments they had builtto science collapsed. and their most precious books wore relegated to oblivion. The Arabs, ignorant and barbaric as they ‘were in origin, took up what had been abandoned by the civilized nations, rekindled the extinguished sei ences developed them and gave them a brilliance they nad never had. Ts not this the index and proof of their ‘natural love fr sciences? Iti toe that dhe Arabs ookTEACHING AND LEARNING AND ANSWER TO RENAN 108 from the Greeks their philosophy as they stripped the Persians of what made their fame in antiquity; bat these sciences, which they usurped by right of con- quest, they developed, extended, clarified, perfected, ‘completed, and coordinated with a perfect taste and a ‘are precision and exuctitude. Besides, the French, the ‘Germans, and the English were not so far from Rome ‘and Byzantium as were the Arabs, whose capital was ‘Baghdad. It was therefore easier forthe former to ex= ploit the scientific treasures that were buried in these {wo great cites, They made no effort in this direction until Arab civilization lit up with its reflections the summits of the Pyrenees and poured its light and riches ‘nthe Occident, The Europeans welcomed Avistoue, who had emigrated and become Arab; but they did not think of him at all when he was Greek and their neigh- bor. Is there not inthis another proof, no less evident, of the intellectual superiority ofthe Arabs and of their natural attachment (o philosophy? Itis true that after the fall of the Arab kingdom in the Orient as in the Occident, the countries that had become the great cen- ters of science, like Iraq and Andalusia, fell again into ignorance and became the center of religious fanali- ism but one cannot conclude from this sad spectacle that the scientific and philosophic progress of the ‘Middle Ages was not ue tothe Arab people who ruled at that time. ‘Monsieur Renan does do them this justice, He ree- ognizes that the Arabs conserved and maintained for centuries the hearth of science. What nobler mission for a people! But while recognizing that from about ‘A. 775 to near the middle of the thisteenth century, that is to say during about 500 years, there were in Muslim countries very distinguished scholars and thinkers, and that during this period the Muslim world was superior in intellectual culture to the Christian ‘world, Monsieur Renan fas said that the philosophers of the first centuries of Islam as well asthe statesmen ‘who became famous in this period were mostly from Harran [in Anatoli], from Andalusia, and from: Iran, ‘There were also among them Transoxianan and ‘Syrian priests. Ido not wish to deny the great quali- ties of the Persian scholars norte role tha they played in the Arab world; but permit me to say that the Harranians were Arabs and thatthe Arabs in occupy ing Spain and Andalusia did not lose their national ity; they remained Arabs, Several centuries before Islam the Arabic language was that ofthe Harranian. ‘The fact that they preserved their former religion, ‘Sabaeanism, docs not mean they should be considered foreign tothe Arab nationality. The Syrian priests were also for the most part Ghassanian Arabs converted to Chuistianty As for Ibn Bajja [Andalusia-Moroceo, citoa 1106 1138}, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) [Andalusia-Moroceo, 1126-1198}, and [Abu Bakr Mubammad] Iba Tufayl [Andalusia-Morocco, cirea 1110-1185}, one cannot say that they are not just as Arab as [Abu Yusuf ‘Ya'qub] al-Kindi (Arabia, circa $01-866] because they were not born in Arabia, especially if one is willing to consider that human caces are only distin- guished by their language, and that if this distinction should disappear, nations would not take long to forget their diverse origins. The Arabs who put their arms in the service of the Muslim religion, and who were simultaneously warriors and apostles, did not impose their language on the defeated, and wherever they established themselves, they preserved it for ‘them witha jealous care, No doubt Islam, in penetrat- ing the conquered countries with the violence that is ‘known, transplanted there its language, its manners, and its doctrine, and these countries could not then« forth avoid influence. Iran is an example; but it possible that in going back to the centuries prece ing the appearance of Islam, one would find thatthe Arabic language was not then entirely unknown to Persian scholars. The expansion of Islam gave it, it is true, a new scope, and the Persian scholars con- verted to the Mubammadan faith thought itan honor o write their books in the language of the Qur'an. ‘The Arabs cannot, no doubt, claim for themselves the glory that renders these writers illustrious, but we believe that they do not need this claim; they have among themselves enough celebrated scholars and ‘writers. What would happen if, going back to the first periad of Arub domination, we Followed step by step the frst group from which was formed this conquer- ing people who spread their power over the worl, and if, eliminating everything that is outside this ‘group and its descendants, we did not take into ac- count either the influence it exercised on minds ot the impulse it gave to the sciences? Would we not be Led, thus, no longer to recognize in conquering. peoples other virtues or merits than those that flow rom the material fact of conquest? All conquered peoples would then regain their moral autonomy and ‘would altribute to themselves all glory, no part of which could be legitimately claimed by the power that fructified and developed these germs. Thus, Italy would come to say to France that neither (CardinalM0 Jules] Mazarin (16021661) nor [Emperor Napoléon] ‘Bonaparte [1769-1821] belonged to hee; Germany ot ‘England would incur claim the scholars who, bav- ing come to Franco, made its professorships ilusti- cons and enhanced the brilliance ofits scientific re ‘own. The French, on their side, would claim for ‘themselves the glory of the offspring of those illusti- ‘0x fales who, after [he revocation of] the edict of [Nantes fin 1685), emigrated to all Burope. And if all, uropeans belong to the same stock, one can with justice claim tha the Harranians and the Syrians, who are Semites, belong equally to the great Arsb family It is permissible, however, «9 ask oneself why ‘Arab civilization, after having been thrown in such a live light on the world, suddenly became extin- guished; why this torch has not been rolit since, and ‘why the Arab word still remains buried in profound darkness, Here the responsiblity of the Muslim reli- sion appears complete. It is clear that wherever it became established, this religion tied to stifle the soiences, and it was marvelously served nits designs by despotism, [Halal l-Din] s-Suyuti [Egyptian scholar, 45— 4150S} tells that the Caliph [Musa] al-Hadi [reigned "785-126 put to death in Baghdad 5,000 philoso- phers in order to destroy sciences in the Muslim countries down to their roots. Admitting that this historian exaggerated the number of victims, it re- ‘mains nonetheless established that this persecution took place, and its bloody stan forthe history of areligion, as its for the history of a people. Lould Find in the past ofthe Christian religion anslogoas Tact. Religions, by whatever names they ate calle, all resemble each other. No agreement and no ec ciliation ace possible between these religions and philosophy. Religion imposes on man its faith and its belief, wheress philosophy frees hitn of i totally or in part. How could one therefore hope that they ‘would agree with each other? When the Christian religion, under the most modest and seductive forms, entered Athens and Alexandria, which were, as every ‘one knows, the vo principal centers of science nd philosophy, after becoming solidly es-tablished in these two cities its first concern was to put aside real science and philosophy, trying to stifle both under the bushes of theological discussions, to explain the inexplicable mysteries of the Trinity, the Incarnation, and Transubstantiation. Iwill always be thas, When ever religion will have the upper hand) it will elim ale philosophy; and the contrary happens when it is philosophy that reigns as sovereign mistress, Se long as humanity exists, the struggle will not cease between dogma and free investigation, between te ligion and philosophy; desperate struggle in which, 1 fear, the triumph will not be for free thought, be- ‘use the masses dislike reason, and its teachings are ‘only understood by some intelligences ofthe elite, and because, aso, science, however Beautiful it is. ‘does not completely satisfy humanity, which thiests forthe ideal and which likes to exist in dark and dis tant regions that the philosophers and scholars ean neither perceive nor explore.