Fundamentals of Navigation

Octavian Thor Pleter, PhD, PhD, MBA (MBS)

This presentation draws on ideas from Dr. Pleters articles, books, and unpublished manuscripts. No part of this
publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted by any means or in any form - electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise - without written consent from Octavian Thor Pleter or the
Brainbond consultancy firm, www.brainbond.ro Version 3.2 dated 9 January 2014 O. T. Pleter and Brainbond

FNAC12

Course Outlines
1. Introduction. Earths Shape and Dimensions. The Four Approximations.
2. Coordinate Systems. Verticals, Gravity and Latitudes.
3. Time and Longitude. Sunrise and Sunset.
4. Directions. True North. Sextant. Astronomical Positioning. Horizon.
5. (Week 5 Paper)
6. Magnetic Field of the Earth. Magnetic North. Compass Variance.
7. Loxodrome. Spherical Trigonometry. Orthodrome.
8. Great Circle Calculations. Layover.
9. Wind Triangle. Brachistochrone.
10. (Week 10 Paper)
11. Flight Planning. Flight Trajectory Calculations.
12. Short Range Flight Planning with Wind.
13. Long Range Flight Planning.
14. (Final Paper)

FNAC12

Input Data

Route (RTE): waypoints or legs from origin / departure to destination

/ arrival
Cruise Flight Level (CRZ FL)
Wind (WIND): wind direction (from! true!) / wind velocity
Aircraft Performance (PERF): airspeed or Mach, angle of attack,
fuel flow on climb / cruise / descent, vertical speed on climb /
descent

Estimated Time of Departure (ETD)

FNAC12

Route (RTE)

FNAC12

Results Data

Ground Speed Vector (GS, DA) per each segment

Heading (HDG) per each segment

Estimated Time Enroute (ETE): per each segment and in total

Fuel Burn (FUEL): per each segment and in total
Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA)

FNAC12

Route (RTE)

As Waypoints: WPTk (LATk, LONGk), k=0,N

As Legs: LEGj (MCj, DISj), j=1,N
Additional data:
Aerodrome elevations: ELEV0, ELEVN
Magnetic Compass Variance: VARj, j=1,N

FNAC12

1. How To Calculate Legs from Waypoints?

WPTk (LATk, LONGk), k=0,N

LEGj (MCj, DISj), j=1,N

NB If you use a route chart, you have the legs directly available and
you do not need this step!
FNAC12

Example: Bucharest HC Timisoara (LROP-LRTR) @FL300

FNAC12

360
LATk-LATk-1

2R
Y=Yk-Yk-1

Yk Yk Yk 1 LATk LATk 1 R H
FNAC12

180
9

360
LONGk-LONGk-1

2Rcos((LATk+LATk-1)/2)
X=Xk-Xk-1

LATk LATk 1
X k X k X k 1 LONGk LONGk 1 R H cos

180
FNAC12

10

DISk X k Yk
2

DIS
X
Y

FNAC12

11

 Yk
k arcsin
DIS k

FNAC12

12

Example: Bucharest HC Timisoara (LROP-LRTR) @FL300 (5NM)

WPT

LAT

LONG

ELEV

Bucuresti LROP N 44 34.3 E 026 5.1 314 ft

HC
Timisoara LRTR N 45 48.6 E 021 20.3 348 ft

Yk 45

X k 21

48.6
34.3

44
74.456764 NM
3445
60
60
180

20.3
5.1

26
234.3335871NM
3445 cos 45
60
60
180

FNAC12

13

DISk X k Yk 234.3342 74.457 2 245.879 NM DISk 245.9 NM

2

Yk
k arcsin
DISk

74.457
arcsin
17.627
245.879

VARk 4( E )

TCk 270 17.627 288

MCk TCk VARk 288 4 284

FNAC12

14

2. How To Calculate TAS from IAS/CAS or M?

TAS
M
a

a R T

cp
cv

1.4

a0 R T0 1.4 287 288.16 340.268

With H (Flight Level in meters)

using ISA Model

we calculate T and ps

FNAC12

15

T and ps Calculations

FNAC12

16

In which compressibility domain does the flight occur? Is Mach over 0.3
or under?
A quick way to approximate Mach:

2.1. Incompressible fluid

(under M0.3)

IAS 2
pd
0
2
0 1.2250 kg / m3

IAS (kts)
300

2.2. Compressible fluid

(over M0.3)
a0 R T0 1.4 287 288.16 340.268

2
1

IAS
p
pd

0
2 a02

FNAC12

17

2 ps pd
M

1

1 ps

TAS

M a M R T

cos
cos

is the angle of attack in level flight could be approximated by

pitch angle:

If not known, should be considered 0
FNAC12

18

Example: for IAS 81 kts at FL300 AOA 3 which is M and TAS?

H 30000 ft 0.3048m / ft 9144m

We are in the H < 11,000 m domain

T 288.16 0.0065 H 228.72K

a 1.4 287 228.72 303.15m / s
228.72
ps

288.16

5.253283302

101325 30106.28Pa

We approximate Mach to see that we are in the incompressible domain

IAS (kts) 81

0.27
300
300
FNAC12

19


IAS 2
811852 / 3600
pd
0
1.2250 1063.54 Pa
2
2
2

2 ps pd

M
1 ps

1 0.223

incompressible domain confirmed

TAS

M a 0.223 303.15

67.69m / s 131.6kts
cos
cos 3

FNAC12

20

3. How To Calculate the Wind Triangle on Leg j?

Input Data:
CRS (course)
DIS (distance)
WD/WV (wind)
TAS (true
airspeed)
FF (fuel flow)
Results:
DA (drift angle)
GS (ground
speed)
HDG (heading)
ETE (estimated
time enroute)
FUEL (fuel burn)
FNAC12

21

Solving the speed triangle TAS-W-GS

FNAC12

22

We have 2 sides:
TAS
WV
And one angle:
b
Calculate DA and GS
with the Law of Sines:

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS
WV
DA arcsin
sin b
TAS
FNAC12

R/L

23

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

sin 180 DA b
GS
TAS
sin b
FNAC12

m/s
kts
24

For each leg j

With distance DIS and

speed GS calculate
time ETE:

With fuel flow FF and

time ETE calculate fuel
burn FUEL

ETE j

DIS j (NM)
GS j (kts)

(hrs)

(hrs)

FUEL j FF ETE j (Kg, Gal, Lbs, L)

(Kg/hr,
Gal/hr,
Lbs/hr,
L/hr)

FNAC12

25

4. How To Calculate the Flight Plan with Wind?

Calculate the
entire journey for
all legs j = 1 to N
First calculate the
two special legs:
CLB (climb) and
DES (descent)
The rest of legs
are CRZ (cruise)

FNAC12

26

4.1. Climb Leg

Most types of piston engines general aviation aircraft have a

much lower IAS (TAS) during climb: IASCLB < IASCRZ
Jet airliners usually climb with a speed restriction until H =
10,000 ft: IASCLB = 250 kts

Calculate time of climb:

ETECLB

CRZFL ELEV0
VS CLB

(mins)

where CRZFL is the cruise flight level (ft), ELEV0 is the

elevation of the origin airport (ft), and VSCLB is the vertical
speed during climb (fpm)
FNAC12

27

Calculate DISCLB:

DIS CLB GS 0 ETECLB

(NM)

Is DISCLB > DIS1 ?

No

then Case 1: T/C falls between WPT0 and WPT1

on LEG1
insert WPTT/C between 0 and 1

Yes

then: Is (DISCLB DIS1) > DIS2 ?

No Case 2
Yes - ...

Continue this process until the position of WPTT/C is found

WPTT/C is an extra waypoint which should be added on the
route in the right leg
FNAC12

28

Case 1

Case 2

T/C within LEG1

T/C within LEG2

FNAC12

29

4.2. Descent Leg

Some types of general aviation aircraft have a higher IAS

(TAS) during descent: IASDES > IASCRZ
Jet airliners usually descend with a speed restriction below H
= 10,000 ft: IASDES = 250 kts

Calculate time of descent

ETEDES

CRZFL ELEVN
VS DES

(mins)

where CRZFL is the cruise flight level (ft), ELEVN is the

elevation of the destination airport (ft), and VSDES is the
vertical speed during descent (fpm)
FNAC12

30

Calculate DISDES:

DIS DES GS N ETEDES

(NM)

Is DISDES > DISN ?

No

then T/D falls between WPTN-1 and WPTN on LEGN

insert WPTT/D between N-1 and N

Yes

then: Is (DISDES DISN) > DISN-1 ? Continue this

process until the position of WPTT/D is found

WPTT/D is an extra waypoint which should be added on the

route in the right leg

FNAC12

31

4.3. Calculate the Flight Plan with Wind for all legs

FNAC12

32

RTE

Wind
CRSDA
triangle
DIS/GS
calculation

WIND
PERF

LEG DIS

CRS WD

WV

TAS

GS

DA

TC/
MC

kts

kts

kts

L/R TH/
MH

xxx

xxx

NM

HDG ETE

FFxETE
FF

FUEL

HH:
MM

Kg/
hr

Kg

1
2

...
N-2
N-1
N
Total S

Descent
calculation

xxx

Climb
calculation

Totals and
averages
FNAC12

33

Totals
For the entire journey j = 1 to N
N

calculate total distance DIS:

DIS DIS j

(NM)

j 1

calculate total time ETE:

ETE ETE j (HH:MM:SS)

j 1

calculate total FUEL:

FUEL FUEL j (Kg, Gal, Lbs, L)

j 1

FNAC12

34

Averages
For the entire journey j = 1 to N

calculate average ground

speed GS:

GS

DIS
ETE

(kts)

TAS
calculate average true
airspeed TAS:

TAS

ETE j

j 1

(kts)

ETE

j 1

calculate average fuel

flow FF:

FF
FF

FNAC12

ETE j

j 1

ETE
j 1

(Kg/hr,
Gal/hr,
Lbs/hr,
L/hr)
35

Example

RTE: Calculate the Flight Plan from Bucharest Henri Coanda

International to Constanta Mihail Kogalniceanu International
on the route OTP-URZ-TND-CND
CRZ FL: cruising at FL60

ETD: 0800z

WIND: wind forecasted as shown on each segment (True)

PERF: Hawker Beechcraft King Air 350 aircraft (ICAO: B350)

Perf:

()

V/S (fpm)

IAS (kts)

FF (lbs/hr)

CLB

+1,900

208

1,100

+5

CRZ

227

1,000

DES

-1,900

247

700

FNAC12

36

WPTk

LATk

LONGk

OTP

N 44 34

E 26 06

URZ

N 44 43

E 26 39

TND

N 44 39

E 27 39

CND

N 44 17

E 28 29

FNAC12

37

1. Calculate Legs from Waypoints

WPTk (LATk, LONGk), k=0,N

LEGj (MCj, DISj), j=1,N

FNAC12

38

WPTk LATk

LONGk

LONGj

LATj

Xj

Yj

0 OTP

N 44 34

E 26 06

1 URZ

N 44 43

E 26 39

0.55

0.15

23.76

9.01

2 TND

N 44 39

E 27 39

0.0667

43.20

4.00

3 CND

N 44 17

E 28 29

0.83333

0.3667

36.00 22.02

H 6000 ft 1829m 0.99 NM 1NM

Yk Yk Yk 1 LATk LATk 1 R H

180

LATk LATk 1
X k X k X k 1 LONGk LONGk 1 R H cos

180

FNAC12

39

VAR 4E

Legs

WPT Xj

Yj

DISj

TCj

MCj

1 URZ

23.76

9.01

25.41

069

065

2 TND

43.20

4.00

43.38

095

091

3 CND

36.00

22.02

42.20

121

117

DISk X k Yk
2

Yk
k arcsin
DIS k

FNAC12

40

2. Calculate TAS from IAS

With H (Flight Level in meters) using ISA Model calculate T and ps
For CLB and DES H has a continuous variation!
A fair approximation takes the midpoint H as a reference
(ft)

Hstart

Hend

Hmiddle

CLB

312

6,000

3,156

5,688

CRZ

6,000

6,000

6,000

DES

6,000

394

3,197

5,606

H middle minH start , H end

FNAC12

H
2

H H end H start

41

Convert to meters

H (m) H ( ft ) 0.3048(m / ft )
(m)

Hstart

Hend

Hmiddle

CLB

95

1,829

962

1,734

CRZ

1,829

1,829

1,829

DES

1,829

120

974

1,709

T 288.16 0.0065 H
a 1.4 287 T
T
ps

288
.
16

5.253283302

101325
FNAC12

42

With H (Flight Level in meters) using ISA Model calculate T and ps

a 1.4 287 T

T 288.16 0.0065 H
H (m)

T (K)

a (m/s)

ps (Pa)

CLB

962

281.91

336.56

90,300.2

CRZ

1,829

276.27

333.17

81,204.8

DES

974

281.83

336.51

90,165.6

T
ps

288
.
16

5.253283302

FNAC12

101325

43

IAS (kts )
0.7
300

Compressible fluid (over M0.3)

a0 R T0 1.4 287 288.16 340.268

p0 101,325( Pa)

2
1

IAS
p
pd

0
2 a02

IAS (kts) IAS (m/s)

T (K)

ps (Pa)

pd (Pa)

CLB

208

107.0

281.91

90,300.2

7,188.7

CRZ

227

116.8

276.27

81,204.8

8,606.2

DES

247

127.1

281.83

90,165.6

10,246.1

IAS (m / s) IAS (kts) 1852(m / NM ) / 3600(s / hr )

FNAC12

44

Calculate M and TAS

2 ps pd
M

1

1 ps

()

a (m/s) ps (Pa)

pd (Pa)

TAS

M a M R T

cos
cos

TAS (m/s)

TAS (kts)

CLB

+5

336.56

90,300.2

7,188.7

0.33

112.37

218.4

CRZ

333.17

81,204.8

8,606.2

0.38

127.30

247.5

DES

336.51

90,165.6

10,246.1

0.40

133.48

259.5

IAS (kts) IAS (m / s) / 1852(m / NM ) 3600(s / hr )

compressible domain confirmed

FNAC12

45

4.1. Climb Leg

ETECLB

CRZFL ELEV0 6,000 312 2.99

VS CLB

1,900

(mins)

0.04989

(hrs)

We have 2 sides:
TASCLB=218.4 kts
WV= 40 kts
And one angle:

b = 180(6930)
= 141

FNAC12

46

Calculate DA and GS
with the Law of Sines:

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

WV
40
DA arcsin

sin
b

arcsin

sin141 6.6 7R
TAS
218.4

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

GS

sin180 DA b
sin32.4
TAS
218.4 186.0 kts
sin b
sin141

FNAC12

47

Calculate DISCLB:

DIS CLB GS 0 ETECLB 186.0 0.04989 9.28 (NM)

DIS1 25.41

Is DISCLB > DIS1 ?

No

then Case 1: T/C falls between WPT0 and WPT1

on LEG1
insert WPTT/C between 0 and 1

WPTT/C is an extra waypoint inserted between 0 and 1

j

WPTk
CLB T/C

DISj (NM)

TCj

MCj

9.28

069

065

1 URZ

25.41 9.28 = 16.13

069

065

2 TND

43.38

095

091

3 CND

42.20

121

117

FNAC12

48

4.2. Descent Leg

ETEDES

CRZFL ELEVN 6,000 394 2.95

VS DES

1,900

(mins)

0.04918

(hrs)

We have 2 sides:
TASDES=259.5 kts
WV= 45 kts
And one angle:

b = 180(121320)
= 379 = 19

FNAC12

49

Calculate DA and GS
with the Law of Sines:

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

WV
45
DA arcsin

sin
b

arcsin

sin19 3.25 3R
TAS
259.5

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

GS

sin180 DA b
sin157.75
TAS
259.5 301.8 kts
sin b
sin19

FNAC12

50

Calculate DISDES:

DIS DES GS N ETEDES 260.2 0.04918 14.84(NM)

Is DISDES > DISN ?

No

DIS 4 42.20

then Case 1: T/D falls between WPTN-1 and WPTN

on LEGN
insert WPTT/D between N-1 and N

WPTT/D is an extra waypoint inserted between 3 and 4

j

WPTk
CLB T/C

DISj (NM)

TCj

MCj

9.28

069

065

1 URZ

16.13

069

065

2 TND

43.38

095

091

42.20 14.84 = 27.36

121

117

14.84

121

117

4
5

DES T/D
3 CND

FNAC12

51

4.3. Calculate the Flight Plan with Wind for all legs

FNAC12

52

RTE

Wind
CRSDA
triangle
DIS/GS
calculation
PERF

LEG WPT DIS

CRS

TC/MC kts

T/C

16.1 069/065 247.5

1,000

43.4 095/091 247.5

1,000

T/D

27.4 121/117 247.5

1,000

14.8 121/117 259.5 301.8 3.3R

Total

NM

TAS

FFxETE

GS

DA

HDG ETE

FF

FUEL

kts

L/R

TH/
MH

lbs/hr

lbs

9.3 069/065 218.4 186.0 6.6R

xxx

hrs

062/ 0.04989
058

119/ 0.04918
114
S

1,100 54.88

700 34.42

This is what we have already calculated

FNAC12

53

Leg 2

We have 2 sides:

TAS2=247.5 kts
WV= 40 kts
And one angle:
b = 180(6930)
= 141

FNAC12

54

Calculate DA and GS
with the Law of Sines:

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

WV
40
DA arcsin

sin
b

arcsin

sin141 5.9 6R
TAS
247.5

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

GS

sin180 DA b
sin33.14
TAS
247.5 215.0 kts
sin b
sin141

FNAC12

55

Leg 4

We have 2 sides:

TAS4=247.5 kts
WV= 45 kts
And one angle:
b = 180(121320)
= 379 = 19

FNAC12

56

Calculate DA and GS
with the Law of Sines:

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

WV
45
DA arcsin

sin
b

arcsin

sin19 3.41 3R
TAS
247.5

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

GS

sin180 DA b
sin157.59
TAS
247.5 289.8 kts
sin b
sin19

FNAC12

57

RTE

Wind
CRSDA
triangle
DIS/GS
calculation
PERF

LEG WPT DIS

CRS

TC/MC kts

T/C

NM

TAS

FFxETE

GS

DA

HDG ETE

FF

FUEL

kts

L/R

TH/
MH

lbs/hr

lbs

hrs

9.3 069/065 218.4 186.0 6.6R

062/ 0.04989
058

1,100 54.88

16.1 069/065 247.5 215.0 5.9R

062/ 0.07488
058

1,000 74.88

43.4 095/091 247.5

T/D

27.4 121/117 247.5 289.8 3.4R

119/ 0.09455
114

1,000 94.55

14.8 121/117 259.5 301.8 3.3R

119/ 0.04918
114

700 34.42

Total

xxx

1,000

FNAC12

S
58

Leg 3

We have 2 sides:

TAS4=247.5 kts
WV= 45 kts
And one angle:
b = 180(9510)
= 95

FNAC12

59

Calculate DA and GS
with the Law of Sines:

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

WV
45
DA arcsin

sin
b

arcsin

sin 95 10.44 10R

TAS
247.5

sin DA sin b sin 180 DA b

WV
TAS
GS

GS

sin180 DA b
sin74.56
TAS
247.5 239.5 kts
sin b
sin 95

FNAC12

60

RTE

Wind
CRSDA
triangle
DIS/GS
calculation
PERF

FFxETE

LEG WPT DIS

CRS

TAS

GS

DA

HDG ETE

FF

TC/MC

kts

kts

L/R

TH/
MH

lbs/hr lbs

T/C

NM

hrs

FUEL

9.3 069/065 218.4 186.0

6.6R

062/ 0.04989 1,100

058

54.88

16.1 069/065 247.5 215.0

5.9R

062/ 0.07488 1,000

058

74.88

43.4 095/091 247.5 239.5 10.4R

085/ 0.18121 1,000 181.21

081

T/D

27.4

121/117 247.5 289.8

3.4R

119/ 0.09455 1,000

114

94.55

14.8

121/117 259.5 301.8

3.3R

119/ 0.04918
114

34.42

xxx

Total

FNAC12

700

S 61

Totals
For the entire journey j = 1 to 5
5

calculate total distance DIS:

DIS

DIS

(NM)

j 1

calculate total time ETE:

ETE

ETE

(HH:MM:SS)

j 1

calculate total FUEL:

FUEL

FUEL

(Kg, Gal, Lbs, L)

j 1

FNAC12

62

Averages
For the entire journey j = 1 to 5

calculate average ground

speed GS:

GS

DIS
ETE

(kts)

calculate average true

airspeed TAS:

TAS
TAS

ETE j

j 1

ETE
5

calculate average fuel

flow FF:

FF
FF
FNAC12

(kts)

ETE j

j 1

ETE

(Kg/hr,
Gal/hr,
Lbs/hr,
L/hr)
63

Calculation of totals and averages

LEG WPT DIS

CRS

TAS

GS

DA

HDG ETE

FF

TC/MC

kts

kts

L/R

TH/
MH

lbs/hr lbs

T/C

NM

hrs

FUEL

9.3 069/065 218.4 186.0

6.6R

062/ 0.04989 1,100

058

54.88

16.1 069/065 247.5 215.0

5.9R

062/ 0.07488 1,000

058

74.88

43.4 095/091 247.5 239.5 10.4R

085/ 0.18121 1,000 181.21

081

T/D

27.4

121/117 247.5 289.8

3.4R

119/ 0.09455 1,000

114

94.55

14.8

121/117 259.5 301.8

3.3R

119/ 0.04918
114

34.42

111

xxx 245.6 246.8

Total

FNAC12

700

0.44971 978.3 439.94

64

Transformation of time from hrs to HH:MM:SS

LEG WPT DIS

CRS

TAS

GS

DA

HD
G

TC/MC

kts

kts

L/R

TH/ HH:MM:
MH SS

T/C

NM

ETE

FF

FUEL

lbs/hr

lbs

9.3 069/065

218.4 186.0

6.6R

062/
058

00:03:00

1,100

54.88

16.1 069/065

247.5 215.0

5.9R

062/
058

00:04:30

1,000

74.88

43.4 095/091

247.5 239.5 10.4R

085/
081

00:10:52

1,000 181.21

T/D

27.4

121/117

247.5 289.8

3.4R

119/
114

00:05:40

1,000

94.55

14.8

121/117

259.5 301.8

3.3R

119/
114

00:02:57

700

34.42

111

xxx

245.6 246.8

Total

FNAC12

00:26:59

978.3 439.94
65