Diesel Engine For 1990s

THE FORTIETH L.
RAY BUCKENDALE LECTURE
Diesel Engine Design

for the 1990s
SP-1011 (940130)
The L. Ray Buckendale Lectures, inaugurated in 1954, commemorate the contributions of the 1946 SAE
President as developer of the latent abilities of young engineers and as an authority in the theory and practice
of gearing, particularly as applied to automotive vehicles.
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March 1994
94-0130
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SAE/SP-94/1011
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 93-87523
Copyright 1994 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
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SAE.
Printed in USA
David F. Merrion
David F. Merrion is Senior Vice President-Engineering for Detroit Diesel Corporation and is an officer of the
corporation. He started his career at Detroit Diesel Engine Division of General Motors in 1954 as a General Motors
Institute cooperative student. He graduated from GMI with a bachelors in mechanical engineering following
completion of a bachelors/master program at Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he was granted a
masters degree in mechanical engineering in 1959.
Following graduation he had assignments in Product Engineering, Research & Advanced Development, and
Application Engineering. During this period he developed the Detroit Diesel multi-fuel engine, discovered the cause
of hydrocarbons and odor in diesel exhaust and was part of the team who designed the Detroit Diesel 8.2L
medium-duty engine.
In 1980 he became Director, Product Engineering for Detroit Diesel when the Series 60 engine design was started.
Subsequently he became Director, Diesel Engine Sales and became General Director - Engineering for Detroit
Diesel Allison Division in 1983.
In 1986 he became Vice President, Product Engineering for Detroit Deere Corporation and in 1988 assumed his
current position with Detroit Diesel Corporation. He has been a member of SAE since 1960 and is currently on the
Motor Vehicle Council and the Truck and Bus Program Committee.
He is on the Engineering Department Advisory Committee at Wayne State University, a member of the Board of
Directors of the Coordinating Research Council and a member of the Board of Directors of the Engine
Manufacturers Association (and a past president). He also serves as a member of the U.S. Federal Fleet
Conversion Task Force and is a past member of the U.S. Alternative Fuels Council.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION I
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History Of The Diesel Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History Of North American Diesel Engine Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diesel Engine Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Markets For Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
2
3
4
SECTION 2
North American Truck Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
American Automotive Manufacturers Associatio (AAMA) Classifications 7
EPA Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
SECTION 3
Diesel Engine Requirements for the Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coolant System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lubrication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrical And Electronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
11
11
11
12
12
14
14
14
15
20
21
21
23
25
25
26
SECTION 4
Engine Design by Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Engine Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cylinder Block And Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Piston, Piston Rings, Connecting Rod And Bearings, And Cylinder Liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overhead And Valve Train Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft Oil Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft Main Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft Vibration Damper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geartrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timing Gear Case And Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flywheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flywheel Housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Injection System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electronic Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
27
27
29
39
50
55
55
56
57
58
60
60
63
67
75
III
Turbocharger, Intercooler, Intake Manifold, Exhaust Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Engine Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Lubrication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Coolant System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
SECTION 5
System Integration and Engine Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Performance Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust Emissions Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Durability Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reliability Growth Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noise Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vehicle Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flywheel Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abuse Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
New Engine Development And Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
117
124
127
130
134
136
146
147
148
SECTION 6
Measuring Your Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measuring Engine Acceptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Driveability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
151
151
151
152
154
155
156
157
157
158
SECTION 7
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
IV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
SECTION 1
Introduction
Figure 1.1 Rudolf Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
SECTION 2
North American Truck Market
Figure 2.1 Class 8 Heavy-duty Truck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 2.2 Class 8 Retail Truck Sales in Thousands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
SECTION 3
Diesel Engine Requirements for the Market
Figure 3.1 Classic Bathtub Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.2 Random Failures During Useful Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.3 Maximum Power Series 60 12.7L Engine - By Year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.4 Dynamometer Operation Cycle for Smoke Emission Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.5 Transient Emission Test Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.6 Vehicle Passby Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.7 Percent Increases in Volume for Water and Antifreeze Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
13
14
16
16
20
24
SECTION 4
Engine Design by Component
Figure 4.1 Kinematic Slider - Crank Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.2 Piston Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.3 Combustion Chamber in the Piston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.4 Effects of Combustion Gases and Spring on the Compression Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.5 Compression Ring Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.6 Oil Control Rings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.7 Expander Coil Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.8 Different Ring Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.9 Ring Barrel Faced Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.10 Square Piston Pin Rod Design with Normal Cut Rod Bearing Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.11 Trapezoidal Piston Pin Rod Bearing Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.12 Rod Bearing Cap - Angle Cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.13 Connecting Rod and Bearing Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.14 Poppet Valve Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.15 Camshaft Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.16 The DDC Series 60 Camshaft Bearings and Caps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.17 Valve Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.18 Valve Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.19 Exhaust and Intake Valves and Porting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.20 DDC Series 60 12.7L Valve Events - Cam 18N16E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.21 Rocker Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.22 Valve & Injector Operating Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.23 Side-by-Side Rocker Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.24 Finite Element Analysis Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.25 One-piece Rocker Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.26 Two-piece Valve Rocker Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.27 Three-Piece Valve Rocker Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
30
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32
33
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34
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35
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40
41
42
43
43
44
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49
49
Figure 4.28 Single Cylinder Rotating and Reciprocating Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Figure 4.29 Typical Torque vs. Crank Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 4.30 Mass Elastic Drawing of a Typical DDC Series 60 with Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 4.31 Results of a Torsional Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 4.32 The Geartrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Figure 4.33 Typical Torque vs Crank Angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 4.34 Flywheel/Crankshaft Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 4.35 Flywheel Housing Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure 4.36 Calculation of Flywheel Housing Loads for a Typical On-highway Application . . . . . . . 65
Figure 4.37 Multi-point Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 4.38 Transmission Support Preload for Zero Bening Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 4.39 Mechanical Unit Injector and Drive Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 4.40 Mechanical Unit Injector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 4.41 Electronic Unit Injector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 4.42 Electronic Unit Injector Fill and Spill Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 4.43 Cam Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 4.44 VCO Tip Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 4.45 Fuel Pump Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 4.46 Schematic Diagram of Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Figure 4.47 Diesel Engine Electronic Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Figure 4.48 Electronic Control Module Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 4.49 Diesel ECM Communications Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 4.50 Access to Heavy-duty Truck Electronic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4.51 ECM Software Development Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 4.52 Turbocharger-Main Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Figure 4.53 Divided Turbine Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 4.54 Turbocharger Compressor Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 4.55 Departure from Isentropic Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 4.56 Typical Turbine Pressure vs. Flow Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 4.57 Turbine A/R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 4.58 Compressor Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 4.59 Turbo Wastegate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 4.60 Wastegate Boost Limiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 4.61 Variable Geometry Turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 4.62 Variable Vane Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 4.63 Standard Water Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 4.64 Air-to Air Charge Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figure 4.65 Air-to-Air Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 4.66 Radiator Mounting Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 4.67 Duct Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure 4.68 Braking Device Located Between the Engine Rocker Arms and the
Rocker Cover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Figure 4.69 Braking Device Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Figure 4.70 Braking Device Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 4.71 Schematic Diagram of Typical Lubrication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 4.72 Gear Train Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Figure 4.73 Oil Pressure Regulator and Relief Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 4.74 Nominal Settings for Coolant Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
VI
List of Illustrations
SECTION 5
System Integration and Engine Development
Figure 5.1 DDC Series 60 12.7L Specific Fuel Consumption Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.2 Effect of Injection Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.3 Performance Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.4 Performance Map of Different Sized Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.5 EPA Transient Emission Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.6 Probe Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.7 Medium Rank Weibull Plot for Sample of 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.8 Significance of Weibull Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.9 Demonstration of Reliability Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.10 Methods of Measuring Engine Sound Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.11 Sound Pressure Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.12 Typical Modal Deformation Output for an Oil Pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.13 1994 Performance Comparison of Two Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.14 Battery Cranking Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.15 Low Temperature Oil Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
122
123
124
126
128
130
131
132
135
135
136
139
141
142
SECTION 6
Measuring Your Success
Figure 6.1 DDC Series 60 12.7L Engine Performance Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.2 DDC Series 60 12.7L Fuel Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.3 Representative Output from ADAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.4 Emissions Vs. Fuel Economy Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.5 Representative Noise Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.6 Noise Result with Improved Exhaust Gas Silencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.7 Component Reliability - A Month of Build Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.8 Component Claim Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.9 DDC Series 60 12.7L Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
152
152
153
154
154
155
156
156
157
VII
SECTION 1
Introduction
HISTORY OF THE DIESEL ENGINE

Just over 100 years ago, in December 1892, the first patent
was issued by the German Reich Patent office to Rudolf
Diesel, Figure 1.1 covering his new engine concept. Although
his original idea was to put the Carnot cycle into practice, he
soon realized that this was impossible. However, his
auto-ignition cycle engine has proved to be an efficient and
durable power plant well suited for many applications.
Diesels early efforts were hampered by the inability

to produce close clearance hydraulic fuel injection
equipment. However, a form of fuel fumigation into
the intake air proved
effective enough to demonstrate that the diesel
engine could achieve better than 26 percent thermal
efficiency in 1897. This was sufficient to convince
engine producers that the diesel should be
developed for production and numerous licenses
were granted to market the engine in Europe and
abroad. By 1904, 141 patents had been applied for
in 37 countries around the world.
The diesel engine was introduced to North America
by Adolphus Busch, the famous German Brewery
owner, who acquired the patent rights in 1897 for
the United States and Canada. Busch founded the
Diesel Motor Company of America to make engines
designed abroad. Unfortunately, these early
production engines were plagued with problems
hurting this marketing effort. This led to increased
development efforts around the world that solved
the problems and paved the way for the spread of
engine sales in North America.
Figure 1.1 Rudolf Diesel
Unfortunately, Busch never was enthusiastic about

producing the engines, thus limiting the number of
engines marketed before 1912. However, in 1911
Gebrader Sulzer and Busch formed a new
company, the Busch-Sulzer Bros. - Diesel Engine
Company just before the North American patents
expired. This proved to be a successful engine
producer that was
eventually taken over by the well-known North

American Nordberg.
The diesel proved to be much more popular in Europe
during the early part of the twentieth century, leading to
diesel development for stationary power, marine and
locomotive applications. Each application had its
unique problems but the engineers overcame them and
put many engines into commercial service around the
world. Some of these original installations were still in
service as late as 1955.
Eventually, the low price of fuel that could be
consumed in the diesel and the engines thermal
efficiency advantage over other power plants led to
world wide acceptance.
Another step towards broader acceptance was the
introduction of turbocharging technology in the thirties
and high boost turbocharging that became possible in
the fifties. From then on, diesels could be found
successfully engineered into all applications including
one opposed-piston, two-stroke airplane engine that
was in series-production and proved its operational
reliability during numerous trans-Atlantic flights.
HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICAN

DIESEL ENGINE MANUFACTURERS
No history of the diesel engine would be complete
without mentioning the role of the U.S. engine
manufacturers.
Caterpillar
During the late 19th century, Daniel Best and Benjamin
Holt were experimenting with possible ways for using
the steam tractor for farming. This early
experimentation gave Caterpillar its start. In 1909, Holt
acquired a plant in Illinois and the company began to
expand the manufacture of gasoline-powered crawler
tractors.
In 1925 the researchers at Caterpillar began working

on a diesel engine. Although the first American diesel
engine was more efficient, the engine still had its limits
because of its size and weight. In addition, the
calibration of the fuel system had to be done by
engineers in the field. Caterpillar knew their injection
system would have to be one that the factory could
calibrate without a need for any further adjustment. The
result--a new engine design! The first diesel mobile
tractor, Model 60, came off the assembly line in
October 1931. This was after 18 months and over $1
million in expenses for research and development.
By 1940 the Caterpillar product line included various
graders, and terracers, as well as electric generator
sets. Further expansion in 1953 saw the production of
diesel products for everything from over-the-road
trucks and pleasure boats to large oil drilling rigs and
locomotives.
Cummins
C. L. Cummins played an instrumental role in
introducing the high speed diesel engine to the market.
He installed a four cylinder diesel engine into a
Packard car in 1929 and presented it to the SAE
conference in Detroit, Michigan. This led to an
installation in a racing car that achieved records on the
race tracks at Daytona Beach, Florida and
Indianapolis, Indiana. He also demonstrated the
engines capability in a truck, by driving a vehicle from
New York, New York to Los Angeles, California in 97.5
hours with a fuel cost of $11.22. Cummins was without
doubt the greatest promoter of the diesel engine in the
United States. Not only did he demonstrate the
potential of the diesel engine, but he also set standards
with the development of light weight, high speed
engines.
Mack
In 1900, the Mack brothers emerged on the scene in
Brooklyn, New York with their first vehicle, a four
cylinder bus engine. They established the Mack Truck
company in 1905. Mack Truck began its venture in
diesel development in the mid-1930s and
Section1
Introduction
introduced its first diesel engine in October, 1938.
DIESEL ENGINE TYPES
Their impact on heavy-duty vehicle technology

occurred in 1953 with the introduction of the
"Thermodyne" turbocharged version of the diesel
engine. In 1966, there was the introduction of the
constant-power, high-torque diesel engine, the
"Maxidyne". Seven years later the first "Maxidyne"
air-to-air charged-cooled turbocharged diesel engine
was introduced.
Diesel engine design, like spark-ignition engine design,

has evolved through the years. Spark-ignition engine
designs have become quite standardized, while diesel
engine design philosophies have remained varied.
These design variations have been mostly driven by
engine applications. The primary diesel engine design
variations deal with number of strokes, air system,
engine speed, cooling, and fuel injection.
Mack is currently a major producer of heavy-duty diesel

trucks in the market place and also offers a line of
medium-duty diesel trucks.
Two-stroke and Four-stroke
Detroit Diesel
The Winton Engine Company built the first two-strokecycle blown diesel engine. In 1929, C.F. Ketterings
yacht, Olive K, became the proving ground for two
Winton Engines with unit fuel injectors. General Motors
acquired the Winton Engine Company on June 20,
1930. During the period from 1936 to 1937, a complete
staff of engineers and test personnel were gathered
together from the Research Division, Winton Division
and the Product Study Group and in 1938, the Detroit
Diesel Engine Division was organized.
Detroit Diesel manufactured only two-stroke-cycle
diesel engines between 1938 and 1980 when it
introduced its first four-stroke-cycle engine. They now
produce both two-stroke and four-stroke engines all
with unit injectors.
On January 1, 1988, Detroit Diesel Corporation was
formed to design, manufacture and sell diesel engines.
Two-stroke cycle diesel engines were developed to

provide high power density or power to weight ratio.
These engines are primarily used for slow and medium
speed, heavy-duty applications. Air inlet to the cylinder
is regulated by either crankcase scavenging, where
inlet air enters the combustion chamber from the
crankcase through ports in the liner and exhaust gases
are likewise ported through the liner, or where inlet air
enters the combustion chamber through liner ports and
is exhausted through poppet valves in the cylinder
head. In both cases scavenging is frequently aided by
a mechanical blower.
Four-stroke cycle diesel engines, primarily used for
medium and high speed applications at a variety of
power requirements, utilize an intake, compression,
expansion, and exhaust stroke to complete each cycle.
The four-stroke engine uses the piston to perform the
intake and exhaust pumping process. Currently both
two- and four-stroke engines tend to be turbocharged,
since power output, or fuel burnt, is limited by the
density of air in the combustion chamber. Both engine
types can be either air or water cooled.
The success of the diesel during the last century and

its status in the commercial world today suggests that it
has much more to contribute to our society for many
years to come.
Direct Injection and Indirect Injection
MARKETS FOR DIESEL ENGINES
The two major methods of fueling diesel engines are

direct injection of fuel into the combustion chamber or
indirect injection of fuel into an auxiliary combustion
chamber connected to the main combustion chamber
through a passage in the cylinder head. Direct injection
is used in slow and medium speed engines, where
there is sufficient time for the fuel to mix with the air
and auto-ignite. Indirect injection is primarily used in
high speed diesels, where faster combustion can occur
by pre-mixing and early combustion of the fuel injected
into the highly turbulent, auxiliary combustion chamber.
Indirect injected diesel engines need higher
compression ratios and cold weather starting aids,
such as glow plugs.
The diesel engine market calls for a wide variety of

engine designs, outputs, and specifications for
powering both mobile and stationary machinery. On
any given day, diesel engines take children to school;
power mining equipment; power the trucks on the
highways; propel ocean going motor yachts; and pump
water. Fire apparatus and hospital emergency rooms
depend on diesel power, as do a large share of the
worlds combat vehicles. Millions of diesel engines
operate every day in virtually every country in the
world. These engines are typically classified as light,
medium or heavy-duty based on many factors such as
horsepower, application, design, expected life or
serviceability. They range in power from a few
horsepower for a lawn and garden tractor; to several
thousand horsepower for an ocean going ship.
Air Cooled and Water Cooled

Air cooled diesel engines are generally used with
smaller displacements (less than six liters) and in
mobile applications where the elimination of coolant
has advantages. Water cooled engines are
predominantly used in heavy-duty truck applications.
Water cooled engines have the advantage of getting
cooling directly to the hot spots in the engine. The
water is also used for other purposes such as heaters,
transmission coolers, oil coolers, etc.
Turbocharged and Naturally Aspirated

Naturally aspirated diesel engines were used almost
exclusively until the 1950s when exhaust driven
turbochargers were introduced. Now turbocharging is
used to increase the density of the air in the cylinder.
There is no increase in the intake charge air pressure
due to external devices in a naturally aspirated engine.
Even the two-stroke-cycle engine with its scavenging
blower is considered a naturally aspirated engine.
Diesel engines can be "blown" by several different
techniques (any form of a supercharging device) but
turbocharging has become the most popular way to
increase the density of the air in the cylinder.
The most durable engines are classified as heavy-duty

diesel engines which may be categorized into seven
distinct market sectors:
Marine
Military
Generator Set
Construction & Industrial
Agricultural
Bus & Coach
Truck
Marine
One of the first marine assignments for diesel engines
was the toughest a marine propulsion system could
draw; powering Navy landing craft during World War II.
Since then, diesel engines have distinguished
themselves on all the seas of the world, fishing, towing,
pushing, patrolling, exploring, rescuing and
Section1
Introduction
transporting. For crew boats, fire boats, patrol boats
and high speed ferries, boat speed is the critical factor
and reliability a must. Also, ease of starting, immediate
acceptance of load and quick acceleration are
important. In fishing boats, the need to get to the
fishing grounds fast is important, but towing nets
efficiently at a low fuel consumption rate in continuous
service is the critical factor that makes diesel engines
the right choice. In the river barges of Europe and tugs
and tow boats all over the world, diesels provide the big
responsive power essential for accurate maneuvering
of heavy loads in busy waterways.
Marine propulsion engines must also provide the power
needed for pumps, hoists, generators and other
accessories required on board the vessel. Small, light,
high performance premium diesels provide greater
power in pleasure boating applications. These engines
are more compact to conserve engine room space and
offer inboard service points to make engine
maintenance convenient in compact engine rooms.
Military
As battlefield demands have changed, so have the
diesel equipment employed. An advanced type of
diesel engine is required for todays combat and
support vehicles and equipment, one that provides high
mobility, extreme agility and rapid deployment. Diesel
engines enhance the mobility and survivability of
military vehicles while maintaining high efficiency and
rugged durability. The military market is continuously
searching for new diesel engine technology that will
increase power pack densities, improve fuel economy,
minimize cooling requirements and reduce signature
(noise and smoke) while in the theater of operation.
Ease of maintenance is also critical to successfully
perform repairs under all types of field conditions.
Diesel engines are used in both rubber tired vehicles
and tracked vehicles such as trucks, personnel
carriers, tanks and gun carriers.
Generator Set
There are two general applications for diesel engines in
power generation. Prime power generator sets operate
continuously as the primary source of electrical power
for the user. Standby generators are typically used in
the event of a power outage and are operated for
relatively short periods of time.
The primary objective of any generator set is to start
quickly, accelerate to speed and accept rated load in
the shortest possible time. For this reason, the
generator set market is one of several markets where
the two-stroke cycle diesel engine excels. The two
cycle engine produces a power stroke from every
cylinder on every engine revolution instead of every
other revolution like the four cycle engines. These
more frequent and subsequently lighter power strokes
produce less cyclic torque irregularity than four cycle
designs which means higher quality electric power
output for critical loads. Two cycle diesels are also able
to accelerate from stop to synchronous speed much
faster, pick up more load in a single step, and respond
to load transients more quickly than four cycle diesels.
Construction & Industrial

The construction and industrial marketplace demands
an engine which will perform day in and day out in
many of the harshest operating conditions in the world.
Diesel engines are hard at work in numerous
petroleum industry applications, including cementing
and acidizing units, hydrofrac units, drilling rigs, and
mixer trucks. They can be found working in every
exploration, drilling and transport phase of the
petroleum business.
Diesel engines have also been the power of choice for
years in both surface and underground mining.
Applications in the mining industry include haul trucks
and loaders.
Diesel engines are especially suited to underground

mining applications because they are not spark-ignition
engines. Explosive gases are always present in
underground mine shafts despite constant ventilation.
For that reason, any source of heat or sparks sufficient
to ignite these gases are strictly controlled. Since the
diesel engine does not rely on a spark to initiate
combustion, it doesnt pose as great a hazard to mine
workers as the spark-ignition engine.
Diesel engines are also used in airport support
equipment such as tow tractors, crash trucks and
ground support equipment.
Construction equipment utilizes diesel engines in a
variety of applications from air compressors to grinders
and excavators.
Agricultural
The agricultural market is currently dominated by
vertically integrated equipment manufacturers such as
Deere, Case, Iveco, and Duetz. A vertically integrated
company produces the whole product as compared to
manufacturers who produce just the engine or power
train. These applications typically require the same
characteristics from a diesel engine as the automotive
and on-highway markets: peak torque at low engine
speed, high torque rise at lower engine speeds, and
constant horsepower at higher engine speeds to
provide excellent tractive effort in soft footing or varying
load conditions.
Bus & Coach

Bus and Coach operators look for diesel engines that
provide smooth operation, good reliability and
durability. This market includes urban buses used
primarily in cities, the commuter buses and the intercity
coaches.
Increasingly important in this marketplace, however,

are engine exhaust emissions. As government
regulation of vehicle emissions becomes more
restrictive,
those
engines
that
successfully
demonstrate government emissions compliance will
gain market share. New, cleaner diesel fuels, electronic
engine controls, and exhaust aftertreatment devices
are just a few of the means currently being used to
reduce emissions output on diesel engine. Diesel
engines will face some stiff competition in this
marketplace though, as new technologies such as
alternate fueled engines and electric vehicles are
introduced to this market.
Truck
To gain acceptance in the truck marketplace, one must
offer diesel engines that maximize fuel economy.
Obviously, one more mile per gallon of diesel fuel on
each truck in a fleet adds up to significant savings on
fuel costs. Although fuel economy is the primary
concern, diesel engines that offer superior driveability,
reliability and durability are also prime concerns. These
typically feature a variety of horsepower, speed and
torque options for the wide variety of applications. They
also tend to provide peak torque at low speed for
improved driveability and high torque rise to increase
acceleration from lower engine speeds. The North
American truck market is discussed in much more
detail in the next section and will be the focus of this
paper.
SECTION 2
The U.S. truck market is divided into eight general

classifications of motor vehicles. While there is significant
overlap between classifications in regards to applications
and vehicle configurations, the following descriptions
apply to each of the classifications.
AMERICAN AUTOMOTIVE
MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
(AAMA) CLASSIFICATIONS
Class 3: Light-duty Trucks

Class 3: Pick-Up and Delivery, Recreation, 10,001 - 14,000
lbs GVW - This classification includes motor homes (class
A) and stepvans, but still falls under the general
classification of light-duty. The majority of the vehicles in
this classification are gasoline powered, with 1992 total
sales of 25,519 units.
Class 4: Medium-duty Trucks

Class 1: Pick-Up and Delivery, Recreation, 6,000 lbs
GVW and less - This market has the largest volume and
includes both commercial, passenger, and sport/utility
vehicles. Power for this market is dominated by gasoline
engines, comprising approximately 100% of the total. In
1992, a total of 3,216,969 class 1 vehicles were sold in the
U.S.
Class 2: Pick-Up and Delivery, Recreation, 6,001-10,000
lbs GVW - This market is very similar to Class 1 except
the vehicles are slightly larger and some are diesel
powered, approximately 12%. Class 2 vehicles are the
second largest market in the U.S. with 1992 total sales of
1,021,088.
Class 4: Pick-Up and Delivery, Agriculture, Construction,

14,001 - 16,000 lbs GVW - This classification includes both
flat bed and stake trucks and is the start of the mediumduty market. Gasoline is still the prime engine power in this
market with 1992 total sales of 25,631 units.

Class 5: Pick-Up and Delivery, Agriculture, Construction,
16,001 - 19,500 lbs GVW - This classification contains
vehicles that are very similar to class 4, except they are
slightly bigger. This was the smallest market by sales
volume in 1992, with only 3,589 units sold.

Class 6: Construction, City Services, Agriculture,
19,501 - 26,000 lbs GVW - This classification includes
vehicles such as dump, garbage, and ready mix
concrete trucks and is considered the upper end of the
medium-duty range. Gasoline engines are still a major
option in this market, but diesel engines also are used
at, about 48%. This classification accounted for 27,725
unit sales in 1992.
Class 7: Heavy-duty Trucks
Likewise, an engine used by an owner/operator

generally dictates high horsepower as does an
aggregate hauler or tanker truck application.
Vehicles that move oversize objects generally operate
under reduced speed limits when carrying a load, but
when empty they travel at the maximum speed
permitted dictating both high power and high speed.
Refuse trucks operate a duty cycle that includes a large
amount of stopping and starting while they are loading,
followed by extended constant speed driving to and
from the disposal site.
Class 7: Construction, City Services, Fuel Delivery,

26,001 - 33,000 lbs GVW - This classification includes
vehicles like fuel delivery and dump trucks and is also
classified as the "Baby Eight," market. This is the first
market where diesel power is the majority engine
choice, about 67%. By volume, this classification was
the fourth largest in 1992 with total sales of 73,229.
Class 8: Heavy-duty Trucks
Class 8: Consumer Goods, Fuel, Bulk, Chemicals,
Industrial Services, 33,001 and over lbs GVW - This is
the large over the road truck market, known as highway
tractors or tractor trailers, also known as eighteen
wheelers, Figure 2.1. The majority (100%) of the
engines used in this market are heavy-duty diesels. In
1992, 119,057 unit sales were recorded, making Class
8 the third largest for trucks, and the largest for diesel
engines.
Many types of applications and duty cycles can be
found within the Class 8 vehicle family. Each of these
different applications bring with it a unique set of
requirements. For example, a vehicle used for moving
complete loads of material from coast to coast requires
a higher horsepower engine than one making
deliveries within a city.
Figure 2.1 Class 8 Heavy-duty Truck

The Class 8 market size varies from year to year with
two statistics used for measuring the size of the
market. AAMA uses both domestic truck factory sales
and truck retail sales which differ due to imports and
exports. References to market size has referred to
retail truck sales in previous sections. The trend for
Class 8 sales over the last few years is shown in
Figure 2.2.
Section 2
EPA CLASSIFICATIONS
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also
classifies engines for exhaust emission certification
purposes. The EPA classification differs from the eight
class AAMA system and is divided into only two
categories: light-duty and heavy-duty.
Figure 2.2 Class 8 Retail Truck Sales in Thousands
The truck manufacturers active in this market are Ford,

Freightliner, Kenworth, Mack, Navistar, Peterbilt, Volvo
GM, and Western Star. The 1992 market share
distribution is shown in Table 2.1.
EPA light-duty is under 8,500 lbs GVW and

requires an emission certification test of a vehicle
with emissions measured in grams per mile.
EPA heavy-duty is over 8,500 lbs GVW and

requires an engine dynamometer emission
certification test using a transient cycle with
emissions measured in grams per horsepower
hour. There are three categories within the
heavy-duty classification: light, medium, and
heavy heavy-duty. (see Table 2.2)
Heavy-duty
Category
Miles of Useful
Life *
light
medium
heavy
110,000
185,000
290,000
* useful life is defined as the time the engine manufacturer

must meet the emission standards "in use" or be subject to
recall
Table 2.2 Heavy-duty Classifications

Manufacturer
Percent of Sales
Ford
8.6%
Freightliner
23.2%
Kenworth
13.0%
Mack
11.7%
Navistar
20.1%
Peterbilt
9.5%
Volvo GM
12.4%
Western Star
1.1%
Table 2.1 1992 Class 8 Sales - By Primary

Producer
This paper will consider the design of a diesel engine

for AAMA Class 8 and EPA class heavy heavy-duty.
U.S. diesel engine manufacturers, including Caterpillar,
Cummins, Detroit Diesel and Mack, produce over 98%
of the diesel engines for these markets. Table 2.3
shows the market share distribution of 1992 class 8
engine sales.
Manufacturer
Percent of Sales
Caterpillar
24.7%
Cummins
37.3%
Detroit Diesel
25.7%
Mack
11.7%
Table 2.3 1992 Class 8 Sales - By Manufacturer
SECTION 3
Diesel Engine Requirements for the Market
The market picked for this paper is the AAMA Class 8 and
the EPA category heavy heavy-duty. The engine
requirements for this market are defined by the following:
size, weight, cost, durability, reliability, fuel economy,
horsepower, torque, exhaust emissions, noise, air system,
fuel system, coolant system, lubrication system and
electrical/electronic system.
SIZE
WEIGHT
The weight of the engine is important to the truck builder so
the weight must be competitive with other engines on the
market. The requirements for durability and reliability also
have an influence on the engine weight since it would not
be advantageous to make extensive use of aluminum and
plastic simply for weight reduction if it impacted either
durability or reliability.
Engine size is important to the truck market as well as the

engine configuration. Inline six cylinder engines are
popular in North America. Large vee-eight engines, such
as the Mack E9 and the Detroit Diesel Corporation (DDC)
8V-92, are used for the higher horsepower applications.
To put weight in perspective, a 3,000 lb engine is

considered "heavy" and a 2,000 lb engine is considered
"light".
The inline six cylinder engine must have length, width and
height dimensions that allow it to fit into most North
American trucks. Also some specific application
arrangements are preferred, such as starter motor on the
left, intake manifold on the left, and turbocharger on the
right, etc.
The overall cost objectives need to be set early in the

engine design program so that "creeping elegance" does
not set in during the design stage. Most of the cost will be
material cost and can be controlled by working with
suppliers, pattern shops, and foundries. Cost can be
controlled within the company by working with the
Purchasing
Department,
Process
Engineers,
Manufacturing Engineers and Materials Engineers.
The bottom of the engine must be narrow enough to fit

between the truck frame rails. Thus the general
requirement for size is to fit in the truck whether it is a long
nose conventional, short nose conventional or cab over
design.
COST
In addition to controlling material costs, the Design

Engineer can control assembly costs by using Design for
Manufacturability (DFM) and Design for Assembly (DFA)
techniques. The Design Engineer can also control the cost
of Engineering and the warranty accrual cost.
1011
DURABILITY
The durability of a heavy-duty diesel engine used in the
Class 8 truck market is known as the mileage to first
overhaul or the mileage to an in-frame overhaul. The
market place determines the first overhaul
requirement.
concepts is best explained through the use of the

classical "bathtub curve" which plots failure rate versus
life as shown in Figure 3.1.
From 1983 to 1986, when the DDC Series 60 was

under development, the market expected 500,000
miles to overhaul. From 1990 to 1993, DDC
demonstrated that the DDC Series 60 could go
750,000 miles to overhaul. Now, the market expects
750,000 miles to overhaul from all manufacturers.
Based on this track record, and demonstrating some
engines and other components such as transmissions
and axles going one million miles, the market place is
now talking about million mile engines.
The problem for the engineer is the statistical range of
the engine durability. If the distribution was such that
the first truck needed an overhaul at 500,000 miles and
the 100th truck went to one million miles the B50 life
could be 750,000 miles but the customer perception
may be based on the overhaul life of the first 10
percent or 20 percent of his trucks. Today the engineer
needs to design the engine for a overhaul life of
750,000 to one million miles.
RELIABILITY
The reliability of an engine is measurable during
development, prototype field testing and after start of
production. Goals need to be set for the reliability of the
total engine and for each component and system using
a reliability budgeting technique.
Truck owners and operators depend on their trucks for
their livelihood and, as such, they are concerned with
the durability and reliability of their trucks and the
engines that power them. Durability and reliability are
distinct concepts although they are related and often
confused. The relationship between these two
12
11
Figure 3.1 Classic Bathtub Curve

This curve is generic to all products or systems. In the
case of a truck engine, the failure rate (Y axis) could be
quantified as engine failures per 100 engines per
10,000 miles and the life (X axis) could be in thousands
of miles.
There are three distinct portions of the bathtub curve.
The early portion of the curve is known as the infant
mortality section and is characterized by a rapidly
decreasing failure rate. Failures occurring during this
portion of the product life are predominantly due to
manufacturing errors or variability which result in some
parts being excessively weak or failing to provide
satisfactory performance. Manufacturing quality
controls can be used to limit the proportion of the
population which fails during the infant mortality period.
Following the infant mortality period there is a period in
which the failure rate remains
Section 3
Setting the Requirements
nearly constant. This is the "useful life" period of the

product. Failures during the useful life are attributable
to random occurrences in which operating or
environmental "stresses" exceed the "strength" of the
product. (Figure 3.2)
The final portion of the bathtub curve is the increasing
failure rate at the end of the product life. Failures during
this portion of the curve are the result of the cumulative
effect of stresses accrued over the product life. Typical
failure modes are mechanical wear, corrosion and
fatigue. This portion of the curve is appropriately known
as the "wearout" period.
A primary indicator in the durability and reliability goal
setting process is the length of new engine warranties.
Customers demand warranties that provide coverage
for all major failures and which are competitive in
length. Five hundred thousand mile warranties are
becoming common for heavy-duty diesel engines and if
trends in engine and truck component development
continue, customers will come to expect 750,000 mile
and even million mile warranties in the future.
Durability and reliability goals must be set with these

warranty periods in mind in order to meet customer
demand while simultaneously limiting warranty failures
and associated costs to an acceptable level.
For new component or system designs which are
notably different from prior designs, warranty history
provides little guidance in establishing reliability goals.
In these cases, the design team must frequently
expend a great deal of effort and exercise judgment to
develop realistic and useful reliability goals. One
technique which has proven useful in this regard is the
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA). In an
FMEA an analysis team reviews the proposed design
and defines potential failure modes.
The team then assigns subjective rankings of the
frequency or probability of occurrence and the severity
of the consequences associated with each of the
potential failure modes. The highest reliability goals
must be set for those failure modes which have safety
implications. Goals for other modes are set based on
the magnitude of the associated repair costs,
performance loss and customer inconvenience.
Figure 3.2 Random Failures During Useful Life
13
12
FUEL ECONOMY
The truck fuel economy requirement is not set by the
Federal Government as a Corporate Average Fuel
Economy (CAFE) requirement as it is for passenger
cars and light trucks.
Industry trends have shown increasing demand for

horsepower while the engine size and weight have
remained constant. Figure 3.3 depicts the DDC Series
60, 12.7L maximum power trends since 1987.
In the heavy-duty truck market the customer and

competition set the requirement which today is 7 to 8
miles/gal (3 to 3.4 km/liter) however, fleets continue to
talk about the 10 miles/gal truck. The engine efficiency
is a large contributor to the truck miles per gallon
(MPG) but it is also influenced by load factor, duty
cycle and truck design (aerodynamics and rolling
resistance).
The engine manufacturer must contribute to the vehicle
fuel economy by providing an engine with the best
brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) over the entire
speed (r/min) and load (horsepower) range of the
engine.
Engines can be optimized to have the best bsfc at high
speed or low speed, at high load or mid-load which can
also be influenced by the manufacturers emission
control strategy. Also the truck axle ratio and the
transmission ratios will determine where the truck
operates for various road speeds. Thus the engine
designer needs to design an engine with fuel economy
in the range of in the range of .300 lb/bhphr with very
flat curves on a fuel map.
HORSEPOWER
The power required to operate an 80,000 lb tractor
trailer on level terrain at 55 miles/hr (89 km/hr) is less
than 170 horsepower. Operation at 65 miles/hr (105
km/hr) increases the requirement to 230 bhp. Power
levels from 350 to 450 bhp (261 to 336 kW) are
required for passing and handling rolling terrain.
Applications with higher weight or more road load such
as Michigan gravel trains, logging trucks in Canada
and triples operating in the Western U.S. require up to
500 bhp (373 kW).
14
13
Figure 3.3 Maximum Power Series 60 12.7L - By

Year
TORQUE
The engine and transmission must be matched to allow
an adequate launch of the vehicle from a stop, allow
acceleration through the gears to get the vehicle "up to
speed" and allow the vehicle to be able to stay in top
gear while negotiating mild grades. This last feature is
enhanced by an engine that has high torque rise, i.e.,
increasing torque as speed decreases. High torque
and high torque rise give the driver the feeling of
"pulling power" and "good driveability".
Typical peak torque offerings for Detroit Diesel are
shown in Table 3.1.
Section 3
STANDARD RATINGS
11.1 LITER
Rated
Power
12.7 LITER
Rated
Speed
Peak Torque
300 hp
1800 r/min
1150 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
325 hp
1800 r/min
330 hp
300/325 hp
Rated
Speed
Peak Torque
370 hp
1800 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
1150 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
370 hp
2100 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
1800 r/min
1150 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
400 hp
1800 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
1800 r/min
1150 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
400 hp
2100 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
300/330 hp
1800 r/min
1150 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
430 hp
1800 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
325 hp
1800 r/min
1250 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
430 hp
2100 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
325 hp
2100 r/min
1250 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
470 hp
2100 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
330 hp
2100 r/min
1250 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
370/430 hp
1800 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
350 hp
1800 r/min
1250 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
370/430 hp
2100 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
325/350 hp
1800 r/min
1250 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
430 hp
2100 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
330/350 hp
1800 r/min
1250 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
470 hp
2100 r/min
1450 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
325 hp
1800 r/min
1350 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
430 hp
2100 r/min
1550 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
330 hp
1800 r/min
1350 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
470 hp
1800 r/min
1550 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
330 hp
2100 r/min
1350 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
470 hp
2100 r/min
1550 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
350 hp
1800 r/min
1350 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
430/470 hp
1800 r/min
1550 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
365 hp
1800 r/min
1350 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
325/350 hp
1800 r/min
1350 ft.1b @ 1200 r/min
325/365 hp
1800 r/min
1350 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
330/350 hp
1800 r/min
1350 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
330/365 hp
1800 r/min
1350 ft.lb @ 1200 r/min
Table 3.1
Rated
Power
Horsepower and Torque Ratings
Class 8 trucks have a wide range of engine torques

and corresponding transmissions so determining the
proper torque and transmission are important. For
example the torque required to go 30 miles/hr up a 6
percent grade without shifting out of direct drive and
without the speed dropping below 1200 r/min is 1450
lb.ft (1966 Nm).
EXHAUST EMISSIONS
The exhaust emissions of on-highway diesel engines
have been regulated since 1970. In that year, the
United States Public Health Service implemented
regulations requiring engine manufacturers to
demonstrate through certification testing that each of
their on-highway engine types met exhaust smoke

standards.
The procedure is run on an engine dynamometer test
stand and requires that the engine be operated over
the test cycle shown in Figure 3.4.
This cycle simulates the way an engine operates in a
vehicle during maneuvers which are historically
associated with high levels of exhaust smoke.
The first portion of the test cycle is known as the
acceleration mode. It represents a vehicle pulling away
from a stop under full throttle, releasing the throttle
temporarily while a transmission shift is performed and
then resuming full throttle acceleration.
15
14
Figure 3.4
Dynamometer Operation Cycle for Smoke Emission Tests
The last portion of the cycle is a gradual full throttle

deceleration from the rated speed to the peak torque
speed of the engine. This is known as the lugging
mode and simulates the condition that occurs when a
truck is unable to maintain speed on a long uphill
grade.
Initially these constituents were controlled using a 13

mode steady-state test cycle, however, in 1985 the
transient test cycle shown in Figure 3.5 was adopted
and standards for particulate matter (PM) emissions
became effective in 1988.
Exhaust smoke emissions are measured throughout

the test cycle using a smoke opacimeter. Smoke
values are quantified during the acceleration and
lugging modes and are compared to the allowable
smoke standards.
A third "peak" smoke value which represents the
highest smoke concentration encountered during either
the acceleration or lugging modes is also obtained. The
smoke test values and standards are expressed in
units of percent opacity.
In 1973, emission certification standards were
introduced for gaseous exhaust emissions, oxides of
nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and
hydrocarbons (HC).
Figure 3.5 Transient Emission Test Cycle
16
15
Section 3
The transient emission test cycle was generated by

running several vehicles on representative sections of
freeway and non-freeway roadway in Los Angeles and
New York.
Engine speed and torque were obtained for each of the
vehicles as it was driven on these roadways and
statistical techniques were then used to combine the
speed and torque information from the different
vehicles into a single composite test cycle. The cycle is
20 minutes long and consists of four nearly equal
segments representing the different sections of
roadway used in developing the cycle.
The engine certification test sequence requires that this
test cycle be run twice. The first time the cycle is run, it
is known as the cold test.
After the cold test cycle is complete, the engine is shut
down for a twenty minute hot soak period which is
followed immediately by the second or hot test cycle.
Exhaust emissions are measured during both the cold
and hot test cycles and are combined using weighting
factors of one-seventh for the cold test and sixsevenths for the hot test. The cold and hot weighting
factors were selected to reflect the actual ratio of cold
to hot engine starts of vehicles operating in urban
environments. The exhaust emissions are quantified
and regulated on a brake specific basis, i.e. grams of
pollutant per hour divided by horsepower.
Since its formation in 1971, the Environmental
Protection Agency has been the primary federal
agency responsible for regulating engine emissions in
the United States. The U.S. Congress has granted the
State of California special authority to issue regulations
which are more stringent than the U.S. Federal rules.
This authority is exercised through the California Air
Resources Board (CARB). Other states may adopt
Californias rules, but are prohibited from issuing
unique regulations which are different from both
Federal and California rules.
Table 3.2 and Table 3.3 show the current and future
U.S. Federal and California emission and smoke
standards for heavy-duty on-highway diesel engines.
Standards from the recent past are also shown to
provide an indication of how the stringency of
standards has progressed.
Separate standards are given for engines used in
trucks and engines used in urban buses, with the bus
engine standards being more stringent. The rationale
for this is that urban buses operate almost exclusively
within cities and thus have a proportionately larger
impact on urban air quality than trucks which spend a
significant portion of their lifetime engaged in intercity
transport.
Federal Heavy-duty Truck Engine
Emission Standards
NOx
HC
CO
PM
pre-1988
10
1.5
25
##
1988
10.7
1.3
15.5
0.60
1990
6.0
1.3
15.5
0.60
1991
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.25
1994
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.10
1998
4.0
1.3
15.5
0.10
The sum of HC and NOx must not exceed 10.

## Not regulated.
Federal Heavy-duty Urban Bus Engine

Emission Standards
NOx
HC
CO
PM
1991
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.25
1993
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.10*
1994
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.07
1996
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.05
1998
4.0
1.3
15.5
0.05
* 1993 urban bus PM standard also applies to all heavy

heavy-duty diesel powered buses which are centrally
fueled.
Federal Heavy-duty Engine Smoke Standards
Acceleration: 20%
Peak: 50%
Lug: 15%
Table 3.2 U.S. Federal On-highway Engine Emissions

Standards
17
16
The procedures governing the deployment and

management of urban bus fleets make these fleets
more amenable to the use of certain low emission
technologies such as the use of special or alternate
fuels and certain exhaust aftertreatment devices.
The carbon monoxide standards are easily met by all
diesel engines. Hydrocarbon and smoke standards do
not appreciably limit the design of most diesel engines
using modern fuel injection and air to fuel ratio control
systems.
The NOx and PM standards, however, have created
significant challenges for suppliers of diesel engines for
the heavy-duty U.S. on-highway market. In recent
years, almost all of the emission reduction efforts of
diesel engine designers have focused on the control of
these two emission constituents.
California Heavy-duty Truck Engine Emission
Standards
NOx
HC
CO
PM
5.1
1.3
15.5
##
1984-1988
1988
6.0
1.3
15.5
0.60
1990
6.0
1.3
15.5
0.60
1991
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.25
1994
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.10
California Heavy-duty Engines in Medium

Trucks (>8,500 < 14,000 GVWR)
1995
NOx + NMHC
CO
3.9
0.10
14.4
PM
California Heavy-duty Urban Bus Engine

Emission Standards
NOx
HC
CO
PM
1991
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.10
1994
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.07
1996
4.0
1.3
15.5
0.05
## not regulated
Table 3.3 California On-highway Engine Emissions
Standards
The 1998 NOx and PM standards represent reductions
of approximately 65 percent and 95 percent
respectively compared to uncontrolled engines.
18
17
Meeting these certification standards is made more

difficult by the fact that several of the technologies
available for additional NOx control, such as injection
timing retard, combustion system modification and
exhaust gas recirculation result in particulate emission
increases.
Furthermore, there is some concern that the

certification
test
methods
and
measurement
procedures may not be adequate to reliably quantify
particulate emissions at levels below 0.05 g/bhphr
which are required to comply with the 1996 Federal
and California urban bus engine standards.
Knowledge of the emission certification standards

alone is not sufficient to fully understand the emission
requirements imposed on diesel engines by regulatory
authorities. The standards themselves are just one
facet of a comprehensive regulatory program which
give the engine designer both additional constraints
and additional flexibility.
Under the Federal Certification Program, engine

manufacturers must not only demonstrate that the
standards are met when the engines are new, but
throughout the full useful life of the engine. For heavy
heavy-duty engines the useful life period is defined as
290,000 miles (see Table 2.2).
Normally this requirement is met during the engine

certification process, by running an engine through the
equivalent of a significant portion of its useful life.
Emission tests are run periodically to determine,
generally with some extrapolation, the expected
emission level of the engine at the end of its useful life
period. It is the full useful life extrapolated emission
levels which must be below the standards before a
certificate of conformity is granted allowing the
manufacturer to produce and sell an engine.
Manufacturers are also subject to Selective
Enforcement Audits (SEA). SEAs are surprise audits
conducted by the EPA at the manufacturers facilities.
In these audits,
Section 3
engines which have completed the normal production

processes are randomly selected by agency
representatives and emission tested to provide
assurance that actual production engines are in
conformance with the emission standards. Failure of an
SEA can result in revocation of the manufacturers
certificate of conformity and permission to continue to
produce and sell engines.
The EPA also has the authority to test engines after
they have left a manufacturers facility and have been
put in use in customer vehicles. Failure of an in-use
engine audit could obligate an engine manufacturer to
perform an emission recall and to make the repairs or
corrections to bring the engines into compliance with
the standards which were in effect at the time that the
engines were manufactured and sold. Finally,
manufacturers are required to provide emission
warranty coverage for critical emission control
components.
The intent of the useful life deterioration, the SEA and
in-use audits, and the emission warranty requirements
is to make engine manufacturers responsible, not just
to demonstrate that new design prototype engines are
capable of meeting the emissions standards, but for
ensuring that a large portion of the production
population of engines meets the standards throughout
their full useful lives. Engineers generally must set
emission targets which are below the standards to be
sure these requirements are met. The design margin,
or difference between the design target and the
standard, depends on the manufacturers experience
with in-use emission deterioration and the
manufacturing and emission test variability for the
engine type under consideration. Typically, design
margins are on the order of 10-20 percent of the
standard.
The Federal Regulatory Program also gives
manufacturers additional compliance flexibility in the
form of non-conformance penalties (NCPs) and

averaging,
banking
and
trading.
By
using
non-conformance penalties, a manufacturer is allowed
to certify an engine type at an emission level which is
above the standard by paying a penalty fee.
The penalty fee is paid on each engine sold and is a
function of the degree to which the engine exceeds the
standard. The agency sets the fee schedule for each
applicable emission standard such that the fee paid is
approximately equal to the additional cost that the
manufacturer would need to spend to meet the
standard. This ensures that manufacturers using NCPs
do not obtain a competitive cost advantage versus
manufacturers who are meeting the standard. The fees
also increase from year to year to discourage long-term
use.
Under averaging, banking and trading, engine
manufacturers are able to earn emission credits for
engines which have an emission level which is below
the standard. These credits can then be used by the
manufacturer to certify other engine families which
have emissions which are above the standard. The
credits may also be "banked" for use by the
manufacturer in future model years or "traded" (sold) to
other manufacturers for their use.
Emission credit programs similar to averaging, banking
and trading are being developed in California which
would even allow manufacturers of low emission onhighway engines to sell credits to operators of
stationary emission sources which exceed their
allowable emission levels. These emission credit
exchange programs utilize market forces to define the
most cost-effective approaches to meeting overall air
quality goals. These programs also give manufacturers
incentives to develop and use emission control
technology which will achieve emission levels which
are below the standards. These incentives were
lacking under the
19
18
traditional "command and control" regulatory

approaches used prior to the introduction of these
programs.
NOISE
Diesel engine airborne sound emissions must be
considered during the concept design of an engine to
provide a low level of airborne sound emission with
efficient use of material and low cost. Without proper
consideration for sound emission in the early stages of
design,
excessive
shielding
and
installation
considerations will be necessary to make the sound
level and quality acceptable to users and regulatory
agencies.
Regulatory Agencies
Diesel engines are used in a wide variety of markets
each having unique guidelines for maximum sound
emission levels. The regulations are designed to
provide safety and comfort for users and bystanders.
The sound regulations range from passby sound levels
Figure 3.6
20
19
Vehicle Passby Test
for moving vehicles, to sound level maximums at a

users ear, to non-detectability standards for military
applications. Sound regulations are mandated by
private and government agencies world wide and have
become stricter in recent years making it necessary for
engines designed in the past to be equipped with
aftertreatment sound reduction devices to meet these
new standards. The aftertreatment devices can be
avoided if low airborne sound emission is considered in
the initial engine design.
Sound Testing
For the North American highway truck market
regulatory agencies are primarily concerned with total
accelerating vehicle sound pressure level. SAE test
J366 details procedures for a vehicle passby test for
which the current acceptable standard is 80 dB(A). The
vehicle passby test measures sound pressure level of
an accelerating truck operated on a special test site
which is detailed in Figure 3.6. The test is not
concerned with spectrum content of the sound.
Section 3
It is important to note that the test measures total

vehicle sound which is made up of many sound
sources other than the engine. Vehicle sound sources
include tires, wind, transmission, axles, chassis,
cooling fan, exhaust, and engine. The addition of
sound pressure levels is accomplished with Equation
3.1:
The requirement for the exhaust system is usually

exhaust back pressure at maximum speed and load. A
typical value is 3 in. Hg (10.1 kPa). This requirement is
a fine balance between noise control using high
backpressure mufflers and the effect backpressure has
on turbocharger performance and resulting engine
efficiency.
Equation 3.1
Equation 3.1
Lp=10 Log (10 Lp1/10+10 Lp2/10+10 Lp3/10...)
Where,
The total air system must also be able to perform at

altitudes which under normal conditions will be up to
6,000 feet (1,829 m) but under extreme conditions
could be as high as 12,000 feet.
Lp = Total Sound Pressure Level Measured in Decibels

Lp1 = Sound Pressure Level of Source 1
Lp2 = Sound Pressure Level of Source 2 ...
Diesel Engine Sound Sources

Diesel engine sound is created from four sources,
mechanical impact, combustion pressure, exhaust gas
expulsion, and air intake.
AIR SYSTEM
The air system for a diesel engine consists of intake air
for the cooling system, intake air for the combustion
system and the exhaust system. The intake air system
for the cooling system is of further interest to the
engine manufacturer since air-to-air charge coolers are
now used in many heavy-duty trucks.
The maximum intake air restriction for the combustion
air is traditionally a requirement from an engine
manufacturer to the truck manufacturer. These
requirements are for a new air cleaner pressure drop
and a dirty air cleaner pressure drop. Typical values for
a new air cleaner are 12 in. H2O (3 kPa) and 20 in. H2O
(5 kPa) for a dirty air cleaner.
Total air inlet restriction can be defined as the

summation of the restrictions of the individual
components, rain shield, air cleaner, ducting and bend
restrictions, and other components such as
intercoolers.
FUEL SYSTEM
The engine fuel system must be capable of drawing
fuel from the vehicle fuel tanks and returning some
percentage of the fuel back to the tanks. The engine
must have a fuel transfer pump and may require a filter
prior to the pump. It is not unusual for the engine
manufacturer to have a fuel filter after the transfer
pump.
The truck manufacturer may also install other systems
in the fuel lines such as fuel heaters, fuel coolers, water
separators, etc.
The fuel system must be designed around a fuel with
specific fuel properties. Studies show that differences
in fuel properties can have a marked impact on the
performance, efficiency, emissions, and durability of
the engine. It is therefore appropriate for the
manufacturer to recommend fuels that meet predefined
fuel property specifications (Table 3.4).
21
20
ASTM Test
No. 1
ASTM 1-D
No. 2*
ASTM 2-D
Gravity, API
D 287
40-44
33-37
Flash Point, Min. F (C)
D 93
100 (38)
125 (52)
Viscosity, Kinematic cST @ 100F (40C)
D 445
1.3 - 2.4
1.9 - 4.1
Cloud Point F
D 2500
[See Note 1]
[See Note 1]
Sulfur Content wt %, Max.
D 1266
0.5 (0.05)
0.5 (0.05
Carbon Residue on 10%, wt%, Max.
D 524
0.15
0.35
Accelerated Stability Total Insolubles mg/100

ml, Max.
D 2274
1.5
1.5
Ash, wt%, Max.
D 482
0.01
0.01
Cetane Number, Min.
D 613
45
45
Cetane Index, Min.
D 4737
40
40
IBP, Typical
350 (177)
375 (191)
10% Typical
385 (196)
430 (221)
50% Typical
425 (218)
510 (256)
90%
500 (260) Max.
625 (329) Max.
End Point
500 (288) Max.
675 (357) Max.
0.05
0.05
General Fuel Classification
Distillation Temperature, F (C)
Water & Sediment %, Max.
D86
D 1796
Not Specified in ASTM D 975

By 1994 diesel fuel for U.S. highway vehicles will be limited to 0.05% Sulfur content max.
Differs from ASTM D 975
* No. 2 diesel fuel may be used in city coach engine models which have been certified to pass Federal and California
emission standards.
Table 3.4
Diesel Fuel Specifications - Based on the Federal Register
Fuel Filtration
Filters are an inherent part of the fuel system. Fuel
filters should be properly sized to ensure correct fuel
flow to the engine. Optimal fuel filter performance is
important to providing acceptable engine service life,
22
21
and is generally defined according to a combination of

factors, including filter micron rating, filter capacity, and
mechanical requirements. A fuel/water separator,
placed between the fuel tank and inlet side of the
engine fuel pump, is also sometimes recommended to
ensure damage to the plunger and barrel injector
Section 3
assembly does not occur due to the injection of water.
COOLANT SYSTEM
The primary function of the cooling system is to
sufficiently dissipate heat energy from circulating
engine coolant to the ambient surroundings, regardless
of the engine operating condition. Insufficient cooling
capability can adversely impact engine performance,
fuel economy, emissions, and durability.
It is therefore important to understand the factors

effecting the cooling system for a heavy-duty onhighway truck application. Vehicle heat source
requirements, environmental and operating conditions,
structural durability, packaging constraints, corrosion/
erosion resistance, and coolant deaeration are each
important considerations when designing a cooling
system for this application. A more detailed definition of
these criteria and their impact on system design is
presented below.
Vehicle Heat Sources

In addition to dissipating heat energy from the engine
itself, consideration must be given to auxiliary systems
and components on the vehicle that can place
additional heat load on the cooling system. These can
include, transmission coolers, torque converters,
hydraulic oil converters, and retarders. Proper
placement of these components in the coolant system
is critical to minimize water pump cavitation and loss of
coolant flow.
Environmental and Operating

Conditions
Differences in ambient temperature, altitude and grade
of the road can each effect engine performance,
impacting cooling system engine needs. Therefore,
accommodations must be made to account for the
extreme variations in both environmental and operating
conditions which are experienced during on-road
operation. A reserve drawdown coolant capacity
should be considered during extremely hot ambient,
high load duty cycle, and high altitudes so the
maximum coolant temperature is not exceeded under
any condition.
Structural Durability
Currently the most popular radiator used in the truck
industry is the bolted radiator, which is a large, yet
simple, assembly. Todays design permits ready
replacement of fragile components, such as the core
and header. Although component life is an important
consideration, ease of cooling system accessibility and
component replacement is just as important in a
vehicle application with a useful life of 500,000 to
1,000,000 miles.
Packaging Constraints
The use of air-to-air charge coolers and the desire to
reduce vehicle weight and improve vehicle
aerodynamics have fostered the need for smaller
radiator assemblies. Advanced heat exchangers are
now being used that have a 30 percent reduction in
face area over the traditional bolted radiator, yet are
still able to meet the vibrational, thermal, and pulsating
pressure input loadings typically observed in over-theroad operation.
23
22
Corrosion/Erosion Resistance
Coolant Deaeration
Water or water/ethylene glycol mixtures act as a

suitable heat transfer medium in a cooling system.
However, the mineral content in water can also be a
significant contributor to corrosive environment within
the cooling system, reducing both the durability of the
radiator and the heat transfer rate due to the formation
of mineral deposits.
Deaeration, or the separation of gases entrained in the

coolant, is important to both the performance and
durability of the engine. Without sufficient coolant
deaeration, the properties of the coolant will be diluted
and possibly lead to coolant circulation deficiencies.
These deposits can produce water pump seal wear

and coat the passages of the cooling system, reducing
the overall heat transfer rate of the heat exchanger,
which can eventually lead to an overheating condition.
Limits of mineral content in water are therefore typically
defined by the manufacturer. (See Table 3.5.)
Parts per
Million
Grains per
Gallon
Chlorides
40
2.5
Sulfates
100
5.8
Total Dissolved
Solids
340
20
Total Hardness
170
10
The retention of small air bubbles can also lead to a

condition known as cavitation erosion, whereby the
bubbles collapse against the surfaces of the coolant
passages within the engine. These produce locations
of very high pressure, which erode the passage
surfaces. If permitted to continue, the condition could
eventually produce holes in coolant passages within
the block, cylinder liners, or water pump impellers.
Table 3.5 Detroit Diesel Mineral Content Limits for

Water
The use of inhibitors (3 percent to 6 percent by wt.) is
also required by engine manufacturers to control
corrosion, cavitation, and deposit build-up. Without
proper concentrations of inhibitors, the coolant may
become corrosive enough to erode coolant passages
and ring seals, producing coolant leaks.
For this reason it is important that inhibitor
concentrations be periodically checked and maintained
with dosages of supplemental coolant additives and
ethylene glycol (see Figure 3.7.)
24
Figure 3.7 Percent Increases in Volume for Water and

Antifreeze Solution
Section 3
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
The lubrication system must lubricate and cool engine
components. The system must perform these functions
and also meet the requirements of the customer for oil
change interval and service cost.
Some key functions of the lubrication system which
require optimization are as follows:
The oil flow rate must be satisfactory to meet

lubrication and cooling demands at all operating
conditions (including installation and vehicle
angles), without using excess power from the
engine.
This flow rate requirement applies to all
components of the engine, including components
on the exterior of the engine block such as the
turbocharger, valve train, and air compressor.
Generally a gear or gerotor type oil pump in
combination with relief and regulator valves are
used to maintain the required flow rate.
The piston dome must be cooled with

satisfactory oil flow to the underside of the dome.
The oil temperature must be maintained which

optimizes the trade off between oil film thickness
and pumping loss.
A cooler oil temperature provides a thicker oil

film, however it also requires more power from
the engine to drive the oil pump. The optimal oil
temperature for the DDC Series 60 engine is
230F (110C).
Sufficient oil volume must be maintained to

provide satisfactory (deaeration of the oil), and
maintain sufficient oil performance throughout the
duration of the service change interval.
The oil change interval must be sufficiently long

to satisfy customer demand without allowing the
oil performance to decrease below engine
durability requirements. Currently the oil change
interval for a typical truck is 15,000 miles or six
months, but customers are demanding even
longer change intervals because of the
increasing cost of oil disposal and the search for
savings in service costs.
ELECTRICAL
SYSTEMS
AND
ELECTRONIC
In the past most diesel engine manufacturers had little

to do with the electrical system other than to specify the
torque and speed required to crank the engine. Most
truck manufacturers supplied the cranking (starting)
motors, the battery charging alternators and the
batteries.
Now diesel engines must have an advanced
technology electronic fuel injection and control system
which provides overall engine management. This
system should optimize control of critical engine
functions which affect fuel economy, smoke, and
emissions. The electronic control system should also
provide the capability to protect the engine from
serious damage resulting from conditions such as high
engine temperatures or low oil pressure.
With electronic controls on board interfacing with wiring
harnesses, sensors, displays, dashboards, etc. the
requirements have become more complex. Many of
these requirements are for communication protocols
which are addressed by SAE standards and will be
covered in subsequent sections.
25
OTHER REQUIREMENTS
There are many other requirements which are either
application specific or environmental/geographical.
Some of these are cold starting, white smoke clean-up,
performance at altitude, snap-idle acceleration smoke,
accessory requirements, (cranking motors, air
compressors, alternators, cooling fan drives, etc.).
This section has outlined the requirements of the diesel
engine design which can now be used to look at the
engine design by component.
26
SECTION 4
Engine Design by Component
GENERAL ENGINE CRITERIA

Before the component designer can start the engine
design the Project Manager or "Engine Engineer" must
establish some guidelines based on the general
requirements set in the previous section. As a result the
following parameters will be used:
Turbocharged and air-to-air charge cooling

450 bhp (336 kW), 1,450 lb.ft (1,966 N.m) torque
Electronic fuel injection
Electronic engine control
With these requirements, the Engine Engineer must set

some further parameters such as:
Maximum cylinder pressure: 2,000 lb/in.2 (13,800

kPa)
Maximum brake mean effective pressure: 220 lb/in2

(1,518 kPa)
Maximum full load speed: 2,100 r/min
The displacement can now be calculated using Equation

4.1:
Equation 4.1
220 2, 100
With these parameters established, the component

design can begin.
CYLINDER BLOCK AND HEAD
Inline six cylinder engine
792, 000- =
DISPLACEMENT = 450
----------------------------------
Selecting 2,200 feet per minute as the maximum piston

speed for reasonable friction the maximum stroke can be
calculated as 6.3 inches or 160 mm. The resulting bore is
5.2 inches or 130 mm.
775 in
( 12.7 liters)
The cylinder block and head of a modem diesel engine

are the largest single components in the engine. They
generally are green sand castings made from gray or
alloyed cast iron. They serve as the foundation on which
the rest of the engine is assembled within or connected to
and in many cases also serve to connect the entire engine
to the vehicle.
The design of a cylinder block and head is driven by the
constraints imposed by the reciprocating and rotating
components or the fluid conducting circuits contained
within.
The layout of the cylinder block and the cylinder head are
chosen to best accommodate the bore size and provide
adequate
coolant
passages
between
cylinders
considering current casting technology.
Performance related concerns dictate the design of
cooling, fueling, and lubricating circuits, as well as size
the bearing and power transfer components. If an engine
is going to generate a given amount of power, this also
means that a corresponding
27
amount of heat will need to be removed as well as

counter forces generated to retain the structure of the
entire system. The magnitude of the pressure and
forces generated influence the design of the block and
bearing systems and head fastener arrangements.
In addition, air and exhaust flow requirements influence
the intake and exhaust port configuration which in turn
influences the head and block layout. Camshaft and
accessory drive requirements, as well as, starter motor
positioning dictates the layout of the gear train which
also influences the block and head design. Finally,
noise suppression features and electronic or
mechanical control systems also have an influence on
the layout and design of the block and head.
Reliability, durability, assembly, and serviceability
requirements also have their influence on the block and
head design. Reliability concerns generally drive
designs toward the fewest number of components and
systems.
Durability concerns dictate that components be
sufficiently strong and tough enough to take abuse and
endure for a long time. Assembly and serviceability
concerns force designs that avoid placement of
components where they are not directly accessible,
where the stack up or out of tolerance problems of
other components impact them, or where intermediate
components or assemblies have to be removed to
permit replacement in the event of failure. Often the
requirements of one area directly impact that of
another forcing compromises in both.
These requirements are met in different ways by each
engine builder. Some engines use wet liners, while
others have dry liners. Some engines have cam in
block designs, while others use overhead cams. Some
engines have multiple heads, while others are single
piece. Some use unit fuel injection, while others use
the pump and nozzle. While no engine manufacturer or
28
engine design is agreed to as the standard, the DDC

Series 60 engine approach can provide many insights
into how the various disciplines and options described
above are resolved into a final product.
The concept of engine reliability and durability are
fundamental in the design of the engine. Reliability
should drive the design of the valve operating system
to an overhead, direct-acting-type resulting in the
elimination of push rods and all of the associated
connecting and piloting hardware they require. This in
turn eliminates the need to provide a camshaft bore or
supporting structure in the block, and eliminates the
push rod holes.
The cylinder head bolts can be positioned to promote a
very high, yet uniform distribution of clamp load on the
sealing gasket between the head and block. With eight
bolts strategically positioned, over a million pounds of
force connect the head to the block. The choice of a
single head results in a reduction of part content in the
engine design. For increased reliability of the fuel
supply system, jumper lines should be eliminated by
providing machined fuel passages in the head.
Durability requirements also influenced the design of
the lower half of the block ensuring a rigid main bearing
cap design. The ribbing and serpentine shape results
in a design with reduced noise emissions. Machined
stress relief slots between the cylinders in the head,
positioning of the exhaust and intake ports, and
efficient water flow through the head result in a design
that is tolerant of mechanical and thermal stresses.
Performance requirements for the engine dictate a
cylinder head with four valves and a centrally located
unit injector with a cross-flow air-exhaust system.
The water manifold on the side of the block was
designed to equally distribute coolant to all of the
cylinders. The water flow from the
Section 4
Components and System Design
block to the head passes on the thrust and anti-thrust

sides and then is directed toward the injector and
valves. The short length of the exhaust port minimizes
the heat passed to the coolant, reducing the cooling
load, as well as increasing the available energy to the
turbocharger.
Manufacturing and service concerns were met in a
number of ways with the DDC Series 60 engine. For
example, the castings for both the head and the block
are supplied from the foundry completely painted. This
results in a much cleaner engine during machining, as
well as improving the corrosion resistance. The
reliability concepts of minimizing parts content and
system simplicity permit an easier assembly process
as well as serviceability. Another novel feature of the
block is the extra thickness of the top section which
allows reuse of a block in the event of damage to this
surface.
PISTON, PISTON RINGS, CONNECTING

ROD AND BEARINGS, AND CYLINDER
LINER
Cylinder Kit Components
The cylinder kit and connecting rod provide a means of
transferring the combustion gas forces to the crank
shaft. The basic operational principle, Figure 4.1, is
described by the kinematic slider-crank mechanism,
where linear motion (the piston) is converted into
rotational motion about a pivot (the crank) through a
connecting rod.
The main components of the cylinder kit are a piston, a
set of piston rings, the piston pin, piston pin bearing,
connecting rod, connecting rod bearing and a cylinder
liner. The major concerns which influence the design of
cylinder kit components are good combustion
efficiency, force transfer through the linkages,
emissions, friction, wear, and heat transfer.
Figure 4.1 Kinematic Slider - Crank Mechanism
Piston
The mechanical and structural aspects of piston design
must consider the ability to guide the connecting rod in
the cylinder, provide a bearing surface for the normal
forces being transferred to the cylinder walls, provide a
means to seal the combustion gases within the
combustion chamber, and withstand high mechanical
and thermal stresses. The other important areas of
piston design are the combustion bowl shape and the
ability to dissipate heat energy. Pistons used in modern
diesel engines come in two basic styles: trunk and
articulated.
Trunk pistons combine the crosshead, or piston crown,
with the side load bearing surface, or skirt, in one unit.
The articulated piston separates these two parts,
allowing them relative motion by allowing the skirt
29
and crosshead to rotate independently about the piston

pin, Figure 4.2.
cylinder must receive a fresh air charge, compress this

air charge, inject and mix the fuel into the compressed
air charge, burn the fuel and expand the hot
combustion gases, and then exhaust the expanded
gases, Figure 4.3. The piston bowl design is integral to
every step of the combustion process.
Figure 4.2 Piston Components

Figure 4.3 Combustion Chamber in the Piston
The crosshead design is influenced by the overall

combustion chamber design, the peak combustion
pressure forces it must transfer to the connecting rod,
the combustion gas seals (piston rings), and its
operating temperature, all while minimizing its weight.
Skirt design is influenced by containment of the piston
pin, the bearing forces it carries, and the need for
piston cooling.
Piston bowl design is very much related to combustion
design philosophy. During the engine cycle, the
30
First, the top of the piston must have sufficient

clearance for opening of the intake and exhaust valves.
This may be done by cut-outs for the valves in the top
of the piston, or careful specification of its height.
Second, the volume of the bowl must be determined to
provide the correct compression ratio, a factor
especially important in start-up and cold smoke control.
Third, the shape of combustion bowl is configured to
assist in the mixing of air and fuel. In low swirl engines,
the bowl is shaped to minimize contact between the
Section 4
injected fuel plume and the piston dome. In medium to

high swirl engines, the bowl is shaped to help promote
the swirl and take advantage of the atomization effects
of the fuel plume contacting the piston. This results in a
tendency towards smaller, deeper, and reentrant bowl
designs, to the point where the highest swirl engines
have spherical bowls.
Finally, to minimize the volume of dead, or unused air,
the piston-to-head clearance should be minimized,
along with the volume between the top compression
ring and the edge of the piston top, and the bowl
volume should be maximized. This typically results in
piston designs with high top compression rings or tight
piston to liner clearances.
Structurally, piston design requires the ability to handle
high thermal and mechanical stresses. Since the two
major materials used for pistons, cast iron and
aluminum, have different mechanical and thermal
properties, their structural designs differ. The
difference in heat transfer and high temperature
strength of these materials, requires attention to
cooling and structural load capability.
The low strength of aluminum requires the use of top
ring groove inserts, occasionally second ring groove
inserts are required. These ring groove inserts require
a lower ring design, to maintain the necessary
structural support for the insert. Improvements in
aluminum piston metallurgy has produced improved
material properties though squeeze cast fiber
reinforcement to the piston crown. In cast iron piston
designs, the high temperature strength of cast iron
allows for high top compression rings without inserts.
However, maximum bowl volume is compromised by
the need to provide adequate ring groove support and
cooling.
The lower thermal conductivity of cast iron relative to
aluminum requires additional consideration in piston
cooling. Cooling strategies, in both iron and aluminum
pistons, include spray jets, and cocktail shakers. A

spray jet squirts engine oil, either through a hole drilled
through the piston rod, or through a fixed pipe, under
the piston crown or into a piston cooling channel.
The cocktail shaker consists of a chamber under the
piston crown which is fed with oil to a controlled level
through the connecting rod. The oscillating motion of
the piston shakes the oil, providing efficient heat
transfer.
In general, the combination of thermal and mechanical
stresses require an iterative Finite Elemental Analysis
approach to insure reasonable stress levels. Proper
gas pressure, combustion and cooling heat transfer,
and inertial force boundary conditions must be applied
to this model. Modeling can predict such failure modes
as cracking in the piston struts, which bear large gas
pressure loads, and thermal hoop stress cracking, on
for example, reentrant bowls.
The piston skirt is the main bearing surface for the
normal forces transferred to the cylinder walls from the
piston. These normal loads are a result of piston tilt
within the bore and the normal component of the gas
forces transferred through the connecting rod as it
rotates about the piston pin.
In higher power density engine designs, articulated
pistons provide better load transfer to the cylinder wall
by separating the normal and axial loads, with the
crosshead carrying the axial load and the skirt carrying
the normal load. This separation also reduces the heat
transfer from the piston into the skirt. This separation
results in less thermal and mechanical distortion of the
skirt, which can reduce the bearing effectiveness.
Trunk style pistons are perfectly sufficient for lower
power density applications, are lighter, especially if
they are of aluminum, and are less expensive to
manufacture. In
31
both trunk and articulated pistons, the most effective

bearing surface of the skirt under thermal and
mechanical loads is frequently provided by a cam
ground elliptical profile.
Like most bearings, the skirt is also frequently coated
with tin or babbit to reduce the potential of skirt scuffing
as a result of high load contact between it and the liner.
Internally, the skirt design must enclose the piston pin
and rod bearing, and, if necessary, provide the lower
half of the piston cooling chamber.
complex and a vast body of knowledge has been

generated over the years on all aspects of their design.
Piston rings seal the combustion chamber by contact
between the piston ring face and the cylinder wall and
the ring sides and the top or bottom of its groove. This
contact is the result of forces from the spring action of
the ring and the combustion gas pressure behind and
on top of the ring, Figure 4.4.
Piston Rings
Piston rings are used to seal the combustion gases
within the combustion chamber, assist in heat transfer
from the piston to the cylinder wall, and control
lubrication in the cylinder kit area. Typical cylinder kit
designs incorporate three or more rings:
A top compression or fire ring

One or more secondary compression rings
One or more oil control rings
It is necessary to have more than one compression ring

due to a gap in the ring necessary for installation.
Since piston rings are a major source of friction, their
number tends to be minimized. Major influences to
piston ring design include ring bearing face and side
wear, fatigue fractures, thermal resistance, and
dynamic characteristics. Piston rings are designed in
close cooperation with the piston ring grooves in the
dome to insure minimum gas leakage, or blow-by, and
proper lubrication metering.
To minimize wear and to prevent excessive oil
consumption or undesired lubricant contribution to
combustion emissions, piston rings and their grooves
are designed to minimize ring sticking and optimize
ring dynamic motion. Piston ring design is very
32
Figure 4.4 Effects of Combustion Gases and Spring

on the Compression Ring
The spring forces, called the contact pressure, depend
on the ring material and dimensions, the camber, or
circumferential profile, and the size of the free, or
uncompressed, gap in the ring. The contact pressure
can either be constant or variable depending on the
camber, and should be minimal to prevent excess
frictional losses.
Typically, uniform contact pressure is desired for all
engine operating conditions. However, due to thermal
distortion of the rings and cylinder liner, or special
considerations such as liner ports in
Section 4
two-cycle engines, variable contact pressures are

specified at room temperature.
In all cases, the ring should not have an opening
between the ring face and the cylinder wall when
installed in the cylinder, a specification known as "light
tight". Ring stress calculations are normally conducted
to ensure opening and closure stress are below
material limits when the ring is opened to slip over the
piston and compressed to enter the cylinder.
There are five basic types of compression ring
cross-sections and two basic oil control ring types. The
compression ring cross-sections, Figure 4.5, are
rectangular, taper faced, keystone, internally bevelled,
and L-shaped. The rectangular ring is geometrically
simple, thus less expensive, and is provides sufficient
seal for most normal applications.
Taper faced rings provide line contact, which acts both

to scrape oil, providing oil control, and can shorten runin life through its higher unit pressures. Keystone rings
have tapered sides which, through their movement in
and out of the ring groove, minimize the build up of
combustion deposits which can result in ring sticking.
Internal beveling of a ring causes the asymmetrical
cross-section to twist when installed, causing bottom
edge contact on the ring face.
This is beneficial toward keeping piston face contact
centered when the ring distorts under thermal loads.
L-section rings are used in very high piston groove
applications to minimize dead space. They are very
sensitive to gas activation, thus requiring very little ring
tension. They are also resistant to ring flutter.
The oil control rings are designed to be flexible, with
high unit loading and scrapping action. The two basic
types of oil control rings are with and without expander
springs.
Figure 4.5 Compression Ring Cross-Sections

Figure 4.6 Oil Control Rings
33
Oil control rings without expander springs, Figure 4.6,

are frequently slotted with bevelled edges, to provide
high unit loads and directional oil scraping. By making
oil control rings flexible, their inherent spring action is
reduced, thus making expander or coil springs
necessary, Figure 4.7. Spring loaded oil control rings
also have bevelled edges, but with the design and
manufacturing flexibility of multiple pieces available.
However, the ring gap must be large enough to allow

for the maximum closure the gap may encounter due to
its thermal expansion during engine operation. This is
necessary to prevent butting of the ring ends which
could result in scuffing of the ring face. Two-stroke
engines require pinning of the ring or a ring camber
which prevents the ring tips from protruding into the
liner ports, where clipping could cause ring damage.
Figure 4.8 shows different ring joints that have been
developed over the years.
Figure 4.7 Expander Coil Springs

Ring design also must include attention to the size and
type of the ring joint, or ring gap, and the ring face coat
and profile. Practically, a ring must have a gap so that it
can be installed on a piston, although multi-piece
piston designs which allow un-gapped rings have been
designed. Since this gap is a path for combustion
gases to leak into the crankcase, it is necessary to
minimize its size.
34
Figure 4.8 Different Ring Joints

Note where attempts have been made to improve ring
sealing by developing an overlap design that can allow
for ring expansion and improved sealing. Since the ring
face is a bearing surface which can be under high
temperature and pressure, high ring wear and scuffing
can be a problem.
Section 4
This is addressed by the appropriate use of coatings or

surface treatments, surface finishes, and ring face
profiles.
Typical coatings include chromium, applied by plating,
and molybdenum, cermet, and ceramic coatings,
applied by plasma spray processes. Surface
treatments include phosphating, ferroxiding and
nitriding, with some hybrid surface treatments also
having been developed.
Of course, not all rings in an cylinder kit design require
coatings; generally, the closer the ring is to the
combustion chamber the more likely it will have a
coating. Finally, the ring face is typically lapped to a
very fine surface finish and a characteristic profile to
promote good oil film lubrication.
A barrel faced profile, Figure 4.9, can provide good oil
distribution over the entire piston stoke, and minimize
film break down from high unit loading when piston tilt
occurs. Asymmetrical barrel faced rings are also used
to provide thicker oil film formation on the upward
stroke.
While face coating and profiles, and ring gap make up

a large proportion of the factors related to friction and
wear, corrosive wear due to combustion by-products,
adhesive wear between similar materials in the cylinder
kit, the surface finish of the liner, and abrasive wear
due to dust dirt and wear particles in the lubricant, all
need to be considered in the ring design process.
Ring groove design is very important for optimal
functioning of the piston rings. Since rings seal against
the groove, groove wear occasionally needs to be
addressed. The width and depth of the groove must be
sufficient for thermal expansion of the rings and
provide clearance for deposit packing. Keystone
groove geometry along with sufficient cooling of the
piston in the ring pack area provide resistance to ring
sticking due to deposits. Proper volumes must also be
provided behind the rings to allow combustion pressure
pulses to activate the rings.
Rings function dynamically in the ring groove, so the
relative volumes between and behind the rings, and the
ring gap sizes can effect their sealing and lubrication
performance. Since the rings shuttle between the top
and bottom of the groove, inertial, gas pressure, and
hydraulic forces must be controlled to provide proper
ring seating over all important engine speed and load
ranges. Ring "flutter," either axially or radially, must be
avoided. Oil consumption should be minimized to a
level necessary for proper lubrication without impacting
emissions. Computer dynamic modeling coupled with
extensive testing of the ring pack can provide insight
towards these factors.
Connecting Rod and Bearings

The connecting rod is the linkage between the linear
motion of the piston and the rotational motion of the
crankshaft. The rod is connected to the piston through
the piston
Figure 4.9 Ring Barrel Faced Profile
35
pin and piston pin bearing, Figure 4.10. The rod is

either directly connected to the piston pin by bolts or an
interference fit, or encircles the piston pin which is
allowed to float free, retained within the skirt by clips.
The crank end of the rod consists of a separate piece,
called a bearing cap, that bolts to the rod around the
crank and holds the rod-to-crank bearing.
engine requirements often require new material

developments, innovative manufacturing processes,
and new component configurations.
The connecting rods in four-stroke diesel engines carry
very high tensile, compressive, and bending loads,
while two-stroke engines have much lower tensile
loads. These loads also fluctuate, making fatigue
strength a major design criterion. Rod design must
provide sufficient strength to carry these loads and
resist fatigue, and provide for the fastening bolts and
the support of two journal bearings, the piston pin and
the rod-to-crank bearings, of a size sufficient to carry
the maximum cylinder pressure loads.
Two types of designs have been developed for the rod
at the piston pin, square, Figure 4.10, and trapezoidal,
Figure 4.11.
Figure 4.10
Square Piston Pin Rod Design with

Normal Cut Rod Bearing Cap
For both cost and load carrying capacity, both the

piston pin bearing and the rod-to-crank bearing in
heavy-duty
diesel
engine
applications
are
hydrodynamic journal bearings. Many standard
materials and designs for connecting rods and
bearings have been developed, although modern
36
Figure 4.11 Trapezoidal Piston Pin Rod Bearing

Design
The trapezoidal design provides increased pin bearing
area on the rod side, while reducing the bending
stresses in the piston
Section 4
pin. On square rod ends, these same features are

typically incorporated into the piston and bearing shell.
Since most bearings in modern heavy-duty diesel
engines have pressure fed lubrication, manufacturing
considerations for the drilled hole through the center of
the rod to provide lubrication to the piston pin bearing
will impact rod design.
Two types of rod bearing cap designs are employed; a
normal cut, Figure 4.10, and an angle cut, Figure 4.12.
Normal cut bearing caps, the most frequent design,
split the rod normal to the axis of the rod. This design is
easiest to manufacture and provides good alignment
between the rod and cap, but has the disadvantage of
placing the bolts directly in line with rod loads.
Angle cut connecting rods, reduces this loading

concern, but at the expense of manufacturing ease and
alignment difficulties. Angle cut connecting rod designs
are sometimes selected to avoid crankcase
interference or for easier assembly and maintenance.
For both types of bearing caps, serrated or stepped
surfaces are frequently incorporated into the joint to
improve its alignment and reduce distortion from
clamping loads. Finally, the connecting rod must be the
proper length for the engines intended piston stroke,
operate within the constraints of the cylinder bore, and
be of minimal weight.
The piston pin bearing and the rod-to-crank bearing
can be designed following standard practice for journal
bearings. The piston pin bearing carries high loads and
oscillates with low average surface speeds. This
makes wear and heat generation of less concern and
high endurance strength of more concern. The piston
pin frequently contacts the bearing, so it should be hard
and highly polished.
Since the highest loads are from cylinder pressure, the
majority of the bearing area should be on the piston
dome side. The rod-to-crank bearing is one of the most
critical bearings in the engine and additional attention
should be taken in its design. Since the loading of this
bearing rotates with the crank and the oil passes
though it to the rod, care should be taken in the location
of lubrication grooves and supply holes. Finally, for all
journal bearings, specification of sufficient clearance is
mandatory since inadequate, rather than excessive
clearance is more frequently the cause of bearing
failures.
Figure 4.12 Rod Bearing Cap-Angle Cut
Proper specifications of the geometry, materials and

manufacturing processes make both rod and bearing
design problems straight forward, with the challenge
arising
37
from their effective integration. The DDC Series 60

connecting rod and bearings, Figure 4.13, is an
example of effective integration.
The piston pin is directly bolted to the connecting rod,

increasing the piston pin stiffness and available bearing
area. The piston pin bearing is a unique, cost effective
three piece design, Figure 4.2, invented specifically for
the DDC Series 60. It incorporates elliptical surfaces
for good oil film development and tin flash for wear
resistance.
Cylinder Liner
The cylinder bore in heavy-duty diesel engine is
typically replaceable, allowing for overhaul at engine
wear out. Influences to cylinder liner design are heat
transfer characteristics, including whether it is wet
(direct contact of engine coolant to liner) or dry, the
compression seal and liner-to-head joint, and
lubrication and wear characteristics.
Dry liners tend to have poor heat transfer
characteristics, are stiffer and do not need the engine
coolant seals. Wet liners, while having good heat
transfer characteristics, can suffer from coolant
cavitation and greater liner-to-head joint motion.
Figure 4.13
Connecting Rod and Bearing Shells
The bearing cap on the DDC Series 60 is normal cut

with alignment provided by the bolts. Specially
designed T-bolts improve rod strength by allowing a
large blend radius from the rod into the bolt under head
bearing area. The bearing cap alignment is provided by
an increased shank section in the center of the bolt.
Pressure fed lubrication is provided to the piston pin
bushing through an axially drilled hole. Oil is provided
to the rod hole from a groove behind the crank-to-rod
bearing connected to an offset hole in the upper
bearing shell. This design allows for easy manufacture
while maintaining a large upper bearing area.
38
Wet liner design also allows for preferential cooling

through controlled exposure of engine coolant to the
liner. If liner support is not designed properly, thermal
distortion of the liner can result in out-of-round
conditions that can not be sealed by the piston rings.
The liner bore is honed to provide a good lubrication
surface finish, giving minimum ring wear, while
minimizing the potential of oil trapped in the hone
marks from becoming an exhaust emission. Plateau
honing is used to provide these grooves while shearing
off the top of the roughness peaks, thus providing a
higher bearing area.
Section 4
OVERHEAD
AND
COMPONENTS
VALVE
TRAIN
Diesel engine overhead components perform the

following necessary functions: regulate cylinder
breathing; supply and meter high pressure fuel; seal
the combustion chamber; transfer power to valve and
injector mechanisms; provide lubrication and wear
reduction; provide structural rigidity; reduce engine
acoustic emissions; and provide cooling. These
functions must be considered when designing the
overhead. The diesel engine overhead typically
contains components belonging to several key
systems, including.
Air System
Fuel System
Coolant System
Several systems must be identified before the

overhead can be fully defined; the fuel system and the
combustion chamber are the two most critical. Each
imposes key design constraints upon the overhead.
Fuel system requirements affect packaging, and fuel
injector actuator requirements which involve overhead
components and make non-trivial space claims.
The combustion chamber design requires specific
scavenging capabilities which the valve arrangement
must satisfy. The designer must also set cost,
packaging, and durability goals. Some overhead
designs have inherent disadvantages with respect to
these criteria. With an established engine design
philosophy and knowledge of requisite design
constraints (created be other engine systems), a
detailed overhead design may be pursued.
Cylinder Breathing
Lubrication System
Combustion System
Overhead design requires unique engineering

compromises, because numerous components and
engine systems are packaged within close proximity.
Designs must be compact and robust while satisfying
engine performance objectives.
The two primary functions of the overhead are to
regulate cylinder breathing events and fuel delivery to
the combustion chamber. Therefore, fuel and air
system requirements have a major impact on an
overhead configuration.
Fuel delivery is performed by the fuel injector and
electronic control system. Both are discussed in other
sections, but the injector drive train will be covered
within this section. Breathing is regulated by valves, the
valve drive train, engine porting, combustion chamber
design,
turbochargers,
charge
coolers,
and
manifolding. Relationships between the valves, valve
train, and porting will be covered in this section.
The function of the valves and valve drive train is to

regulate cylinder breathing events. Numerous valve
concepts have been explored in past internal
combustion engine applications. These can be
generally classified within three categories:
1. Poppet valves
2. Sleeve and piston valves
3. Rotary and slide valves
Poppet valves are now used universally, in modern
engines. Other designs suffer inherent oil consumption,
friction, and component cost penalties.
Figure 4.14 schematically depicts the poppet design.
Poppet valves provide: large valve flow areas,
favorable flow coefficients, and low friction. They are
relatively inexpensive to manufacture, when compared
with competing designs. Poppet valves are not
subjected to high cylinder gas pressures while bearing
surfaces are in motion. Subsequently, lubrication
requirements are less severe and friction is reduced.
The primary weakness to poppet
39
valves is the inherent difficulty associated with exhaust

valve cooling.
engine design philosophy must be established before

overhead details are addressed.
The camshaft orientation must be consistent with
primary engine design objectives; cost, durability, size,
weight, and engine performance goals must be
factored into the decision. Before discussing the
compromises involved, a brief description of the
options is warranted.
Camshafts are typically mounted in either the engine
block or above the cylinder head. The block-mounted
camshaft is commonly used in heavy-duty diesel
engines. It has the advantage of allowing individual
cylinder heads rather than the one-piece or slab head.
Individual cylinder heads may be replaced more
economically than one-piece heads and are easier to
manufacture.
Figure 4.14 Poppet Valve Design

Poppet valves are actuated by the valve train which
converts rotary camshaft motion into linear valve
movement. The valve train configuration is chiefly
defined by camshaft location.
There are two common camshaft locations: BlockMounted Camshaft; and Overhead Camshaft (OHC).
The overhead design is often used in two
configurations: Single Overhead Camshaft (SOHC);
and Dual Overhead Camshaft (DOHC). The former is
typically for OHC inline engines while OHC Veeengines employ the later. Each configuration has
particular advantages and limitations which are briefly
discussed throughout this section.
Camshaft Configuration
Selecting the camshaft location is an important step in
overhead design. Camshaft location defines many
engine constraints which affect subsequent component
and system design processes. Therefore, a general
40
However, a block-mounted camshaft is usually not

conducive to high pressure unit injector fuel systems.
Since the camshaft is located near the side of the
engine block, a complex push rod system must be
employed between the camshaft and injector rocker
assembly. This increases actuator inertia, friction, and
compliance. Overly compliant fuel injector drives
develop unacceptable injection characteristics and
adversely affect both emissions and fuel economy.
Despite this disadvantage, block-mounted camshaft
engines are commercially produced with unit fuel
injectors.
However, these combinations typically occur when
older pump-line-nozzle engines are upgraded with unit
fuel injectors. Another injection system alternative is
the unit pump, which is well suited for a block-mounted
camshaft. The unit pump uses electronically controlled
nozzles to meter fuel at each cylinder.
Unlike the unit injector, high pressure fuel is provided
by separate cam driven pumps. The flexibility of this
design permits a variety of camshaft and pump
locations while
Section 4
maintaining desirable unit injector characteristics.

The OHC design encompasses multiple configurations,
as shown in Figure 4.15. These include:
TYPE I:
Direct Acting
TYPE II:
End Pivot Rocker
TYPE III:
Center Pivot Rocker
TYPE IV:
Center Pivot Rocker with Lifter
In general, SOHC designs require fewer moving

components and have fewer wear locations than
competing block-mounted camshaft configurations.
Since the camshaft directly drives the rocker arm, push
rods and lifters are not required. This provides added
flexibility in cylinder head design, since more space is
available for: valves, ports, fuel injectors, fuel galleries,
oil galleries, coolant passages, engine retarder
mechanisms, and cylinder head bolts.
OHC designs typically require slab cylinder heads. The
overhead camshaft location simplifies the engine block
casting. The Type I, Direct Acting Camshaft
theoretically simplifies the overhead with the fewest
moving parts.
However, the direct acting mechanism dramatically
increases the height of an inline engine. For this
reason, it was not pursued on the DDC Series 60.
Unit fuel injectors compliment the SOHC design very
nicely since modem diesel engines utilize very high
injection pressures to meet emission requirements.
This requires a rigid injector drive mechanism and the
SOHC design avoids long push rods and other
components which tend to reduce the stiffness of the
injector actuators.
Figure 4.15 Camshaft Locations

Each configuration is identified by the rocker arm
fulcrum location and the camshaft follower. In OHC
systems, the camshaft is located above the cylinder
head. With the exception of Direct Acting OHC
designs, a rocker arm is driven by a roller follower,
acting in response to the camshaft lobe.
The TYPE IV (Center Pivot Rocker with Lifter) has an
additional lifter located between the cam and the rocker
arm. The driven end of the rocker actuates the valve or
injector.
The DDC Series 60 uses a SOHC, Type III Center

Pivot Rocker assembly. The center pivot design
provides significant friction and wear benefits, with a
high degree of design flexibility. It also has fewer
moving parts than most other OHC systems.
SOHC designs have several key disadvantages. The
most significant is the need for a more complex gear
train. Since the camshaft is located above the cylinder
head, crankshaft power must be transmitted to the
camshaft through the gear train. This typically adds
weight and friction to the engine. The SOHC also adds
to the overall height of inline engines and eliminates
the possibility of using individual cylinder heads.
41
DDC Series 60 Overhead Assemblies

and Components
DDC Series 60 overhead components can be broken
into six major assemblies: camshaft; valve; rocker;
rocker cover; fuel injector; and the engine retarder. The
camshaft assembly includes the camshaft, camshaft
bearings, bearing caps, and drive gear. Its purpose is
to provide a displacement to the rocker arms. The
rocker assembly transmits the cam force to valves and
fuel injectors.
performance dependent. However, valve lobe design

involves various manufacturing and contact stress
compromises. Cam valve lobe radius and rate of lift
affect the contact stress at the roller-cam lobe
interface. The injector lobe geometry is also limited by
maximum contact stress constraints, at the roller-tolobe interface.
The rocker assembly includes: exhaust valve rocker

arm; intake valve rocker arm; injector rocker arm; roller
followers; bearings; rocker arm shaft; rocker arm end
plug; valve and injector buttons, adjustment screws,
lock nuts, and clips.
The valve assembly includes exhaust and intake
poppet valves in addition to the components which
guide and return the valve to the closed position. These
components include: poppet valve; valve guides; valve
seat and insert; valve stem oil seals; valve spring and
seat; valve rotator spring cap; oil seal protector cap;
and valve locks.
The rocker cover assembly seals the overhead cavity
to: stop oil leaks; prevent foreign objects from failing
into moving parts; protect overhead components from
dirt and corrosive materials; and reduces acoustic
emissions.
The rocker cover assembly includes: the rocker cover;
rocker cover rim seal (isolator gasket); rocker cover
isolators; and the rocker cover fasteners. The fuel
injector and engine retarder assemblies will be
discussed in separate sections.
Camshaft Assembly
The DDC Series 60 camshaft assembly is depicted in
Figure 4.16. It primarily includes: the camshaft,
camshaft bearings, camshaft bearing support structure,
and the cam gear. The camshaft valve lobe geometry
is driven by valve lift requirements which are engine
42
Figure 4.16 The DDC Series 60 Camshaft Bearings

and Caps
The camshaft installation uses bearing caps, for ease
of installation, reduced engine height, and to lighten the
cylinder head. The bearings are hydrodynamically
lubricated. Bearing sizes are analytically determined
through consideration of lubricating oil shear rates,
operating speeds, applied loads, and their combined
effects upon the lubricating oil films load carrying
capacity.
Sufficient bearing areas must be provided to resolve
operating loads without inducing
Section 4
boundary lubrication regimes. Bearing diameter and

width are the primary design variables. Analytical
bearing design programs are used to evaluate potential
designs.
The camshaft drive gear must be designed to
withstand both gear train and camshaft induced
torsional excitations. Substantial loads are transmitted
through the cam gear, to drive high pressure unit
injectors. Therefore, a robust gear tooth profile,
appropriate material (high grade steel), and heat
treatment (case hardened) precautions were
employed.
Some engine manufacturers use spring-pack torsional
dampers to minimize cam gear excitations. This
strategy was not necessary on the DDC Series 60
engine.
Valve Assembly Design
The primary issues involved with designing the valve

assembly are: achieving satisfactory gas flow (high
volumetric efficiency); valve assembly cooling and heat
flow; structural strength; lubrication and wear; and
service provisions.
Before detailed designs can be developed, valve
positions must be determined. This step will further
constrain the rocker arm design which will be
discussed in another section.
The DDC Series 60 combustion chamber design
utilizes a flat fire deck. A centrally mounted fuel injector
was selected, which favors a four-valve configuration.
Gas flow optimization also indicates a four-valve
arrangement should be used. Figure 4.18 displays the
relationship between number of valves, valve area, and
bridge widths, for flat fire deck arrangements. The DDC
Series 60 valve arrangement is shown for comparison.
In engines having a flat fire deck, maximum valve
areas are limited by
With the camshaft location, injector design combustion

chamber geometry, and valve type selected, valve and
port designs may be defined. The valve assembly
include the: poppet valve; valve seat insert; spring and
seat; valve guide; valve stem oil seal; valve spring;
valve rotator spring cap; and valve locks. Refer to
Figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17 Valve Assembly
Figure 4.18
Valve Arrangements
43
the number of valves, valve bridge stress limitations,

and the cylinder bore.
The DDC Series 60 valve configuration is depicted in
Figure 4.19. In this design the valve orientation has
been rotated 90 degrees from the more standard
arrangement, shown in Figure 4.19. Other engine
manufacturers rotate the valves 45 degrees, to
promote push-rod actuation. However, the 90 degree
modification provides several distinct advantages.
Second, it decreases the exhaust port wall area which

improves heat transfer characteristics by minimizing
heat and intake port heating.
An engines volumetric efficiency measures its air
capacity and strongly influences indicated power. To
maximize volumetric efficiency, the port dimensions
must be carefully selected. Optimal port designs are
characterized by two dimensionless parameters: the
port length to bore ratio; and the port diameter to length
ratio.
Engine speed is another key variable, since the piston
speed affects the dynamics of air flow through the
ports, valve openings, and combustion chamber. DDC
Series 60 maximum average piston speeds range
between 1641 ft/min (500 m/min) and 2205 ft/min (672
m/min) depending upon the engine size and rating.
These parameters affect the Mach index (Z), a critical
parameter in air system design. Z is a calculated value,
as shown in Equation 4.2.
Equation 4.2
A s
p
Z = ---------------------------------
Al Cl a
Where:
Ap
= Piston Area
Al
= Nominal Inlet Valve Area
Cl
= Inlet Valve Mean Flow Coefficient
= Piston Speed
= Sound Velocity at Inlet Conditions
Figure 4.19 Exhaust and Intake Valves and Porting

First, it reduces the length of the intake and exhaust
ports. Therefore, flow restrictions are reduced and
exhaust port tuning becomes less important. All DDC
Series 60 intake and exhaust ports are located on
unique sides of the engine, avoiding complex
manifolding.
44
The Mach index is usually maintained between 0.25

and 0.6 at rated conditions. Therefore, the limiting
engine speed can be computed for a known valve
arrangement. If not properly designed, the engine
may be limited from some applications requiring
higher speed ratings.
Section 4
Valve Area
As discussed in previous sections, valve areas should
be maximized. However, intake and exhaust valves
need not have the same area. Intake valve capacities
should exceed exhaust capacities. The ratio of exhaust
to intake flow capacity usually ranges between 0.70
and 0.75.
The DDC Series 60 uses 1.575 in. (40 mm) diameter
exhaust valves and 1.732 in. (44 mm) intake valves.
The resulting exhaust-to-intake valve area ratio is 0.83.
This typically ranges between 0.83 and 0.87.
valve opening. Overlap is necessary to effectively

scavenge exhaust gases from the cylinder and account
for inertia effects associated with the air column.
During the exhaust stroke, combustion byproducts are
expelled through the exhaust valve. The exhaust valve
remains open until after the intake valves open. This
permits the boosted charge air to enter the combustion
chamber and displace additional exhaust gases which
exit through the exhaust port. During this process, a
portion of the charge air is lost with escaping exhaust
gases. Trapping efficiency is used to quantity the
efficiency with which an engine fills the combustion
chamber with fresh charge. The trapping efficiency
(EFFtr) is defined by
Valve Lift
Equation 4.4:
Once the valve mechanism, ports, and combustion

chamber are designed, valve timing must be
determined. Several valve lift characteristics must be
identified; primarily the amount of valve overlap and the
exhaust valve closing time.
Equation 4.4
Four-stroke engines require significant amounts of

valve overlap to properly scavenge the combustion
chamber. Scavenging describes the process by which
an engine exchanges exhaust byproducts for fresh
charge air. Scavenging efficiency (EFFs) the ability of
an engine to perform this function may be computed
using
Equation 4.3:
Mass of Retained
EFFtr = ---------------------------------------------Mass of Supplied
Several basic engine parameters influence the
charging process. The two most significant parameters
affecting charging are intake manifold conditions and
valve timing. The DDC Series 60 is a turbocharged
engine. Therefore, the intake manifold pressure is
higher than the cylinder pressure, during the
scavenging process. This profoundly impacts the
trapping efficiency. More excess air is pumped through
the combustion chamber and out the exhaust port than
in a naturally aspirated engine.
Equation 4.3
Trapped Fresh Charge
EFFs = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Fresh Trapped Charged + Residuals
Computerized cycle simulation and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) programs like KIVA are valuable tools
for analyzing scavenging efficiencies and valve timing
strategies. They are typically used early in the engine
development process. Engine tests and flow bench
measurements are eventually used to confirm
analytical results.
The DDC Series 60 exhaust valve closes 430 crank

angle degrees (CAD) after top dead center (ATDC).
Intake valves open 324 CAD ATDC, to generate 106
CAD of overlap. Refer to Figure 4.20.
These values are established as a function of the
exhaust to intake manifold pressure ratio, port
geometries, and combustion chamber design.
Computerized
cycle
simulation
and
engine
performance testing provide valuable inputs to the
design process.
Overlap is defined as the number of crank angle

degrees between exhaust valve closing and intake
45
Figure 4.20 DDC Series 60 12.7L Valve Events--Cam 18N16E
Rocker Arm and Roller

Valve lift is a function of cam lobe geometry, rocker
arm ratio, and lash. Rocker arm shafts typically contain
Figure 4.21 Rocker Assembly

46
two or more rocker arm assemblies. The DDC Series

60 rocker arm assembly is unique as shown in
Figure 4.21 and Figure 4.22.
Section 4
The DDC Series 60 uses a bridged rocker arm design

to facilitate preferred manifolding without sacrificing
durability. A more typical, side-by-side arrangement is
shown in Figure 4.23.
Figure 4.23 Side-by-Side Rocker Arms

FEA using models like the one depicted in Figure 4.24,
are used to validate rocker arm designs. Valve train
dynamic simulation programs are used to evaluate
performance characteristics and overall system
compliance.
Figure 4.22 Valve & Injector Operating Mechanism
Figure 4.24 Finite Element Analysis Model
47
Particular attention should be given to the cam roller

design because the size and shape of the roller affects
the following critical component functions:
Rocker arm ratio
assembly are: the cover, gaskets or seals, and

fasteners. DDC Series 6b0 engine family utilizes three
different rocker cover assemblies which are depicted in
Figure 4.25, Figure 4.26, and Figure 4.27. Application
specific requirements dictate the design selection.
Injection device travel

Cam lobe-to-roller Hertzian load level
Cam roller-to-roller pin bearing area surface
Insufficiently sized rollers can result in excessive wear

rates or even worse contact fatigue.
Changes in the roller size over the life of the engine
can reduce valve lift, injector travel, change injection
timing or change valve timing.
Alloyed steel can be used to extend the useful life of
the roller and cam lobe as well as valve and injector
functionality. Load and volumetric constraints may
make this solution insufficient. Other alternatives
include axially contoured surfaces (like crowns) and
highly wear-resistant materials such as ceramics.
Increased load associated with higher injection
pressure (necessary to meet 1994 emissions) and the
volumetric constraints of the DDC Series 60 required
the metallic rollers to be replaced with ceramic.
The use of ceramic roller-followers also reduces roller
skidding, friction at the cam lobe and roller pin
interfaces, and eliminates the need for roller bushing
and forced lubrication. The higher cost of ceramic
material actually reduces the overall engine cost by
eliminating the bushing and the machining of the drilled
oil passages within the rocker arm. Since the ceramic
material has roughly half the mass of the metallic roller,
dynamics are also improved.
Rocker Cover Assembly

The rocker cover, when isolated by a gasket, encloses
the overhead compartment, protecting engine
components from adverse environmental influences,
containing lubricating oil, and reducing acoustic
emissions. The basic components of the rocker cover
48
Figure 4.25 One-piece Rocker Cover

Rocker covers are usually either centrally bolted or
perimeter bolted. The former induces more demanding
stress regimes within the cover, but reduces engine
noise and component quantities. Spacial claims are an
important consideration in rocker cover design.
Engine height should be minimized while providing
adequate noise cancellation and space for overhead
components. For these reasons, the DDC Series 60
engine family has three rocker cover options.
When engine retarder mechanisms are required, a
higher profile cover must be selected at the expense of
noise suppression and a higher engine profile.
Section 4
One-Piece, Low-Noise, Rocker Cover

Assembly
The one-piece rocker assembly is designed to
minimize acoustic emissions and provide space for
engine brake components. The rocker cover is formed
from a reinforced fiber glass molding compound which
dampens cover vibrations. It is separated from the
head by a silicone rim seal and central isolators.
However, the isolator attachment strategy increases

rocker cover stresses, requiring added strengthening
precautions. Therefore, internal ribs were developed to
provide stress relief while reducing noise. FEA studies
were performed to evaluate the design and optimize
the rib configuration. The crankcase is vented to the
atmosphere through the breather which is located in
the rocker cover.
Two-Piece and Three-Piece Rocker

Cover Assemblies
The low noise rocker cover increases the engine height
which may pose packaging problems in some engine
applications. Engine height can be minimized when
engine retarder options are not used. Then the rocker
cover height can be reduced. The DDC Series 60 has
two alternative rocker cover options which are
designed to accommodate various accessory and
application requirements. The two-piece design is
depicted in Figure 4.26 and the three-piece design is
shown in Figure 4.27.
Figure 4.26 Two-piece Valve Rocker Cover

The silicone seal serves as a gasket to prevent oil
leaks. It also dampens cover vibrations and limits
vibration transmission from the engine to the rocker
cover. Silicone was selected because it provides very
consistent dynamic properties over wide temperature
and frequency ranges, when compared to other
rubbers. The fastening arrangement is designed to
provide an even pressure distribution over the silicone
oil seal which prevents oil leaks. The central silicone
isolators limit vibration transmission through the
retaining bolts. By minimizing the transmission of
engine vibrations to the rocker cover, acoustic
emissions are reduced.
Figure 4.27
Three-Piece Valve Rocker Cover
49
Section 4
The inertial and centrifugal forces resulting from a

reciprocating piston can be calculated using the
information in Table 4.1.
Centrifugal Forces
With cyl.
Across cyl.
axis (x)
axis (y)
Rotating
mArw2cos(wt)
mArw2sin(wt)
Components
Balancing Mass m crcw2
mAcrcw 2
A
sin(wt + )
cos(wt + )
Reciprocating Forces
With cyl.
Across cyl.
axis (x)
axis (y)
2
Reciprocating
0
m rw cos wt
Torsional Vibration
Marine diesel engines at the beginning of this century
were found to be failing crankshafts and propeller
shafts with regularity; this sparked an area of
investigation into torsional vibration. When a cylinder
fires, a power impulse is sent through the crankshaft
which causes oscillations in the torque.
1 st harmonic
mBcrcw2
cos(wt + )
2nd harmonic
mBr/4l(r)(2w)2
(cos 2wt)
where:
m A, r
mAc, rc
W
l
=
=
=
mBcrcw 2
sin(wt + )
0
Figure 4.29 depicts the variations of torque about the

mean driving torque produced through one cycle of the
engine.
mass and radius of rotating

components
balancing mass and
its radius
engine speed
length of connecting rod
Table 4.1 Inertial and

Equation
Centrifugal
Forces
motion is comprised of an infinite number of harmonics.

In practical terms, the main contributors to the
unbalanced force for a six cylinder, four cycle engine
are the first harmonic, occurring at the same frequency
as the engine speed, the second harmonic, occurring
at twice the engine speed, and the fourth harmonic,
occurring at four times engine speed. The contributions
by the higher harmonics to the unbalanced force are
negligible in comparison.
and
If the centrifugal forces are balanced by crankshaft

counter weights such that the two masses have a
combined center of gravity acting at the center of
rotation, then only the inertial forces remain
unbalanced.
The unbalanced forces can be analyzed using the
imaginary-mass approach. Using the single cylinder
example again, two imaginary masses are created,
equally splitting the reciprocating mass, rotating about
the crank center with equal velocity, but opposite
rotations. The imaginary masses have the largest
effect, that is, the largest inertial force exists, when the
two masses meet. This occurs when the piston
reaches top dead center and again at bottom dead
center.
When describing the velocity and acceleration of a
piston, analysis using a Fourier Series indicates the
50
Figure 4.29 Typical Torque vs. Crank Angle

Oscillations of torque within the crankshaft are
considered due to the extremes of the torque peak and
the fatigue strength of the crankshaft material. The
early marine diesel
crankshafts were neither designed for the additional

stress caused by the torsional vibrations nor were the
materials and heat treatments sufficient to supply the
required fatigue strength.
Design Considerations
Contemporary crankshaft design must consider the
torsional oscillations in a multi cylinder (multiple throw)
configuration. An equivalent torsional stiffness,
calculated from main journal diameters & lengths and
cheek thickness, provides a design starting point.
Inertia of each section of the crankshaft is calculated.
In addition, the inertias of connected components such
as gear trains, pulleys, flywheels and the rotating and
reciprocating inertias of the cylinder kits are accounted
for. With an equivalent stiffness and the total inertia, an
estimate of the natural frequencies of vibration can be
made.
A mathematical model of engine inertias and shaft
stiffness can be prepared; Figure 4.30 is an example
of a MC Series 60 engine with an attached
transmission.
Any engine component will have a natural frequency of
vibration, measured in hertz. When operating at this
frequency, the amplitude of vibrations will grow with
very little additional input of energy. The natural
frequencies of torsional vibration are called the critical
speeds. For a simple two mass system, the frequency
of torsional vibration is predicted by Equation 4.5.
Equation 4.5
W=
IA + IB
K ---------------------IA I B
where
W = Frequency of vibration
IA = Inertia of the first mass
IB = Inertia of the second mass
K = Torsional stiffness of the connecting shaft
For a crankshaft, if a natural frequency of torsional

vibration lies within its operating range, then parts of
the crankshaft will vibrate more than others, potentially
leading to fatigue failures. Every effort is made to
insure that this does not happen; the fundamental
frequency or critical speed, by design and testing, is
located above the operating speed of the engine,
approximately twice the highest expected operating
speed.
Modes, Orders and Nodes

A mode of torsional vibration is the natural frequency of
vibration. The first mode equates to the fundamental
frequency, the second mode equates to the second
natural frequency and so on. The modes are
determined by the stiffness of the crankshaft and the
inertias within and attached. The fundamental mode is
typically termed "the crankshaft mode" as it is directly
related to the crankshaft; remaining modes are
determined by the characteristics of the power train
(attached inertia and shaft stiffness).
Orders are fractional parts of the frequencies of
vibration. For example, if the engine has a second
mode critical speed of 9242 r/min, the sixth order
critical speed is 2054 r/min. The dominant orders are
dependent upon the number of cycles (two vs. four),
the engine configuration (inline vs. vee) and the
number of cylinders. An inline, four cycle, six cylinder
engine will have the third, sixth, and ninth of the
dominant orders of torsional vibration. These orders
will exhibit higher amplitudes of torsional vibration than
the other orders.
Nodes are locations within the power train where the
torsional oscillations are directly out of phase with each
other; the result is zero relative movement between
adjacent components and a loci of highest torsional
stresses. Nodes will occur within the crankshaft and
power train; their number is equal to the mode number
(examplea second mode frequency will have two
nodes
51
Section 4
where the stress of torsional vibration will be higher).
Torsional Vibration Prediction-Holtzer

Method
of vibration are made based upon a given angular

displacement of one inertia, an assumed frequency of
vibration Equation 4.6.
Equation 4.6
As a result of the experience with the early marine

diesel engine shaft failures, much effort has been
expended in the prediction of torsional vibrations. H.
Holtzer published an iterative method in 1922, in his
work, The Calculation of Torsional Vibrations. Given a
mathematical model of an engine and transmission
(Figure 4.30), the prediction of the natural frequencies
T = I X w2 x sin(wt)
where
T = required torque
I = individual inertia
w = assumed frequency
t = time in rad/sec
Figure 4.30 Mass Elastic Drawing of a Typical DDC Series 60 with Transmission
52
If the first inertia in the mathematical model is displaced

one radian at a given frequency, the response or
amplitude of vibration of the remaining inertias can be
computed for each of the given shafts and inertias.
According to the Holtzer Method, when the correct
frequency is chosen, the amplitude of the last inertia in
the system will be zero. This method is iterative and
lends itself to computer applications.
Results from the Holtzer Method are a prediction of the
natural frequencies of torsional vibrations (or critical
speeds) and the amplitudes of vibration. Using the
geometry of the shafts involved, a estimate of the
stresses due to vibratory torque can be performed,
although it should be mentioned the prediction is
dependent upon the definition of the shaft; the more

rigorous the definition, including stress risers and
concentration factors, will provide a more accurate
prediction of the actual stresses. A sample of output
from the DDC torsional analysis program is given in
Figure 4.31.
Allowable vibratory stresses are dependent upon shaft
configuration (including stress risers & concentration
factors), material types, and component manufacturers
requirements. The engine manufacturer is primarily
concerned with the components of the engine;
however, if components outside the engine such as
drive shafts are subjected to unusual stress levels, the
manufacturer will bring this to the attention of the
customer and suggest an alternative
Figure 4.31 Results of a Torsional Analysis
53
Section 4
which will reduce the stress. It is incumbent upon the

customer to make the decision regarding components
outside of the engine; the engine manufacturer can
only advise unless the engine is adversely affected by
the outside component.
Unitized vs. Multiple-piece Design

Seal designs can be of a multiple-piece or unitized
design. Multi-piece designs have the advantage in
ease of manufacture and installation. Many of current
seal designs are multi-piece.
CRANKSHAFT OIL SEALS

The crankshaft oil seal performs a dual function; it
prevents engine lubricating oil from leaving the engine
and it prevents dust from entering. The seals are
located at each end of the crankshaft where it projects
through the lower block.
Seal design usually incorporates a steel form for seal
rigidity and a synthetic rubber compound for sealing
between engine block and seal and crankshaft and
seal. Seals have a press fit into the block and onto the
crankshaft. The DDC Series 60 seal is constructed with
a steel form and a steel sleeve. On the outer diameter
is a synthetic rubber for sealing to the block. The lip
seal is made from TPFE or Teflon.
Some seal designs incorporate a coil spring to provide
a circumferential force on the lip seal. In this design,
the entire seal remains stationary. On the DDC Series
60 engine, the majority of the seal is stationary with the
exception of a press fit sleeve that rotates with the
crank.
Temperature
Seal design must take into account expected
temperature variations the engine is likely to see in
customer service. The upper temperatures are
determined by the heat from the engine and
transmission and in practice ranges from 300 to 350F
(149 - 177C). The lower temperature range depends
upon customer service and geographical location;
lower temperature ratings to -25F (-32C) are not
uncommon while special requirements to -50F (-46C)
exist for military, sub Arctic and Arctic locations.
Unitized designs have the advantage of a protected

seal lip. The seal lip rides on the sealing surface of the
rotating crankshaft; any nicks or tears to the lip
occurring during seal installation will affect seal
durability.
On the oil side of a crankshaft seal, a method of
returning oil back to the engine is required. This can be
accomplished by the use of an oil slinger or by
incorporating a helical return groove in the seal itself.
The helical return groove, used on the DDC Series 60
engine, helps to form a hydrodynamic dam and pumps
the oil back toward oil pan. When the engine has a wet
flywheel housing (typical with wet clutch installations
and some torque converters), a helical return groove
and a second seal lip will be used to prevent entrance
of transmission fluid into the engine.
On the air or transmission side of the oil seal, a dust
cover is usually incorporated to protect the lip seal from
foreign object damage and particulate abrasion. On the
DDC Series 60 oil seal, two dust covers are provided.
The additional protection of the second cover increases
seal durability.
CRANKSHAFT PULLEYS
Crankshaft pulleys transmit crankshaft power to
external auxiliary devices such as cooling fans,
alternators, water pumps and hydraulic pumps. Two
styles of crankshaft pulleys are typically used, the vee
belt and a multi ribbed or poly vee design. Vee belt
systems are common through out the diesel engine
industry; poly vee belt systems have been mainly
applied to higher auxiliary horsepower installations
(+50 hp).
Pulley diameter and width are determined by an
analysis of the auxiliary systems. Power requirements,
duty cycles and
55
orientation of the auxiliary devices are examined and

resolved to the recommendations of drive belt
manufactures. For example, cooling fans for Class 8
tractors will typically absorb 25 - 35 bhp (19 - 26 kW);
meeting this demand requires two or three vee type
belts.
The analysis of the auxiliary systems will indicate if the
required power is within the drive capability. Several
designs of pulley drives include keyed shaft, press fit
and tapered shaft; each will have a limit for allowable
drive torque.
Consideration should also be given to the resulting
force vector from the belt loads. The analysis of the
auxiliary systems will indicate if it imposes an
objectionable bending moment upon the front of the
crankshaft.
Pulleys are manufactured from cast iron and steel.
Some pulleys will have a pilot diameter and bolt circle
available for the attachment of additional grooves or for
an axial drive.
CRANKSHAFT MAIN BEARINGS

The main crankshaft bearings are the components
which transmit the gas forces, via the rotating
crankshaft, to the stationary structure of the block. The
bearings are typically manufactured from a steel
backing plate with a thin layer of bearing material
overlay. Two-piece bearings are the norm. The
crankshaft main bearings require the following
characteristics:
56
Adequate endurance strength

Deformability, that is, the ability to deform
plastically at points of very high pressure and,
generally, to conform to the shape of the journal
Embeddability, that is, the ability to allow
particles of foreign matter to embed in the
bearing material rather than to circulate in the oil
film where they would score or wear the journal
and bearing surfaces
Resistance to scoring and seizure, or welding of

the bearing material to the shaft
Resistance to corrosion, usually from elements

in the lubricant.
Good thermal loading characteristics of the bearing

material and the oil film are essential.
Bearing Materials
Four principle bearing materials for hydrodynamic
sliding type bearings are considered: Tin based (80%
Sn, 10% Cu, 10% Sb); lead based (82-86% Pb, 9-11 %
Sb, 5-7% Sn); copper based (approx. 70% copper,
30% lead); and aluminum based (100% Al).
Lubrication
Bearings maybe either splash lubricated or forced
lubricated. Splash lubrication is limited to very small
displacement engines; forced lubrication, that is,
lubrication of the bearings by pressurized oil is the
norm for diesel engines. Because of the presence of a
pressurized oil feed to the bearings, an oil film over the
bearings is maintained.
Location of the oil feed holes and the location of oil
grooves in the bearings are carefully considered in
order to provide an adequate supply of oil to all of the
bearing surface, but especially to the highly loaded
areas where maintenance of the oil film thickness is
critical for good bearing durability. Oil holes should be
located in areas of minimum loads.
Bearing Load & Load Capacity

Copper based bearings should be limited to 3,000 to
4,000 lb/in. 2 (20,700 - 27,600 kPa) bearing pressure.
Lead based bearings are typically limited to maximum
bearing pressures of 1,800 lb/in.2 (12,420 kPa)
Maximum bearing pressure, a measure of the tendency
to squeeze out the oil film, is predicted by
Equation 4.7.
Section 4
Equation 4.7
PA = D2 X (pC- pL)/(4 x dl x lb/in.2)
where
pB = maximum bearing pressure, lb/in. of projected
area
pc = maximum gas pressure in engine cylinder,
lb/in.
pL = inertia pressure at service rpm, lb/in. of piston
area
D = bore of cylinder, in.
d = diameter of crankpin, in.
l
= length of crank bearing, in.
Each engine design will have modes and orders which

will be more intense. For an example, an inline, six
cylinder, four cycle engine will have dominant orders of
3, 6, 9 & 12. An eight cylinder, four cycle engine will
have dominant orders of 4, 8 and 12.
To cope with the dominant orders which occur within
the speed range, vibration dampers are attached to the
nose of the crankshaft. Two types of dampers exist,
tuned and untuned. A tuned damper is designed to a
specific frequency or engine speed. A tuned damper
will have a seismic mass coupled to the crankshaft by
an elastic element (usually a synthetic rubber
compound) with a known torsional stiffness.
Inertia pressure is derived from Equation 4.8.

Equation 4.8
p = 28.4 x W x R x (N/1000) lb/in. of piston area
where
W = weight of piston assembly and the connecting
rod, expressed lb/in. of piston area
R = crank radius, in.
N = speed, revolutions per minute
CRANKSHAFT VIBRATION DAMPER

The crankshaft vibration damper is a component used
for the control of torsional vibrations within the
crankshaft. Reciprocating engines produce torsional
oscillations in each rotation of the crankshaft. The
oscillations or vibrations are present to some extent
throughout the speed range of the engine, but will be
concentrated about certain frequencies or modes. Most
modes of vibration (primary, secondary...) will occur
above the operating speed range of the engine;
however, the harmonics (orders) of each mode will fall
within the speed range. When this happens, it is
possible that a node (a location of maximum vibratory
stress) will fall within the crankshaft. This subjects the
crankshaft to additional stress at discrete points of the
speed range. Sometimes the additional stress is
sufficient to cause a fatigue failure of the crankshaft or
attached components.
Because of the relatively soft torsional stiffness of the

elastic element, the oscillation of the seismic mass will
tend to negate or limit the amplitude of vibration; the
lower amplitudes of vibration relate directly to lowered
torsional stresses within the crankshaft.
A second type of damper is called an untuned viscous
shear damper. The elastic element of the tuned
damper is replaced with silicone viscous fluid. The
seismic element is encased within a tight fitting case;
the silicone fluid fills the void. As the seismic mass
moves opposite of the torsional oscillations, rotational
energy is transformed into heat as the viscous silicone
fluid shears. Because the seismic mass is not solidly
coupled to the casing, it functions at more than one
frequency, hence the name untuned.
Viscous dampers are typically fabricated steel cases
and steel seismic masses. Physical size of the damper
is predicated upon the torsional energy to be
dissipated, the shear rate of the silicone fluid, and the
57
size of the gap between the case and seismic mass.
GEARTRAIN
The geartrain provides power to drive the camshaft and
auxiliary components, and provides timing between
combustion events and valving events. A typical diesel
engine geartrain is composed of the crank gear, an oil
pump drive gear, a bull gear, an adjustable idler gear,
and a camshaft drive gear, Figure 4.32. Auxiliary
components driven by the geartrain including the water
pump, fuel pump, accessory drive for alternators, and a
drive for an air compressor.
of manufacture; spur gears are used in most instances.

Helical and herring bone cut gear types have the
advantage of generally greater tooth loading capability
and noise reduction. Herring bone gears will neutralize
gear thrust, but are difficult and expensive to
manufacture.
Timing
For electronic engines, the timing of the combustion
events coordinated with the rotation of the crankshaft
by the geartrain, must be relayed to the electronic
governing system. This is accomplished by the use of a
steel pin and magnetic pickup; the steel pin will provide
a once per revolution signal to the electronic governing
system.
In the DDC Series 60 engine, this is called the
Synchronous Reference Signal (SRS). The steel pin is
pressed into the bull gear. Another signal required by
an electronic governing system is when each cylinder
is approaching top dead center (TDC). This is
accomplished by the use of a timing wheel, which has
one tooth per cylinder, and a magnetic pickup.
The wheel is indexed to the crankshaft; in the DDC
Series 60 engine, this system is called the Timing
Reference System (TRS). The signal indicates to the
electronic governing system when each individual
cylinder is approaching TDC so that combustion
chamber fueling events may be scheduled.
Gearlash
Figure 4.32 The Geartrain
Gear Types
Three types of gears are considered for diesel engine
timing gears; spur, helical, herring bone. Of the three,
spur gears offers the advantages of economy and ease
58
All gear systems must have the ability to adjust the

amount of gear lash in the system. Gearlash or
backlash is the difference between the width of a tooth
space and the thickness of the engaging tooth, as
measured on the pitch diameter. Some backlash is
required in order to satisfy manufacturing tolerances,
lubrication requirements and thermal growth of the
gears. Increased backlash leads to gear rattle noise
from torque reversals; sever cases are harmful to the
durability of the gears.
Section 4
As the loading point of the gear tooth moves from the

pitch circle diameter towards the top of the tooth, the
bending moment increases, again affecting gear life.
Decreased backlash tends to increase gear tooth side
loading and may lead to binding or gear whine noise.
Equation 4.9
WB = FSY/PD
where
WB = gear load
Tooth Form
The involute system is almost invariably used. The
minimum number of teeth should be so chosen as to
avoid undercutting, that is, reduction of tooth thickness
below the pitch line.
Materials
Materials for gears must have the ability to be case
hardened and provide a good surface finish. Alloy
materials will, in combination with a core heat
treatment and a surface hardening process, provide
the strongest and most wear resistant gears. Typical
material specification for the DDC Series 60 engine is
SAE 4140 with specific microstructure and case
hardening.
Tooth Loading
= gear face width
= allowable stress
= gear layout factor
PD = diametral pitch
A refinement to the general Lewis formula was
introduced by Buckingham. By including terms for
geartooth profile error, elastic properties and data
gathered from observation, Buckinghams equation,
Equation 4.10, is considered for dynamic stresses.
Equation 4.10
WD = WT + [0.05V(FC + WT)]/[0.05V + (FC +
W T)1/2, for spur gears
where
WD = gear load at diametral pitch
WT = transmitted load
F = gear face width
C = center distance
Gear teeth are loaded because of a) a mean driving

torque b) engine variations of torque c) driveline
resonance and d)gear tooth geometric error and center
distance deviations. Individual teeth are subjected to
combined stresses from bending due to tangential
loads, side loads due to gear cut and thrust.
Tooth Stresses
Generalized stresses resulting from tooth loading can
be predicted by the Lewis formula and Buckinghams
dynamic equation for tooth bending.
Considerable effort in the definition of gear tooth

stresses has been made. The American Gear
Manufacturers Association (AGMA) and the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) are organizations
which provide guidance in predicting tooth stresses for
individual gear types.
Face Width
In general, the face width of gears should be no more
than one half the pitch radius; because larger gear face
widths tend to lead to poor load distribution.
The Lewis formula, Equation 4.9, used to predict tooth

beam strength, is used to understand generalized
stresses.
59
TIMING GEAR CASE AND COVER

The function of the timing gear case is to:
Provide structural support and protection for the

timing gear
Provide a mounting structure and access to

engine power for auxiliary components such as
air compressors and cooling fans.
Provide a strict alignment between all gears

regardless of engine load and speed.
The timing gear case and cover are cast iron

components bolted about its periphery forming a
sealed compartment. The case contains the crank
gear, the idler gear, bull gear, and cam gear. On the
exterior, the gear case and cover may be required to
drive and provide support for auxiliary components
such as an air compressor, fuel pump, hydraulic pump,
cooling fan, and alternator. Special consideration of the
effects of the exterior auxiliary components on the gear
case and cover should be given. Heavy components
may require additional mounting brackets to reduce the
bending moment imposed upon the gear case.
The gear case and cover are the subject of finite
element structural analysis for several reasons. First,
the case must be rigid enough to maintain accurate
locations for the gears within. Second, the gear case
and cover, especially the cover, could become a
radiator of noise. Being a planer structure, resonance
in a primary or secondary mode of vibration must be
considered during the design phase and examined in
the prototype phase.
A flywheel stores kinetic energy when angular velocity

increases and releases kinetic energy when angular
velocity decreases. The storing of energy reduces the
rotational acceleration rate and the releasing of energy
decreases the rotational deceleration rate providing a
more constant rotational velocity. The flywheel can not
eliminate rotational speed fluctuation because constant
rotational speed would neither absorb or supply energy
to the rotating engine, it is therefore necessary to
define acceptable rotational speed fluctuation.
An excessively large flywheel will lead to poor engine
transient response while to small a flywheel will result
in large fluctuations in engine rotational speed between
combustion pulses. The speed fluctuations result in
vibration felt by the engine user and driven machine. It
is therefor necessary to optimize the flywheel to satisfy
fuel efficiency requirements, durability requirements,
and user perception of the quality and power of the
engine.
Acceptable Speed Fluctuation
Acceptable speed fluctuation is determined by the
ability of the engine user to detect vibration during use.
The frequency of the speed fluctuation varies
proportionally with engine speed and is most
noticeable at engine idle speeds during no load and
throttle conditions. The frequency of the speed
fluctuations (Equation 4.11) at low engine speeds is
more detectable to a user than a higher frequency
fluctuation experienced at higher engine speed.
Equation 4.11
F = w x N / (C x .5)
FLYWHEEL
Where
The flywheel is a rotating device attached to the
crankshaft output that reduces rotational speed
fluctuations which occur between combustion pulses.
Speed fluctuations in the engine occur due to friction,
scavenging, compression, and combustion pulses.
60
F = Frequency of Speed Fluctuation

w = Engine Speed In Revolutions Per Second
N = Number of Cylinders
C = Engine Strokes/Cycles (2 or 4)
Section 4
The amplitude but not the frequency of the speed

fluctuation is controlled by flywheel and engine inertia.
The acceptable amplitude depends on the application
of the engine. Applications driving gears or generators
may be critical to prevent load reversals or flickering
while systems driving pumps may be less critical
because functionality and durability are not greatly
effected by speed fluctuation.
The speed fluctuation is quantified by the term
coefficient of speed fluctuation (C) which is calculated
by Equation 4.12.
Equation 4.12
C = w1 w2 / wo
C = Coefficient of Speed Fluctuation
w1 = Maximum Speed in One Revolution
w2 = Minimum Speed in One Revolution
wo = Mean Engine Speed
Figure 4.33 Typical Torque vs. Crank Angle
Satisfactory idle speed fluctuations can usually be
achieved with a coefficient of speed fluctuation of 1/3.
A value of C of 1/3 results in a speed fluctuation of 200
r/min for an engine idling at 600 r/min.
The determination of engine inertia needed to maintain
a desired instantaneous speed fluctuation can be
calculated using the excess energy method. The
excess energy method makes use of torque output
verses crank angle performance information supplied
by performance estimations for an engine.
Inertia Analysis
The mass polar moment of inertia (J) involved in
controlling speed fluctuations includes the inertia of all
rotating masses: the crankshaft, driven machine, and
flywheel, plus the mass polar moment of inertia of the
connecting rods, etc. For rotating cylindrical discs, J is
calculated using Equation 4.13.
Equation 4.13
2
Using a torque vs. crank angle diagram as per

Figure 4.33, the mean indicated torque can be
calculated by summing the area under the torque
curve. The excess energy (See Figure 4.33), Ut, must
be equal to the energy stored as rotating inertia energy
in the rotating masses of the engine in order to obtain
the desired speed fluctuation.
m d
J = -------------------8
Where
J = Mass Polar Moment of Inertia(lb.ir To convert to
lb.in.sec2 divide by 386 in. sec 2
m = mass, lb
d = outside diameter, in.
61
The kinetic energy (Uk) for the rotating engine can be

calculated using Equation 4.14.
Flywheel Burst Strength
Equation 4.14
The kinetic energy contained in a flywheel at high

rotating speeds is capable of causing great damage to
the engine and engine user if failure or release from the
crankshaft should occur. Design strength of a flywheel
must therefore conclude that a failure will never occur
over the life of the engine.
UK = 1/2 x J x w2
Where
UK = Kinetic Energy (lb.in.)
J
= Total Mass
(lbin.sec2)
Polar
Moment
of
Inertia
w = Rotational Velocity (rad/s)

The change in kinetic energy due to a speed fluctuation
(UK) is then calculated per Equation 4.15.
Equation 4.15
Uk = 1/2 x J x (w12 w22)
Optimal Inertia
The mass polar moment of inertia needed to achieve
the desired speed fluctuation can now be determined
by setting the the excess energy (UT) from the torque
curve analysis equal to the kinetic energy change due
to a speed fluctuation (UK) per Equation 4.16.
Equation 4.16
Solving for J:
UT = 1/2 x J x (w12-w22)
J = UT x 2 / (w12-W22)
The mass polar moment of inertia needed for the

flywheel can now be determined by subtracting J for
the existing rotating parts from the total J needed.
Equation 4.13 and the geometric flywheel parameters
are used to design a flywheel with the desired mass
polar moment of inertia.
62
Tensile hoop and tensile radial stresses are both

significant while axial stress is negligible in a rotating
disk. Hoop stress is the highest at the center of the
rotating mass and zero at the largest diameter while
radial stress is zero at the center and gets higher as the
diameter increases and returns to zero at the outer
diameter. Equations exist for calculation of hoop and
radial stress in flywheels of various shapes, however,
finite element analysis is the most appropriate method
for calculating burst strength of a flywheel. Burst
strength is the rotational velocity at which failure is
predicted.
Because of the potential for disaster inherent in the
kinetic energy contained in a flywheel, safety
determined by testing is necessary. Testing involves
subjecting the flywheel to rotational velocities
exceeding the velocity reached on the engine design
for burst at 2.5 times engine speed will provide
adequate safety factor.
Flywheel Torque Capacity

Transfer of engine power to a driven machine is the
second function of a flywheel and equally as important
as engine speed regulation. Engine power is
transferred from the crankshaft to the flywheel through
friction between the crankshaft end and flywheel face
(see Figure 4.34).
Section 4
circle diameter (D), the bolt clamp load (FI), and the
coefficient of friction between the crankshaft and
flywheel (CF). The friction torque capacity of the joint is
given by Equation 4.18.
Equation 4.18
Tc = NBxFIxDxCF/2
Where
Tc = Torque Capacity (in.lb)
NB = Number of Bolts
FI = Clamp Force Per Bolt (lb)
D = Diameter of Bolt Circle (in.)
CF = Coefficient of Friction Between Joint Faces
Some estimations of the parameters exist. Typical
values of CF range from .1 to .15. Values of KB range
from .12 for highly lubricated bolt threads and
underheads to .2 for non lubricated installations.
Flywheel Types
Figure 4.34 Flywheel/Crankshaft Section
The friction between the crankshaft and flywheel
should be sufficient to withstand all torque output of the
engine. If friction is sufficient then mounting bolts will
not be subjected to bending torque and will not be
subject to fatigue failure. Engine torque output consists
of a mean torque output plus a vibratory torque output.
Vibratory torque output can exceed mean torque
output. The total output torque for which flywheel to
crankshaft friction must exceed is given by
Equation 4.17.
Equation 4.17
T = TV +Tm
Where
T = Total Engine Torque
Tv = Vibratory Torque
Tm = Mean Torque Output
The friction capacity (Tc) of the crankshaft to flywheel
The flywheel is the primary power transfer interface

between the engine and the driven machine. In general
a flywheel transfers engine torque from a small
diameter bolted interface at the crankshaft to and
output device (clutch, flexplate) near the outer diameter
(see Figure 4.34). However, many flywheel types exist
to accommodate torque converters, hydraulic clutch/
flywheel assemblies, flex plates and standard clutches.
The application must be considered to determine the
output type needed.
FLYWHEEL HOUSING
The flywheel housing serves as a coupling between the
engine and driven machine, a shroud for the flywheel,
and a mount location for the engine/driven machine
assembly. As a coupling device, the flywheel housing
must provide alignment for engine output and driven
machine input shafts, and provide a rigid connection to
resist engine torque loads and shock loads input
through the system mounts.
joint depends on the number of bolts (N B), the bolt
63
The flywheel housing is generally complex in geometry

requiring manufacturing by sand casting. The flywheel
housing can comprise a substantial portion of engine
weight making it necessary to consider light weight
materials in design.
SAE standard J617C describes typical flywheel

housing sizes. It is necessary to supply more than one
size flywheel housing to satisfy all applications.
Alignment
Service loads are dependent on the application and

type of driven machine. For the on-highway market the
engine and transmission are generally fastened
together at the flywheel housing and power out of the
transmission is axial to the crankshaft. To calculate the
flywheel housing load for a typical on-highway
application see Figure 4.36.
One of the primary physical requirements for a flywheel

housing is alignment of engine to driven machine. In
on-highway trucks, the engine typically couples directly
with the transmissions at the flywheel housing.
Service Loads
Typical Engine Mounting System Shock Input

Levels
Vertical
Plane
Transverse
Plane
Axial
Plane
Stationary
Applications
2 "g"
2 "g"
2 "g"
Mobile Applications
5 "g"
5 "g"
5 "g"
Vibratory Rollers,
Impact Hammers
7 "g"
7 "g"
Specific
Mobile Applications*
7 "g"
*Highway tractor during trailer engagement Dock

Spotters
Off-highway construction equipment
Bulldozers and Loaders
Forestry equipment
Specific military equipment, i.e., tanks, gun carriers
Table 4.2 Typical Shock Loads
Figure 4.35 Flywheel Housing Section

For operational purposes the engine output and
transmission input, both typically supported on fixed
bearings, must be accurately aligned. For this purpose,
a pilot diameter with small runout tolerance with
respect to the engine flywheel rotation is provided as
per Figure 4.35.
The actual fastening of the transmission to the engine
is also shown in Figure 4.35.
64
The on-highway application subjects the flywheel

housing to multiaxial bending loads due to static
installation and vehicle translation, as well as engine
torque loads. Shock loads are induced in the flywheel
housing when the vehicle undergoes any shock
loading. Typical shock loads induced for various
applications are given in Table 4.2.
Shock loads are input to the engine and transmission
assembly causing bending of the assembly. The
flywheel housing is generally the lowest stiffness part
of the assembly and most deflection will occur at the
housing. The engine/transmission weight and center of
gravity, mounting point
Section 4
locations, and shock load determine the stresses

induced in a flywheel housing during a shock load
situation.
Torsional loads are induced in the flywheel housing

due to torque output at the transmission output shaft in
certain installations. If a single mount is used at the
front center of the engine with multiple mounts on the
transmission, then no torsional loads are induced in the
housing. However, if multiple mounts located away
from the axis of rotation of the crankshaft are used,
torsional loads will be induced. Stresses in the flywheel
housing due to torque output are most significant in low
output speed gear reduction applications. The torque of
the engine is multiplied by the gear reduction ratio to
determine total torque that will be reacted at the engine
mounts.
Figure 4.36 Calculation of Flywheel Housing Loads

for a Typical On-highway Application
Figure 4.37 Multi-point Mounting
Typical mounting systems are shown in Figure 4.37.
Mounting systems have 3, 4, or more mounting points.
A freebody diagram using engine and transmission
weight and center of gravity, along with typical
mounting locations, can be used to determine bending
loads which may be induced in the flywheel housing.
Shock loads applied to the same freebody diagram will
yield maximum shock loads induced in the flywheel
housing.
Loads created by the input and output of the

transmission are another source creating flywheel
housing loads. Unbalanced rotating shafts produce
oscillating loads. The loads from heavy output shaft
can produce significant bending loads in a flywheel
housing. Vehicle manufacturer shaft balance
tolerances should be considered when developing
maximum
Figure 4.38 shows a typical freebody diagram used to

develop the optimal zero static installation bending
load.
65
loads a flywheel housing may be subjected to.

The complexity of a flywheel housing makes analysis
by computer modeling a necessity. Bending, shock,
shaft oscillation, and torque output loads must all be
considered simultaneously. Ideally, a worst case
engine and transmission installation should be
modeled to determine the natural bending frequency of
the housing.
Because analytical modeling of a complex component

can have high uncertainty, it is necessary to follow
analytical design with testing. Testing will generally
include fracture load testing using bending loads, and
modal analysis of an installation determine natural
bending loads.
Figure 4.38 Transmission Support Preload for Zero Bending Moment
66
Section 4
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

It is common practice in todays diesel engine design to
specify electronically controlled unit injection. Unit
injection is not new and has been around since the
1930s. The term unit injection implies that the injection
device is self-contained, with high pressure pump,
pipes and nozzles tied directly to one another. Unit
injection is not new, but the coupling of electronic
control and unit injection on a production basis is new
in the last decade. The institution of electronic unit
injection today is achieved through the use of
electronic unit injectors (EUI) or electronic unit pumps
(EUP).
Mechanical Unit Injector
The mechanical unit injector (MUI), shown in
Figure 4.39 and Figure 4.40, is a completely selfcontained, whereby the injector itself combines the
injection pump (plunger), high pressure passages,
metering devices, and injection nozzle (tip) as a single
unit. Because it is self-contained, a unit injector is
located at each cylinder location. The injector design
utilizes camshaft rotation to drive injector plungers
which in turn pressurize fuel trapped in the injector
body.
Figure 4.39 Mechanical Unit Injector and Drive

Linkage
Shown in Figure 4.39 is the driving mechanism for the

unit injector which consists of the camshaft, pushrod
and rocker arm assembly. If an overhead camshaft
design were employed there would be no pushrod. In
the case of the mechanical unit injector, timing and fuel
metering is implemented through helices and ports
machined in the plunger and bushing assembly.
Closure of the upper port by the upper helix during
plunger motion initiates pressurization and injection.
Opening of the lower port causes decay of the injection
pressure and end of injection. The portion of the
plunger stroke during which both ports are closed
determines the fuel output.
Figure 4.40 Mechanical Unit Injector
67
During plunger travel the continued pressurization of

fuel residing in nozzle area eventually reaches a level
high enough to unseat the injector needle valve. In
general, the pressure to overcome the needle valve
spring is on the order of 5,000 lb/in.2 for conventional
designs. With the needle valve unseated, fuel is free to
travel through the spray tip into the combustion
chamber, Figure 4.40. Fuel output and timing are
changed by rotating the plunger via a control rack and
gear assembly.
Conventional mechanical systems utilize add-on
linkage devices for a variety of governor controls.
Electronic Unit Injector

The electronic unit injector is a direct adaptation of its
mechanical predecessor. As shown in Figure 4.41, the
size and shape of the EUI are nearly identical to the
MUI. The primary difference between the two is that the
EUI utilizes an electric solenoid-activated poppet valve
to control fuel metering instead of using ports, helices
and racks.
Closure of the solenoid valve initiates pressurization
and injection and opening of the valve causes injection
pressure decay and end of injection. Duration of valve
closure determines the quantity of fuel injected. The
EUI incorporates the same injector tip and needle valve
design as the MUI.
Because fuel injection is controlled electronically and is
not tied to the injector in a mechanical sense, fuel
metering becomes a function of a variety of selected
parameters such as throttle position, engine speed, oil,
water and air temperatures, turbocharger boost levels,
and barometric conditions. With the absence of helices,
racks, and linkages, fuel control is constant over the life
of the engine, whereby traditional mechanical systems
were prone to component wear resulting in loss of fuel
metering accuracy and the need for continued
adjustments and maintenance.
68
Figure 4.41 Electronic Unit Injector

The real advantage to the electronic injector is the
ability to precisely control fuel metering at all engine
speeds and loads and the ability to optimize fuel
economy under all operating conditions. An additional
merit of electronic control is the reduced development
time associated with generating new ratings or
releasing new applications since the injector can cover
a wider range of operation.
Engine torque curves can be uniquely specified. Also,
with changes to injector tip size, engine operating
ranges can be extended further still. Governor controls
are enhanced whereby fueling is more accurately
defined for maximum and minimum engine speed and
engine droop resulting more efficient engine operation.
Section 4
Traditional trouble areas of engine operation, for

example cold start-up and white smoke are easily
improved on. Light load operation, and particularly idle
operation is smoother since cylinder-to-cylinder fueling
differences are reduced with solenoid control.
For the same reasons, engine-to-engine power
variability is also reduced. Injector diagnostics is
another plus for the EUI since fueling, timing and
proper injector solenoid operation can be continuously
monitored. Through cylinder cut-out, an electronically
controlled engine feature, individual injectors can be
isolated for means of trouble shooting faulty injectors.
Fuel Injection Design Criteria

In the initial design stages of the DDC Series 60 11.1
liter and 12.7 liter engines several design parameters
were set which directly impacted the subsequent fuel
system design:
Primary Market: On-highway
BMEP and Maximum Cylinder Pressure
Injector Body
By eliminating high pressure jumper lines, a common
cause of fuel leaks, and choosing to fuel the injectors
using "rifle" drilled passages in the cylinder head, the
injector body itself took on a few design constraints of
its own. The injector would not include a bolt-on fuel
manifold.
Instead, fuel would fill and spill the injector through
openings in the injector body as shown in Figure 4.42.
Covering each inlet is a filtering screen which prevents
relatively coarse foreign material from entering the
injectors. The fuel passage design allows excess fuel
to bypass each injector and continue onward toward
the next injector in line. The bypass flow of fuel
provides cooling for the injectors.
Displacement: Inline six cylinder 11.1L and

12.7L
Combustion Chamber - Low Swirl

High Injection Pressure
Electronic Control
Eliminate Jumper Lines
The DDC Series 60 was developed for the on-highway

truck market in the late 1980s. This meant that the
engine was going to be fuel efficient, but at the same
time subject to the on-coming EPA emission
regulations. Based on the above mentioned design
parameters, an injection pressure level was set to
20,000 lb/in.2 (138,000 kPa) and the electronic unit
injector was chosen as the high pressure injection
device.
Figure 4.42 Electronic Unit Injector Fill and Spill

Openings
Fuel which enters the injector and is not used during
the injection process is spilled to the return passages
through spill holes in the injector body. The spill flow is
also a means of cooling internal injector components
subject to intense heat of combustion and working
parts. Important to the unit injector is the fill pressure,
69
especially under high speed operation. Lack of

sufficient injector filling under any operating condition
results in low power and loss of engine performance.
Proper attention to the fuel pressure drop across the
cylinder head must be made. The MC Series 60
cylinder head incorporates at restrictive fitting at the
fuel spill location. Coupled with the correct supply
pressure from fuel pump, the injectors are adequately
filled under all operating conditions. The DDC Series
60 unit injectors are subject to approximately 70 lb/in.2
(483 kPa) fuel delivery pressure under high speed
operation.
considerations include, injector needle-valve lift and

spring design, plunger clearances, plunger springs to
name of few.
Sizing the injector body itself is key to providing

sufficient fuel supply to the combustion chamber. The
electronic unit injector has the ability to cover a wide
range of operating conditions. For example, the DDC
Series 60 11.1L displacement engine utilizes one
injector to cover 250 - 365 bhp (187 - 272 kW). The
injector is sized to flow enough fuel to cover all
operating conditions. Injector output, measured in
cubic millimeters per stroke, is the result of injector
body flow and injector tip flow.
Shown in Figure 4.43 are the cam lift and cam velocity
of the original DDC Series 60 cam lobe as a function of
camshaft angle. Significant to the DDC Series 60 cam
lobe is the "constant velocity" portion. Here the lobe
radius of curvature is large and the resulting cam
velocity as a function of cam rotation is nearly constant.
By timing injection events to occur over this lobe
segment one is assured that the swept volume of fuel
located under the injector plunger is nearly constant,
regardless of when the event initiates. This produces a
more predictable injection event since injection
becomes less sensitive to cam-to-crankshaft timing
and other stack-up tolerances. The magnitude of the
constant velocity is significant in that it directly relates
to injection pressure and injection duration.
For the DDC Series 60 11.1L displacement engine the

nominal injector output is 135 mm3, while the 12.7L
engine outputs are 155 mm3 for horsepower levels
below 425 and 165 mm 3 for horsepower levels above
425 bhp (317 kW). The injector plunger bore and stroke
make up the essential fuel volume which is trapped
within the injector at the time of solenoid valve closure.
If the injector tip were removed, the injector would be
capable of flowing a specific volume. Naturally, the
injector tip flow characteristics would then dictate the
ultimate injector output.
Once the injector bore, stroke, and tip dimensions are
defined one must check that the resulting injection
pressures do not violate earlier design constraints.
Thus, the fuel injection design engineer must work
closely with the injector manufacturer to define the
correct injector body and tip flow characteristics. It is
important to note that there is more to defining injector
design than injector bore, stroke and tip size. Other
70
Injector Cam Lobe

As stated earlier the mechanical drive mechanism for
the DDC Series 60 unit injector is the overhead
camshaft and accompanying rocker arm assembly.
Camshaft motion and more specifically the rotation of
the injector cam lobe provides the input function to the
injector plunger.
The DDC Series 60 injector cam lobe has a constant

velocity of 0.33 mm per camshaft degree. End of
injection should occur prior to the end of the constant
velocity portion. Continued injection beyond "constant
velocity" in the deceleration region can result in
excessively high cam lobe Hertzian stress due to the
abrupt change in the cam lobe radius of curvature.
Prolonged exposure to high Hertzian stress can result
in lobe pitting and flaking.
Section 4
Figure 4.43 Cam Profile
Injector Tip
The most important injector parameter for todays onhighway engine manufacturers is the injector tip. As
mentioned above, the tip characteristic dictates the
injector output volume, but more importantly, the
injector tip design directly influences the engine
emissions and fuel consumption characteristics. Within
conventional design practices, two injector tip
configurations are commonly used.
The valve covered orifice (VCO) configuration shown in
Figure 4.44 was chosen for the DDC Series 60
injector. Specific to the VCO design is that the needle
valve, which when closed, covers the tip holes. In the
low-sac tip design the needle valve, when seated, does
not cover the tip holes. The VCO configuration was
favored because of its positive impact on particulates
and smoke.
Once an injector tip configuration is chosen, such as
the VCO in the case of the DDC Series 60, one must
further define several key injector tip characteristics in
order to optimize both engine emissions and fuel
economy. It is the design engineers goal to define the
following injector tip characteristics.
Figure 4.44 VCO Tip Configurations
71
Orifice Diameter - Hole diameter is generally

determined based on the desirable injector output and
the previously set injection pressure level. Naturally if
one chooses to change the number of tip holes, but
insists on maintaining injector output, then hole
diameter must change. The DDC Series 60 11.1 liter
injector tip hole diameter is 0.0060 in. (0.152 mm),
while the two 12.7 liter injector hole diameters are
0.0070 in.(0.178 mm) and 0.0080 in.(0.203 mm).
Number of Holes - As previously stated, hole number
and hole diameter go hand-in-hand. Typically, if one
chooses change the hole number, the hole diameter
will also changes in order to maintain the injector
output and injection pressure constraints. The DDC
Series 60 11.1 liter and 12.7 liter both use 9-hole VCO
injector tips. By changing the hole number, one can
influence the emission characteristics of the engine.
For example, by increasing hole number while
maintaining a constant injector output, one can expect
fuel atomization to increase and spray plume
penetration to decrease.
Hole Length -As shown in Figure 4.44, hole length is
essentially equal to the wall thickness at the injector tip
cavity. Though hole length to some extent can
influence emission characteristics, typically hole length
remains fixed once a durable tip geometry is identified.
The injector hole length of the DDC Series 60 11.1 liter
and 12.7 liter engines is 0.0552 in. (1.4 mm) which
equates to an l/d ratio of approximately 8.
Spray Angle -Normally, spray angle is defined early
during the combustion chamber design, based on
clearance volume and piston is bowl shape. Initial
spray angle can be determined by "laying" or drawing
the spray plumes into the piston bowl by hand. It is
desirable to keep the injection spray away from the
cylinder walls to eliminate the possibility of creating hot
spots which lead to liner scuffing.
72
On the other hand, aiming the spray pattern too directly

at the piston bowl can result in scorching. Running
emissions and performance tests, spray angles can be
varied in discrete steps until the optimum spray angle is
found. In addition, one can vary the injector spray tip
protrusion depth, which acts to move the spray
formation up or down with in the piston bowl. The DDC
Series 60 12.7 liter spray angle is set to 155 degrees
while the 11.1 liter is 160 degrees, which reflects its
higher compression ratio.
Tip Manufacturing -The designer must also take into
account the capabilities of the injector manufacturer
when specifying the critical tip dimensions. For
example, when specifying a nominal orifice diameter,
the typical manufacturing process to achieve the
desired hole diameter is through conventional
electrical-discharge machining (EDM).
Normally, a wire with a diameter less than the desired
diameter is brought in contact with the injector tip. The
wire is electrically charged, acting an as electrode. The
discharge of electricity machines the holes into the tip.
Through the center of the wire electrode a fluid, usually
water or oil, is utilized to cool the electrode and carry
away debris from the tip hole area. After the initial hole
is machined, a fluid containing abrasive particles is
flowed through the hole openings.
The abrasive nature of the fluid acts to smooth the
holes and also increases the diameter of the hole as
well. It appears that the abrasive flow smooths the
entrance and exit areas of the orifices which results in
a more optimum spray plume formation during
injection. Tests have shown that injector tips with
abrasive flow processing produce lower particulate
levels when compared to injector tips of the same
diameter which have not been abrasive flow.
It is the design engineers job to specify the desired tip
orifice diameter, taking into account the capabilities of
the injector
Section 4
manufacturer. In some cases it may be desirable to

target an EDM diameter smaller than nominal, then
outsize abrasive flow processing to open the hole
diameters up to nominal. With the particulate standard
for 1994 of 0. 1 g/hphr, the margin for error is
extremely small. Thus, it is the design engineers job to
thoroughly understand the manufacturers capabilities
and to design around potential product variabilities.
pump, the fuel is forced out into an outlet cavity. Since

this is a continuous cycle and fuel is continually being
forced into the outlet cavity, the fuel flows from the
outlet cavity into the fuel lines and through the engine
fuel system under pressure.
Fuel (Transfer) Pump

Depending on the type of fuel injection system being
utilized, the fuel pump may be referred to as the fuel
transfer pump. In the case of the DDC Series 60 which
utilizes unit injection, the purpose of the fuel pump is to
transfer fuel from the fuel tanks and deliver it to the unit
injectors. The DDC Series 60 fuel pump in particular is
a positive displacement gear-type pump where the
pump is driven by the engine gear train. See
Figure 4.45. Early DDC Series 60 fuel pumps were
mounted directly to the gear train, while a more recent
design has the fuel pump driven via the air compressor.
(The air compressor is driven off the engine gear train.)
The fuel pump plays an integral part in the fuel system
design, considering in more detail exactly what is
required beyond just transferring fuel from fuel tanks to
injectors. The DDC Series 60 pump, originally adapted
from the DDC Series 92 fuel pump is designed to
sufficiently supply the unit injectors with more than
enough fuel under all speeds and loads.
The pump circulates an excess supply of fuel through
the injectors which helps to purge air from the fuel
system and concurrently helps to cool the injectors.
The unused portion of fuel is returned to the fuel tanks
via return lines. In operation, fuel enters the pump on
the suction side and fills the space between the gear
teeth that are exposed at that instant. The gear teeth
then carries the fuel oil to the discharge side of the
pump and, as the gear teeth mesh in the center of the
Figure 4.45 Fuel Pump Assembly

A pressure relief valve relieves the discharge pressure
by bypassing the fuel from the outlet side of the pump
to the inlet side when the discharge pressure reaches
approximately 65 to 75 lb/in.2 (448 to 517 kPa). The
pump employs a .37 in. (9.5 mm) drive shaft which
rotates at 1.2 times engine speed. Initially the pump
was designed to flow 170 gal/min (644 liter/min) with
half the flow entering the engine and other half being
recirculated within the pump via the pressure relief
valve.
Regardless of the pump type employed several design
considerations are imperative to ensure proper engine
performance and fuel system longevity. One must size
the fuel pump to provide sufficient fuel flow to cover the
wide range of horsepower ratings offered, while at the
73
same time recognize the need for adequate injector

cooling.
Further demands on the fuel pump include sufficient
fuel supply pressure across the cylinder head in order
to provide adequate filling of injectors under all
operating conditions. In addition, the pump must
overcome all engine and system restrictions.
Inherently, the fuel pump is subject to restrictions
produced by the engine itself. Fuel filters on both the
suction and supply sides, restrictive fittings, the fuel
passages and lines and the injectors themselves,
Figure 4.46.
Figure 4.46 Schematic Diagram of Fuel System
74
Though not utilized with the DDC Series 60, engine

manufacturers may specify fuel heaters, coolers or
both adding additional restriction. The design engineer
must take into account the restriction imposed by
drawing fuel from fuel tanks which can be mounted and
routed in a variety of configurations by OEMs. End
users may also incorporate a variety of line sizes, filters
and check valves which may not meet the engine
manufacturers specifications. Excessive fuel system
restriction will lead to a multitude of problems.
With the DDC Series 60 engine, the allowable fuel
system restriction with clean
Section 4
fuel filters at maximum engine speed is 6 in. Hg (20

kPa) on the suction side with a maximum allowable
suction side restriction of 12 in. Hg (40 kPa) for dirty
filters. This provides the end user with an additional,
usable restriction of 6 in. Hg (20 kPa). If the maximum
restriction specification is exceeded, the common
result is loss of engine performance. Prolonged
operation of the engine under excessive fuel system
restriction will cause fuel pump seal leaks and
ultimately pump failure. An expensive secondary failure
mode associated with fuel pump seal leaks is injector
failure since aerated fuel reduces the critical cooling
ability of the fuel itself.
electronic based systems can maximize customer

benefits such as improved cold startabiliy, engine
protection and system diagnostics, idle shutdown,
vehicle speed limiting, cruise control, etc., for little or no
extra cost.
Another area of design consideration with the DDC

Series 60 fuel pump was the pump operating speed,
since the pump was driven by the gear train. Special
attention was given to the pump operating speed since
operating at speeds beyond what is required can result
in excessive wear and shorten pump life. Thus, the
engineer must determine the safe operating speed to
ensure a reliable and durable product.
Most major truck OEMs are currently involved in

integrating electronic controls for engines, brake
systems, traction control systems, transmissions,
instrumentation, trailers, etc. If each electronic system
manufacturer required different proprietary serial
communications messages, diagnostics, and service
tools, serviceability and information sharing between
systems becomes difficult to manage. Therefore, it is
important for the diesel engine electronic control
system to provide a communications interface that
follows the standards created by the heavy-duty
trucking industry.
ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEM

Since the introduction of the application of electronics
to the heavy-duty diesel engine, it has become quite
evident that electronic engine control is superior to
mechanical systems. It is essentially impossible to
design a diesel engine in the 1990s without the
information and control provided by electronic systems.
Likewise, electronic based systems play a key role in
the operational efficiency of a truck.
The application of electronics to heavy-duty diesel
engines is motivated by the basic needs of competitive
fuel economy and performance at legislated exhaust
emission levels. Electronic control of the fuel injection
system offers flexibility through programming to
provide the basic tool to develop low emission engines
with excellent performance and fuel economy. Along
with meeting these primary objectives, the flexibility of
In the planning stages of a diesel engine electronic

control system it is important to work closely with
OEMs and truck users to address the issues of
customer acceptance, reliability, serviceability, and
economics. In the heavy-duty trucking industry
standardized serial data communications, components,
diagnostics, and service tools are considered a priority.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and The

Maintenance Council (TMC) of the American Trucking
Association (ATA) have developed recommended
practices to provide the interface requirements for
communications relevant to the industry. Also,
contacting an independent supplier who currently
offers industry compatible off-board service tools can
provide considerable insight to the on-board engine
diagnostic design.
The following design details and performance
objectives are intended for engines that are being
specifically designed for electronic engine controls.
75
Engine Control System Description

The complexity of electronic systems and their ability to
impact the overall performance of the engine makes
packaging a critical issue for the system designer. To
maintain a simple engine installation for the OEM, the
engine electronic control system should be mounted on
the engine. With the exception of additional vehicle
wiring, the installation of an electronic diesel engine
with an integral control system should be no different
than a mechanical engine. Also, designing the system
with a single electronic control module (ECM) will
simplify needless multi-ECM complexity.
Vehicle Installation Of An Electronic

Diesel Engine
As shown in Figure 4.47 the diesel engine electronic
control system is comprised of 4 basic subsystems: 1)
the electronic control module (ECM), 2) the fuel
injection system - electronic unit injectors (EUI), 3) the
sensors, and 4) the interconnections and wiring.
Complete control over the engine output is obtained
through the electronic actuation of solenoid-operated
valves to perform fuel injection timing and metering
events.
Figure 4.47 Diesel Engine Electronic Control System
76
The ECM will typically consist of three basic elements:

the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and
peripheral devices. The central processing unit controls
the operation of the system and performs a number of
logical functions simultaneously to fulfill the specific
diesel engine control requirements. The system
memory stores the engine control software and
operating data which can be uniquely addressed by the
CPU. The peripheral devices perform input/output
control functions. The engine sensors provide the ECM
with absolute measurements of what is being
controlled or measured. The engine wiring harness
provides the interconnection between the ECM,
injector solenoids, sensors, and vehicle systems.
Packaging Considerations
The harshness of the on-engine environment presents
special reliability challenges and unique packaging
requirements for the electronics-based control modules
and sensors. The design of the electronics packaging
for the on-engine application must be based on the
following criteria: environmental effects, current
advanced state-of-the-art technology, fabrication
techniques and processes.Basic design principals of
system architecture, circuit architecture, power
analysis and distribution, environmental extremes,
safety and service requirements must be applied to all
phases of the ECM design.
Section 4
The packaging designer should detail circuit

requirements for printed circuit board (PCB) layout.
The type and quantity of power distribution, and all
interconnection data must be established. After the
parameters of the circuit architecture have been
established with respect to power, a thermal analysis
should be conducted to determine the maximum
electronic
component
operating
temperature.
Excessive operating junction temperatures directly
affect reliability of semiconductor components. An
optimized circuit-board layout should make room for
heat-dissipaters if necessary.
To attain packaging cost effectiveness and minimize
size, surface mounted devices (SMD) should be used
exclusively throughout the ECM. The benefits of
designing with SMD technology are closely spaced
component leads, thinner and more closely spaced
circuit board conductor lines, elimination of drilled holes
in circuit boards, and a circuit board assembly process
that is more easily automated.
The packaging environmental design considerations
must include the effects of vibration, temperature,
moisture/salt spray corrosion, dust/abrasion, exposure
to fluids, radio frequency interference/electro magnetic
interference (RFI/EMI), and transient suppression. The
following information is to aid the packaging designer
by describing basic environmental design criteria.
Vibration - Engine vibration occurs in all three axes and
over a wide range of frequencies and amplitudes.
Vibration levels may also vary during vehicle operation
when traversing rough roads at high speeds. Electronic
devices mounted on a circuit board can resonate due
to this vibration, and relative motion between devices
and the board can cause component lead wire failure.
Vibration can cause loss of wiring harness electrical
connection due to improper design or assembly, and
induce connector terminal fretting corrosion. The
designer should be particularly alert to intermittent
failures or faulty operation during applied vibration that

may revert to normal operation after the vibration
excitation is removed.
Temperature - Temperature extremes will vary with
vehicle operational modes. The damaging effects of
thermal shock and cycling include cracking of printed
circuit boards or ceramic substrates, fatigue of solder
joints and delamination of components. Measurements
should be made at the actual mounting site of the
electronic control system during all vehicle operating
conditions while the system is subjected to the
maximum heat generated by adjacent equipment, and
while they are at the maximum ambient conditions.
Moisture/Salt Spray - The electronic system can be
exposed to moisture by means of humidity, rain, road
splash, submersion, steam cleaning, and pressure
washing. Moisture can cause corrosion, unwanted
electrically conductive paths, and physical damage to
components during freezing. Moisture combined with a
salt spray environment can produce accelerated
corrosion effects. In coastal regions the salt is derived
from sea breezes, and in colder climates from road
salt.
Dust/Abrasion - Exposure to fine dust can lead to
unwanted conductive paths and corrosion as the dust
acts as an absorbent material for the collection of water
vapor and various other engine fluids and chemicals.
Bombardment by gravel can cause significant
mechanical damage to system components.
Fluids - The electronic system will be exposed to
varying amounts of water, chemicals and oil. The
caustic nature of chemical agents create a severe
environment for devices and associated wiring and
connectors mounted on the engine. The hardware
designer should consider whether the system must
withstand complete immersion or splash, and which
77
fluids are likely to be present in the application.

RFI/EMI - RFI/EMI compatibility must be considered as
important system design parameter. The time,
expense, and difficulty of eliminating RFI/EMI
susceptibility or emissions after the system has been
completed can be extensive. The system should be
designed such that it can function properly in its
intended electromagnetic environment.
Transient Suppression - Suppression of transient
voltages in the electronic system requires an
understanding of how transients behave in the diesel
engine environment. Voltage transients are typically
the result of load dump, inductive-load switching,
alternator field decay, and electrostatic discharge.
Battery leads are sometimes connected in reverse
during vehicle repair and engine installation, resulting
in reverse polarity that could exceed the reverse bias
rating of electronic components.
The designer should determine the actual values of
peak voltages, peak current, source impedance,
repetition rate, and frequency of occurrence at the
interface between the engine electronic control system
and the vehicle electrical distribution system. Proper
selection of suppression devices depends on the
energy levels and time duration of the transients.
ECM Hardware Design
facilities, programmable interrupt timers, serial port

interfaces, etc. on a single microcontroller chip. The
microcontroller device, with its on-chip resources
provides an integrated approach to real-time control,
minimizes ECM chip count, and reduces power and
heat dissipation.
The major concern when considering which
microcontroller should be designed into the ECM is
whether it has sufficient internal resources to meet the
specific needs of the application. Some key
considerations are as follows:
1.
Determine the required response times of all

engine control tasks. The microcontroller must be
able to execute instructions fast enough to
perform all dynamic engine control tasks and
provide enough overhead processing power to
perform vehicle functions, diagnostics, etc., and
be able to execute new control programs for
future growth.
2.
Determine
the
maximum
engine
speed
encountered during normal operation to insure
that microcontroller clock frequency/computing
power is acceptable. The time available for
algorithm calculation is significantly reduced at
high engine speeds.
3.
Determine the maximum number and type of input

and output functions that must be serviced.
Analog, digital and frequency input signals may
require various levels of acquisition accuracy.
This same accuracy knowledge is needed for all
output signals.
4.
Knowing all the performance and control

objectives will help to determine the program
memory size. Required memory size impacts the
microcontroller as it must have the ability to
address large memory space.
Microcontroller
The ECM hardware design should begin with an
investigation of which CPU, generally referred to as a
microprocessor, should be used. The basic standalone microprocessors of a decade ago have evolved
from simple arithmetic logic units (ALUs) with limited
memory space to 8-, 16-, and 32-bit architectures
combined with random access memory (RAM), read
only memory (ROM), various input/output (I/O)
78
Section 4
Memory
The designer of the ECMs memory structure should
consider three types of data retention: 1) Permanent,
2) Reprogrammable, 3) Dynamic. The engine
management main program code should reside in
permanent type memory. A permanent memory device
retains its contents over an ignition cycle and when the
ECM supply power is disconnected. The ability to
reprogram the permanent memory device should be
considered a key issue when the main program code is
to be updated or if features are to be added to existing
ECMs after the engine has left the factory.
There are currently three basic types of
reprogrammable permanent memory devices: 1)
erasable programmable ROM (EPROM), (2)
electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM),
3) Flash ROM. Of these three types of reprogrammable
memory, EPROMs are typically the best choice for
applications where data almost never needs changing.
Otherwise, Flash devices should be considered.
Although the average EPROM costs about a third of
what a Flash device costs, the differential is wiped out
by the expense of a single reprogramming. The inECM reprogramming of a Flash device is minimal as
compared to removing, erasing, and reprogramming an
EPROM, when vehicle downtime and labor are
factored in.
Parameters, which can be set by OEMs and
customers, provide the required system configuration
flexibility. This flexibility necessitates the need to erase
and program individual ECM memory bytes selectively.
Therefore, EEPROMs should be considered as the
storage device for engine performance data, customerspecified parameters, engine audit trail information,
etc. Although currently about twice the cost of FLASH,
EEPROM technology enables individual byte erasure
and programming.
Flash devices are typically erased in their entirety or

large section by section.
Static RAM or fast read/write memory should be used
to provide the system with a means for temporary
storage of intermediate values for calculations, for
parameters passed to subroutines, for program stacks,
etc.
A substantial reserve of memory space should be
considered for future growth and control features.
ASICs
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
technology can offer the system designer the ability to
integrate multiple circuit functions on the same chip,
slash the amount of PCB interconnections, shrink the
ECM package size, enhance system reliability, and
achieve a higher level of performance.
When selecting an ASIC solution it is important to
develop a supplier selection process based on the
intended circuit design criteria. The issue of cost must
also be considered. The designer must determine if the
payback period for the ASIC investment is acceptable
as compared to the cost of a discrete implementation.
Although the cost is non-recurring, the ASIC
investment can cost tens to hundreds of thousands of
dollars. The designer must maximize the level of
integration and properly cluster circuit functions to take
full advantage of ASIC technology.
Power Devices
The ECM hardware design will require power devices
to provide the means of interfacing with external high
operating current devices. Power device applications
typically include: system power supply, amplifiers,
injector solenoid drivers, lamp drivers, relay drivers,
etc. Power metal oxide semiconductor field-effect
transistors (MOSFETs) can offer the designer a high
speed switching device with an exceptionally wide
range of voltages and
79
currents in addition to low turn on resistance. Electronic

component suppliers currently offer power MOSFETs
with various characteristics and capabilities. Selection
of the proper devices will depend directly on the
external devices that are to be operated. The ECM
circuit designer must determine the load characteristics
of all devices to insure the power MOSFET application
will function within its designed safe operating area
with regard to its power handling capability. Other key
MOSFET design parameters are: switching speed,
turn-on voltage, turn-on resistance, and gate drive
requirements.
Recently, power devices along with control and
protection circuitry, have been integrated on a single
IC, resulting in a smart power device. The designer
should consider this combination of power and logic to
reduce circuit complexity, and improve the cost and
reliability of the ECM.
Interface Devices
The design and selection of interface devices,
commonly referred to as input/output (I/O) devices are
critical to system performance. The microcontroller
interface to external data is accomplished through
peripheral interface devices. These I/O devices provide
data acquisition and perform tasks of conversion,
storage or latching, buffering, timing, and control.
Therefore, the performance and accuracy of the I/O
devices must meet the data processing requirements
of the engine control system.
The designer must have knowledge of the external
signals from engine sensors, vehicle switches, etc., as
they can take on a variety of waveforms such as
discrete ON/OFF, variable frequency, variable duty
cycle pulse width modulated (PWM), and continuous
analog levels. Typical acquisition of these signals is
achieved with peripheral I/O devices such as analog to
digital converters (ADC), parallel interfaces, and serial
80
interfaces.
Many
integrated
microcontrollers
incorporate these functions, which can simplify the I/O
design structure of the ECM.
Serial Interface Devices
The design and implementation of heavy-duty industry
standardized serial data links can facilitate the diesel
engine to vehicle integration. The SAE Vehicle Network
for Multiplexing and Data Communications Subcommittee has defined three basic serial data link
hardware interfaces:
CLASS A: Low-speed data bit rate for remote

device load control
CLASS B: Mid-range data bit rate for parametric

data exchange
CLASS C: High-speed data bit rate for real-time

control information transfer
The serial data networks described as Class B and

Class C have been accepted and implemented by the
heavy-duty industry. Specifications, applications, and
protocols for these networks are described in the
Communications Section.
From an electronic hardware design standpoint, the
ECM circuit designer must have knowledge of the
specialized requirements of the Class B and Class C
serial communication networks. The SAE J 1708
document addresses the hardware to be used to
design a Class B network. The Class C network is
based around the Controller Area Network (CAN)
protocol defined by Robert Bosch GmBH. The first
electronic devices implementing this protocol were
stand-alone ICs requiring additional PC board space
and logic devices to interface the IC to the
microcontroller. Newer devices integrate the CAN
protocol into the microcontroller itself to simplify system
design.
Section 4
Power Supply
The ECM power supply should be designed to accept
heavy-duty vehicle system supply voltages, which can
be either 12 or 24 volts nominal. Designing reliable
power supplies requires accounting for the effects of
peak instantaneous transients, using high reliability
components, and using conservative derating practices
which result in operation at low device junction
temperatures. The designer should compare the
operational aspects of the two typical power supply
designs, linear mode, and switching mode. A high
frequency switching mode design can minimize power
dissipation as compared to the linear mode, although
this switching may be an EMI noise source.
Sensors
Engine sensors are vital components for providing
effective performance of the diesel engine electronic
control system. The sensors provide the ECM
information which is used to enhance engine
performance during various operating conditions. Also,
diagnostic limits can be programmed into the ECM to
provide engine protection based on sensor information.
It will be the decision of the system designer to identify
the required types of engine sensors. Designing and
manufacturing sensors is a formidable task. Therefore,
working with a supplier who offers the desired
components is typically the best approach for
incorporating them into the engine control system
design. Engine sensors are available from many
suppliers who offer sensing elements of various
technologies. When considering these technologies it
is also important to thoroughly understand the sensor
application environment. Key design features of
sensors are: electrical accuracy of the sensing
element, strong output signal without the need for
compensation, response time, supply voltage
requirements, transfer function, and robust packaging.
The basic sensors typically required for control and/or

protection of a heavy-duty electronic diesel engine are
described in the following text. These sensors mount
directly on the engine with the exception of the throttle
position sensor, coolant level sensor, and vehicle
speed sensor. The mounting locations of these sensors
are: vehicle cab, radiator, and wheel or transmission
tailshaft respectively.
Crank Position Sensor
The crank position sensor is a key input to the ECM
which is used to calculate engine speed and schedule
fuel injection events. Crank position sensors are
typically magnetic sensor devices which can detect
either teeth or holes in a ferrous wheel rotating within a
small air gap. The sensor along with the timing wheel
that has known tooth or hole crank angle indexing is
used to determine engine speed, cylinder top dead
center (TDC) positions, and injection timing and
duration. Variable reluctance and Hall Effect sensors
are commonly used as engine position sensors. The
system designer must determine the most effective
type of sensor technology and also define the optimum
tooth or hole crank angle index.
Throttle Position Sensor
The throttle position sensor provides the vehicle
operators demand for power. The throttle position
sensor is typically a rotary potentiometer and an
integral part of the electronic foot pedal assembly
which is mounted in the vehicles cab. An idle validation
switch can be added to the pedal for an independent
idle position indication to detect in-range electrical
failures. To maintain a standardized hardware design
approach as a benefit to OEMs, the system designer
should consider selecting an electronic foot pedal that
meets SAE J1843 "Accelerator Pedal Position Sensor
for use
81
with Electronic Controls in Medium and heavy-duty

Diesel On-Highway Vehicle Applications."
Pressure Sensors
Typical engine pressure sensors include: turbo boost,
oil, fuel, and barometer. The turbo boost sensor is used
to measure the intake manifold air pressure. The ECM
can use this information to maintain optimum air-fuel
ratio control in order to limit smoke. Oil and fuel
pressure sensors are normally used as engine
protection devices to detect low conditions. Plugged
engine fuel filters can be detected by a fuel pressure
sensor. Barometric pressure information is useful to the
ECM for fuel rate adjustment when operating at
elevated altitudes.
Temperature Sensors
The engine temperature sensors can include: oil,
coolant, fuel, and air. Oil and coolant sensors are
common engine protection devices to detect excessive
temperature conditions. Information from these sensors
Figure 4.48 Electronic Control Module Interfaces

82
is also useful for cold engine starting, fuel timing

optimization, and fast idle strategies. Continuous ECM
monitoring of the engines fuel temperature is essential
for maintaining consistent fuel delivery. Air temperature
can be used for a variety of engine controls.
Fluid Level Sensors
The ECM should allow for inputs from oil and coolant
level sensors. Detecting out-of-range levels is an
effective engine protection feature.
Vehicle Speed Sensor
The vehicle speed sensor (VSS) information is the
essential data needed to perform vehicle speed limiting
and vehicle cruise control. Vehicle speed sensors are of
the same technology as engine position sensors. The
VSS can be located at a vehicles wheel or on a
transmission tailshaft.
The ECM interfaces can be seen in Figure 4.48
Section 4
Wiring And Interconnection System

Electrical connectors might seem to be basic parts, but
they are crucial components that must maintain
integrity under all types of conditions, as the diesel
engine operates in many of the harshest environments
in the world. Electrical connectors are available in a
wide variety of configurations and styles. The designer
must select the type of connector that will best meet
the requirements of all the anticipated applications, and
stay within the limiting guidelines of industry
standardization. Also, regardless of the connector type
selected, existing equipment and systems will also be
committed to various connector types, and the OEMs
and customers must be familiar with them. In the initial
design, coordination with the customer is important to
establish a preferred connector system.
Choice of electrical connectors and associated
hardware must consider the following: types of
connectors, number of circuits required, electrical
capabilities, mechanical capabilities, environmental
capabilities, ease of contact replacement, and ease of
mating. Connector mounting constraints and
considerations are as follows: corrosion resistant
bodies and accessories, minimum galvanic coupling of
dissimilar metals, effect of cross connecting cables,
and adequate cable strain relief.
The system wiring harness designer must consider
wiring circuit number coding and a wire color
identification structure. The SAE is currently
developing a recommended practice for a method of
identifying electrical circuits in heavy-duty vehicles.
The purpose of this document is to provide a industrywide standard to enhance engine and vehicle
serviceability. Circuit codes and color identification can
reduce the cost of maintenance and vehicle down time.
Communications
Implementing serial data link interfaces in the ECM is
an essential design consideration because of the
benefits that can be gained from bidirectional electronic

information transfers.
These benefits can be found in diagnostics and
maintenance through available system operating
information, and with vehicle performance and safety
improvements through powertrain control functions
such as, anti-lock braking systems (ABS), automatic
traction control (ATC), transmission control, etc. The
ability to share information between vehicle electronic
subsystems and off-board information systems
requires a data link network topology that is supported
by all connecting functions.
To achieve a high level of interconnect compatibility,
the ECM design should support data link interfaces
common to heavy-duty vehicles. The heavy-duty
industry has developed recommended practices
through the combined efforts of the SAE and TMC to
describe the basic hardware interfaces and the format
of messages and data being communicated between
microprocessor based systems used in heavy-duty
vehicle applications. These recommended practices
are as follows:
SAE
J1708
"Serial
Data
Communications
Between Microcomputer Systems in Heavy-duty

Vehicle Applications."
SAE J1587 "Joint SAE/TMC Electronic Data

Interchange Between Microcomputers Systems
in Heavy-duty Vehicle Applications."
SAE J1922 "Powertrain Control Interface for

Electronic Controls Used in Medium and Heavyduty Diesel On-Highway Vehicle Applications."
SAE J1939 "Serial Control and Communications

Network (Class
Applications."
C)
for
Truck
SAE J1708 describes the electrical

requirements that the ECM must
and
Bus
hardware
83
have in order to connect into and access the data link

network to send or receive messages. As described
earlier, a J1708 (Class B) network specifies mid-range
data bit rates.
SAE J1587 provides a specification for communicating
diagnostic information from system devices, sensors
and/or components, and failures on a J1708 network.
SAE J1922 is used in some heavy-duty vehicles for
control of drivetrain systems. J1922, similar to J1587,
also utilizes a J1708 specified network. J1922 specifies
a serial data message format for real-time control of
ABS, ATC, and transmissions. The ECM designer
should consider a dedicated J1922 link to achieve the
benefits of driver safety and comfort from these vehicle
control functions.
SAE J1939 (Class C) describes a data link which
provides the control system with a high-speed data
transfer
method
for
real-time
control
and
communications. As this protocol becomes more and
more accepted by OEMs, it is expected that this link
will perform all of the information and control tasks
required on heavy-duty vehicles.
Diagnostics
The process of troubleshooting and repairing an
electronically controlled diesel engine requires the use
of advanced on-board diagnostic techniques and offboard service tools. Properly implemented diagnostics
can provide the diesel engine service technician with
an orderly procedure to quickly identify a defective
subsystem, even if it is intermittent in nature. This
diagnostic system will also ensure the acceptance and
success of future heavy-duty vehicle electronic
integration.
In the heavy-duty trucking industry the requirement for
standardized diagnostics and service tools is a priority.
Truck manufacturers have the responsibility of
installing various engines from different manufacturers
84
into a serviceable vehicle. If each engine manufacturer

required different proprietary diagnostic messages and
tools, serviceability would become difficult to manage.
As previously described in the Communications
Section, the SAE has recognized this situation and has
developed the recommended practice SAE J1587.
Full implementation of J1587 in the ECM design is a
must, as it has been accepted by the heavy-duty
industry for general parameter data exchange and
diagnostics. The J1587 document defines the format of
messages and data transmitted on a J1708 data link
network. This protocol provides a technique for
message source and destination addressing. This
technique categorizes and numbers devices and
systems on the vehicles J1708 link. These numbers
are unique to the devices and systems and are defined
as Message IDentifiers (MIDs).
Parameter IDentifiers (PIDs) are used to describe
various system operating parameters common to
heavy-duty vehicles. The PIDs define the number of
data bytes used by the parameter, data range and
resolution, link priority, and frequency of transmission.
J1587 supports system diagnostics through the use of
Failure Mode Identifiers (FMIs) and Subsystem
IDentifications (SIDs). SIDs are assigned by the
electronic system designer to identify field-repairable or
replaceable subsystems for which failures can be
detected and isolated. FMIs describe the type of failure
detected in the subsystem. In summary, J 1587
specifies.a serial data message structure combining
MIDs, PIDs, SIDs, and FMIs as a guideline for
transmitting diagnostic and operating information.
To complete the system, the on-board diesel engine
diagnostic system should have an industry compatible
off-board
Fuel Quantity Control - The ECM uses preprogrammed

fuel quantity control values to provide highly repeatable
engine speed and torque characteristics. The
preprogrammed data has also been optimized for fuel
economy and exhaust emissions.
Starting Control - The ECM provides improved engine
starting by accurately determining engine cranking
speeds and temperatures to determine optimal fuel
injection quantity and timing.
Engine Governing - Engine idle speed, variable set
speed, and high speed are the typical governing
modes of an electronically controlled diesel engine.
High speed droop is usually a programmable
parameter that can be set by the user.
Smoke Control - The engine ECM controls exhaust
smoke by measuring the intake manifold air pressure
and engine speed to determine a fuel rate limit.
Multiple Torque Control - Multiple engine torque control
allows the user to select between separate speed and
torque curves that have been programmed in the ECM.
Multiple torque curves provide versatility for various
engine applications.
Cylinder Balancing - Cylinder to cylinder power
balancing provides smooth engine operation and can
improve exhaust emissions.
Engine Protection - Engine protection is an engine
shutdown feature that is used to prevent engine
damage typically due to cooling or lubrication system
faults. An audible or visual alarm is used to alert the
driver that the ECM has detected that an engine
temperature, pressure, or fluid level, has exceeded or
dropped below a programmed level. Engine power
86
reduction is sometimes used by the ECM prior to

shutdown. If the fault condition improves, the power will
be restored, and if conditions continue to worsen, the
engine fueling may be shutdown.
Idle Shutdown - The idle shutdown feature will stop
fueling the engine after a programmable idling period.
This feature eliminates unnecessary engine idle time
which leads to overall fuel consumption improvements.
Additional enhancements to the idle shutdown feature
are, a diagnostic indication lamp that flashes during the
last minutes before engine shutdown to warn the
driver, and the ability to override the shutdown.
Engine Retarder Control - The diesel engine ECM
provides the interface between the drivers selection
switches and the retarder actuators. ECM
programmable parameters provide flexibility to the user
to set the amount of braking and vehicle speed at
which the engine retarder will be actuated.
Engine Fan Control - The engine ECM controls the fan
based on sensed temperatures. The ECM will disable
the fan whenever the engine temperature allows.
Disabling the fan will reduce engine loading and
provide a fuel savings. The fan can also be enabled
along with the engine retarder to provide additional
braking power.
Cruise Control - The cruise control feature, similar to
automotive systems, will maintain a vehicle speed after
a simple driver switch application. An ACCEL switch
usually allows a fixed vehicle speed increase for each
switch transition. The cruise mode is interrupted by the
activation of either a brake or clutch switch. Cruise
control can reduce driver fatigue and maintain vehicle
speeds within legal limits, which leads to improved
vehicle safety.
Section 4
Figure 4.50 Access to Heavy-duty Truck Electronic Data

Vehicle Speed Limiting - This electronic feature limits
the vehicle speed by controlling the quantity of fuel to
the engine. The vehicle speed limit is typically an ECM
programmable value that can be changed by the user.
By limiting excessive vehicle speeds, fuel consumption
efficiency can be achieved and vehicle safety can be
improved.
Progressive Shifting - Progressive shifting encourages
the driver to upshift from a lower to a higher gear prior
to reaching the engines governed speed. Fuel
economy is improved by limiting the rate of
acceleration of the vehicle.
Software Development
The software development process for the ECM should
be modelled after the conventional engineering cycle
which begins at the system requirements level and
progresses through analysis, design, coding, testing,
and maintenance, Figure 4.51. In theory this is a

sequential process, and iterations generally are
required. Seldom does the customer state all of the
system requirements up front. When these
requirements do become clear, the analysis and design
must be visited again to determine the impact on the
software. This usually results in design and coding
changes and retesting if the requirements come in late
in the development process.
System Requirements - Since the software is only a
part of the entire ECM, a system requirements
specification should be generated which states what
the ECM is supposed to do. From this specification, a
subset of the system requirements should be allocated
to software. Many times, this allocation of requirements
to software will influence the microprocessor and
memory decisions made in the hardware determination
process.
87
Figure 4.51 ECM Software Development Cycle

Requirements Analysis - A software requirements
analysis must be done to understand the required
functionality, interfaces, and performance of the
software. This analysis should be done using some
structured analysis and a Computer Aided Software
Engineering (CASE) tool. The analysis should show
the essential interfaces and intended functionality of
the software without specifying implementation details.
Design - The design process translates the
requirements analysis into a form which is suitable for
implementation on the ECM hardware. Like the
requirements analysis, the design should be performed
using a structured method which allows the designer to
continually assess the design for quality before passing
the design to the coding phase. The designer should
consider real-time constraints, memory size, flexibility,
maintainability, enhancability, etc. during the entire
design process.
Coding - The coding process consists of translating the
design into a machine-readable format. Coding with a
high-level language can provide the advantages of,
sophisticated data structures, a large set of operators,
and low-level, assembler-like, features for efficiency.
The high-level language is easier to read than
assembler code and more portable.
Many times the coding phase can be a mechanical
step if the design is very detailed. The coder should
follow project established coding standards and
attempt to write code that is efficient, readable (well
structured and commented), and maintainable.
88
Testing - The testing phase should begin with code

level or unit tests where the code statements are
tested. Next, the code should be tested at a module
level where the interfaces are tested and finally, at the
system or functional level where testing is done using
the ECM and a engine simulator or a test truck to
insure that the ECM system requirements have been
met. Testing should consider using simulators, incircuit emulators, source code browsers and
debuggers to reduce the time spent finding and fixing
software bugs.
Maintenance - The software will almost always be
changed after it has been delivered to the customer
because of feature enhancements or additions, etc.
Because of this, the maintenance phase of software
development is very important and consists of
executing each of the preceding steps to modify the
software. Changes to the software should never be
performed by simply changing the code because the
system requirements and design become obsolete and
make future enhancements and understanding of the
ECM software very difficult.
Electronic Programming
With the amount of programmable memory contained
in the ECM, the designer must determine the most
efficient method to
Section 4
program this memory under a variety of different

circumstances. Most memory devices are programmed
by the on-board microcontroller with information
provided across a serial data link. The J1708 data link
is often used to transmit the data to be programmed
into the ECM as it is easily accessible, even after the
engine is installed in the vehicle. The programming
device will also require hardware compatibility with
J1708.
SAE J1683
Most ECM memory programming is performed using
an industry standard personal computer (PC). The
standard serial interface on a PC is RS-232, which is
not compatible with J1708. The SAE has defined in
J1683 a set of software functions that allow software
designers to write applications independent of the
hardware interface design. This document was
originally prepared by TMC as a recommended
practice RP1202 "Communications Driver for Offboard
Diagnostic Tools and Devices". Designers of J1708
interfaces for the PC can insure that their interface will
work with any software application by also developing
a,
J1683
"MS-DOS
Interface
for
J1708
Communications", software driver for their interface.
the type of vehicle and the vehicle environment. While

many of these parameters may be customized by the
user with the aid of a manufacturer proprietary
hand-held tool, many users may choose to rely on the
engine manufacturer or the vehicle manufacturer to
perform their initial customization.
Calibration Development
The calibration engineer will require an array tools that
will allow him or her to record and display engine data
acquired across the J1708 data link, quickly modify and
reprogram the calibration, and repeat the test. As this
development may be done on a test cell dynamometer
or in the vehicle, the use of a portable PC is essential.
These tools are most likely proprietary to the engine
manufacturer.
Factory Programming
During engine assembly, the ECM memory is
programmed. The main program code may reside in
EPROM and have been preinstalled. However, a
significant benefit of the use of Flash ROM for the main
program code is that it insures that up-to-date,
application specific program code is programmed at
the time of engine assembly.
Engine Calibrations
The engine calibration programmed in ECM memory
uniquely defines the operational characteristics of the
engine in the vehicle. There are two components to this
calibration; basic engine performance and customerspecified parameters. The basic engine performance
calibration is developed by a calibration engineer to
insure that the engine will produce the described
torque curve and will meet customer performance
expectations while also adhering to federal regulated
smoke, emissions and noise criteria.
The customer-specified parameters, such as cruise
control operation, vehicle speed limiting, engine
protection levels, etc., will vary widely depending on
The basic engine performance calibration and the

customer-specific characteristics may be programmed
into the calibration memory, either EEPROM or a
section of Flash ROM. The engine may be tested to the
specific characteristics expected by the customer.
Information about the specific engine calibration should
by retained in a factory database so that it may be
available for subsequent service reprogramming.
OEM Programming
In some instances, the Original Equipment
Manufacturer (OEM) may choose to order generic
engine configurations from the
89
engine supplier and customize them at their facility.

This reduces the number of unique orders required and
the need to match specific engines to customers during
vehicle assembly. In this situation, the vehicle
manufacturer will program the customer-specific
parameters.
Again, industry standardization has greatly reduced the
impact on the vehicle manufacturer. SAE has defined a
common
procedure
for
configuring
vehicle
components, regardless of their manufacturer, while
allowing the component manufacturer a reasonable
level of security to the programming process. To
achieve a high level of acceptance with the vehicle
manufacturer, the engine supplier should support the
SAE recommended practices J1924 "OEM/Vendor
Interface Specification for Electronic Programming
Stations" and J2214 "Vehicle Electronic Programming
Stations
(VEPS)
System
Specification
for
Programming J1708-capable Components at OEM
Assembly Plants".
Service Programming
With the advent of electronically programmed ECMs, a
replacement can not simply be taken "off-the-sheif and
installed on the engine. The specific main program
code and unique engine calibration must first be
programmed. It may be possible in some situations to
extract the configuration from one ECM and program
another. In most situations however, the unique engine
configuration will have to be received from the factory
database. The customer may elect to change the
engine performance characteristics and have the
factory database validate and reflect these changes. In
similar fashion, calibration and program code updates
and enhancements may be made available to the
customer.
Major opportunities exist to help the vehicle owner
manage the business through the use of more
information made available from electronics on the
90
vehicle. Productivity can be optimized by knowing the

drivers habits and the vehicles condition and
capability. Maintenance cost can be better controlled
with better diagnostics, and with prognostic data.
Improved information for the driver can enhance the
efficiency and effectiveness of the vehicle operation.
For example, knowledge of the miles per gallon at a
particular time or for a certain prior segment, can allow
the operator to optimize fuel economy.
Trip recorders and navigational equipment can be used
to convey maintenance information to the service
manager who can then track vehicle failures and
predict future problems instead of just diagnosing
current ones.
TURBOCHARGER, INTERCOOLER,
INTAKE MANIFOLD, EXHAUST
MANIFOLD
The purpose of the engine air inlet system is to supply
fresh air to the engine in the proper quantity and under
the proper conditions of pressure and temperature to
meet the needs for cylinder scavenging and
combustion. Similarly, the purpose of the engine
exhaust system is to collect, transport, and discharge
the exhaust gases from the engine cylinders to the
vehicle exhaust system.
For naturally aspirated engines, the engine intake and
exhaust systems are comprised simply of the intake
and exhaust manifolds and any additional ducting that
may be required to interface with the vehicle intake and
exhaust systems. Although naturally aspirated engines
have the advantage of simplicity of air system design,
they have a serious drawback in that their specific
power output is limited by the quantity of air available
for combustion. Attempts to increase power solely by
increasing fueling result in lower airlfuel ratios and
raise exhaust smoke, brake specific fuel
Section 4
consumption and engine operating temperatures.

The only other alternative to increase power from these
engines is to increase engine displacement. This,
however, results in a corresponding increase in engine
size and weight. The trade-offs associated with either
of these alternatives have become increasingly
unacceptable in todays heavy-duty truck engine
market.
The solution to this dilemma has been to increase
engine specific output by raising the charge air density
through the use of pressure boost devices and intake
air charge coolers. While these devices provide a
number of emissions and performance advantages in
addition to allowing increased power output, they
increase the sophistication of the air system and create
a new set of challenges and trade-offs for the engine
design
team.
In
ensuing
paragraphs,
the
considerations which must be weighed when designing
these systems will be discussed.
Turbocharger
There are two fundamental types of pressure boost
devices, mechanically driven superchargers and
exhaust energy driven turbochargers.
Several different kinds of mechanical superchargers
exist, including roots blowers, piston pumps, swash
plate devices and various types of rotary and screw
compressors. Because these devices are both
mechanically driven and positive displacement, they
respond instantaneously to changes in engine speed
but do not react to changes in engine load. Engine air
flow with these devices is therefore nearly proportional
to engine speed and as a result, the available engine
torque curve tends to be quite flat.
High pressure supercharging is possible with piston

and screw compressors. Since these devices are bulky
and usually must be gear driven, the designer has
limited flexibility in locating them on the engine. All
mechanically driven superchargers have the
disadvantage of directly consuming power from the
engine output shaft. The power requirement increases
with pressure boost and can be substantial for high
boost devices.
Turbochargers are actually a class of supercharger, but
are distinguished from the devices described above in
that they are driven by engine exhaust energy.
Fundamentally, a turbocharger consists of a turbine
wheel and a compressor wheel on a common shaft.
The turbine extracts energy from the hot engine
exhaust gases and uses it to drive the compressor
which pressurizes the intake air.
Turbochargers operate at high speeds, and as a result,
they are fairly compact devices. They commonly
operate efficiently at boost pressure ratios in the range
of two or three to one and do this by recovering
exhaust energy. Turbochargers also have the
characteristic that the compressor pressure ratio
increases as the ambient air pressure decreases.
Turbochargers, therefore, tend to automatically
compensate for the loss of air density which occurs
when the engine is operated at high altitude. For these
reasons, turbocharging is the preferred method of
supercharging most modern diesel engines.
Turbocharger Design
There are three main sections to a turbocharger; the
turbine section, the center section, and the compressor
section. (Figure 4.52)
91
turbine and compressor wheels. The nozzle portion of

the turbine section is carefully designed to cause the
exhaust gases to impinge on the turbine blades at the
optimum angle and velocity. For conventional
turbochargers, the nozzle geometry is a fixed feature of
the turbine housing.
Turbines are designed to operate with either constant
pressure or pulse flow. In a constant pressure design,
the exhaust manifold is designed to absorb the exhaust
blowdown pressure pulses and deliver the exhaust gas
to the turbine at a constant pressure. The steady gas
flow provided with this type of system is conducive to
high turbine efficiency, but generally results in higher
exhaust back pressure being imposed on the engine
cylinders and additional pumping work during the
exhaust stroke of a four-stroke cycle engine.
Figure 4.52 Turbocharger-Main Sections

The turbine section consists of a bladed turbine wheel
and a housing. For radial flow turbochargers, the most
common type used in automotive applications, the
turbine housing includes an inlet which normally bolts
to a mating flange on the exhaust manifold.
The housing is shaped such that the exhaust gas flows
radially inward through a converging section or nozzle
and then impinges on the turbine blades. The turbine
blades turn the gas flow and cause it to exit axially from
the turbine section. The change in angular momentum
of the gas flow causes a reaction force on the turbine
blades and imparts a torque on the shaft joining the
92
In a pulse flow system, the intent is to deliver the

cylinder blowdown pulses to the turbine undiminished,
and to utilize the kinetic energy in these pulses to drive
the turbine. The uneven flow and pressure at the
turbine reduces turbine efficiency, but with a properly
designed system the reduction in turbine efficiency is
more than offset with lower cylinder back pressure and
reduced engine pumping work. To minimize
interactions between the exhaust flows from the
different cylinders and to help preserve the individual
blowdown pulses, pulse turbochargers generally utilize
divided turbine housings as shown in Figure 4.53.
The compressor section consists of a compressor
wheel and a housing which acts as a diffuser. Its
construction is similar to the turbine section except that
the intake air enters the compressor axially and exits
radially via the diffuser. The diffuser must be carefully
designed to convert velocity to total pressure at the
compressor outlet.
Section 4
Even if design precautions are taken to prevent wheel

failures from all of these speed-related mechanisms,
the potential for wheel bursts due to manufacturing
defects or foreign object damage still remains. For
safety reasons, therefore, the turbine and compressor
housings should be designed to remain intact and
contain all material in the event of a high speed wheel
failure.
The turbocharger center section contains the bearings

which support the shaft joining the turbine and
compressor wheels and provides mounting surfaces
for the turbine and compressor housings. The center
section also includes passages which allow engine
lube oil to be pressure fed to the shaft bearings and to
drain back to the engine crankcase. This oil flow is
needed to lubricate and cool the shaft bearings.
Figure 4.53 Divided Turbine Housing

Both turbine and compressor wheels must be carefully
balanced and have sufficient strength to withstand the
centrifugal "burst" forces encountered at high speed.
The potential for blade fatigue failures from resonances
occurring within the operating speed range must also
be avoided.
In considering these factors, the designer must be
aware that the turbocharger speed increases in
response to a decrease in ambient or barometric air
pressure. Since barometric pressure decreases with
altitude, the range of altitude in which the turbocharger
is expected to be utilized must be factored into the
turbocharger design.
In designing the turbocharger lubrication system, the

designer must take precautions to ensure that oil in the
bearing area does not overheat and breakdown either
during normal operation or during the soak period
following the shutdown of a hot engine. Breakdown of
the oil can result in the shaft sticking and/or damage to
the bearings. The designer must also provide
appropriate seals to prevent lube oil from leaking into
the
compressor
and
turbine
sections
and
contaminating intake and exhaust gas flow streams
and to prevent exhaust gas from entering the engine
crankcase via the turbocharger oil drain.
Turbocharger
performance
and
operating
characteristics are normally communicated through the
use of compressor and turbine maps. In a compressor
map, lines of constant rotational speed and thermal
efficiency "Islands" are plotted on axes representing
the compressor pressure ratio and the air mass flow
rate (Figure 4.54). The compressor map also shows
the compressor operating limits.
93
Compressor efficiency is a measure of how closely the

actual compression process approaches the ideal
isentropic process. Since any departure from isentropic
compression results in reduced pressure rise and an
excess temperature rise, as shown in Figure 4.55, high
compressor efficiency is desirable. However, since the
excess compressor temperature rise can be offset by
charge cooling, the importance of compressor
efficiency diminishes as charge cooling is employed
and as the cooling effectiveness is increased.
Figure 4.54 Turbocharger Compressor Map

The left edge of the map is the surge limit. Operation in
the low flow region to the left of this boundary is
unstable and characterized by flow reversals or surges
through the compressor. Surging flow can destroy the
compressor and cause extensive damage to the
engine cylinder components.
The right edge of the map indicates the onset of
choked flow and gives the maximum flow capability of
the compressor. It is defined by the point where the
speed lines become vertical. The upper edge of the
map is the rotational speed limit and defines the
maximum pressure ratio capability of the compressor.
Operation above the speed limit may result in
centrifugal forces which are beyond the mechanical
design limits of the compressor wheel.
94
Figure 4.55 Departure from Isentropic Compression

The compressor flow characteristics and the size,
shape, and position of the compressor efficiency
islands can, to some degree, be influenced by what is
called the compressor "trim". Trim is defined by the
wheel inducer diameter, the wheel and shroud contour
and the diffuser width. To affect larger differences in
the compressor flow range the fundamental frame size
of the compressor unit must be modified.
For the turbine, the rotational speed lines tend to
collapse on one another allowing turbine performance
to be mapped as single
Section 4
curves of flow and efficiency versus turbine pressure

ratio (Figure 4.56). Typically the efficiency shown in
the turbine map is the product of the turbine adiabatic
efficiency and the turbocharger mechanical efficiency.
The mechanical efficiency accounts for the frictional
losses of the shaft bearings. As the turbine/mechanical
efficiency is increased, the shaft work required by the
compressor can be achieved with less back pressure
being imposed on the engine cylinders.
Figure 4.57 Turbine A/R

Turbocharger Matching
For an engine designer, the challenge is to select the
proper turbocharger for use on a particular engine. This
is not an easy task and inevitably requires that some
trade-offs be made.
Figure 4.56 Typical Turbine Pressure vs. Flow
Relationship
As with the compressor, turbine flow and efficiency
characteristics can be altered by modifying the turbine
trim. The turbine flow range is, however, largely fixed
by the ratio of the turbine flow area to the radial
distance from the shaft centerline to the centroid of the
inlet area (Figure 4.57). This is commonly known as
the turbine A/R ratio. Decreasing the A/R increases the
angular momentum and increases the energy available
to the turbine wheel. Rotor shaft speed and
compressor
pressure
ratio
and
flow
are
correspondingly increased. Turbine pressure ratio is
also increased with the result that the exhaust back
pressure imposed on the engine cylinders is increased.
Increasing the turbine A/R, of course, has the opposite
effects.
Typically, a four step "matching" process is taken in

selecting a turbocharger. The first step is to determine
the engine air mass flow requirement. This is a speed
function which depends on the desired engine torque
curve and the air utilization efficiency of the combustion
system. Given the air flow requirement and the engine
cylinder displacement, the air density and compressor
pressure ratio can then be established. A suitable
compressor can then be selected. Often times this step
is accomplished by overlaying engine pressure ratio
and air mass flow operating lines on candidate
compressor maps as shown in Figure 4.58 and
selecting the best overall match. The final step is to
select a
95
turbine design which produces the required shaft

torque at each compressor match airflow condition.
Besides these steady-state design trade-offs, the

engine designer must also carefully consider the
transient operation of the turbocharger. A major
concern is known as "turbocharger lag". This
phenomenon refers to the inability of the turbocharger
to respond instantaneously to changes in engine speed
and load because of its rotating inertia.
Turbocharger lag can be a problem under transiet
operation because the compressor flow may not be
sufficient to meet engine requirements during the lag
period. This temporary shortage of air may cause
excessive exhaust smoke and can limit engine
responsiveness. To minimize the effects of
turbocharger lag, it is desirable to reduce the turbine A/
R. This increases airflow and keeps the rotational
speed of the turbocharger high, but as already noted,
may result in excessive boost and cylinder pressure
under high engine speed and load conditions.
Figure 4.58 Compressor Map

The compressor selection process is complicated by
the fact that it is not possible to simultaneously
maximize the turbocharger efficiency at all engine
operating conditions. The need to maintain adequate
compressor surge margin may further restrict
compressor selection. More importantly, however,
there is a fundamental trade-off between the competing
requirements to have adequate boost and air/fuel ratio
at the engine peak torque speed while avoiding
excessive boost which causes peak cylinder pressures
to exceed engine structural limits at high speed.
96
A turbocharger technology which is receiving

increasing interest from heavy-duty engine designers is
the use of ceramic turbine wheels. Use of these wheels
has little effect on steady-state turbocharger
performance, but because they have much less inertia
than conventional metallic rotors, they can be used to
significantly reduce turbocharger lag. Engine response
and transient smoke characteristics can be improved
without resorting to an A/R which overboosts the
engine at high speed and without applying wastegates
or variable geometry turbocharging. Ceramic turbine
wheels are fairly commonplace on the smaller
turbochargers used on passenger car engines,
however, their usage on larger heavy-duty diesel
turbochargers has been limited because of costs and
difficulties in producing larger defect free ceramic
castings. As ceramic casting technology improves,
wider utilization of ceramic turbine
Section 4
wheels on heavy-duty engines can be anticipated.

Several turbocharger technologies are available to
address the design trade-offs. One of these
technologies is wastegating. (Figure 4.59)
Figure 4.59 Turbo Wastegate
While wastegating is an effective way to allow the

designer to maximize low speed and transient engine
performance, the addition of the wastegate adds to the
cost and complexity of the turbocharger and
necessitates additional development to prove the
reliability and durability of the wastegate valve and
valve actuator. In addition, "wasting" of exhaust energy
results in reduced overall engine efficiency at high
speed.
If this trade-off is not acceptable, the designer may
choose to go to the next level of turbocharger design
sophistication
known
as
variable
geometry
turbocharging. With variable geometry turbocharging,
moveable components are incorporated in the turbine
which allow the turbine flow area or the flow angle of
the gas entering the turbine to be continuously varied.
The variable geometry feature allows turbine
performance to be optimized over a wide range of
operating conditions. Figure 4.61 and Figure 4.62
illustrate two types of variable geometry turbines.
A wastegate is a passage in the turbine housing which

allows exhaust gas to bypass the turbine and pass
directly into the vehicle exhaust system. The wastegate
is closed at low intake manifold pressure and is opened
at manifold pressures above some preset trigger level.
In essence, the wastegate is a boost limiting device
(Figure 4.60) and as such, the valve opening pressure
and the flow passage must be designed to ensure that
engine boost and cylinder pressure limits are not
exceeded.
Use of a wastegate allows the designer to optimize the
engine/turbocharger match for low speed and transient
operation without being constrained by high speed
boost limits. In most cases this results in the selection
of a lower turbine A/R than would otherwise be
possible. The lower A/R ensures sufficient boost and
airflow to meet low speed engine demand, and
because it increases turbine speed, it reduces
turbocharger lag and improves turbocharger and
engine response.
Figure 4.60 Wastegate Boost Limiting
97
In Figure 4.61, the turbine housing includes a plate

which can be moved during operation to vary the inlet
flow area and the turbine A/R. In Figure 4.62, the
turbine A/R remains fixed, but efficiency is varied via
adjustable nozzle vanes which control the angle at
which the gas flow impacts the turbine wheel.
Figure 4.61 Variable Geometry Turbine
Secondly, a control system must be provided. The

control logic must be developed and optimized for the
full range of engine operating conditions, and the
control system sensing and actuating elements must,
of course, be shown to be reliable and durable.
Figure 4.62 Variable Vane Turbine
These and other forms of variable geometry

turbocharging not only overcome the high and low
speed boost and flow compromises which must be
made with conventional turbocharging, but allow the
engine exhaust energy to be utilized reasonably
efficiently throughout the engine operating range.
There are, however, some practical concerns with the
use of variable geometry technologies which must be
addressed.
Finally, the introduction of the variable geometry

feature necessitates increased turbine clearances and
flow disturbances which may negatively impact the
aerodynamic efficiency of the turbine. Compressor
efficiencies may also need to be compromised to
accommodate the flow and boost schedules achieved
with the variable geometry turbine. Frequently, these
practical considerations outweigh the theoretical
advantages of variable geometry turbocharging in
heavy-duty diesel engine applications.
First, as with wastegateing, the turbochargers variable

geometry mechanism complicates the turbocharger
design and must be proven to be reliable and to meet
engine durability requirements.
Intercooler
98
Although pressure boosting is the primary means used

to increase charge air density, it has the undesirable
side effect of raising
Section 4
the charge air temperature. This temperature rise can,

however, be offset by cooling the charge air. This
process is known as charge air cooling or, more simply,
as charge cooling, and is accomplished using a heat
exchanger placed between the supercharger and the
engine cylinder intake ports.
Charge cooling has a number of important benefits.
First, because it provides an additional charge density
increase, it allows the specific output of the engine to
be increased. Also as a result of the increased charge
density, the altitude capability of the engine is
increased and the brake specific fuel consumption is
improved. Another major benefit of charge cooling is
that it reduces the operating temperature of cylinder
and exhaust system components. As a result,
component durability can be improved while avoiding
the need to make these components from more
expensive high temperature materials.
Charge air cooling systems may be classified by the

heat sink medium and can be arranged in the order of
increasing charge cooling potential.
Air-to-water charge cooling uses the engine coolant as
the cooling medium. In its simplest form, engine
coolant returning from the radiator is passed through
the charge cooler before it circulates through the
engine water jacket. (Figure 4.63) While this type of
system is quite easily integrated into the engine design,
the cooling potential is limited by the temperature of the
engine coolant which is typically in the range of 170 to
190F (77 to 88C).
Perhaps the greatest benefit from charge cooling is its

effect on exhaust emissions. Carbon monoxide and
particulate emissions are reduced as a direct result of
the increased charge density and air/fuel ratio. The
effect on NOx emissions can be even more dramatic.
The in-cylinder NOx formation reactions are
temperature dependent and are controlled by the peak
cylinder temperature.
Depending on the compression ratio of the engine, a
100F (38C) reduction in intake manifold temperature
lowers the peak cylinder temperature by 250 to 30OF
(121 to 149C) and can reduce NOx emissions by 30%
or more. Because charge cooling is one of the few
ways to reduce engine-out NOx emissions without
degrading fuel economy or increasing other emissions,
it has become a preferred NOx control technology for
turbocharged diesel engines.
Figure 4.63 Standard Water Cooling

Lower temperature air-to-water charge cooling can be
obtained by adding a separate radiator and coolant
circuit for the charge cooler or by regulating the flow
through the engine radiator. While these systems can
increase the cooling potential by 40 to 60F (4 to 16C)
relative to a standard air-to-water system, they add to
the overall complexity of the cooling system design.
99
Air-to-air charge cooling uses ambient air as the

cooling medium. Although both air-to-water and air-toair charge cooling systems use the ambient air as the
ultimate heat sink, air-to-air systems transfer the heat
directly to the ambient air by means of a single air-toair heat exchanger which is normally placed just ahead
of the engine radiator. As is shown in Figure 4.64,
compressed charge air is ducted from the turbocharger
compressor outlet to the air-to-air heat exchanger and
cooled air from the heat exchanger is returned to the
engine intake manifold. Because ambient air is used to
cool the charge air, the charge is considerably cooler
than with any of the air-to-water cooling systems. With
a well designed air-to-air system, charge temperatures
within 30F (17C) of ambient can often be achieved.
Besides producing lower charge temperatures,

air-to-air systems are quite simple and can be installed
without modifying the existing engine cooling system.
One disadvantage of these systems is that the air-to-air
heat exchanger and the interconnecting ducting
represent a significant space claim in the vehicle
engine compartment. Packaging concerns can
normally be resolved, but close coordination between
the engine and vehicle design teams is required to
ensure an optimum system design. Obviously, this
coordination is more easily accomplished within
vertically integrated companies which produce both
engine and vehicle. It should also be noted that the
charge air temperature achieved with an air-to-air
cooling system varies with the ambient air temperature.
As a result, the charge temperature is not as closely
controlled as with an air-to-water charge cooling
system where the cooling water temperature is kept
within fairly narrow limits via thermostatic control.
Charge air refrigeration is the most powerful form of
charge air cooling and can, in theory, achieve charge
temperatures which are well below ambient. This type
of system uses a refrigerant as the cooling medium and
requires the addition of a complete refrigeration circuit
including a compressor and heat exchangers for
cooling the intake air and condensing the refrigerant.
Use of a refrigeration system to accomplish the total
charge air cooling requirements would require a large
refrigeration unit that would be impractical for truck
applications. A more acceptable approach is to utilize
two stage cooling in which the first stage is either air-towater or air-to-air charge cooling as discussed above.
Figure 4.64 Air-to Air Charge Cooling
100
Even with the use of two stage cooling, the practicality

of charge air refrigeration is unproven. Not only are
there cost and packaging concerns associated with the
addition of the refrigeration circuit, but the benefits of
chilling the intake air are reduced by the reheating of
the air as it passes through the intake ports and enters
the engine cylinders. The power consumed by the
compressor and the possibility of problems associated
with moisture
Section 4
condensation in the intake air also diminish the

attractiveness of using a refrigeration system.
For these reasons, it is unlikely that refrigerated charge
cooling systems will be used in the near future. If such
systems are utilized, they will most likely be applied
first on large stationary engines where packaging
constraints are not as limiting as in vehicular
applications.
Air-to-air Charge Cooling Design
For many heavy-duty truck and truck engine designs,
air-to-air charge cooling offers the best compromise
between charge cooling potential, system cost and
complexity. The heart of the system is the air-to-air
heat exchanger. The heat exchanger consists of a core
of cross-flowing finned passages for the charge air,
and the ambient cooling air. Inlet and outlet header
sections for the charge air cap each side of the heat
exchanger. (Figure 4.65)
In parallel flow designs, the radiator and air-air heat

exchanger are placed side-by-side or stacked vertically
as shown in Figure 4.66. It is always desirable to
minimize the cooling air flow restriction since this
maximizes the opportunity to achieve engine cooling
with ram air and minimizes the parasitic engine power
losses associated with cooling fan operation. Series
designs place a premium on minimizing the cooling air
restriction. Because of the interrelationships with the
vehicle configuration, the heat exchanger design may
need to be customized for each engine/vehicle
combination.
The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is the ratio of
the actual charge air temperature drop across the
cooler to the temperature differential which is available
for cooling. See Equation 4.19.
Figure 4.65 Air-to-Air Heat Exchanger

In order to achieve maximum charge cooling, the air-air
heat exchanger is normally placed just ahead of the
engine radiator (Figure 4.66). If the vehicle does not
have air conditioning, the heat exchanger and the
radiator usually have the same frontal area.
Figure 4.66 Radiator Mounting Locations
101
Equation 4.19
E = (T 2 T3) / (T2 T1)
where:
E = Heat exchanger effectiveness
T1 = Temperature of the ambient cooling air
T2 = Temperature of the charge air entering the
heat exchanger (approximately equal to the
compressor discharge temperature)
T3 = Temperature of the charge air exiting the heat
exchanger (approximately equal to the intake
manifold temperature)
Since the overall objective of the charge cooling
system is to maximize the intake manifold density, it is
desirable to maximize the heat exchanger
effectiveness and, at the same time, minimize the
charge pressure drop across the cooler. Optimizing the
trade-off between cooling effectiveness and flow
restriction within the vehicle spacial constraints
requires careful design of the cooling core flow
passages and fin density (fins per inch). Similarly, the
heat exchanger headers must be designed to minimize
flow losses and to provide a uniform charge air flow
distribution through the core.
Because the air-to-air heat exchanger is located
remotely from the engine, ducting is required to deliver
the charge air from the turbocharger compressor
discharge to the charge cooler and to return the cooled
air to the intake manifold. The underhood configuration
of the vehicle and serviceability requirements often limit
options for routing these ducts. It is important to design
the ducts to minimize pressure drop flow losses and to
avoid any temperature rise particularly on the cold side
return ducting.
102
Figure 4.67 Duct Loss

To minimize pressure drop, it is desirable to use large
diameter ducting and reduce the number and
sharpness of bends in the ducting. As Figure 4.67
shows, the pressure drop through a bend is relatively
large and increases rapidly as the ratio of the bend
radius to the duct diameter decreases. Bend ratios of
less than 1.5 should be avoided. Overall length of the
ducting should also be kept to a minimum. To minimize
temperature rise, the ducting should be routed away
from exhaust manifolds and other hot surfaces.
Alternatively, insulation or heat shields can be used to
insulate the ducting from nearby heat sources. The
inlet and outlet connections on the heat exchanger
headers must be customized for each vehicle in order
to ensure optimal ducting design.
While it is beneficial from a pressure drop standpoint to
have large heat exchanger flow passages and large
diameter ducting, this may not be desirable from the
standpoint of transient engine performance. The
volume of the charge air system
Section 4
between the turbocharger compressor discharge and

the engine intake valve acts as a pneumatic reservoir
during transient engine operation. Air is supplied to the
reservoir by the compressor and withdrawn by the
engine cylinders. During an engine acceleration, it may
be desirable to have a large system volume to buffer
the cylinder charging pressure from turbocharger lag
effects. If a more responsive turbocharger is used,
there may be advantages to decreasing the volume,
increasing charging pressure. To optimize the design,
the designer must not only consider the complex
interactions between the turbocharger and the charge
cooling system, but may also need to trade off steadystate and transient operating performance.
Intake and Exhaust Manifolds

Although intake and exhaust manifolds are simple
components, they play a major role in engine
performance and deserve careful attention from the
engine design team during the design and
development process.
It is important for the intake manifold to distribute the
air evenly to the cylinders. Typically, flow bench testing
is required to optimize manifold flow characteristics.
To assist engine breathing, the designer may wish to
consider the use of tuned manifolds. Tuned manifolds
are specially designed to make use of pressure waves
initiated by the engine valve events. In the case of the
exhaust, cylinder blowdown occurs when the exhaust
valve opens, creating a compression pressure pulse. In
a properly tuned manifold, the compression pulse is
reflected and returned to the exhaust valve as a
rarefaction prior to the valve closing. The low pressure
from the rarefaction improves cylinder scavenging and
reduces exhaust stroke pumping work.
On the intake side, a rarefaction is generated at valve
opening and is returned to the intake valve as a
compression pulse just before valve closing. The pulse
improves cylinder charging and reduces intake stroke

pumping work. Because tuning relies on the timed
arrival of reflected pressure disturbances, benefits are
obtained only at certain engine speeds. Typically,
designs are optimized at the engines peak torque
speed because the greatest need for increased airflow
occurs at this speed.
For turbocharged engines, exhaust manifold design is
influenced by whether constant pressure or pulse flow
turbocharging
is
used.
Constant
pressure
turbocharging requires the use of a large manifold to
absorb the exhaust blowdown pulses before they reach
the turbine. With pulse turbocharging, small manifold
flow passages are used to preserve as much of the
blowdown pulse energy as possible. To minimize pulse
interactions and preserve pulse energy, manifolds
must separate the exhaust flow from consecutive
cylinders in the engine firing order.
In some liquid charge cooled engines, an integral
charge cooler and intake manifold design may be used.
This provides efficient packaging, but necessitates
careful design - to ensure that the functions of the two
elements are not unduly compromised.
The structural aspects of manifold design must not be
ignored. This is especially critical for the exhaust
manifold which frequently must support the weight of
the turbocharger and other exhaust system
components and must do so throughout the range of
exhaust temperatures. The manifold sealing surfaces
and fasteners must be designed to seal intake and
exhaust gases and retain sealing integrity over
thousands of thermal cycles.
Vehicle Air System Requirements

The engine designer should define the maximum
intake air flow, the maximum exhaust temperature and
volume flow, and specify the maximum flow restrictions
that can occur when the engine is installed in the
103
vehicle. Once set, these specifications must be

followed to ensure that the design performance levels
of the engine are achieved in service.
Equation 4.21
ENGINE BRAKES
Where:
Vehicle retarders have evolved into an important part

of the heavy-duty truck braking or stopping systems.
Their role is to supplement, or temporarily substitute for
the service brakes. By retarding the vehicle through the
power train, improved anti-skid characteristics result
when compared to use of the service brakes. Vehicle
retardation is accomplished without locking the vehicle
wheels and is uniformly applied to all driving wheels by
the action of the differential.
The market demand for vehicle retarders with improved
performance is increasing as todays heavy-duty diesel
trucks become more aerodynamic, as the legal GM
increases, and as engines and equipment become
more efficient with reduced frictional losses.. Rolling
resistance, aerodynamic resistance, and driveline and
engine losses combine to form the natural retarding
power of trucks which continually oppose vehicle
motion.
Vehicle power is proportional to vehicle weight and
speed, and may be calculated using Equation 4.20.
Equation 4.20
W Sin V
Pv = --------------------------------------375
Where:
Pv = Vehicle generated power (hp)
W = GVM (lb)
= Grade (Percent)
V = Vehicle speed (miles/hr)
The required retarding (braking) power to maintain
vehicle control (constant speed) can be calculated
using Equation 4.21.
104
PBR = Pv - PVN
PBR = Required retarding power (hp)

PVN = Vehicle natural retarding power (hp)
A loaded Class 8 on-highway truck in the 1990s may
weigh as much as 80,000 lbs and have a total rolling
resistance and aerodynamic power of approximately
190 hp (142 kW) at 60 miles per hour. This truck would
require 330 hp (246 kW) retarding capability to
maintain a controlled speed of 60 miles/hr (97 km/hr)
on a 4 percent hill.
On a level surface, during the vehicle slowing effort,
such as exiting on a ramp, similar retarding
requirements exist. A similar amount of power is
required to decelerate the same Class 8 truck from 55
miles/hr to 25 mile/hr (89 km/hr to 40 km/hr) over a 1/4
mile (.4 km/hr) distance.
Output retarders act on transmissions output speed.
Input retarders act on transmission input speed and
include exhaust brakes, bleeder brakes (constantly
open exhaust valve), and compression release brakes.
The exhaust brake restricts the exhaust flow from the
engine, so power is absorbed during each exhaust
stroke. Either a butterfly or slide type valve may be
used with an air cylinder being employed to operate it.
The degree of restriction should be set so that the
exhaust valves are not held off their seats at the end of
the exhaust stroke. The exhaust brake operation can
easily be integrated with the service braking system, so
that it is applied by the first movement of the brake
pedal.
The cost of installation is relatively low. It should be
noted that, because the operating member of the slide
type valve is fully retracted when not in use, it is not
subject to the effects of the gas stream and it is self
cleaning of carbon deposits. Exhaust
Section 4
brakes have been in use for decades in the

mountainous regions of Europe with diesel engines but
are much less common throughout the rest of the
world.
A bleeder brake consists of an additional small
decompression valve in the head, at each cylinder, that
is integrated into a bypass to the exhaust valves. On
the compression stroke, at high piston speeds, a large
amount of air is forced through the restrictive transfer
duct, causing the desired braking effect. As the piston
speed slows near TDC, the pressure equalizes, as the
piston moves down for the expansion stroke. Air is
drawn from the exhaust manifold through the restrictive
transfer duct, resulting in a vacuum in the combustion
chamber and absorbing energy. The bleeder brake can
be combined with an exhaust brake to result in
significantly increased braking power.
When the drivers foot is removed from the throttle, the
compression release brake effectively converts a
power producing diesel engine into a power absorbing
air compressor. This is accomplished by motion
transfer through a master-slave piston arrangement
which opens cylinder exhaust valves near the top of the
normal compression stroke. This valve event releases
the compressed cylinder air charge to the exhaust
system.
The blowdown of compressed air to atmospheric
pressure results in a net energy loss, since it prevents
the return of energy to the engine piston on the
expansion stroke. Different versions of the
compression release brake are common in American
engines. The same braking device is used by
Caterpillar, Cummins and Detroit Diesel. Mack uses a
similar system called the Dynatard brake.
Many factors must be considered when selecting an
engine braking system for an engine or vehicle. First it
must be effective and reliable. Ideally, the selected

vehicle retarder should absorb enough energy to keep
the vehicle under complete control without the use of
service brakes on down grades approaching 10
percent in conjunction with proper gear selection.
Secondly, the brake design must be compatible with
the engine design goals. For instance, the addition of a
bleeder valve in a cylinder may inhibit maximization of
gas flow from the cylinder by limiting the size or
location of the exhaust valves. The system must also
be cost effective, durable, serviceable, and gain market
acceptance.
The compression release brake is most effective with
turbocharged engines. More air mass introduced into
the cylinder means more work to compress the charge,
resulting in higher retarding power. In the case of
engines equipped with unit injectors and an overhead
cam, the braking device can be operated off the
injector cam lobe.
Exhaust and intake valve train operated retarders
develop less retarding power than an optimized injector
train operated braking device. The braking (exhaust)
valve opens too early, and due to the necessary
hydraulic ratio built into the braking device retarder, the
rate of valve opening is slow. Analytical modeling
techniques, using the engine brake absorption
horsepower characteristics on the 12.7 liter engine was
calculated to be 41.59 bhp/cylinder (31 kW/cylinder) for
a total of 249.5 bhp (186 kW).
In the vehicle, the engine will absorb enough energy to
keep a 75,000 pound load under complete control
without the use of service brakes at 19 miles/hr
(31 km/hr) on a 10 percent down grade.
On the DDC Series 60 diesel engine, the braking
devices are located between the top of the engine
rocker arms and the rocker cover, as shown in
Figure 4.68 with one brake unit for each pair of
cylinders.
105
shown in Figure 4.69 Operation of the braking device

is fully automatic, once it is turned on.
An intensity switch is used to select brake actuation on
either two, four, or six cylinders to produce low,
medium, or high braking power. The braking system
has two additional switches, one activated by the
position of the clutch pedal, and the other by the
position of the throttle.
These two switches provide the fully automatic
operation. When the drivers foot is off the clutch, if
applicable, and the foot is removed from the throttle, a
ground circuit is completed from the DDEC electronic
control module (ECM) to the brake control module. The
module then activates the appropriate number of
braking device cylinder pairs as determined by the
position of the intensity switch on the dash. When
pressure is reapplied to the throttle, the DDEC ECM
breaks the ground circuit to the brake control module
and the braking devices are deactivated.
Figure 4.68 Braking Device Located Between the
Engine Rocker Arms and the Rocker
Cover
A vehicle dash mounted on/off switch enables the
braking device feature on the DDC Series 60 engine as
Figure 4.69 Braking Device Schematic
106
The braking device will also remain activated after the

brake pedal has been depressed providing the
combined braking power of the braking devices and the
service brakes to slow and/or stop the vehicle. While
Section 4
Figure 4.70 Braking Device Schematic

Referring to the schematic shown in Figure 4.70, the
actual exhaust blowdown event occurs as follows:
1. The energized solenoid valve permits engine lube
oil to flow under pressure through the control
valve to both the master piston and slave piston.
2. Oil pressure causes the master piston to move
down, coming to rest on the injector rocker arm
roller.
3. The injector rocker arm begins its travel as in the
normal injection cycle, moving the master piston
upward and directing high-pressure oil to the
slave piston. The ball check valve in the control
valve traps high-pressure oil in the master-slave
piston system.
while the engine piston is near its top dead center

position, releasing the compressed cylinder air to
the exhaust manifold.
5. At the bottom of its stroke, the slave piston
separates from the valve at the slave piston reset
adjusting screw, allowing high pressure oil to flow
into the accumulator. This reduces the pressure in
the high pressure circuit, permitting the slave
piston to retract and the exhaust valves to close in
preparation for the normal exhaust valve cycle.
The oil pressure in the accumulator insures that
the hydraulic circuit is fully charged for the next
cycle.
6. Compressed air escapes to the atmosphere

completing a compression braking cycle.
4. High pressure oil causes the slave piston to move

down, momentarily opening the exhaust valves,
107
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
The lubrication system provides lubrication and cooling
of engine components. In some engines it is also used
as an integral part of the fuel system, providing the high

pressure hydraulic fluid used to pressurize fuel for
injection into the combustion chamber. The following
discussion of the diesel engine lubrication
Figure 4.71 Schematic Diagram of Typical Lubrication System
108
Section 4
system and component design will focus on the

conventional lubrication system used with the DDC
Series 60 engine.
Figure 4.71 shows a schematic of the lubrication
system. The function and path of the lubricant as it
flows through the engine is as follows:
The gear-type oil pump is gear-driven by the
crankshaft. The pump delivers oil from the oil pan to
the two spin on full flow filters, ensuring that clean oil is
supplied to the engine. The pump has a relief valve to
limit the oil pressure to 105 lb/in.2 (725 kPa). The filter
adaptor has a valve to allow oil to bypass the filters if
they become too restrictive (if the oil has a pressure
drop of 25 lb/in.2 [173 kPa]).
Oil now travels to the oil cooler and turbocharger. The
oil that is delivered to the turbocharger is drained back
to the oil pan. The oil which passes through the oil
cooler is delivered through a pressure regulating valve
to the oil gallery. The oil cooler utilizes a bypass with a
restriction to maintain optimum flow rate of oil through
the cooler, for varying conditions such as cold oil or a
plugged (restrictive) cooler. The regulator valve serves
to stabilize oil pressure by opening at 45 lb/in.2 (311
kPa) and allowing oil to flow back to the oil pan as long
as the pressure exceeds 45 lb/in.2 (311 kPa).
Oil from the cooler is directed to a main oil gallery
within the cylinder block. This gallery distributes the oil,
under pressure, to the main bearings and to a
horizontal, transverse passage at each end of the
cylinder block. From each of these two horizontal
passages, oil flows through the two vertical bores (one
at each end of the cylinder block) to the number 1 and
7 lower camshaft bearing saddles.
From there, the oil is directed upward (through the
enlarged stud hole) to the numbers 1 and 7 upper
bearing caps. A drilled passage in each of these caps
exits at the rocker arm shaft seat area, where it indexes

with a hole in each rocker arm shaft. The rocker arm
shafts have internal oil passages that deliver oil to the
rocker arm bushings and intermediate upper camshaft
bearings. Some of the oil supplied to the rocker arm
bushing passes through the oil hole in the bushing to
the rocker arm.
The rocker arm is drilled to supply oil to the camshaft
follower, roller pin and bushing. The rocker arm is also
drilled to supply oil to the valve adjuster screw, valve
button, retainer clip, intake and exhaust valve stems
and the fuel injector follower. The number 4 camshaft
cap is Y drilled, forming an oil path connection
between the front and rear rocker arm shafts, to ensure
complete lubrication. The oil then drains through
passages in the cylinder head and block, and back to
the oil pan.
Oil for lubricating the connecting rod bearings, piston
pins, and for cooling the piston dome is provided
through the drilled crankshaft from the adjacent forward
main bearings.
Lubrication of the gear train begins with two holes in
the bull gear recess area of the cylinder block which
are drilled into the cylinder block front-cross gallery.
This passageway provides oil from the oil gallery to the
bull gear bearings, bull gear and camshaft idler gear,
and hub (see Figure 4.72).
Excess oil from the bull gear lubricates the crankshaft
timing gear and oil pump drive gear. A hole at the top,
front of the block, drilled into the block front-cross oil
gallery, mates with an oil passage in the gear case that
directs oil to the adjustable idler gear assembly
(Figure 4.72). Excess oil from the adjustable idler gear
lubricates the accessory drive and water pump drive
gears. The bearings and shafts of these two drive
assemblies are splash-fed through holes in their
housings.
109
In addition to the design analysis, extensive

performance and durability testing for cold, hot, used
oil, and new oil conditions must be conducted to ensure
that this critical system performs properly under all
conditions.
Oil Pump
The lubrication system depends on the oil pump to
provide the proper flow rate of oil to the engine. It is
designed to draw as little power as possible. An
additional 10% flow capacity has to be provided to
compensate for oil leakage, worn parts, etc.
Typical oil flow rates for a diesel engine with oil cooled
pistons and new bearings can be found in internal
combustion engine references.
Figure 4.72 Gear Train Lubrication

A flexible, external oil line runs from a threaded hole at
the top, front corner of the left side of the cylinder block,
which is tapped into the main oil gallery. The flexible
line runs to a fitting at the air compressor assembly. Oil
drains from the air compressor through a hole in the air
compressor drive housing into the gear case.
After the above description of the lubrication system it
should be apparent that the system is complex,
providing both the necessary lubrication for moving
parts in the engine as well as critical cooling for parts
such as the piston dome. The oil passages must be
designed to provide satisfactory oil flow rates to the
various locations in the engine, for both cold and warm
engine conditions. Incompressible fluid mechanics
analysis is typically used to determine sizes of orifices
and passageways.
110
The oil pump has to be designed for extremely

stringent reliability and durability. Most oil pump failures
occur in the bearings, so good design and lubrication of
the bearings should be emphasized for obtaining the
necessary oil pump durability and reliability over the life
of the engine.
An important consideration for the gear type oil pump is
that maximum pump speed. Maximum delivery from a
given pump is limited by the ability to fill the pumping
cavities. For this reason, pump inlet restriction must be
kept to a minimum by:
Use of large inlet tube cross-sectional areas and

bends with generous radii to minimize inlet fluid
velocity.
Using an oil pickup screen with total flow area at

least 1.5 times that of the inlet tube.
Careful consideration of the location of the oil

pickup screen. It must be as low in the oil pan as
possible in to prevent admission of air into the
pump. If is too close the bottom, flow is
restricted.
Section 4
Tbhe oil pump also needs to be self-priming, such that

the dry pump (no oil) suction pressure is high enough
to prime at engine cranking speed, even for cold oil
conditions.
Other important design considerations for the oil pump
include cost, size (packaging), and quiet operation.
when the pressure exceeds 100 lb/in.2 (690 kPa). This

provides sufficient pressure to overcome losses in the
oil filters and cooler, and prevents the pressure from
exceeding the design limits of these components. It
should also be designed to bypass oil at as low a
pressure as the above considerations will allow, in
order to minimize energy used by the lubricating
system.
Regulator
The oil pressure regulator stabilizes oil pressure
regardless of temperature. The regulator is shown in
Figure 4.73.
When the oil pressure exceeds 45 lb/in.2 (311 kPa), the
valve is forced off its seat, and oil from the oil gallery is
bypassed to the engine oil pan. This stabilizes
lubricating pressure in the engine block at all times,
providing sufficient pressure for flow of oil through the
bearings and to all parts of the lubricating system.
One consideration for the regulator and the lubricating
system design should be to minimize energy loss in the
bypassed oil. Since the oil that is bypassed through the
regulator valve is simply drained into the oil pan, it is
not being utilized for anything and is therefore a waste
of energy. Minimizing the amount of oil bypassed,
(which should be a part of the overall system design),
and the pressure drop which has occurred in the
bypassed oil are ways of reducing the amount of
wasted energy in the lubricating system.
Relief Valve
The relief valve, shown in Figure 4.73, utilizes
hardware very similar to the regulator valve. It has a
different pin location than the regulator, providing the
lb/in.2
higher spring preload necessary for 100

(690 kPa) to lift the valve. It also has a smaller
machined opening in the valve body.
The relief valve is located on the outlet of the oil pump,
as shown in Figure 4.71. It bypasses oil to the oil pan
Figure 4.73 Oil Pressure Regulator and Relief Valve

Filters
The filters, shown in Figure 4.71, are designed to
remove particles from the oil, in order to satisfy engine
wear and durability goals. The filters have to provide
this filtration for at least the duration of the oil change
interval, without exceeding the maximum pressure
drop allowed across the filters. For the DDC Series 60
engine a bypass valve in the filter adapter allows oil to
bypass the filters if the pressure drop across the filters
exceeds 25 lb/in.2 (173 kPa). This is necessary
condition to maintain satisfactory flow if the filters
become excessively plugged.
Two filters, rated to filter particles down to 28 micron
diameter at 98% efficiency, have proved to provide
satisfactory filtration.
111
Oil Cooler
The oil cooler, also shown in Figure 4.71, maintains
the oil temperature within its optimum temperature
range. If the oil is too cold, it will not flow freely, and will
require more power from the engine for proper
circulation. If the oil is too warm, the oil film will not be
thick enough to support bearing loads, and it cannot
carry enough heat away from components such as the
piston dome. The oil cooler must be sized to provide
the right amount of cooling to maintain the optimum oil
temperature, which for the DDC Series 60 engine is
230F (110C). Heat is transferred from the engine oil,
which absorbs a considerable amount of heat, to the
engine coolant.
An oil bypass with a small orifice is provided around the
oil cooler to maintain optimal oil flow through the cooler
and to the engine, for varying conditions such as cold
oil or a plugged (restrictive) cooler.
The oil cooler used for the DDC Series 60 is a plate in
shell type of cooler. Design of the cooler is based on
heat transfer analysis.
Also, there must be sufficient safety margin to prevent

this from happening for a considerable length of time.
Typically the dipstick and oil pan are designed so that
the engine should be able to operate for an additional
oil change interval after the low mark is reached,
without exposing the pump inlet to air.
The level of oil in the oil pan at the "high" mark must not
allow the crankshaft to splash the oil.
Oil Pan
The engine oil, when not being circulated in the engine,
is stored in the oil pan. The oil pan must have sufficient
capacity (retained volume) to carry enough oil to last at
least one service interval. The volume also needs to be
high enough to minimize oil aeration (the period of time
the oil spends in the oil pan while the engine is running
allows the air to separate from the oil).
The height of the oil pan needs to be minimized to
provide optimum road clearance. The shape of the oil
pan is dependent on sump location, which is customer
driven in order to avoid drive axles or not interfere with
departure angles.
Dipstick
The dipstick is inserted into the oil pan in order to check
the amount of oil in the engine oil pan. Marks on the
dipstick indicate "low" and "full". When the engine is
installed at an angle the dipstick has to be recalibrated
to maintain accuracy.
The DDC Series 60 engine has front, rear, and center

sump locations to satisfy customer requirements. The
oil pan, for all three sump locations, has to provide oil
to the oil pump inlet at the worst possible combination
of engine installation angle and vehicle angle, when the
oil is at the "low" level.
The difference between "full" and "low" marks on the

dipstick should be large enough to contain the quantity
of oil consumed during the service interval. This
prevents the operator from being forced to add oil
between service intervals.
The oil pan material has to be sufficiently resistant to

fracture to withstand impacts with road debris. The
DDC Series 60 engine uses either plastic (vinyl ester)
or aluminum.
The level of oil in the oil pan at the "low" mark must be
high enough to ensure that the oil pump inlet is not
exposed to air, even when the engine is at the worst
possible combination of installation and vehicle angles.
The oil pan is isolated from the engine block to reduce

noise emissions. This is accomplished with the use of
an isolator/seal between the oil pan and engine block,
and with the use of rubber isolator/washer assemblies
to fasten the oil pan to the block.
112
Section 4
If satisfactory noise attenuation is not achieved by

isolating the oil pan, an enclosure may be installed on
the engine. Typical enclosures consisting of an outer
barrier and a foam material can reduce noise by .5
dB(A) in vehicle passby tests. The use of the oil pan
enclosure is sometimes application dependent - more
open installations where the engine is exposed more
tend to require more noise attenuation.
Closed crankcase ventilation systems, which vent the

crankcase vapors back into the air inlet stream of the
engine, are becoming increasingly popular for diesel
engines. There is no legislation covering heavy-duty
truck breather systems in the U.S. although this
technology has been demonstrated on a DDC Series
60 engine for use in Europe.
Oil Quality
Crankcase Ventilation
Vapors, formed within the engine, are removed from
the crankcase, gear train, and valve compartment by a
continuous pressurized ventilation system. A slight
pressure is maintained in the engine crankcase by
normal seepage of air and combustion gases past the
piston rings. These gases sweep through the engine
and exit through a crankcase breather. The vent
location should be away from oil splash, and is usually
located on the rocker arm cover.
The vapors passing through the crankcase ventilation
system contain some oil from the engine lubrication
system. Oil is removed from the vapor by a wire mesh
element in the rocker arm breather. Oil collects on the
wire mesh and drains back to the oil pan. The vapors
are vented to the atmosphere after passing through the
rocker arm breather.
The crankcase pressure is determined by the rate of
combustion gas leakage past the piston rings and by
the restriction of the gases as they pass through the
breather system. The restriction of the crankcase
gases must be sized for the worst case: maximum
engine power, and a worn engine near the end of the
piston ring service life. Over the life of the engine, the
crankcase pressure of the DDC Series 60 engine
ranges up to 1 lb/in.2 (7 kPa), not including any effects
due to the air compressor, a damaged turbocharger, or
a clogged crankcase ventilation filter element.
As stated earlier in this paper, customer demand has

extended the warranty periods and expected service
life of diesel engines, making the lubrication system
and oil quality even more critical. At the same time,
diesel engine lubrication is facing increasingly severe
operating conditions, a result of customer demand for
longer oil change intervals, more power and more
stringent emissions standards. The demand for more
power results in higher in-cylinder temperatures. This
places increased demands on the oxidative and
thermal stability of the lubricant.
Increasingly stringent emissions standards have
detrimental effects on the lubricating oil. Some of the
effects are listed below:
The increased fuel injection pressure being used

to lower particulate emissions puts higher loads
on the injector operating mechanism, causing
higher shear rates in the lubricating oil. The
higher shear breaks down the oils viscosity
improver additive more quickly.
As a result of the lower emissions of Nitrous

Oxides required by todays emissions standards,
diesel engines operate with increasingly
retarded injection timing schedules. Delaying the
combustion event to later in the expansion
stroke and exposing more of the cylinder liner to
combustion products increases the soot content
of the oil.
113
As oil consumption is lowered, less make up oil

is needed, which increases the overall soot
content.
Higher top ring placement scrapes more oil off
the top of the liner resulting in higher soot
content.
The customer demand for longer change intervals is a

result of the desire to lower not only the service cost
but also the ever increasing cost of oil disposal. It will
be difficult, however, to increase the oil change interval
with the increasingly severe operating conditions.
found in the following documents: SAE J183, SAE

J1146, ASTM D4485, and AIT 1509.
During 1994, new standards for diesel engine
lubricating oil are expected. It has more severe testing
requirements for oil wear (shear), soot handling, and
oxidation. Synthetic oils may provide the increased
high temperature oxidation resistance needed with the
increase in engine power ratings. In general, new and
more stringent requirements for diesel engine
lubricating oil are required concurrently with reductions
in diesel engine emissions standards.
Future Lubricating System Development
One promising alternative to reduce the cost of oil

disposal is to make more use of oil recycling. If waste
oil is subjected to the same refining processes as crude
oil, it becomes a more consistent feed stock than crude
oil. Another option being considered for oil disposal, is
burning the engine oil with the diesel fuel (and
therefore never having to change the oil). This is
currently unacceptable, however, and is not considered
likely to become acceptable due to concerns of the
impact on engine emissions and durability.
The use of exhaust after treatment, such as catalytic
converters or particulate traps, may also force new
requirements on the lubricating oil. The increased back
pressure associated with some exhaust after treatment
increases in cylinder temperature, which has
detrimental effects stated above. Catalytic converters
used to meet future emissions standards may impact
the use of some additives used in diesel engine
lubricating oil.
Future developments in the lubricating system may

include an oil quality sensor and an oil level sensor.
The oil quality sensor could monitor critical oil
performance factors such as viscosity, soot content,
water content, and iron content. The oil level sensor will
warn the operator when the oil level becomes too low,
and provide an indication of current oil levels. Engine
operators will save service costs by changing oil and
filters at intervals required by their particular
application.
Less severe applications may be able to implement
longer service intervals. More severe applications will
increase the engine service life and decrease warranty
costs by decreasing the service interval as required by
the severity of the application.
COOLANT SYSTEM
Water Pump
These increasingly severe and detrimental effects on

diesel engine lubricating oil must be addressed with
increasingly severe testing. The performance
standards and testing requirements for motor oil are
currently generated by a tripartite combination of
technical committees from ASTM, SAE, and API. More
information or their standards and requirements can be
114
The water pump, which circulates the coolant

throughout the cooling system, is sensitive to inlet
restrictions, coolant temperature, and aerated coolant.
Failure to control these parameters could result in
cavitation caused when partially vaporized coolant
cavities collapse near regions of high pressure within
the closed loop cooling system.
Section 4
Water pump wear can be reduced by minimizing inlet

pump restriction. All restrictions within the cooling
circuit, such as radiators and associated plumbing, as
well as customer add-on features (i.e., cab heaters,
filters, auxiliary oil coolers), must introduce minimal
restriction.
Thermostats
Thermostats are required to automatically regulate the
coolant temperature by defining the coolant flow path.
At high coolant temperature conditions, the thermostat
directs coolant through the radiator. Once the coolant
temperature is within the recommended region, the
thermostat redirects coolant flow through a bypass
circuit, recirculating the coolant through the engine.
The nominal settings for coolant temperature for the
DDC Series 60 are presented in Figure 4.74.
Temperature is held within the nominal operating range
of 15 to 17F (8 to 9C). If coolant temperature exceeds
the fully open temperature of the thermostat, the
cooling fan is turned on to increase heat transfer

across the radiator.
An additional safety measure has been placed on
some electronic controlled engines, such as the DDC
Series 60, whereby over temperature conditions on the
engine have been significantly reduced by
incorporating cooling system diagnostics into the
engines electronic control strategy. Above a
predefined coolant temperature, the electronic control
system sends a signal to reduce engine load and
speed in order to avoid the risk of engine damage.
Coolant Filter And Conditioner

Coolant filtration is needed to remove impurities, such
as sand and rust particles, which have been
suspended in the cooling system. The filter should also
act as a water softener to minimize mineral scale
deposits, maintain coolant pH, and prevent metal
corrosion.
Figure 4.74 Nominal Settings for Coolant Temperature Control
115
SUMMARY
This section completes the design of components and
systems. The sections included design guidelines for
the major fluid systems, i.e., air, water, fuel, oil and
guidelines for major engine components, i.e., cylinder
head, cylinder block, cylinder liner, connecting rod,
crankshaft, camshaft, (some people refer to these as
the six "c"s), piston, valves, overhead mechanism,
flywheel housing, gear train, bearings, fuel injection
system, turbocharger, electronics systems and engine
braking system. The next section will cover the
development of these systems and components.
116
SECTION 5
The process of developing a diesel engine, following the

component design, involves the ordering of experimental
parts, procuring pattern equipment and dies, machining
components and finally assembling the first experimental
engine. The process of system integration and engine
development can now start with parallel programs for the
following: performance, exhaust emissions, durability,
noise, vehicle tests and component tests. Each of the
above require unique facilities so testing can be done with
multiple engines and multiple facilities. Following this
initial stage in development, but before production, a
stage of reliability growth testing and abuse testing must
occur.
PERFORMANCE DEVELOPMENT
Identification Of Performance Objectives
In order to properly develop an engine configuration, one
must first identify the performance objectives. These
performance objectives involve minimum requirements or
target values for the operational characteristics that the
customer deems important. Meeting the performance
objectives means that the engine will meet or exceed
customer expectations over its useful life. In the heavyduty truck market, the performance related objectives
typically involve horsepower, torque, and fuel economy.
These performance objectives can be extremely
application and/or customer dependent, however. For
instance, the actual horsepower required to move a

80,000 lb tractor trailer rig at highway speeds is less than
200 hp (149 kW), but this is much less power than what
the customer deems acceptable. This is because drivers
typically want power levels of around 350 to 450 hp (261
to 336 kW) for passing power and to handle rolling terrain.
In the same manner, peak engine torque, the speed at
which it occurs, and the rate of torque rise from rated
power are selected to optimize driveability but must be
balanced against fuel economy, emissions, and durability.
For example, the rate of torque rise describes how quickly
the torque increases with respect to engine speed.
Therefore, a fast torque rise improves engine response
and emissions but at the expense of fuel economy
because higher fueling rates are required to achieve
greater torque. Before discussing the development
required to measure these performance objectives, the
parameters need to be discussed.
Measurement Of Engine Operating

Parameters
Torque And Power
Measurement of engine torque and power requires
measurement of a force acting through a distance. Any
apparatus that permits such a measurement is called a
dynamometer. One of the oldest forms of
117
electric dynamometer, and the type generally used by

DDC for engine development, is the eddy-current
dynamometer.
Torque is a measure of the ability of an engine to do
work. Units of torque are customarily pound-feet (lbft)
in the English system and newton-meters (Nm) in the
metric system. Power, on the other hand, is a measure
of the rate at which the work is done and is customarily
measured in units of horsepower (hp) in the English
system and kilowatts (kW) in the metric system.
Therefore, in practical terms, the torque determines
whether and engine can drive a vehicle through sand
or other obstacles, whereas the power determines how
quickly the vehicle progresses through the obstacle.
Speed Measurements
Engine speed refers to the instantaneous speed (r/min)
of the crankshaft. Today, engine speed is typically
measured using a pulse generator and electromagnetic
counter that is actuated by a series of pulses. One
such means of generating these electromagnetic
pulses is to use a magnetic pickup placed near a
rotating member on the crank shaft. Either a projection
or a depression on the member allows one pulse to be
delivered to the electronic counter each time it passes
the magnetic pickup.
Fuel Consumption
To measure the amount of fuel fed to the engine, the
accepted method is to weigh the fuel and calculate a
fuel mass flow rate, typically in units of lb/min in the
English system and kg/min in the metric system. This is
generally accomplished through the use of a device
called a fuel scale. A fuel scale basically draws in and
weighs a quantity of fuel then measures the amount of
time it takes to consume that fuel. From this data, a fuel
mass flow rate is calculated which represents the
average fuel consumption during that time period.
118
Air Consumption
Consider the work done by an internal combustion
engine depends on the amount of energy released
when a mixture of air and fuel burns. If the engine does
not induct the largest possible amount of air, work
output will be limited, no matter how much fuel is
added. Therefore, after an engine has been designed
and constructed, it is desirable to measure air
consumption in cubic feet per minute (ft3/min) in the
English system and in cubic meters per minute (m3/
min) in the metric system to ensure that restrictions are
not present in the intake and exhaust systems that
would prevent free breathing of the engine.
Moreover, a knowledge of the quantities of air and fuel
consumed by the engine enables the air-fuel ratio to be
computed and the variation of engine performance with
variation in air-fuel ratio to be studied. The accepted
method to measure air consumption at DDC is to
measure the inlet depression at the entrance to a
calibrated flow nozzle. The depression is then related
to an airflow through use of a chart that has been
generated using complex airflow equations.
Bosch Smoke
In order to evaluate the opacity of exhaust smoke, DDC
uses a device called a Bosch smoke meter. A small
quantity of exhaust at the operating point in question is
drawn through a special filter paper and the relative
smudge left on the filter paper is compared to
standards. Smoke ratings are expressed in arbitrary
units for the particular brand used. In the case of the
Bosch smoke meter, Bosch 1 indicates light smoke,
Bosch 2 indicates medium smoke, and Bosch 3
indicates medium heavy smoke. Bosch 1.5 is generally
considered the beginning of the visible smoke range.
Section 5
Calculation Of Engine Performance

Parameters
Power and Mechanical Efficiency
The power from an engine is called brake horsepower
(bhp) and sometimes shaft horsepower (shp). The SAE
net bhp is measured with all engine components; the
gross bhp allows removal of the fan, muffler, and
tailpipe. The total horsepower actually developed on
the pistons in the engine is called indicated horsepower
(ihp), Equation 5.1. A part of the indicated power
developed by burning fuel and air does not appear as
brake power but is spent in overcoming friction of the
bearings, pistons, and other mechanical parts of the
engine and also in induction of the air and fuel charges
and delivery of the exhaust gases. The power to
perform these tasks is called the friction horsepower
(fhp). The brake horsepower is less than the indicated
horsepower by the amount of friction horsepower
consumed in the engine:
Equation 5.1
ihp = bhp + fhp
The friction horsepower is difficult to determine
experimentally because there are variations under
operating and test conditions for the engine. The usual
approximation for heavy-duty diesel engines is to motor
the engine with and electric dynamometer (engine not
firing) and to consider the fhp to be equal to the power
required by the dynamometer for a fixed set of engine
conditions: oil temperature, throttle setting, speed, etc.
The ratio of the power delivered by the engine (bhp) to
the total power developed within the engine (ihp) is
known as mechanical efficiency (NM). Equation 5.2
can be used to calculate mechanical efficiency.
Equation 5.2
NM = bhp = Ihpfhp = 1 fhp
ihp
ihp
ihp
Volumetric Efficiency
The volumetric efficiency (NV) of an engine is defined
as the ratio of the actual mass of air inducted by the
engine on the intake stroke (mA) to the theoretical
mass of air that should have been inducted by filling
the piston-displacement volume with air at atmospheric
temperature and pressure (mT). Equation 5.3 can be
used to calculate the volumetric efficiency.
Equation 5.3
mA
Nv = -----------mT
turbocharged engines such as the DDC Series 60 12.7
liter engine, the volumetric efficiency can be greater
than unity.
Mean Effective Pressure
The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) is defined
as the theoretical constant pressure which can be
imagined as exerted during each power stroke of the
engine to produce power (or work) equal to the brake
power (or work). The BMEP is a function of engine
speed, power, and displacement and can be computed
as follows:
Equation 5.4
BMEP = (bhp) x 792,000
DxN
Where:
D = Total piston displacement (in.3)
N = Engine Speed (r/min)
The parameter of mean effective pressure shows how
well the engine is using its size (displacement) to
produce work, and thus this parameter is valuable for
comparative purposes.
119
Specific Fuel Consumption

Specific fuel consumption (sfc) is a measure of
efficiency since the pounds per hour of fuel used is
divided by the horsepower produced, Equation 5.5.
Assume that engine results show a consumption of m
mass in t minutes.
Equation 5.5
Then:
sfc = 60 x m
hp x t
This equation defines the specific fuel consumption
and this may be either the brake or indicated specific
fuel consumption. The specific fuel consumption is a
comparative parameter that shows how efficiently an
engine is converting fuel into work.
Performance Comparison
For comparing the performances of engines, a number
of standards are available:
Specific fuel consumption (lb/bhp.hr)

BMEP (lb/in. 2)
Specific weight (weight of engine, lb/bhp)
Output per unit of displacement (bhp/in.3)
Which of these gages is the most important depends

on the purpose for which the engine is designed. For
example, the DDC Series 60 12.7 liter engine was
designed for over the road truck applications therefore
the specific fuel consumption may be the most
important.
Correction Factors
The work or power output of the engine at full throttle is
directly related to atmospheric conditions; if the engine
is operated in a region of low barometric pressure,
120
there will be a corresponding reduction in power

output; similarly, if the temperature of the air entering
the engine is high, the output will be correspondingly
reduced. Since the atmosphere cannot be readily
influenced by man, a means is desirable to correct the
engine performance to some standard environment.
Correction factors are therefore applied to measured
and calculated parameters such as horsepower and
brake specific fuel consumption to adjust them to
standard atmospheric conditions.
Variables That Effect Engine

Performance, Efficiency, And
Emissions
The engine designer/developers goal when designing
a heavy-duty truck engine is obviously to achieve the
best bsfc possible with emissions low enough to satisfy
the constraints imposed by emission standards. The
variations in bsfc, NOx, and particulate emissions
described below involve trade-offs that make achieving
this goal especially difficult. One well-established
trade-off is between bsfc and NOx. Injection retard
from optimum injection timing decreases NOx at the
expense of bsfc. A second important trade-off is
between NOx and particulate emissions. Engine
studies have shown that the relationship between
these two is relatively independent of engine speed,
injection rate and injection timing. A given reduction in
one of these variables results in a given increase in the
other pollutant. The relationship of each engine
variable to changes in engine performance and
emissions is briefly described below.
Load and Speed
Performance maps where fuel consumption contours
are plotted on a graph of horsepower versus engine
speed are commonly used to describe the effects of
load and speed on fuel economy. An example of this
map for the DDC Series 60
Section 5
12.7 liter engine rated at 450 bhp (336 kW) is shown in

Figure 5.1.
the plainness of the chamber, and the contour of the

the air inlet passageway do not encourage or induce a
strong turbulence or swirl. Hence this type of
combustion chamber is described as a semiquiescent
chamber.
Fuel Injection Parameters
Fuel injection timing essentially controls the crank
angle at which combustion starts. While the state of the
air into which the fuel is injected changes as injection
timing is varied, and thus ignition delay will vary, these
effects are minor and predictable. The fuel injection
rate, fuel nozzle design (number of holes, spray angle,
etc.) and fuel injection pressure all effect the
characteristics of the diesel fuel spray and its mixing
with air in the combustion chamber.
Figure 5.1 DDC Series 60 12.7L Specific Fuel

Consumption Map
Air Swirl and Bowl-in Piston Design
Increasing amounts of air swirl within the cylinder are
used in direct injection diesel engines to achieve
adequately fast fuel-air mixing rates. In medium-tosmall size engines, use of a bowl-in-piston combustion
chamber results in substantial swirl amplification at the
end of the combustion process.
In the DDC Series 60 engine, however, combustion is
almost entirely controlled by the fuel injection system.
To that end, fuel is sprayed directly into an undivided
combustion chamber formed between the piston and
head. The combustion chamber is compact with
minimal wall area surrounding the compressed air and
has the shape of a sombrero. Although the air
movement in the chamber is never entirely quiescent,
Injection timing variations have a strong effect on NOx

emissions in direct injection engines. Retarded
injection is commonly used to help control NOx
emissions. It gives substantial reductions, initially with
only a modest bsfc penalty. At high loads, HC
emissions are low and vary only modestly with injection
timing. At lighter loads, HC emissions are higher and
increase as injection becomes significantly retarded
from optimum. This trend is especially pronounced at
idle. Retarding timing also generally increases smoke
(and particulate emissions), though trends vary
significantly between different types and designs of
diesel engines. These general trends are described
graphically in Figure 5.2 for a typical medium-swirl,
direct injection diesel engine.
The injection rate depends on the fuel injector nozzle
area and injection pressure. Higher injection rates
result in higher fuel-air mixing rates, and higher heat
release rates. The higher heat release rate and shorter
overall combustion process decreases the minimum
bsfc at at optimum injection timing, however, a limit to
these benefits is eventually reached. Increasing the
injection rate also increases NOx emissions and
decreases smoke or particulate emissions.
121
Engine Performance Development

Engine performance testing can be divided into two
types: (1) tests at variable speed for applications such
as on-highway or marine and (2) tests at constant
speed for applications such as generators or pump
drives. Variable speed testing of the DDC Series 60
12.7 liter engine for over-the-road truck applications
was further divided into full load tests, where minimum
specific fuel consumption and emissions compliance
were the objectives, and part load tests to determine
variations in specific fuel consumption and emissions.
The part load tests were conducted under road load
power conditions. Road load power is the part load
power level required to drive the vehicle on a level road
at a steady speed. This power overcomes the rolling
resistance which arises from the friction of the tires and
the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle. Rolling resistance
and drag coefficients, CR and CR respectively, are
determined empirically. Equation 5.6 can be used to
compute road load.
Equation 5.6
PR = (CR x MV x g + 1/2
X CD x AV x SV2) x SV
Where:
CR = Coefficient of rolling resistance
Figure 5.2 Effect of Injection Timing
MV
= Mass of vehicle (lbf)
= Acceleration due to gravity

A
Turbocharged Engine Performance
The equations for power torque and BMEP show that

these engine performance parameters are proportional
to the mass of air inducted per cycle. This depends
primarily on inlet air density. Thus the performance of
an engine of a given displacement can be increased by
compressing the inlet air prior to entry into the cylinder.
The method of achieving higher inlet air density on the
DDC Series 60 engine is turbocharging. The method of
selecting an appropriate turbocharger for a specific
application will be discussed in the following section.
122
= Ambient air density
CD
= Drag coefficient
AV
= Frontal area of vehicle
SV
= Vehicle speed
Test Description
The majority of attributes that affect engine
performance such as intake and exhaust port size and
shape or combustion chamber geometry, for instance,
are determined during the design phase of a new
engine. There are several components, however, that
cannot be exactly defined until a prototype engine is
built and performance testing has begun. The two
components that tend to have the most dramatic effect
Section 5
on engine performance are the injectors and the

turbocharger. Fuel output, number of holes in the tip,
and hole size are among the attributes of the injector
that are modified to affect engine performance. They
can have a dramatic effect on engine power output,
obviously, but also on emissions and engine durability.
The turbocharger match is generally developed with
the help and advise of the turbocharger manufacturer.
Typically engine operating data is used to plot the
operating curve on a turbocharger compressor
efficiency map provided by the manufacturer. This map
identifies islands of efficiency of the turbocharger
compressor as a function of the compressor pressure
ratio and the engine airflow. A good turbocharger
match is then identified when the engine operating
curve fails within the island of maximum turbocharger
efficiency of the particular turbocharger used.
peak cylinder firing pressure limit allowed based on the

engine design and durability required for the target
application.
The performance of the fully configured engine with
optimized injection timing is then measured under all
reasonable conditions of engine load and speed and
an engine performance map is constructed similar to
the map shown in Figure 5.3. For comparing different
sized engines, the performance map is generalized by
converting r/min into piston speed and horsepower into
horsepower per square inch of piston area as shown in
Figure 5.4.
Although theory and calculations can get the engineer

close to a good component match, only actual engine
testing can empirically determine the best component
attributes.
Therefore,
engine
performance
development tends to be an iterative process. Baseline
performance is measured with those engine
components that in the Engineers estimate will meet
the selected performance objectives.
Performance is then repeatedly re-measured as
component attributes are systematically changed in
order to determine the attributes that offer the best
performance with respect to the initial performance
goals. Once appropriate injector and turbocharger
match is defined, the fuel injection timing is then
determined. This is accomplished by trying a range of
beginning of injections (BOI) at each operating point
and measuring all pertinent engine operating
parameters including peak cylinder firing pressure and
exhaust emissions. A BOI value is then selected at
each operating point that provides the best trade-off
between engine performance, Bosch smoke, and
exhaust emissions while staying under the maximum
Figure 5.3 Performance Map

From the results of full power testing, the engineer can
rate the engine for commercial use. For truck engines
like the 12.7 liter DDC Series 60, for instance, the load
rating is approximately 60 percent of maximum.
123
driveable has become increasingly difficult. Developing

the engine to confidently meet the regulated emission
standards for a given model year is the emission
engineers primary focus. However, the successful
engineer is one who is cognizant of a variety of design
constraints.
Engine performance, specifically fuel economy and
driveability are absolutely key to the success of the
engine and therefore must be developed in conjunction
with the emission work. Typically, development work
for emission certification initiates with a prototype
engine built with components and subsystems which
are fixed in their design or very close to their final
stage.
Figure 5.4 Performance Map of Different Sized

Engines
This means that the manufacturer guarantees the
engine to develop 60 percent of the maximum power
for an unlimited time. Engines that require higher load
factors, such as military combat vehicles or tanks, tend
to have a ratings approaching 85 percent, due to the
requirements of the applications. Naturally, running the
engine nearer to the maximum power in these
applications greatly shortens the life of the engine.
Therefore, the manufacturer typically specifies a limit
on the number of hours of operation of the engine at
the higher load factor per year.
EXHAUST EMISSIONS DEVELOPMENT

With the widespread use of electronics and the
continued tightening of regulated exhaust emissions,
the role of the emissions engineer has become
increasingly complex. It is the emission engineers
responsibility to develop the engine into one which
satisfies the multitude of customer demands in an
emission certifiable manner. The job of engineering
clean burning engines which are both fuel efficient and
124
Quite often the engineer responsible for emission

development has the opportunity to change emission
related hardware or software in order to optimize
emissions and engine performance. Most likely
durability and field testing of the prototype engine is
underway, so it is important for the emissions engineer
to communicate his efforts to ensure that the durability
testing and reliable integrity of the engine are not
unknowingly jeopardized.
With the advent of electronic controls it is
commonplace for a single engine to cover a wide range
of horsepower ratings and applications. Thus, not only
is it the emission engineers goal to certify the entire
engine, meeting the emission standards for each
rating, but to do so with a minimal number of parts
changes. For similar reasons, it is also advantageous
to commonize across engine calibrations (ECM
programs) to ensure that engine performance does not
differ significantly from one rating or application to
another.
It is usually a good approach when developing engine
ratings to target emission levels comfortably below the
regulated emission standards. In determining the
emission level in which to develop to, the
Section 5
engineer must identify the factors which influence

emission variation. Some include; engine-to-engine
variations,
component
production
variability,
differences between development and production, test
facility differences, emission test cycle variations,
environmental influences, fuel qualities, and emission
measuring capabilities.
Another consideration may include a deterioration
factor (DF) which is an indicator of emission level
change over the life of the engine. Defined extensively
in the EPA federal registry, if an engine family carries a
DF other than zero, the engineer must develop the
emissions levels with this in mind. If an engine family is
capable of producing NOx or particulate levels
significantly below the federally mandated standards,
while simultaneously meeting all other exhaust
constituent levels, the engine manufacturer may opt to
establish an FEL (Family Emission Level) limit for that
engine family. The government provides an incentive to
develop engines to emission levels below the regulated
standards. By meeting emission levels below the
standards, engine manufacturers can acquire credits
for each engine sold below the standard. These credits
can be utilized in a variety of ways and are detailed in
the EPA federal registry. Engine manufacturers must
adhere to their FEL limit since the consequences of
failing to meet a self-imposed standard is often
substantial.
Developing engines to meet emission standards is
typically a fundamentally based iterative process of
optimizing
both
emissions
related
hardware
components as well as ECM software. In the case of
the DDC Series 60 the initial emission evaluation work
was conducted with a fully functioning single cylinder
engine. Here steady-state emission testing was utilized
to define injector plunger size, injector tip protrusion
depth, spray angle, number of tip holes as well as the
injector drive mechanism including the injector cam

velocity and rocker arm ratio. Whether one chooses to
initiate work with a single cylinder model or a complete
multi-cylinder engine, the engineer must coordinate a
variety of parameters, each affecting the emissions and
performance characteristic of the engine.
When the emissions engineer takes possession of the
prototype engine there will be several components and
sub-assemblies which will have a significant influence
on the emission signature of the engine, however they
will most likely remained fixed in their design. The
combustion chamber, as one example, is the result of
decisions made at the initial design stages based on
maximum allowable cylinder pressures, brake mean
effective pressures, and swirl characteristics. Other
parameters which have an emissions impact, but will
probably remain set in their design are the injector tip
flow and plunger size, rocker arm ratio and cam
velocity. These items combine to define the injection
pressure levels which are also an early stage design
constraint.
However, the engineer does have at his disposal a
variety of means to improve upon the emission
characteristics of the engine. Initially the engineer will
baseline the engine in the configuration as received.
Utilizing the very emission transient cycles (Figure 5.5)
and smoke cycles, which will be utilized to certify the
engine for production, the engineer will baseline the
engine for emission levels.
Here in the 1990s the two emission constituents which
are the most difficult to control simultaneously are NOx
and particulate matter (PM). Based on the initial
emission results, the engineer will determine whether
the emission levels can be reduced via re-calibration of
the software only or if hardware changes are
necessary.
125
Figure 5.5 EPA Transient Emission Cycle

If the emission results are such that hardware changes
are required, the engineer can test a matrix of injector
tip geometries such as tip hole lengths, hole number,
spray angle and even tip protrusion depth. The
baseline emission results of the prototype engine will
provide the engineer with some insight as far as which
tip geometry changes are practical.
If NOx levels of the engine were excessively high, and
could not be reduced with ECM calibration
reprogramming, the engineer would not opt to try
increasing the number of tip orifices since this would
lead to even higher NOx levels. By understanding the
fundamentals behind emission development, the
engineer can reduce the development test time
significantly.
Besides injector tip configurations the engineer may
also work with the turbochargers transient response.
126
Without inducing a major change to the existing

turbocharger configuration, one can fine tune the "trim"
characteristics of the compressor side housing and
wheel and/or the turbine side housing and wheel.
These minor changes can usually be accommodated
by the turbocharger manufacturer rather quickly and
painlessly. In addition, the time and cost put into sizing
the turbocharger initially to meet the horsepower,
torque and performance requirements will not be
jeopardized.
Another area for opportunity is turbine wheel inertia.
Generally the emission particulate levels can be further
reduced by improving the transient response of the
turbocharger and at the same time improve driveability.
Here in the 90s the use of ceramic turbine wheels is not
uncommon and is already used in production by some
diesel engine manufacturers.
Section 5
DURABILITY TESTING
Customers expect their engines to operate for a
minimum of 750,000 miles and preferably for 1,000,000
miles. Ensuring that an engine will meet these
expectations falls into the realm of reliability, durability,
and in some respects abuse testing. Statistical
methods of monitoring and predicting life and reliability
are basic in the evaluation of engines today, of these,
Weibull techniques are the most prevalent.
In all cases, it is critical that results be generated faster
than real world testing. Assuming a truck runs 24 hours
a day, 365 days a year at 55 miles/hr (89 km/hr), this
still equates to 568 days (1.56 years) to accumulate
750,000 miles, and 757 days (2.08 years) to reach
1,000,000 miles. These prolonged testing times cant
be tolerated if an engine manufacturer is going to
remain competitive.
Testing programs to establish the durability and
reliability of an engine can take many forms. For
example, the entire engine can be run either in steadystate or through a programmed cycle to gage
tribological characteristics. Subsystems of the engine
can be tested on fixtures or as part of the entire engine
to evaluate specific failure modes. External factors
such as lubricant and fuel quality or composition also
need to be evaluated to ensure that the engine will
operate successfully with whatever is used by the
customer.
Finally, actual in service testing of the engine will often
uncover deficiencies that are not detectable by
laboratory testing. During the development of the DDC
Series 60 engine, all of these test techniques were
employed to evaluate the reliability and durability of the
engine.
Complete Engine Testing

Many engines were tested specifically to gage long
term durability and reliability under laboratory
conditions. This testing included test cycles developed

to mimic the operating conditions of on-highway trucks,
buses, and in selected cases farm tractors. In addition,
radio nuclide tracer techniques were employed for
piston ring life testing for each generation of prototype
and pre-production engine. Lubricant evaluation testing
evaluated the impact of both low, medium, and high
quality oil formulations in both straight and multiviscosity versions with regard to tribological and
deposit forming tendencies. Specific discussions of
these testing modes is provided below.
Steady-state and cyclic tests are designed to
accomplish three specific goals, evaluate reliability,
predict useful life, and prepare for abuse (probe)
testing. Engine components are subject to a complete
metrology review prior to testing.
During testing, the engine operates on a specific test
cycle or continuously at a specific rating for a
predetermined time. During the testing, all component
failures, fluid leaks, and operating deficiencies are
recorded for future warranty accrual analysis. Upon
completion of the test, the engines are disassembled,
visually inspected, and measured for tribological
change. Wear related changes in components are
analyzed to extrapolate useful life and maintenance
requirements.
The engines are then reassembled, and subject to a
five or ten step probe test series where each step
increase the test severity in 3% increments. Each
probe step is operated for about 3% of the original
conditioning time. Probe steps are run successively
until a major component failure is induced, or all 10
steps are completed, Figure 5.6. Successful
completion results in an engine operating 30% above
its rated speed, power, and peak torque. In addition,
ambient conditions are also increased in severity with
each successive probe step, i.e. inlet air temperature,
engine coolant temperature, exhaust restriction, etc.
Upon successful completion of the probe test, the
127
engine is again disassembled and checked for wear,

deposits, and other changes.
Radio nuclide tracer testing, also referred to as Surface
Layer Activation (SLA) is employed to both accelerate
the measurement of component tribological behavior
as well as determine the specific parameters
influencing that behavior. For example, piston ring
wear is often considered the life limiting component of
a heavy-duty diesel engine. SLA techniques permit the
evaluation of this wear in real time, under any specific
operating condition.
SLA testing permits the determination of component
wear with regard to operating speed, power, fuel
quality, lubricant quality, coolant or lubricant
temperature, injection timing, cyclic vs steady-state
Figure 5.6 Probe Test
128
operation, component design or surface treatments,

lubricant age or filtration level, as well as many other
operating variables. Data gathered during an SLA test
program can be analyzed statistically to determine if
one design or operating strategy will provide improved
life over a different approach. In addition, the data can
be used to predict life for most duty cycles, even if they
were not specifically tested.
Lubricant and fuel testing provides insight into the
tolerance an engine design exhibits with regards to
deposit or wear related failures. For example, a CC
quality oil provides much less protection to a engine
than does a CE or CF. For modern engines, resistance
to oil related deposits or component wear is critical for
maintaining compliance with EPA emission regulations
as the engine ages.
Section 5
In the case of the DDC Series 60 engine, these tests

were instrumental in changing the design of the piston
rings from a rectangular cross-section to a keystone
cross-section. The keystone shape of the ring greatly
improves the tolerance of the ring to lubricant deposits,
allowing the ring to control oil consumption and
particulate emissions longer. Lubricant formulation also
influences the consumption rate and resulting deposits,
with four cycle engines generally preferring
multiviscosity lubricants while two cycle engines like
straight grades.
Fuel quality influences component wear based on the
sulfur content primarily, but it also impacts the
emissions characteristics. Testing with low, normal,
and high sulfur fuel is important in a durability
assessment of a modern diesel engine, especially if
export sales of the engine are planned.
Subsystem Engine Testing

While fixture testing is a more economical method than
complete engine tests, it is often necessary to operate
the entire engine to correctly evaluate a specific
component or system. For example, exhaust manifolds
and gaskets need to be tested on an operating engine
to determine if thermal shock or expansion are going to
produce leaks or failures.
Cylinder head cracking tests are another example of
the need to test the complete engine to gage a single
component. Other examples include the engine brake,
the main and connecting rod bearings, and cylinder
kits. In each case, specific test cycles have been
developed in order to both accelerate the test process
as well as elevate the stress level.
In the case of exhaust manifold and cylinder heads, the
issues of thermal fatigue cracks or leaks are similar.
Test cycles can be designed to repeatedly raise the
components temperature to an extreme level, followed
by a cold flush of air and/or water. This results in the
component undergoing a deep thermal cycle, which
when repeated over and over will produce failures. The

time to achieve a failure or the number of cycles
required can then be used to judge if the design or
system meets the desired objectives.
Engine brakes require that the engine absorb energy
supplied externally. This can be done by use of a
motoring dynamometer or as was the case with the
DDC Series 60 engine, by two engines running in
tandem. In the tandem operation, one engine would be
operating normally (producing power) while the other
engine would be absorbing the power through the
compression brakes. The engines would alternate from
producing to absorbing power continuously.
Bearing and cylinder kit tests generally involve
operating the engine at the most severe conditions for
that component. In the case of bearing, continuous
operation at peak torque is the test point. Cylinder kits
are tested over a variety of conditions as discussed in
the SLA section previously.
In-service Testing
Often times the only way to really prove an engine
meets the durability and reliability objectives is to
operate it in actual service. As pointed out previously,
the type of testing will require a minimum of 1.5 years
to accumulate the desired running time.
However, it is not easy to test an engine in a laboratory
at extreme ambient conditions, i.e. very cold or very
hot. Vehicle testing provides the opportunity to run an
engine under arctic and/or desert conditions for
prolonged periods of time. This also permits the engine
to be subject to the bumps and bounces of both onand off-highway operation.
Finally, in service testing allows evaluation of service or
maintenance recommendations as well as variations in
driving cycles and styles. As in the case of laboratory
testing, accurate records are maintained regarding
component failures, fuel and lubricant consumption, oil
drain chemistry, coolant
129
performance and other operating parameters. This

data is used to compare against laboratory results to
establish correlation as well as judge design changes
for effectiveness.
RELIABILITY GROWTH TESTING

Durability and reliability testing have the same overall
objective; to demonstrate with confidence that
customers will enjoy trouble free operation of their
engines throughout their expected lifetimes. Both
durability and reliability testing involve component
fixture tests, laboratory engine tests, and vehicle tests
conducted under both controlled conditions and actual
customer service conditions.
There are important differences in test designs,
however, depending on whether the primary focus is
on wearout failure modes which limit the useful life
(durability) or failures which occur randomly during the
useful life (reliability).
Usually product experience provides guidance in
determining the failure modes which are likely to be
encountered with a proposed new design. The
evaluation team can utilize this information to design
efficient durability and reliability test programs.
FMEAs technique may be used for predicting the
failure modes to be tested in radically new designs.
Another very powerful technique is Weibull analysis. In
Weibull analysis, a sample of parts is tested until some
failures occur. Each failure is plotted on specialized
nonlinear Weibull graph paper.
The "Y" axis of the Weibull paper represents the
cumulative percent failed. Failures are plotted on the
"Y" axis using the statistical median rank for the test
sample size and failure rank (first, second, third, etc.).
The "X" axis quantifies the life (hours, miles, cycles,
etc.) at which each failure occurs. In constructing
Weibull plots, it is very important that separate plots be
made for each failure mode encountered and that each
plot be associated with a single failure mode.
130
Figure 5.7 Medium Rank Weibull Plot for Sample

of 10
Skilled failure mode analysts may be required to
ensure that the failures are properly categorized by
mode. In a properly constructed Weibull plot, the failure
data tend to plot as a straight line as shown in
Figure 5.7. The linearity feature of the Weibull plot is
very important because it means that the cumulative
failure distribution function can be estimated with as
few as two or three failures. As a result it is usually not
necessary to continue testing until all the parts in the
test sample have failed.
Weibull analysis can provide a great deal of very
valuable information for the team evaluating the
durability and reliability of the proposed designs. First,
the failure testing and the failure mode analyses
required to categorize the failures for Weibull plotting
reveal much about the nature of the failure modes and
the mechanisms which cause
Section 5
them. Secondly, the B10, B50, and B90 lives can be

read directly from the Weibull plot (Figure 5.7). These
values can then be compared with durability and
reliability goals and those failure modes which have
unacceptable failure rates can be identified. Finally, the
slope of the Weibull plot indicates whether the failures
are occurring during the infant mortality, useful life or
wearout portion of the bathtub curve.
Figure 5.8 Significance of Weibull Slope

As shown in Figure 5.8, a of less than one is indicative
of the decreasing failure rate that occurs during the
infant mortality portion of the bathtub curve.
Manufacturing
control
measures
should
be
implemented to reduce the occurrence of these failure
modes. Values of greater than one are associated with
wearout failure modes which have an increasing failure
rate with time. Durability techniques should be used to
assess these failure modes. When the slope is near

one, the failure rate is nearly constant and the failures
are occurring randomly during the useful life portion of
the bathtub curve. Further study of these failure modes
is best accomplished through the use of reliability
techniques.
Durability and reliability investigations can, and in the
past were conducted simply by putting large samples
sizes on test and continuing testing until durability and
reliability goals were shown to be met. With todays
ninety percent plus reliability expectations and useful
life requirements of 750,000 miles or more, the cost
and time required to complete classical durability and
reliability programs is prohibitive. For example, simply
to accumulate 500,000 miles of service at 55 miles per
hour, would require over 12 months of testing even if
testing continued 24 hours per day and seven days per
week. Fortunately, several techniques have evolved
which allow the durability and reliability of proposed
designs to be evaluated much more quickly and
economically.
Reliability evaluations must also be accelerated. If, for
instance, a reliability goal of 99% at 500,000 miles
were to be demonstrated using a sample of 10 engines
or components, it would be expected that the first
failure of a successful design would not occur until the
equivalent of 3.5 million miles. The second and third
failures which would allow construction of the Weibull
plot would not occur until approximately 9 and 15
million equivalent miles respectively (Figure 5.9).
The calendar time for the testing could be shortened by
increasing the sample size, but even with a sample
size of 20, testing would need to continue for 4.5 million
miles before a second failure would be expected and
the Weibull plot could be constructed.
131
probe steps are plotted on Weibull paper, however the

X axis is now interpreted as a relative stress-time axis.
The use of a stress-time axis and the elevated stress
levels during the probe steps compresses the X axis
and allows the test period to be significantly shortened
and the sample size to be reduced.
The process of overstressing during the probe steps
also reveals any failure modes which are near, but
beyond the normal engine or component operating
stress range and gives the design team an opportunity
to address these failure modes with design changes
which will provide an additional margin of safety. These
failure modes would not be identified with conventional
reliability testing at normal operating stress levels.
Figure 5.9 Demonstration of Reliability Goal

The testing resources required for the larger sample
size would double and could be prohibitive.
Accelerated probe test techniques can, however, be
used to drastically reduce test time and resource
requirements. The 99% at 500,000 mile reliability goal
can, for instance, usually be demonstrated using the
probe technique by testing 10 engines or components
for well under one million equivalent miles.
In probe testing, a test sample is subjected to normal
maximum operating stresses for a period of time
equivalent to the time expressed in the reliability goal. If
any failures occur during this "pre-stress" period, the
design is not adequate. An enhanced design must be
developed and prestress testing must be reinitiated
using a new test sample with the enhanced design.
When the prestress testing is successfully completed,
the test stress levels are systematically increased in a
series of probe steps. Failures occurring during the
132
Well designed durability and reliability test programs

will force failures. The important thing from the
standpoint of meeting customer needs and
expectations is not that failures occur during new
product development, but rather how these failures are
handled when they do occur. There is always a
tendency to explain away failures and defend the
proposed design especially if there is significant
personnel overlap between the design and evaluation
teams. Explaining away failures is a mistake and to
ensure that this does not occur, it is desirable to
maintain a healthy independence between the design
and evaluation teams.
The appropriate response to a durability or reliability
test failure is an objective failure mode analysis
conducted by a skilled and unbiased analyst. The
objective of the analysis should not only be to identify
and categorize each failure, but to also understand the
failure mechanism and the factors which contribute to
it. Frequently, the failure mechanism cannot be
deduced simply by inspecting failed parts. In these
cases, statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA)
techniques or a variety of logical search patterns can
be employed to improve understanding and identify the
Section 5
critical factors which must be improved or controlled.

When conducting these investigations, it must be
recognized that the critical factor which contributes
most significantly to the occurrence of a failure mode
may be an interaction between two or more
parameters.
Once the cause of a failure mode with an unacceptable
probability of occurrence has been identified, a
modified and, hopefully, more robust design should be
established and evaluated. One particularly effective
technique used to compare a modified design to its
predecessor is known as B (proposed better) vs. C
(current) testing. In B vs. C test designs, a mixed
sample of the two designs is put on test. Frequently the
test can be accelerated by elevating the stresses
contributing to the known failure mechanism. The
sequence of the failures of the B and C designs is
recorded and analyzed using nonparametric statistical
methods to verify that the B design actually is better
with a suitable statistical confidence. Properly designed
B vs. C tests are capable of producing high confidence
with relatively small sample sizes. Small sample sizes
are important because of the high cost and limited
availability of prototype components.
Durability and reliability evaluation activities do not end
with proving the design or even with the start of
production. As noted previously, most infant failures
are the result of manufacturing variability that results in
some parts being weak or defective. Therefore,
analysis of infant failure modes cannot even effectively
begin until production processes are in place.
Reliability engineers must work closely with
manufacturing and quality engineers to ensure that
appropriate manufacturing process controls and quality
checks are put in place on those parameters which
contribute to any known failure mode. To minimize
scrap and rework costs, quality verifications should be
done as early in the production processes as possible.
Additionally, as the final step of the manufacturing

quality checks it is customary to run each completed
engine assembly before it is released for shipment to
the customer. Any failures that occur during the final
"hot test" must be corrected and then documented and
communicated
to
the
responsible
reliability,
manufacturing and quality engineers for investigation
and correction of the root cause. Typically, the "hot
test" plays an important role in detecting areas where
additional or improved manufacturing controls are
required while at the same time ensuring that defects
which could cause infant failures are corrected before
the engine is delivered to the customer.
Generally an intensive cooperative effort is required at
the start of production to resolve the concerns detected
using the "hot test." As problems are resolved and
more effective quality control measures process, the
need for the hot test is diminished and the intensity of
the activity can usually be reduced.
Customer experience with new engine or component
designs should be followed closely by reliability
specialists. Although the design was qualified during
the development phase, it is possible that this testing
did not expose the engine to all the conditions of
customer use and abuse which could occur in the
broad range of service applications. Since customer
expectations must be met even under the harshest and
most varied conditions, customer feedback and
warranty claim information should be utilized to identify
and failure modes which may have escaped detection
during the design qualification process. If necessary,
circumstances surrounding the in-use failures should
be investigated and failed parts should be returned for
inspection and detailed failure mode analysis. Design
or manufacturing changes as well as field fixes should
be implemented promptly if any deficiencies are
discovered.
133
NOISE DEVELOPMENT
Noise development was considered from the
conception of the DDC Series 60 engine and continues
today. With the intended market of the DDC Series 60
engine being the on-highway truck, meeting noise
levels was a necessity dictated by passby test
standards adopted by truck OEMs and the EPA.
Because the truck standards dictate total truck noise
and not engine noise, a noise goal for the engine had
to be developed. DDC used its knowledge of engine
and truck noise sources to set a goal of 77 dB(A)
maximum sound pressure level for the engine at 50
feet (15 m) away from a microphone.
anechoic test cells while engine power is developed

and absorbed by a dynamometer, and while the engine
is motored with an external device. Sound power and
sound pressure are measured using frequency
analysis equipment to determine sound levels and
sound quality.
Sound power measurement is the most useful data for
analyzing engine noise. Sound power is measured with
a dual microphone probe which feeds into a fast
Fourier transform (FFT) analyzer The probe, with two
microphones spaced a precise distance apart, is
capable of measuring sound intensity and wave
direction when microphone signals are transformed in
the FFT analyzer.
Critical Component Selection

DDC Series 60 noise development began as soon as
the
engine
component
configuration
was
conceptualized. A database of all the engine
component designs was assembled. With database
information from existing engine sound levels, sound
levels for various engine components, such as
truncated pistons, overhead cam, unit injector, etc.,
were developed. The individual components, with
estimated sound levels, were entered into a modeling
program which predicted the engine sound level and
selected components which made significant
contribution to the overall sound level. Sound
development of the identified critical components was
then begun. The analysis isolated the cylinder block, oil
pan, rocker cover, intake manifold, exhaust manifold,
front cover, front mount, crankshaft pulley, water pump,
turbocharger, oil cooler, and flywheel housing as
components critical to overall engine sound level.
Component Testing
Determination and optimization of engine and
individual component sound levels are performed in the
laboratory. Sound is generated and measured in
134
Areas for which sound power output is desired are

scanned with the probe. The probe signals over a
period of time are feed into the FFT analyzer to output
an average sound intensity emitted from the scanned
object surface. The multiplication of intensity and
component, or engine surface, area yields sound
power output. Sound power measurement plays a key
roll in engine sound development. Without intensity
measurement it would not be possible to accurately
identify which components are critical to noise
reduction with an empirical technique.
Sound power measurements produce repeatable data
which can be used to show improvement of redesigned
components. Figure 5.10 shows two methods of
determining engine sound power. Method 1 involves
setting up a grid of strings around the sides and top of
an engine. Each grid is scanned with the sound power
probe. Total engine sound power output is determined
by adding the power from all grid sections. Method 2
involves separating the engine surface into sections.
The sections should represent single components. The
surface of each area is scanned at close distance to
yield a power output from the component. Method 2 is
less accurate than method 1,
Section 5
however, method
determination.
yields
critical
component
number of microphones is variable, however,

microphones should be located on all sides and the top
of the engine. Sound pressure measurement yields a
distance dependent reference number useful to many
regulatory agencies.
Figure 5.11 Sound Pressure Measurement
Figure 5.10 Methods of Measuring Engine Sound

Power
Sound pressure measurement is performed in tests
were physical constraints do not allow sound power
measurement. Sound pressure measurements can be
made with a single microphone in real-time speed.
Sound pressure can be used for measurement of
moving vehicle sound or as a test cell development
device. Sound pressure is effected by environment so
anechoic test cells are mandatory. Figure 5.11 shows
a test cell set up for sound pressure measurement. The
Engine motoring is a technique used to identify sound

created by mechanical movement of the engine.
Motoring provides a sound picture which can be
compared to sound created by a running engine to
determine
sound
generated
by
combustion.
Measurement of engine sound while motoring is done
by method 1 or 2, as previously described. Motoring
does not provide an exact duplication of sound created
by motion during actual engine operation because
variables such as torsional vibration and piston
dynamics are different than during the combustion
process, however, motoring can still identify
component sound problems.
Modal analysis is an indirect method for developing low
sound engine components. Modal analysis is typically
used on large surface area components such as rocker
covers, oil pans, large tubes, and even
135
cylinder blocks. Modal analysis identifies natural

vibration modes and damping of components. With
modal analysis, vibration measurement transducers,
typically accelerometers, are fastened to the surface of
a component in grid formation. The component is then
excited with the impact of a hammer causing the
component to vibrate. Each accelerometer output is fed
into modal analysis software which compares vibration
phase and amplitude and calculates the natural
vibration mode of the component.
Figure 5.12 shows a typical modal deformation output
for an oil pan. Modal analysis can be used to determine
placement of supports or ribs. Typically modal analysis
is used to develop components into a Condition were
natural vibration frequencies are above the excitation
frequencies of the engine.
VEHICLE TESTING
Vehicle testing is an extremely important part of engine
development. It is necessary to perform extensive
testing of the engine in the vehicle to avoid a
devastating mistake: developing a product without
testing it in real world conditions. Experience has
proven that not all conditions are duplicated in the test
cell.
There is some essential data that a test cell can not
provide, such as engine driveability, although computer
simulation programs such as ADAM provide assistance
in this area. A parameter such as driveability is directly
linked to engine features such as the turbocharger and
electronic control calibration. As development of these
items takes place, it is necessary to concurrently test
the vehicle with the development in order to eliminate
the possibility of developing an engine that performs
unacceptably in the customers vehicle application.
The DDC Series 60 engine was tested extensively in
vehicles at a controlled test site as well as at customer
locations throughout the United States. Vehicle testing
takes place concurrently with engine development, in
order to maintain or improve parameters such as
driveability while meeting emissions standards and fuel
economy goals.
Figure 5.12
Typical Modal Deformation Output for

an Oil Pan
The development techniques mentioned above were

critical to producing the DDC Series 60 engine
components. Noise development on the DDC Series
60 led to the design of the isolated rocker cover and oil
pan, contours of the cylinder block, ribbed gear case
cover,
and
many
more
subtle
component
enhancements.
136
There are many different vehicle test subjects, and the

following discussion will describe the different types of
vehicle testing performed with the DDC Series 60
engine. These are fuel economy, driveability, load
acceptance, noise, electronics, cold starting and
cooling system.
Vehicle Fuel Economy Testing
Fuel economy is of extreme importance in the heavyduty diesel engine industry. Vehicle testing is
performed in order to quantify fuel economy in real
world conditions, for competitive comparisons,
Startability is
Equation 5.7.
quantitatively
estimated
by
using
Equation 5.7
S = T800 x (Total driveline reduction) x R
(10.7 x W)
Where
S = Startability index
T800 = torque available at 800 r/min (lbft)
W = Gross vehicle weight(lbs)
R = wheel speed (r/mile)
There is a minimum recommended startability index for
the different applications of the DDC Series 60 engine.
Combinations of the above startability index
parameters that meet the index requirement for the
specific application may then be run on ADAM.
As can be seen from the above equation for the
startability index, the T800 value is very important for
startability, and therefore driveability. This value (the
torque available at 800 r/min) is available on DDC
Series 60 engine performance data sheets.
The capability of the engine to be geared for steadystate running at higher engine speeds has an impact
on driveability. Running at higher engine speeds allows
the operator to shift less, which may improve driving
technique. Less shifting encourages the driver to use
the torque available at lower engine speeds when
pulling grades. In some cases running at higher engine
speeds is discouraged due to a penalty in fuel
economy.
The performance of the vehicle on grades is a
significant part of vehicle driveability. This is tested by
driving the vehicle on a grade, from a rolling start and
also from stop. The DDC Series 60 engine is tested in
this manner at a controlled test site with hills that have
138
137
up to a 16% grade. The acceleration of the vehicle over

a distance is timed and recorded. Part of the test is
qualitative, and is documented by having the operator
rate the performance on a scale of one to five. The
ability of the vehicle to change gears while on a grade
is also tested.
Another important part of driveability that is of great
importance to the customer is throttle response. This is
a function of the turbocharger response and the
electronic control calibration. It is tested on a grade,
while rolling and using different gears. The vehicle
operator goes to full throttle at engine speeds of 1000,
1200, and 1400 r/min. The operator then rates the
throttle response on a scale of one to five after
performing this test with different gears of the
transmission. The acceleration of the vehicle over a
distance is timed and recorded to provide quantitative
documentation.
Vehicle Load Acceptance

Load acceptance is the ability of the engine to increase
torque as load increases and engine speed decreases.
It is very important to the customer because it effects
how well a vehicle performs on hilly terrain, and also
how powerful the engine feels.
The DDC Series 60 engine utilizes torque curves
specifically designed for excellent load acceptance.
This is done by providing high peak torque, and making
the peak torque available over a larger range of engine
speeds. In 1994, engines with lower power ratings will
have the same peak torque as engines rated for higher
power. The excellent load acceptance achieved results
in good customer perception of engine power. Two
1994 DDC Series 60 torque curves with different rated
power but the same peak torque are shown in
Figure 5.13.
Section 5
contribution from each source must be known. A

technique known as source elimination provides sound
level for each of the sources.
Source elimination is accomplished by using several
methods for reducing sound levels of various vehicle
sound sources. Sound sources are reduced by the
following treatments. Exhaust gas sound is quieted by
using an extremely large exhaust attenuator. The
attenuator used is not production feasible due to size,
weight, and cost reasons.
Figure 5.13 1994 Performance Comparison of Two

Ratings
Vehicle Noise Testing

For the North American on-highway truck market,
regulatory agencies are primarily concerned with total
accelerating and decelerating vehicle sound pressure
level. SAE test J366 details procedures for a vehicle
exterior sound level test for which the current standard
is 80 dB(A). The vehicle exterior sound level test
measures sound pressure level of an accelerating or
decelerating truck operated on a special test site. The
test is concerned with maximum dB(A) sound level and
not with spectrum content of the sound. For details on
SAE J366 refer to SAE journals.
SAE J366 provides a functional verification of
engineering design and laboratory engine sound
development success. SAE J366 can also be used as
a development tool for engine manufacturers and
vehicle manufacturers. J366 is a measure of total
vehicle sound which is comprised of engine sound,
exhaust sound, engine intake sound, vehicle chassis
sound, tire sound, and other sounds with small
contribution to overall vehicle sound level. In order for
the test to provide useful development data the
Sound radiated from exhaust pipes is reduced through

use of thermal blanket and lead sheet wrapping. Tire
sound can be reduced to a low enough level with use of
low noise tread designs available. Intake sound can be
treated with an absorption type intake silencer. The
engine itself is silenced by encapsulating in heavy
sound barrier polymer/lead wrapping.
The treatments described above are used to achieve a
vehicle sound level 10 dB(A) lower than the untreated
vehicle sound level. Vehicle chassis sound is
determined by rolling the vehicle through the J366 test
site at test speed without the engine running. SAE J366
tests are run while exposing each of the treated sound
sources separately. The contribution of each source to
overall vehicle sound level is determined using
Equation 5.8.
Equation 5.8
Lp= 10 Log (10Lp1/10 +10 Lp2/10 +10 Lp3/10 ...)
Where
Lp = Total Sound Pressure Level Measured in
Decibels
Determination of individual engine component sources
such as rocker cover, oil pan, gear-case, exhaust
manifold, etc. is accomplished by exposing the
component (unwrapping) during a test with the
remaining vehicle treatments intact. If the
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138
unwrapped component results in an increase in sound

level then percent contribution to overall vehicle sound
should be determined and production treatments
developed.
Determination of engine sound sources with J366 is
difficult due to test repeatability. Environmental factors
such as wind speed and direction, humidity, barometric
pressure, and environmental noise add to variations in
repeatability of vehicle and vehicle operator to create
sometimes confusing results. To alleviate some error
multiple test averages should be used. Effort should be
directed toward running tests under similar
environmental conditions. If possible, tests should be
automated to the highest possible degree with vehicle
position tracked by radar and vehicle operation
controlled by computer.
Vehicle Cold Startability

The ability of a diesel engine to start in low ambient
temperatures is a function of cylinder compression
ratio, intake air temperature, and engine cranking
speed. Heat energy must be generated within the
combustion chamber in order to raise the combustion
air temperature above the auto ignition temperature of
the diesel fuel; cylinder wall temperatures, intake air
temperatures and fuel temperatures will affect the
ability to generate the required heat energy. Higher
compression ratios tend to have better cold starting
characteristics because of higher initial combustion
temperatures due to higher rate of charge
compression. Intake air temperature essentially
becomes a datum from which the rise in heat energy
may be measured; lower intake air temperatures
increases the required heat energy needed to reach
the auto ignition point of the cylinder fuel/air charge.
Engine cranking speed at cold ambient temperatures
becomes a function of the electrical resistance of the
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139
starting circuit and the reserve capacity of the battery

bank. High starting circuit resistance plus lower battery
voltage induced by cold temperatures tend to lower
engine cranking speeds. Design responsibility for the
engine starting circuit rests with the vehicle OEM; the
engine manufacturer requires a minimum cranking
speed in order to insure a successful cold start. The
starting circuit design must insure that the engine will
maintain the minimum cranking speed at the cold
ambient temperature. For the DDC Series 60 engines,
the minimum cranking speed required is 130 r/min.
Parasitic loads imposed by OEM installations must also
be included in starting circuit design considerations.
Components such as hydraulic pumps will add
considerably to the friction horsepower of the engine,
even if the pump is de-stroked to minimum output
volume. Automatic transmissions will also add to the
friction horsepower which the starting motor must
overcome.
Changes to the lubricating oil viscosity and the battery
voltage from cold temperatures tend to lower engine
cranking speeds. Increased viscosity in the engine
bearings increases the friction horsepower of the
engine. Lowered battery voltage negatively affects the
cranking torque of the starting motor.
Vehicle Batteries
The battery reserve power and the state of battery
charge will affect the ability for successful cold start. A
battery capacity adequate for engine starts above 40F
(4C) will not be adequate for below zero degrees
engine starts where repetitive start attempts are
common. A battery fully charged at 80F (27C) will
have 40% of its cranking power available at 0F
(18C); Figure 5.14 indicates the loss of cranking
power for lead acid batteries as a function of ambient
temperature.
Section 5
Unaided Starts
A typical temperature target for unaided starts, that is,
engine starts not assisted by external devices, is 32F
(0C). Because of the electronic governing system,
DDEC, the DDC Series 60 engine is capable of
unaided starts at 15F (-9C). The DDEC system
senses a cold start condition via the engine oil
temperature.
Figure 5.14 Battery Cranking Power

Starting Aids
Starting aids are externally applied devices which
enhance the engine startability. These devices, used
singly or in combination, are designed to either warm
the engine to reduce the friction horsepower or to warm
the batteries to recover reserve power lost to the cold.
They can work off of vehicle power or be supplied
power from external (off vehicle) sources. Some
devices work by the combustion of fuel, others through
resistive electrical heating. Some, such as ether, help
to initiate combustion by introducing a fuel with a flash
point lower than that of diesel fuel. The following list
incorporates the common types of starting aids.
Devices for increasing engine block temperature:
coolant heater with combustion
coolant heater by resistive heater
engine oil heater by resistive heater
oil pan heater
engine compartment heater
Devices for increasing intake air temperature:
air intake flame heater
electric resistive type intake heater
Devices for increasing battery temperature:
plate type heater
insulated battery box
strip type heater
blanket type heater
Devices for
temperature:
glow plugs
fuel heater
increasing
combustion
chamber
Devices for improving combustion characteristics:
measured ether shots
fuel heater
Each starting aid must follow engine manufacture

requirements such as thermostatic controls to prevent
overheating. Ether systems typically are set up as
measured shot delivery systems, so that controlled
amounts are introduce to the engine. Many starting
aids are applied as after market items by OEMs and
customers; some, such as glow plugs, are apart of the
engine design.
Special Fuels and Oils
When operating continually in cold ambient
temperatures, special fuels and lubrication oils are
usually recommended by the engine manufacture.
Fuels with a lowered cloud
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140
point, such as DFA, are recommended to prevent

waxing of the fuel filters. Engine oils with low viscosity
at cold temperatures such as Arctic oils (grade OW-20)
increase engine startability in low temperature,
however, such oils may not be suitable for use at high
ambient temperatures. Figure 5.15 indicates
temperature ranges of common engine oil grades for
DDC two cycle and four cycle engines.
of the engine to 15F (-9C), the ability to automatically

control idle for engine warm up and the cleanup of
white smoke.
Cold Cell Testing

Engine tests at low ambient temperatures is typically
conducted in a cold cell so that conditions are
controlled and repeatable. An engine and its starting
batteries will be cold soaked at the target temperature
for 12 to 24 hours, until the engine oil and coolant
temperatures are within two degrees of ambient. A
predetermined start sequence will take place and an
engine start is attempted. If the engine does not start,
subsequent attempts are made, allowing for starter
motor cool down time in between. Cold chamber work
is typically done to examine engine startability, but
other investigations into component characteristics at
cold temperatures are performed.
Figure 5.15 Low Temperature Oil Requirements

Additives to the fuels, to improve startability or modify
the pour or cloud points of the fuel are generally not
recognized by engine manufactures as the effects
upon the engine are unknown.
Whole vehicles are sometimes subjected to cold

startability tests, using large cold chambers or an area
of constant cold temperature such as northern
Minnesota or Alaska.
Vehicle Electronics Testing

Cold Start Strategies
With the advent of electronic engine control, strategies
for enhancing engine cold startability are now possible.
As mentioned before, upon ignition switch power, the
DDEC system senses engine oil temperature; lower
temperatures indicate that cold start logic should be
employed.
The DDEC system increases the idle speed to 1000 r/
min and retards the beginning of injection. The cold
start logic is remains in effect until the engine oil
temperature reaches 108F (42C), at which point the
idle speed and BOI values are ramped back to normal
values. The value of electronic engine control is
evident in the lowering of the unaided start temperature
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When testing the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

of a vehicle, the evaluation criteria should be designed
to consider the ability of an electronic system or
component to reliably operate in its intended
electromagnetic environment without responding to
electrical noise or generating unwanted electrical
noise. This criteria characterizes an electronic system
or component as to whether it is susceptible to
electromagnetic (EM) radiation or it is an emitter of EM
radiation. By combining this characterization with the
medium by which electrical energy is carried to and
from vehicle electronic systems (radiated through air or
conducted through the vehicle wiring system) the four
areas of EMC concern can be determined. The four
areas are:
Section 5
1.
Radiated Susceptibility
2.
Radiated Emissions
3.
Conducted Susceptibility
4.
Conducted Emissions
It is imperative as the engine supplier have a clear

understanding and agreement with the vehicle supplier
on issues related to the levels of EMC testing. The
engine supplier should also be familiar with the
electromagnetic interference (EMI) sections of SAE
J1455 "Recommended Environmental Practices for
Electronic Equipment Design (Heavy-Duty Trucks)".
The engine electronics designer should preform
component level tests to these guideline to increase
the probability of conformance to the full vehicle
testing.
The following information provides basic EMC test
descriptions and how they pertain to a vehicles
electromagnetic environment.
Radiated Susceptibility - Radiated susceptibility testing
evaluates how sensitive the vehicle is to sources
emitting electromagnetic radiation on or around the
vehicle. Radiated susceptibility is typically comprised of
two major tests:
1. The Electric Field Test is a simulation of the
electromagnetic environment that a vehicle would
experience if it were either driven near a high
power transmitting antenna or adjacent to another
vehicle equipped with a commercial mobile
transmitter.
During an Electric Field Test, the vehicle is
irradiated with high power electromagnetic energy
while it is operating on a dynamometer. Electric
field measurement probes are located at
standardized positions around the vehicle to
ensure that desired test levels are being
generated during the test.
driven near electric generating stations or high

power transmission lines.
The test is performed by placing the vehicle in the
magnetic field generated by large coils that are
energized by a 60 Hertz signal. While operating
on a dynamometer, critical vehicle parameters are
recorded during subjection to magnetic fields
along longitudinal and transverse axes.
Radiated Emissions - Radiated emissions testing
identifies the type and strength of electromagnetic
emission from a vehicle during normal operation.
Radiated emissions testing is typically comprised of
three tests:
1. The Electromagnetic Radiation Test is a
broadband far-field radiated emissions test. It is
intended to identify emissions from vehicle
ignition systems and other broadband pulse noise
sources that could interfere with radio and TV
reception or with other communication equipment
that is adjacent to the vehicle.
The test is typically performed outdoors where
sensitive
receivers
can
monitor
the
electromagnetic emissions from the vehicle during
normal operation.
2. The Radiated Emissions Test is preformed to
identify and narrowband and/or broadband
radiated emissions from vehicle electronic
systems that could interfere with on-board vehicle
receivers or communications equipment. This test
is performed inside a shielded chamber to isolate
the measurements from environmental noise.
3. The AM/FM Interference Test is used to identify
objectionable noise in the entertainment radio
resulting from radio frequency RF emissions
generated by vehicle electronics. The
2. The Magnetic Field Test simulates the magnetic

field that a vehicle would encounter if it were
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test is typically performed in a shielded chamber.

Conducted Susceptibility - Conducted susceptibility
testing evaluates how susceptible the vehicle electrical
system is to electrical signals which are transmitted
through the vehicle wiring system. Testing for
conducted susceptibility typically consists of three
tests:
1.
The Alternator Load Dump Test evaluates vehicle

performance when the alternator load is abruptly
reduced. This sudden reduction in current causes
the alternator to generate a large release of
energy that travels through the wiring system.
This transient is a potential hazard to vehicle
electronic systems.
2.
The Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Test

determines the sensitivity of vehicle electronic
systems. This test is typically performed using a
portable ESD simulator to discharge at vehicle
test points.
3.
The Transient Injection Test determines the

susceptibility of vehicle systems to transient
signals typically found within the vehicles
electrical environment. The test usually consists
of injecting transients into the vehicles
components which are somewhat more severe
than expected normal values.
Conducted Emissions - Conducted emissions testing is

used to identify the characteristics of the
electromagnetic emissions conducted from vehicle
components and systems through the wiring system.
The levels of conducted emissions is typically
determined by a Transient Analysis Test.
The Transient Analysis Test - This test analyzes the
transients produced by vehicle electrical loads. During
the test, current and/or voltage transients are captured
and recorded concurrently with the activation of vehicle
electrical accessories.
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Vehicle Cooling System Testing

Vehicle cooling system testing is a requirement for
every new customer installation. A brief description of
the cooling system tests follows:
Coolant Fill Capability - The fill rate, and required
"topping off" after indication of full system are
measured. The system must permit a minimum
continuous flow fill rate. The amount of "topping off"
(after the system is filled), also known as the "make up
volume" must not exceed the system drawdown
capacity. The drawdown capacity is the amount of
coolant removed from a deaerated system, filled to the
cold full level, that results in an indication of air
entrainment in the coolant when the engine is running
at rated speed.
Draining Capability - The amount and location of
coolant trapped in the system after draining is
documented. The location of the trapped coolant is
examined to determine if it will cause a problem with
freezing during cold weather storage.
Water Pump Air Binding - This test determines if the
coolant pump primes after initial fill by monitoring the
pump discharge pressure.
Water Pressure and Flow - These tests are performed
with blocked open thermostats, and no pressure cap
on the expansion tank. The coolant flow rate is
measured, in addition to the coolant pump discharge
and inlet (suction) pressure at several engine speeds.
Charge Air Pressure Drop - The air charge cooler is
tested to determine if it exceeds the maximum charge
air pressure drop in the cooler and tubing. It is also
tested to determine if it cools the charge air sufficiently.
This is done by subtracting the ambient air temperature
from the intercooler discharge temperature at rated
speed and full power. The difference of the two
Section 5
temperatures must be less than the maximum limit for

the engine power rating.
Coolant Pressure and Temperature - Auxiliary coolers
are used to cool transmission and/or hydraulic fluid.
The coolant temperature and pressure in and out of the
cooler(s) are recorded.
Deaeration Test - The time it takes the cooling system
to purge all the entrained air in the system after the
initial fill with coolant is measured.
Drawdown Test - The drawdown test consists of
measuring the amount of coolant removed from a
system which results in an indication of air entrainment
in the system. It must be greater than the "make up
volume" obtained in the fill capability test. The coolant
level sensor is also checked during this test to
determine if it activates the engine warning light before
the drawdown the drawdown limit is reached.
Air Handling Capability - Air is injected into the coolant
system at a controlled, regulated, and measured flow
rate. The coolant system for the DDC Series 60 engine
must be able to handle 0.6 ft3/min (.02 m 3/min) of air
injection, while maintaining a coolant flow rate at least
50% of the value measured for a deaerated system.
Any overflow of coolant is measured, and the overflow
must not be greater than the system drawdown
capacity.
Cooling Index - This index is obtained by testing the
engine at its maximum heat load, with the cooling
system at its maximum cooling capability. The index is
calculated by subtracting the true ambient air
temperature, (with altitude compensation, and coolant
compensation) from the average engine water out
temperature. The maximum cooling index requirement
is obtained by subtracting the maximum ambient air
temperature
(usually
110F
[43C]),
altitude
compensation, and coolant compensation from the
maximum top tank temperature (210F [99C]). The

measured cooling index must be less than the
maximum cooling index requirement that is calculated
for the application.
Some consideration should be given to the method
used during the coolant index test to operate the
engine at its maximum heat load. This can be difficult
to do in a vehicle because engine speed must be held
constant (within 100 r/min) while the engine operates at
full power. There are several options, including a
towing dynamometer, chassis dynamometer, and
driving a loaded vehicle on a grade. Many times a
towing dynamometer is not available, and one of the
other two methods must be used. Using a chassis
dynamometer raises concerns with supplying the
proper amount of ram air to the radiator, and
recirculation of hot air into the cooling system. Driving a
loaded vehicle on a grade is often difficult because the
engine cant be held at its maximum heat load long
enough to provide good, consistent data. Because of
these problems encountered when trying to run the
test, careful test design and preparation must be
conducted prior to the test to ensure good results.
Vehicle Fuel System Testing

The fuel system needs to be tested to determine if the
vehicle fuel system will perform satisfactorily in the new
engine installation. Typically, two measurements are
required.
Fuel pump inlet pressure: The fuel pump inlet

pressure is recorded while running the engine at
maximum speed. The maximum fuel inlet
pressure for the DDC Series 60 engine is -6 in.
Hg (-20 kPa) for a clean system.
The maximum fuel temperature is recorded

while running the engine at its maximum heat
load (while doing the cooling index test). The
maximum fuel inlet temperature for the DDC
Series 60 engine is 140F (60C).
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FLYWHEEL TESTING
Equation 5.9
NC = N T x (SSPEC / SACT).5
The potential for failure inherent in the kinetic energy

contained in a flywheel, safety margin determined by
testing is necessary. Testing involves subjecting the
flywheel to rotational velocities exceeding the velocity
reached on the engine. The following procedure is
used to qualify flywheels for maximum speed
operation:
1. A flywheel must be able to withstand 2.5 times

maximum engine speed before bursting. Three
specimens should be spun. One specimen should
be spun to failure and the burst speed recorded
while the other two specimens should be spun to
2.5 times maximum engine speed.
Where:
NC = Corrected Burst Speed
NT = Observed Burst Speed
SSPEC = Minimum
Tensile
Strength
on
Drawing
SACT = The
Actual
Tensile
Strength
From Burst Specimen
The test procedure above does not consider heat or
torque output, however, the severity of stress induced
by rotational velocity 2.5 times actual service velocity
has been found to provide adequate safety factor for
typical heavy-duty diesel flywheels.
Flywheel Torque Capacity
Testing to burst speed must be done in a

container capable of containing the flywheel at
failure. The flywheel burst test can be
accomplished in a lead brick lined cylindrical
concrete pit. The top of the pit is a heavy gage
iron plate with an air turbine mounted in the
center. The air turbine output shaft protrudes into
the pit. Test flywheels are mounted to the turbine
output shaft. Turbine speed is monitored using
telemetry which records maximum speed
achieved. Flywheel burst point will be obvious due
to the amount of energy released with failure.
2. A correction must be made to account for test

flywheels which have material strength above the
minimum allowed on the print. Correction is
accomplished using tensile specimens cut from
the test flywheels per SAE J416B. The test
specimens are fractured and tensile strength of
the test flywheels recorded. Flywheel burst
strength is then corrected to minimum material
strength burst speed with Equation 5.9.
The majority of engine power output is transferred to

the driven machine through friction between the
crankshaft end and flywheel mounting surface. The
design friction torque capacity of the joint should be
verified through testing.
Testing is done in a fixture capable of supplying
maximum drive torque while monitoring input torque
and crankshaft rotation angle. The test set up should
have the flywheel solidly mounted at the output bolt
circle and an actual crankshaft (or portion of) bolted to
the flywheel. Torque is input to the crankshaft.
Instrumentation is needed to measure torque input and
rotational displacement between the flywheel and
crankshaft.
Testing is done by inputting non cyclic torque into the
crankshaft while plotting input torque versus rotational
displacement between the flywheel and crankshaft.
Torque capacity is indicated on the graph of torque
versus angle by a decrease in the slope of the line. It is
important to note that, due to flexibility not associated
with slippage between the crankshaft and flywheel, the
slope of the line will never equal infinity.
Torque capacity from testing should be compared to
the designed torque capacity
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Section 5
and maximum engine output torque to determine if the

joint capacity is high enough.
charge air; operation without lubrication or cooling; and

overspeed engine operation.
ABUSE TESTING
The format of an abuse test varies greatly, since these

tests are usually tailored to specific engine, application,
and customer needs. Tests may be performed on
individual components or complete engines. The
common element of an abuse test is: an aggravating
condition or conditions are exaggerated and imposed
upon an engine or component, until failure results.
Tests are usually designed to accelerate failure, since
engine tests are expensive. A well constructed abuse
test must confirm that failure was caused by the test
variable, rather than a random test anomaly, or an
engine or component defect.
Heavy-duty diesel engines operate in harsh

environments. Despite the best efforts of engine
manufacturers and customers, alike, engines
occasionally operate outside intended limits or are
introduced to extraordinarily harsh environments. A
well designed engine should not fail when marginally
abusive conditions exist. Such conditions include, but
are not limited to:
Ingestion of Foreign Debris

Lubricant Contamination
Coolant Contamination
Fuel Contamination
Use of Low Quality or Corrosive Fuels
Low and No Coolant
Low and No Oil
Over-extended Oil Drain Interval
Extreme Thermal Cycling of Cylinder Head
Impact
Engine Overspeed
Excessive Air System Restriction
Drive Train Induced Torsional Excitations
Therefore, engine manufacturers must provide

appropriate safety factors to prevent failure when
abusive conditions exist. Abuse tests verify safety
factors, failure modes, and ultimately identify weak
links. Common abuse tests include: the head-cracker
cycle;
flywheel
overspeed
tests;
intentional
contamination of vital fluids; excessive air system
restriction tests; high sulfur fuel tests; extended oil
drain interval; and engine drop testing. More exotic
tests involve: introduction of abrasive material to the
Therefore,
complete
build
and
tear-down
measurements are performed to insure the engine or
component conforms to specifications. Engine and
component instrumentation should continuously record
test conditions throughout the experiment. Statistically
significant test samples are used to confirm failure
modes and account for engine and component
variability. Test data should be correlated with known
field failures. Extensive failure studies are performed
by the engineer, who may also involve metallurgical
and chemical analyses, as appropriate.
Failure analysis can become very complex. Failed
components and component fragments must be
gathered for inspection. Detailed evaluations may
involve: scanning electron microscope examination, Xray photography, and magna flux inspections of failed
metallic components. Test data must be reviewed for
anomalies which may have induced or resulted from
failure. In some cases, it is possible to recognize
imminent failure before a catastrophic component
damage results. Used oil analyses and real time test
data are useful tools for both post mortal and predictive
failure mode identification. Once a catastrophic failure
has occurred, multiple failure modes may exist.
Therefore, it is important to separate
147
the various modes, using existing evidence to identify

the root cause.
Although abuse tests provide useful information for the
engine designer, they should be performed with
restraint. Abuse testing often results in catastrophic
engine failures which are expensive and dangerous.
Tests must be designed with safety and economic
factors in mind. Analytical analyses should be used
wherever possible, to reduce or eliminate the amount
of abuse testing required.
NEW ENGINE DEVELOPMENT AND

MANUFACTURING
The value of a new engine design is limited if it can not
be
economically
manufactured.
Therefore,
manufacturing considerations must be introduced early
in engine component design and system integration.
Effective design for manufacturing pursues the
objective of providing a design which will meet
performance specifications while achieving the overall
lowest machining and assembly costs. Simplicity can
be difficult, however, as the complexity of diesel engine
systems and the need to integrate technological
advancements make every major design program
unique. Even so, the cumulative experience of
manufacturing, design, and engineering play an
important roll in the final engine design, with good
product design experiences copied, and bad
experiences eliminated.
Once design concepts have been developed to a point
where discussion will be fruitful, representatives from
manufacturing suppliers and assembly operations
should be included as part of the design team. Their
early involvement can avoid a compounding effect
should a particular component design prove to have
manufacturing problems. Iterations in designs should
be expected and planned for.
Significant advancement toward an overall lowest
manufacturing cost design can be achieved in a design
148
phase if component design decisions strive for the

consolidation of machining processes, the minimization
of the number of sealing and datum surfaces, the
correct specification of tolerances, and the
consideration of assembly and service needs. A good
design will consolidate machining processes by
providing sufficient distance between holes, avoiding
too many unique machined angles or machine tool
planes, and minimizing the number of machined
surfaces.
The importance of process consolidation can be seen
in transfer line costs. The addition of a tool within a
transfer line station costs on the order of $10,000,
whereas the addition of a new station costs on the
order of $100,000. If a hole is specified to be drilled at a
unique angle or holes are too close together, they can
not be packaged together with other operations. If a
part requires machining on all sides, it will require
additional stations to turn it. Since sealing surfaces are,
for the most part, machined, their elimination reduces
manufacturing processes. As a side benefit, fewer
sealing surfaces means less potential for leaks, which
provides better customer satisfaction.
Machining processes are more difficult as the number
of datum surfaces increase. Processes are typically
grouped based on the different datums. Additional
thought should be put into selecting datums in order to
better integrate design intent with manufacturing
process capability. Overly tight tolerances can add
significantly to manufacturing cost, since the tighter the
tolerance, the greater the number of operations
necessary to achieve it.
Effective use of internal design, machining, and tooling
standards can simplify tolerance selection. Assembly
and service needs should be addressed by component
designs that will allow an efficient sequence of
assembly. Fasteners should be placed with sufficient
clearance for automatic tools, with the number of
fasteners optimized.
Section 5
Whereas application issues such as mounting and

installation of the engine are important considerations
for the assembly, design efforts should concentrate on
the core engine, since this composes the major volume
of engine components. Of course, the optimum design
for manufacture is dependent on the expected sales
volume of the engine and service components.
Start-up and mature engine volumes and budgetary
limitations are important to design decisions and its
effect on the specification of machining processes. A
high volume engine will require a special purpose
machine or transfer line set of machining operations for
most of its components. A low volume engine or
component may be better served by flexible, or CNC
machining. CNC machines tend to be more expensive
than transfer lines, but cause less trouble when
significant changes must be made to components.
Furthermore, design decisions such as hole placement
can be established much later in the design process
relative to transfer line machines.
Volume can also effect the selection of other
manufacturing processes besides machining. For
example, die casting tends to be only economical for
high volume components. If a new engine is designed
with the intent of its manufacture in existing facilities,
transfer lines, etc., manufacturing limitations will make
flexibility in the design especially difficult. Even when
the existing machines are extensively overhauled,
factors such as the overall envelope of the component
may provide design boundaries.
149
SECTION 6
MEASURING ENGINE ACCEPTABILITY

The requirements for the diesel engine design have been
set and the engine has been designed for long life, good
fuel economy, competitive cost, acceptable reliability,
good driveability, compliant emissions, etc. But what is
the measure of engine acceptability in customer service?
The following outlines the measures for success.
EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Before a family of engines can be sold in the U.S. truck
market, the engine manufacturer must conduct emission
certification tests in a facility approved by the EPA. The
engine dynamometer test procedure, test conditions,
measure methods and test fuels are prescribed in the
Federal Register. Family certification requires testing of
two data engines that are run for 125 hours prior to an
emission test and one engine run to 1,000 to 1,500 hours
to determine emission deterioration factors. The
emissions from the data engines with deterioration factors
applied from the hour accumulation engine must comply
with the EPA standards.
The EPA emission standards for 1993, 1994, and 1998
are illustrated in Table 6.1 for the emissions of
hydrocarbons (HC) carbon monoxide (CO) oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) expressed in
grams per brake horsepower hour on the EPA heavy-duty

transient emission test.
Emissions g/bhphr
HC
CO
NOx
PM
1993
1.3
15.5
5.0
0.25
1994
1.3
15.5
5.0
0.10
1998
1.3
15.5
4.0
0.10
Table 6.1
EPA Emission Standards
The emission results for all heavy-duty diesel engines are

public and are available from the EPA. The results of the
DDC Series 60 11.1 and 12.7 liter engines are shown in
Table 6.2.
EMISSIONS g/bhphr
HC
CO
NOx
PM
1993 STANDARD
1.3
15.5
5.0
0.25
11.1L 285 bhp
0.10
2.4
4.9
0.15
11.1L 350 bhp
0.05
2.2
4.7
0.13
12.7L 365 bhp
0.09
2.3
4.8
0.19
12.7L 450 bhp
0.08
1.8
4.7
0.18
Table 6.2 DDC Series 60 Emissions vs. 1993 Standard
151
150
FUEL ECONOMY
Several measures are used to determine if fuel
efficiency goals have been met. The first is to run a full
load curve over the engine speed range to measure the
brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) which is
measured in pounds per hour and divided by the
horsepower produced resulting in units of lbs/bhphr.
Figure 6.1 shows a representative full load curve with
horsepower, torque and fuel consumption.
load but also for "part load". This "fuel map" can be
used in vehicle computer simulations to calculate
vehicle fuel economy in miles per gallon. A typical "fuel
map" is shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 DDC Series 60 12.7L Fuel Map

The next step would be to use a fuel economy
simulation program such as the DDC ADAM program
to calculate miles per gallon over specific routes for a
particular engine and truck specifications. Figure 6.3
shows output of a representative ADAM simulation run.
Figure 6.1 DDC Series 60 12.7L Engine Performance
Curve
A full load fuel consumption below .320 lbs/bhphr will
result in competitive fuel economy for advertising
purposes. Of more interest to the truck manufacturer is
a "fuel map" where the bsfc is shown not only for full
152
151
The final test of achieving the goal is the customer

report of vehicle miles per gallon for a specific vehicle,
route and load. This data is always difficult to interpret
as plots by month will show some seasonal influences
of ambient temperature.
gallon going up by 60% over this period. (Figure 6.4)
levels achievable with the additional treatment of a

more effective exhaust gas silencer is given in
Figure 6.6. This represents a test result of 79.1 dB(A)
which is. 9 dB(A) below (25% sound power) the
regulated standard.
Figure 6.4 Emissions Vs. Fuel Economy Trends
NOISE
Heavy duty diesel truck noise is regulated by the
Federal requirements. Overall vehicle noise is
regulated at 80 dB(A) with noise generation and
measurements being accomplished according to a test
such as SAE J366.
As mentioned in previous sections, vehicle noise is
composed of chassis noise, engine noise, exhaust
noise, wind noise, and tire noise. By far the most
significant noise contribution is due to engine and
exhaust noise. Exhaust noise attenuation is the joint
responsibility of the engine and truck manufacturer.
Noise results for the entire J366 test cycle for a 1994
12.7 liter DDC Series 60 engine rated at 2100 r/min
and 430 BHP are shown in Figure 6.5. This represents
a test result of 79.5 dB(A) which is 1/2 dB(A) below the
regulated standard. The 79.5 dB(A) level represents a
production highway truck. An example of lower noise
154
152
Figure 6.5
Representative Noise Result
The 2100 r/min 12.7 liter version represents the loudest

engine of the DDC Series 60 engine line. Lower power
and speed ratings as well as 11.1 liter versions exhibit
lower noise emissions. Although changes to both
vehicle design and engine design may be necessary to
meet the future planned lower noise emission
standards, the current standard has been achieved.
Section 6
Rated
r/min
Sample
Size
Average
dB(A)
2100
50
78.9
1800
28
77.3
2100
15
78.9
1800
11
78.2
2100
18
79.2
1800
38
77.9
Difference
1.6
0.7
1.3
Note: All levels are baseline (without noise treatments)
Table 6.5 Effect of Rated Speed on DDC Series 60

Truck Passby Noise
1988 - 1992 DDC Series 60 12.7L Trucks
Figure 6.6 Noise Result with Improved Exhaust Gas

Silencer
Most truck OEMs test samples of vehicles to assure
compliance with the 80dB(A) standard. Some OEMs
want to have vehicles 1 to 2 dB(A) lower than the
standard to have margin for variability.
Table 6.4, Table 6.5, and Table 6.6 show some typical
results for different vehicle configurations with DDC
Series 60 engines. Note the influence of engine speed
on noise results.
Truck Type
Noise Level
Med Nose conventional 430 bhp @

2100 r/min
79.0 dB(A)
Long Nose conventional 430 bhp @

2100 r/min
79.4 dB(A)
Cabover 430 bhp @ 2100 r/min
80.6 dB(A)
Table 6.4 Truck Noise Test Results
bhp/r/min
Sample Size
Average dB(A)
450/2100
79.7
425/2100
34
79.3
400/2100
24
79.3
365/2100
10
79.1
350/2100
30
78.9
Table 6.6
Passby Noise Data
RELIABILITY
Reliability is measured by different people using a
variety of scales. The truck driver knows it as road calls
or down time. The dispatcher knows it as down time
and time to repair. The fleet maintenance manager
knows all the above plus some measure from analysis
such as mean time between failures (MTBF), cost per
mile, failure per truck, etc. The engine manufacturer
also has measures of reliability:
1.
The first is infant mortality which are failures at the

truck assembly plant, failures during delivery to
dealers and failures before delivery to the ultimate
customer.
155
153
2.
The second is a phone-in system such as Detroit

Diesel has with a Penske Truck Leasing SOS
system.
3.
The third is the warranty system which results in a

data base for analysis of claims per engine and
cost per claim.
control of their process in April 1990 but it was not

detected and a fix was not initiated until August 1991.
Once a change has been implemented the warranty
claims records must be watched to make sure the
failure rate comes down to an acceptable level.
One of the most valuable tools to an engineer, who has

component responsibility, is a month of build analysis.
With this tool the engineer can track the component
reliability either to be aware of a non-reliable
component or to track the reliability improvement after
a design improvement has been made. (Figure 6.7)
Figure 6.8 Component Claim Rate

In summary, reliability is measured in many ways by
different people in the chain. If an engine manufacturer
does not correct problems the market place will
communicate the status compared to your competitors.
Figure 6.7 Component Reliability - A Month of Build

Analysis
Figure 6.8 shows a component month of build chart.
An engineer utilizing these curves would be alerted to a
serious problem beginning with April 1990 production
after only six months exposure. The six month rate was
a good predictor of what was going to happen at 12
months, 18 months etc. In this case the supplier lost
156
154
DURABILITY
Durability in the heavy truck industry is known as miles
to overhaul or miles to in-frame overhaul. Overhaul is
required due to wearout of components which result in
some or all of the following symptoms: low power, poor
fuel economy, smoke (black, blue or white), high oil
consumption, high crankcase pressure (heavy
breathing) noise, oil analysis signals, vibration or
failure. Premature wearout of engines can
Section 6
occur due to poor fuels, lubricants or coolants or due to

poor air cleaners. Premature wearout can also occur
due to poor maintenance.
Normal wearout analysis requires some statistical
analysis since most people refer to the median miles to
overhaul or the B 50 life. Twenty years ago the B50 life
was 300-350,000 miles. When the DDC Series 60 was
designed in the early 1980s the B50 life was set at
500,000 miles. The market now wants 700,000 to
800,000 miles and are asking for one million miles in
the near future.
This Weibull plot of miles vs. percent repaired shows

the statistical analysis to predict the B50 life. In a fleet of
100 trucks the first truck would need to be overhauled
at 600,000 miles but the 100th truck would go a million
miles so you can read the B50 number from this Weibull
analysis. In order to show that some engines can go
one million miles DDC bought back two customer
engines, one 11.1 liter and one 12.7 liter, with over one
million miles for analysis and display purposes.
DRIVEABILITY
This aspect of acceptability is more difficult to quantify;
it is not as measurable as the previous four criteria. In
this case the measurement can be horsepower, torque,
torque rise, lugging ability, maximum vehicle speed,
not having to change to another gear etc.
Our experience indicates that to have good driveability
you must have 25% torque rise, at least 500 r/min of
operating range and the truck must be properly
matched with a transmission.
COST
Figure 6.9
DDC Series 60 12.7L Reliability
Figure 6.9 illustrates the Weibull plot for the DDC

Series 60 overhaul data.
Success of your product is dependent on having

competitive costs; this includes product cost so you
can be price competitive. The engine manufacturer
must price their product to the truck manufacturer so
thet has a competitive position in the OEM data book.
Other costs which are important to the purchaser are
the cost of operation (fuel cost, oil cost, maintenance
cost), cost of repair, and residual value of the engine in
a used truck.
The engineer has the responsibility to control all these
costs which can be influenced but the main goal is to
control the component design so cost is kept to a
minimum.
157
155
SUMMARY
In conclusion the success of a diesel engine is
measured by several factors:
4. Reliability - the engine

minimum down time
must
demonstrate
1. Exhaust emissions - the engine must meet the

standards and be approved by EPA.
5. Durability - the engine must achieve a competitive

B50 life.
2. Fuel economy - the engine must have competitive

bsfc and resultant competitive vehicle fuel
economy measured in miles per gallon.
6. Driveability - the engine must provide the "pulling

power" demanded by the customer.
3. Noise - the engine noise must be low enough to

allow the vehicle to meet the noise standard.
158
156
7. Cost - all costs must be competitive, including

purchase price, cost of operation, and residual
value.
SECTION 7
Summary
The diesel engine was invented over 100 years ago by

Rudolf Diesel and it continues to be applied in many
heavy-duty applications through out the world.
In North America, the heavy-duty truck is the single most

popular application of diesel engines including the
application to Class 8 trucks in the EPA class heavy
heavy-duty. The requirements for a diesel engine for this
application are numerous, but the basic requirements are;
1. it must fit in the truck,

2. it must be emission certified by the EPA,
3. it must have the horsepower and torque to pull
80,000 pound loads,
4. it must be competitive in regards to cost, fuel
economy, reliability, durability and noise.
The specific design requirements to meet the above

objectives will vary from engine manufacturer to engine
manufacturer but in general the diesel engines of the
1990s are described as follows:
Inline Six Cylinder

Turbocharged
Air-to-Air Charge Cooled
Electronic Fuel Injection
Articulated Pistons
High Cylinder Pressure Capability
High Injection Pressure Capability
Integral Braking System
These engines must be fully tested by the engine

manufacturer prior to entering into customer service. This
testing includes performance, emissions, and noise using
engine dynomometers. The testing also includes various
types of tests to demonstrate reliability and durability
goals including abuse testing. Finally, vehicle tests must
be conducted to demonstrate driveability, tank fuel
economy, passby noise and electronics compatibility. The
final success of the product will be measured in the
market when customers makes their assessments of
driveability, fuel economy, reliability and durability.
After 100 years, the question is now being asked, "Is the
diesel dead?" In the opinion of the author, the diesel is
alive, is capable of meeting future environmental and
energy requirements, and has a long future ahead of it
(maybe another 100 years).
159
157
Acknowledgements
This paper was written using a technique similar to an

engine design, a team effort. The SAE roster served as a
reference to select several engineers who were SAE
members and were involved in various aspects of diesel
engine product development. In many cases these were
young engineers who could hopefully gain from the
experience of doing the research to write a specific
section of the paper.
Karen Weber and Helen Head provided the service of

their electronic publishing workstation and were of great
service for editing, administering deadlines, creating
artwork, etc. Special thanks go to Jim Bennethum who is
on medical leave from Detroit Diesel but served as writer,
editor, advisor etc.
Also I would like to thank Detroit Diesel for the opportunity
to write the paper and make the presentations.
The following SAE members and Detroit Diesel

engineering department employees contributed in this
manner: Dave Tasky, Jim Plastow, John Duerr, Mike
Balnaves, Jim Patterson, Theo Freiheit, Ramesh
Kakwani, Andy Bagnasco, Charles Freese, Gary Arvan
and Dave Brunette.
161
158
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Section 3
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THE FORTIETH L.

RAY BUCKENDALE LECTURE

Diesel Engine Design

GLOBAL MOBILITY DATABASE

Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those

Persons wishing to submit papers to be considered for

Turbocharger, Intercooler, Intake Manifold, Exhaust Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Figure 4.28 Single Cylinder Rotating and Reciprocating Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

HISTORY OF THE DIESEL ENGINE

Diesels early efforts were hampered by the inability

Figure 1.1 Rudolf Diesel

Unfortunately, Busch never was enthusiastic about

eventually taken over by the well-known North

HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICAN

In 1925 the researchers at Caterpillar began working

DIESEL ENGINE TYPES

Their impact on heavy-duty vehicle technology

Diesel engine design, like spark-ignition engine design,

Mack is currently a major producer of heavy-duty diesel

Two-stroke and Four-stroke

Two-stroke cycle diesel engines were developed to

The success of the diesel during the last century and

Direct Injection and Indirect Injection

MARKETS FOR DIESEL ENGINES

The two major methods of fueling diesel engines are

The diesel engine market calls for a wide variety of

Air Cooled and Water Cooled

Turbocharged and Naturally Aspirated

The most durable engines are classified as heavy-duty

Construction & Industrial

Diesel engines are especially suited to underground

Bus & Coach

Increasingly important in this marketplace, however,

North American Truck Market

The U.S. truck market is divided into eight general

Class 3: Light-duty Trucks

Class 4: Medium-duty Trucks

Class 4: Pick-Up and Delivery, Agriculture, Construction,

Class 5: Medium-duty Trucks

Class 6: Medium-duty Trucks

Likewise, an engine used by an owner/operator

Class 7: Construction, City Services, Fuel Delivery,

Figure 2.1 Class 8 Heavy-duty Truck

Figure 2.2 Class 8 Retail Truck Sales in Thousands

The truck manufacturers active in this market are Ford,

EPA light-duty is under 8,500 lbs GVW and

EPA heavy-duty is over 8,500 lbs GVW and

* useful life is defined as the time the engine manufacturer

Table 2.2 Heavy-duty Classifications

Table 2.1 1992 Class 8 Sales - By Primary

This paper will consider the design of a diesel engine

Table 2.3 1992 Class 8 Sales - By Manufacturer

Diesel Engine Requirements for the Market

Engine size is important to the truck market as well as the

To put weight in perspective, a 3,000 lb engine is

The overall cost objectives need to be set early in the

The bottom of the engine must be narrow enough to fit

In addition to controlling material costs, the Design

concepts is best explained through the use of the

From 1983 to 1986, when the DDC Series 60 was

Figure 3.1 Classic Bathtub Curve

nearly constant. This is the "useful life" period of the

Durability and reliability goals must be set with these