Patrisha Carter

Sarah Sintich
Advanced Placement Biology
12 October 2015

Macromolecules

Carbohydrates Summary
What makes up carbohydrates?

 Elements: Carbon hydrogen, and oxygen atoms

Functional Groups: Hydroxyl group and Carboxyl Group (Ketose and Aldose sugars)
Reaction Types:
Condensation Reaction (Dehydration Synthesis) -monomers are joined to create a polymer,
results in a water molecule being lost
Hydrolysis Reaction- water molecule is used to split polymer
Types of Carbohydrates:
Monosaccharide- single sugar, which is the monomer of carbohydrates. Example: glucose
Disaccharides- double sugars, results from two monosaccharides joined through dehydration
reaction . Example: sucrose
Polysaccharides- polymers composed of many sugar building blocks . Example: starch
Functions:
Provides energy during cell respiration
Energy storage if lipids are not present Example: Glycogen
Structural material for the cell Example: Glycoproteins
Linkage type? Glycosidic Linkages
Types of Polysaccharides:
Starch (in plants) and glycogen (in animals) have the main function of energy storage (Both
polysaccharides are broken down by hydrolysis reaction)
1. Starch- stored as granules within plastids, can be branched or unbranded in form, all
glucose subunits are in the alpha configuration

2. Glycogen- stored in muscle and liver cells, in branched form for quick energy release
Cellulose (in plants) and chitin (in arthropods and fungi) have the main function to provide
structure, all glucose monomers are in the beta configuration
3. Cellulose- components of cell walls in plants, makes them indigestible
4. Chitin- makes up the cell walls in mushrooms and exoskeletons
Configurations: alpha helix and beta pleated sheet

Lipids Summary
Elements: hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms

 Hydrophobic- substance that repels water

Hydrophilic- substance that is attracted to water
Types of Lipids:
Monomer- fatty acid, long chain of hydrogen and carbon atoms with a Carboxyl group
Triacylglycerol- 3 fatty acids and one glycerol, joined through condensation reaction
Function:
Long term energy storage
Cushion organs
Insulates the body
Structure of cell
Linkage type? Ester Linkages
Types of Fat:
Saturated fats- single bonds between carbon atoms, solid at room temperature Example:
butter
Unsaturated fats- double bonds between carbon atoms, liquid at room temperature Example:
olive oil
Phospholipids: 2 fatty acids and a glycerol, fatty acids are hydrophobic tails (one saturated and
one unsaturated) that are connected to a hydrophilic head (phosphate group), make double
layers to protect cell
Steroids: lipids composed of carbon skeleton of four fused rings Example: cholesterol, keeps
animal cell membranes fluid and flexible

Protein Summary
Types of Proteins:
Monomer- polypeptide, which can connect together in order to make a peptide bond
Functions:
Chemical reactions (enzymes)
Structure
Carriers and transpire
Signaling

 Receptor and binding

Contractile & motor
Defense
Enzymes- regulate metabolism by acting as catalysts, which speeds up chemical reactions
Linkage Type? Peptide bond
Amino Acid Structure:
The central carbon is a alpha carbon, which is attached to Carboxyl, amino group, H atom and
a R group
How to Build Proteins:
Amino acids (2 or more) join by peptide bond
Repeated N-C-C sequence occurs
Structure of Proteins:
Primary level- linear structure
Secondary level- alpha helix or beta pleaded sheet, folding and coiling of amino acid chains
Bonds: H-bonds
Tertiary level- determined by interactions and bonding between R groups Bonds: H-bonds ,
hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions, disulfide bridges, van der waals interactions, ionic
bonds
Quaternary level- two or more polypeptide chains joined together
Chaperonins: protein molecules that assist the proper folding of it her proteins

Nucleic Acid Summary

Functions:
Store and transmit hereditary information
Primary storage molecules in all living organisms
Example: DNA and RNA
Monomer? Nucleotides, composed of a nitrogen base, pentode sugar, and phosphate group
2 Type of Nucleotide Bases:
Pyrimidines- single ring N-base

- Cytosine
- Thymine
- Uracil
Purines- double ring N-base

- Adenine
- Guanine
Linkage Type? Phosphodiester linkage
DNA: double stranded, replication occurs when the cell is about to divide, antiparallel
arrangement , bases (A,T,C,G)
RNA: single stranded, made from DNA, used to make proteins, bases (C,U,A,G)