Dueker 1

Cree Dueker
Professor Cornel Pewewardy
NAS 399 Tribal Critical Race Theory
October 23, 2014

Critical Essay One

In their essay, "Being Indigenous: Resurgences against Contemporary Colonialism,"

Taiaiake Alfred and Jeff Corntassel present a definition of what being Indigenous means in both
a historical and present context. The communities, clans, nations, and tribes we call Indigenous
peoples are just that: Indigenous to the lands they inhabit, in contrast and in contention with the
colonial societies and states that have spread out from Europe and other centres of empire. It is
this oppositional, place-based experience, along with the consciousness of being in struggle
against the dispossessing and demeaning fact of colonization by foreign peoples, that
fundamentally distinguishes Indigenous peoples from other peoples of the world (Alfred and
Corntassel, 597). Indigenous people exist worldwide and struggle in the present with the
historical trauma of their people as well as retaining their identities and fighting against
oppression in many forms. Countless anthropologists, writers, and activists have constructed
criteria for what it means to be Indigenous in an attempt to encompass and define all Indigenous
peoples. Using Alfred and Contrassels definition of Indigenous alongside their mantras for the
regeneration and decolonization among our individual selves and identities I will look into how
these definitions of indigenous both limit and affirm individuals and communities of indigenous
peoples on a global scale.

Dueker 2
Within Alfred and Corntassels essay the reader is presented with anthropologist Ted
Gurrs definition of Indigenous peoples which is, Conquered descendants of earlier inhabitants
of a region who live mainly in conformity with traditional social, economic, and cultural customs
that are sharply distinct from those of dominant groups...Indigenous peoples who had durable
states of their own prior to conquest, such as Tibetans, or who have given sustained support to
modern movements aimed at establishing their own state, such as the Kurds, are classified as
ethnonationalists, not Indigenous peoples (Gurr, 17). Gurrs definition can be found inauthentic
in a myriad of ways; according to this definition, being conquered and being dominated by
another group are preconditions for being considered as Indigenous (Alfred and Corntassel,
607). This ignores the Indigenous people who were not conquered using military force (such as
North America and the use of treaties) or those who were not conquered at all. Many groups of
Isolated Indigenous people continue to live and exist today who seek no contact with the world
outside of their communities. Gurr also indirectly states that Indigenous groups cannot be a part
of the dominant culture which is false when looking at Indigenous people such as the Mayans in
Guatemala or the Quechua and Aymara in Bolivia. Using the term conquered in relation to
defining who is Indigenous can also be harmful because of the negative connotations being
Indigenous might bring; correlating the two puts Indigenous peoples in the roles of victims and
can also make it seem like they are relics of the past and not strong communities that exist in the
present.

An instance of an Indigenous community today which has yet to be colonized would be

the Isolated Indigenous such as the Mashco-Piros and the Xatanawa peoples located in Peru
and Brazil respectively. Although these communities have not been colonized by the dominant
cultures around them they face many of the same problems North American Indigenous

Dueker 3
communities faced when explorers came into their communities. In the case of the Mashco-Piros
the have been visited both by missionaries and by tourists of Peru looking to catch a glimpse of
them and present them with gifts on their human safaris. In an article by Indian Country Today
the authors Milanez and Shepard state, And yet the apparent good intentions of these friendly
outsiders there may be motivated by a hidden agenda: religious prosylization or territorial
control. Moreover, initiating contact with isolated Indigenous Peoples is a violation of Peruvian
regulations...The contact with the Mashco-Piro has been carried out informally, irresponsibly,
and against official norms, by tourists and local people without the authority or training to handle
the potentially genocidal consequences of such a situation. Much like the immune systems of
the Indigenous North American peoples the Mashco-Piros are not prepared for any sort of
disease they may receive from these gifts or from coming into contact with these new people
and the effects of such rampant disease could be catastrophic for such an isolated community.

Human safaris and tourists being captivated by the lives of the Isolated Indigenous
communities can be connected to the thought of indigenous being more primitive or stuck in the
past in comparison to non-Indigenous cultures when in reality it is the history of colonization and
devalued traditional cultures that make Indigenous peoples to be some sort of relics or savage
society. The United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP), emphasizes
four principles to be considered in any definition of indigenous peoples: (1) priority in time, with
respect to the occupation and use of a specific territory; (2) the voluntary perpetuation of cultural
distinctiveness; (3) self-identification, as well as recognition by other groups and by state
authorities, as a distinct collectivity; and (4) an experience of subjugation, marginalization,
dispossession, exclusion or discrimination, whether or not these conditions persist. It can be
said with certainty that all Indigenous peoples meet the criteria for at least one of these

Dueker 4
principles. All Indigenous peoples meet the 1st principle within this definition, the 2nd definition
can also apply to Indigenous peoples because of their dedication to their culture whether it be
through the lack of contact with colonizers or from revitalization or decolonization methods
practiced by both individuals and communities. The 3rd principle looks at self-identification
methods which is vital to be accepted as an individual and is essential to ones Indigenous
identity found mainly through acceptance and connection to community but the part about state
or federal recognition can be untrue for some Indigenous peoples who are not recognized within
their home nation or Indigenous peoples whose rights and standing have been terminated by their
country's government. WGIPs 4th principle is unfortunately a common theme among
Indigenous communities but leads into the the recollection and strengthening of these
communities who are striving to maintain their Indigenous roots as well as fighting for their
rights both in and out of their communities.

Although it can be helpful to look at how Indigenous peoples are defined from those
outside of the community, State-imposed conceptions of supposedly Indigenous identity read to
Indigenous peoples, from perspectives rooted in their own cultures and language, not as moves
towards justice and positive integration (as the strategy is framed in colonial discourses) but as
indicators of an on-going colonial assault on their existence, and signs of the fact that the remain,
as in earlier colonial eras, occupied peoples who have been dispossessed and disempowered in
their own homelands (Alfred and Corntassel, 598). Imposing an Indigenous identity upon a
group of people can be harmful in a variety of ways; it can lead to stereotyping of Indigenous
peoples, lead to microaggressions as well as violence against Indigenous people, and leaves no
room for Indigenous peoples to define themselves in more individualized ways. In North
America many Indigenous communities are confronted with the idea of a blood quantum or how

Dueker 5
much Indigenous ancestry makes you truly Indigenous and recognized by the government even
though tribal nations were granted sovereignty. Instead of letting Indigenous peoples across the
world define themselves people outside of the community seek to impose rules and regulations
on what an Indigenous person or community should look like and operate.

By defining Indigenous peoples across the world in one way we are imposing on them
the assumptions of what being Indigenous means. Many peoples are fighting against these
meanings and connotated stereotypes by decolonizing their minds and staying connected to their
traditions. Rather than being able to reflect on the ongoing nature of the colonial encounter and
the complexity of their socio-cultural and historical experiences, indigenous peoples are
constrained to present their cultures in ways that reinforce the dominant societies worldview
(Kenrick and Lewis, 2). These constraints have effects not only on communities but also on the
individual. In my personal journey of decolonization I had to confront the image of the North
American Indigenous person and realize that the image I was presented with was not accurate
and did not look like me at all. We are more than buckskin, feathers, beads, and the bad guys in
Hollywood Westerns. By distancing myself from this false image I have become more connected
and appreciative of the Indigenous community that I am a part of. By fighting against these
constraints many Indigenous peoples are also fighting against the oppressive forces that have
erased their traditions, ceremonies, and languages while fighting for their sacred land and further
exploitation.

Although definitions of Indigenuity often limit the people that it seeks to define it has
also lead to movements against these Euro-centric ideals of what being Indigenous means. The
mantra of a resurgent Indigenous movement is important for Indigenous peoples because it looks

Dueker 6
at ways we can affirm our cultures and individual identities as well as going back to our
traditional ways of knowing and lifestyles that have in many cases been oppressed or eradicated.
These mantras include, land is life, language is power, freedom is the other side of fear,
decolonize your diet, and change happens one warrior at a time (Alfred and Corntassel, 613). As
Indigenous peoples we must recover our freedom, power, and happiness by accepting that being
Indigenous means thinking, speaking, and acting with the conscious intent of regenerating ones
indigeneity (Alfred and Corntassel, 614). We must no longer be defined by those that seek to
limit or oppress us and instead look to ourselves and our communities for what being Indigenous
means.

Works Cited
Alfred, Taiaiake, and Jeff Corntassel. "Being Indigenous: Resurgences against Contemporary
Colonialism." Government and Oppostion (2005): n. pag. Web.
"Isolated Indigenous Peoples." Isolated Indigenous Peoples. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2014.
Milanez, Felipe, and Glenn Shepard. "And human Safaris Initiate Contact in Peru Read More at
Http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/09/17/mashco-piros-missionaries-andhuman-safaris-initiate-contact-peru-156928." Indian Country Today Media Network. N.p.,
17 Sept. 2014. Web. 20 Oct. 2014.
Milanez, Felipe, and Glenn Shepard. "A Tale of Two Contacts: The Government Approach to
Isolated Peoples Read More at
Http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/09/19/tale-two-contacts-governmentapproach-isolated-peoples-156935." Indian Country Today Media Network. N.p., 19 Sept.
2014. Web. 20 Oct. 2014.

Dueker 7
"Who Are Indigenous Peoples?" Cultural Survival. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2014.
"Who Are the Indigenous Peoples?" Identification of Indigenous Peoples. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Oct.
2014.