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1:a3,b
Organismssharemanyconservedcoreprocessesandfeaturesthatevolvedand
arewidelydistributedamongorganismstoday.
a.Structuralandfunctionalevidencesupportstherelatednessofalldomains.
3.Metabolicpathwaysareconservedacrossallcurrentlyrecognizeddomains.
b.Structuralevidencesupportstherelatednessofalleukaryotes
Cytoskeleton
Membraneboundorganelles
Linearchromosomes
Endomembranesystems,includingthenuclearenvelope
2.A.3:b12
Organismsmustexchangematterwiththeenvironmenttogrow,reproduceand
maintainorganization.
b.Surfaceareatovolumeratiosaffectabiologicalsystemsabilitytoobtainnecessary
resourcesoreliminatewasteproducts.
1. Ascellsincreaseinvolume,therelativesurfaceareadecreasesanddemandfor
materialresourcesarenecessarytoadequatelyexchangematerialsandenergy
withtheenvironment.Theselimitationsrestrictcellsize.
roothairs
cellsofthealveoli
cellsofthevilli
microvilli
2. Thesurfaceareaoftheplasmamembranemustbelargeenoughtoadequately
exchangematerialssmallercellshaveamorefavorablesurfaceareatovolume
ratioforexchangeofmaterialswiththeenvironment.
2.B.1:ac
Cellmembranesareselectivelypermeableduetotheirstructure.
a.Cellmembranesseparatetheinternalenvironmentofthecellfromtheexternal
environment.
b.Selectivelypermeabilityisadirectconsequenceofmembranestructure,asdescribed
bythefluidmosaicmodel.
1. Cellmembranesconsistofastructuralframeworkofphospholipidmolecules,
embeddedproteins.cholesterol,glycoproteinsandglycolipids.
2. Phospholipidsgivethemembranebothhydrophilicandhydrophobicproperties,
Thehydrophilicphosphateportionsofthephospholipidsareorientedtowardthe
aqueousexternalorinternalenvironments,whilethehydrophobicfattyacid
portionsfaceeachotherwithintheinteriorofthemembraneitself.
3. Embeddedproteinscanbehydrophilic,withchargedandpolarsidegroups,or
hydrophobic,withnonpolarsidegroups.
4. Small,unchargedpolarmoleculesandsmallnonpolarmolecules,suchasN/2,
freelypassacrossthemembrane.Hydrophilicsubstancessuchaslargepolar
moleculesandionsmoveacrossthemembranethroughembeddedchanneland
transportproteins.Watermovesacrossmembranesandthroughchannel
proteinscalledaquaporins.
c.Cellwallsprovideastructuralboundary,aswellasapermeabilitybarrierforsome
substancestotheinternalenvironments.
1. Plantcellswallsaremadeofcelluloseandareexternaltothecellmembrane.
2. Otherexamplesarecellswallsofprokaryotesandfungi.
2.B.2:ac
Growthanddynamichomeostasisaremaintainedbythenetmovementofmolecules
acrossmembranes
a. Passivetransportdoesnotrequiretheinputofmetabolicenergythenetmovementof
moleculesisfromhighconcentrationtolowconcentration.
1. Passivetransportplaysaprimaryroleintheimportofresourcesandtheexport
ofwastes.
2. Passivetransportplayaroleinfacilitateddiffusionofchargedandpolar
moleculesthroughamembrane.
glucosetransport
Na+/K+transport
3.Externalenvironmentscanbehypotonic,hypertonicorisotonictoexternal
environmentsofcells.
b.Activetransportrequiresfreeenergytomovemoleculesfromregionsoflowconcentrationto
regionsofhighconcentration.
1. Activetransportisaprocesswherefreeenergy(oftenprovidedbyATP)isusedby
proteinsembeddedinthemembranetomovemoleculesand/orionsacrossthe
membraneandtoestablishandmaintainconcentrationgradients.
2. Membraneproteinsarenecessaryforactivetransport.
c.Theprocessesofendocytosisandexocytosismovelargemoleculesfromtheexternal
environmenttotheinternalenvironmentandviceversa,respectively.
1. Inexocytosis,internalvesiclesfusewiththeplasmamembranetosecretelarge
macromoleculesoutofthecell.
2. Inendocytosis,thecelltakesinmacromoleculesandparticulatematterbyformingnew
vesiclesderivesfromtheplasmamembrane.
2.B.3:ac
Eukaryoticcellsmaintaininternalmembranesthatpartitionthecellintospecialized
regions.
a. Internalmembranesfacilitatecellularprocessesbyminimizingcompetinginteractions
andbyincreasingsurfaceareawherereactionscanoccur.
b. Membranesandmembraneboundorganellesineukaryoticcellslocalize
(compartmentalize)intracellularmetabolicprocessesandspecificenzymaticreactions
endoplasmicreticulum
mitochondria
chloroplasts
golgi
nuclearenvelope
c.ArchaeaandBacteriagenerallylackinternalmembranesandorganellesandhaveacellwall.
2.D.1:a
Allbiologicalsystemsfromcellsandorganismstopopulations.communitiesand
ecosystemsareaffectedbythecomplexbioticandabioticinteractionsinvolvingexchangeof
matterandfreeenergy.
a. Cellactivitiesareaffectedbyinteractionswithbioticandabioticfactors.
celldensity
biofilms
temperature
wateravailability
sunlight
2.D.2:b
Homeostaticmechanismsreflectbothcommonancestryanddivergencedueto
adaptationsindifferentenvironments.
b.Organismshavevariousmechanismsforobtainingnutrientsandeliminatingwastes.
gasexchangeinaquaticandterrestrialplants
digestivemechanismsinanimalssuchasfoodvacuoles,gastrovascularcavities,
onewaydigestivesystems
respiratorysystemsofaquaticandterrestrialanimals
nitrogenouswasteproductionandeliminationinaquaticandterrestrialanimals
2.D.3:a
Biologicalsystemsareaffectedbydistributionstotheirdynamichomeostasis.
a. Distributionsatthemolecularandcellularlevelsaffectthehealthoftheorganism.
physiologicalresponsestotoxicsubstances
dehydration
immunologicalresponsestopathogens,toxins,andallergens
4.A.2:ag
Thestructureandfunctionofsubcellularcomponents,andtheirinteractions,provide
essentialcellularprocesses.
a. Ribosomesaresmall,universalstructurescomprisedoftwointeractingparts:ribosomal
RNAandprotein.Inasequentialmanner,thesecellularcomponentsinteracttobecome
thesiteofproteinsynthesiswherethetranslationofthegeneticinstructionsyields
specificpolypeptides.
b. Endoplasmicreticulumoccursintwoforms:smoothandtough.
1. Roughendoplasmicreticulumfunctionstocompartmentalizethecell,servesas
mechanicalsupport,providessitespecificproteinsynthesiswith
membraneboundribosomesandplaysaroleinintracellulartransport.
2. Inmostcases,smoothERsynthesizeslipids
4.A.4:a,b
Organismsexhibitcomplexpropertiesduetointeractionsbetweentheirconstituent
parts.
a. Interactionsandcoordinationbetweenorgansprovideessentialbiologicalactivities.
stomachandsmallintestines
kidneyandbladder
root,stemandleaf
b.Interactionsandcoordinationbetweenorgansprovideessentialbiologicalactivities.
respiratoryandcirculatory
nervousandmuscular
plantvascularandleaf
4.B.2:a.13
Cooperativeinteractionswithinorganismspromoteefficiencyintheuseofenergy
andmatter.
a. Organismshaveareasorcompartmentsthatperformasubsetoffunctionsrelatedto
energyandmatter,andthesepartscontributetothewhole.
1. Atthecellularlevel,theplasmamembrane,cytoplasmand,foreukaryotes,the
organellescontributetotheoverallspecializationandfunctioningofthecell.
2. Withinmulticellularorganisms,specializationoforganscontributestotheoverall
functioningoftheorganism.
exchangeofgases
circulationoffluids
digestionoffood
excretionofwastes
3.Interactionsamongcellsofapopulationofunicellularorganismscanbesimilarto
thoseofmulticellularorganisms,andtheseinteractionsleadtoincreasedefficiencyand
utilizationofenergyandmatter.
bacterialcommunityintherumenofanimals
bacterialcommunityinandarounddeepseavents
4.C.1:a
Variationinmolecularunitsprovidescellswithawiderrangeoffunctions.
a. Variationswithinmolecularclassesprovidecellsandorganismswithawiderrangeof
functions.
differenttypesofphospholipidsincellmembranes
differenttypesofhemoglobin
MHCproteins
chlorophylls
moleculardiversityofantibodiesinresponsetoanantigen