6

Gem Identification
Magnification

Table of Contents

Subject

Page

Loupes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Loupe Lighting Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Gemological Microscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Focusing the Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Microscope Lighting Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Darkfield Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Brightfield Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Reflected Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Diffused Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Polarized Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Examining a Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Identifying Clarity Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Surface Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Inclusions in Natural Gems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Inclusions in Synthetics and Imitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Identifying Assembled Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

The Gemological Institute of America

Carlsbad, CA 92008
2003 The Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved: Protected under the Berne Convention.
No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, transferred, or
transmitted in any form or by any means whatsoever without the
express written permission of GIA.
Printed in the United States.

Cover photos: All by Terri Weimer/GIA

Facing page: Magnification makes this included crystal visible. Its presence proves that the host sapphire is a natural gem.

Mike Havstad/GIA

MAGNIFICATION
I know its a rubyI get the right RI readings, and the dichroscope
confirms its doubly refractive, said Mike. But when I look at it under
the microscope, I cant tell whether its natural or synthetic.
I know. Its getting tougher to separate treated natural rubies from synthetic ones. But let me take a look, said Joe. Theres usually something
some mineral crystals, clouds, or needlesthat proves its a natural gem.
Joe examined the ruby carefully under the microscope. I can see a
couple of melted mineral crystals close to the girdle, and that whitish
cloud is probably the remains of some growth zoning.

Alan Jobbins

A whitish, hexagonal area is a feature

that identifies some heat-treated, natural
Mong Hsu rubies.

But what about that area under the tabledoesnt that look like flux
to you? asked Mike.
It looks more like the remnants of heat treatment, replied Joe.
When youve seen as many treated natural rubies as I have, youll recognize them quickly. Looking at a lot of them is the best way to become
familiar with their characteristics.

2003 GIA. All rights reserved.

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Duncan Pay

John Koivula/GIA

These inclusions look similar, but one is a flux inclusion in a synthetic ruby (above)
and the other is a borax inclusion in the partially healed fracture of a heat-treated
natural ruby (left).

Dietmar Schwarz

As gem crystals grow, they often trap mineral inclusions from their environment. The
included minerals help identify a gem as natural. Magnification at 50X reveals stalklike green amphibole crystals in this natural emerald.

InclusionA characteristic
enclosed within a gemstone
or reaching its surface from
the interior.
BlemishCharacteristic or irregularity confined to the surface of a
polished gemstone.

Like Mikes ruby, many gems carry signs of their nature in the form of
characteristics called inclusions, which are enclosed within a gem or reach
its surface from the interior. Some types of inclusionslike mineral
crystalsare remnants of the rocks that natural gems grow in. Others
like curved color banding and platinum plateletsare found in synthetic
gems and hint at the processes used by manufacturers to grow them.
Blemishes can help with identification, too. Blemishes are characteristics like scratches and abrasions on a polished gems surface. And they
can often indicate a gems hardness. For example, a fairly soft gem like

MAGNIFICATION

Magnification is a valuable tool

for detecting treatments and for
separating natural gems from their
synthetic counterparts.

Alan Jobbins

Youll usually see abraded facet junctions on gems that dont rate very high on the
Mohs hardness scale. This demantoid garnet shows abrasions on its crown and
pavilion facet junctions, along with a prominent horsetail inclusion.

Both by Nicholas DelRe/GIA

This pendant (right) contains diamonds, natural rubies, and synthetic rubies.
Magnification reveals gas bubbles in the stone at bottom right (above), indicating
its a synthetic ruby.

demantoid garnet (Mohs 6.5) often has abraded facet edges, while a
hard gem like corundum (Mohs 9) usually doesnt.
Magnification can help you determine if a gem is treated or if it contains
internal fractures, vulnerable cleavages, or other structural defects. Its also
an important tool for separating natural gems from synthetics. This is a
vital separation because theres such a large value difference between many
synthetic gems and their natural counterparts of equivalent quality.
For example, its easy to separate emerald from other green gems like
chrome tourmaline, chrome diopside, green sapphire, and peridot using
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GEM IDENTIFICATION

You can keep up to date with the

constantly changing gem world
by reading trade publications like
Gems & Gemology.

Terri Weimer/GIA

A gemological microscope is more versatile and provides greater magnification than

a loupe, but a loupe is much more portable. GIA Gem Instruments carries a variety
of loupes and microscopes.

Practical experience and up-to-date

knowledge are the keys to using magnification successfully in gem identification.

the refractometer because each gem has a very different refractive index
(RI). Its much more challenging to tell if an emerald is natural or synthetic. Thats because the physical and optical properties of many natural
and synthetic stonesincluding emeraldoverlap.
Magnification can be a very powerful tool, and the more you practice
using it, the more skilled youll become at recognizing the features that
help you make a final determination. But its also important to keep up
with the latest industry information by reading gemological business and
scientific journals.
Gemologists use two types of magnifiers: loupes and microscopes.
Loupes are small, easy-to-carry magnifiers that come in a variety of
forms. Microscopes are much more sophisticated and capable of far
greater magnification, but theyre much less portable.

MAGNIFICATION

Reporters Press Agency/eStock Photo

The hand loupes lens cover serves as a handle when you examine a stone. The
cover protects the lens when the loupe isnt in use.

LOUPES
Whats the most popular loupe for gem identification?
How do you light a gem to examine its surface?
How do you light a gem to examine its interior?

A loupes portability and affordability make it a versatile tool for gem

identification. You learned how to use a loupe in Assignment 2. By
practicing the technique outlined there, you can master the loupe and
maximize its effectiveness in the gem identification process.
Some jewelers use an eye loupe that attaches to eyeglasses or fits in
an eye socket like a monocle, leaving both hands free to examine a
stone or to work on a jewelry piece. But today, most gem professionals
use hand loupes. A hand loupe has a cover that doubles as a handle.
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GEM IDENTIFICATION

A fully corrected 10X triplet loupe is an

essential gemological tool.

Terri Weimer/GIA

These are three of the 10X loupes available from GIA Gem Instruments. Each one
has its advantages. The smaller hand loupe is compact, while the larger one gives a
greater field of view. The darkfield loupe at the top provides darkfield illumination,
which makes it easier to identify many inclusions.

Spherical aberrationBlurring
around the edges that occurs
when a lens cant get an entire
image in focus at the same time.
Chromatic aberrationColor distortion caused by the inability of a
lens to bring the various colored
wavelengths of light into focus at
the same distance.
Fully corrected triplet loupeA
loupe that contains a three-part
lens that magnifies and corrects
for spherical and chromatic aberration.

Loupes come in powers from 2-power (2X) to 30-power (30X).

Under 2X magnification, the diameter of the image is 2 times greater
than the diameter of the object youre magnifying; under 30X, the
images diameter is 30 times the objects diameter. The most widely
used loupe in the jewelry industry is the 10X loupe. But not just any
10X loupe will do. It must be a good-quality instrument to be useful for
grading and testing gems.
If you look at a gem through a low-quality loupe, youll notice that
the facet edges are in focus at the center of the lens, but appear blurred
around the edges. This is called spherical aberration, and it occurs
because the lens cant keep the entire image in focus at the same time.
Another form of distortion occurs when a lens cant focus all the
colored wavelengths of white light at the same point. This effect is called
chromatic aberration, and it causes fringes of color around lines such as
facet edges. If you look at a diamond through such a lens, chromatic
aberration might mislead you about its color.
Good-quality loupes cure these distracting optical effects by using three
lenses joined together into one unit. One lens acts as a magnifier, another
corrects for spherical aberration, and the third corrects for chromatic
aberration. This kind of a loupe is called a fully corrected triplet loupe.
Youll need a 10X triplet loupe to examine, identify, and grade gems.
Because theyre convenient, portable, and inexpensive, loupes are
perfect for buying trips. But their relatively low magnifying power can
also be a challenge. Standard 10X magnification is fine for most grading
tasks, when you have to judge the effects of inclusions on appearance.
But at that magnification level, its often difficult to identify the inclusions that distinguish natural gems from synthetics.

MAGNIFICATION

Focal distanceThe distance

from the surface of a lens to a
point thats in sharp focus.

Terri Weimer/GIA

An uncorrected loupe shows both spherical and chromatic aberration.

Peter Johnston/GIA

A fully corrected triplet loupe uses a three-part lens to correct both spherical and
chromatic aberration.

Working distancethe distance from the lens to the surface of the

objectalso affects a loupes usefulness. Its determined by the loupes
focal distance, which is the distance from the surface of the lens to a
point thats in sharp focus.
The higher the magnification, the shorter the focal distance and
working distance. A 10X loupe focuses when an object is one inch away.
A 20X loupe doubles the magnification, but cuts the focal distance in
half, which means it focuses when the object is half an inch away. This
also cuts the working distance in half, leaving less of a margin before
the stone or its characteristics are out of focus. At 30X, the working
distance is even smaller.
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GEM IDENTIFICATION

Depth of fieldThe distance

thats clear and sharp in front
of and behind the point you
focus on.

DEPTH OF FIELD
VIEWER

working distance

focal distance

depth
of field
LOW MAGNIFICATION

HIGH MAGNIFICATION

Peter Johnston/GIA

When you use magnification to examine a gem, you have to consider the working
distance from the lens to the gem, the focal distance from the lens to the characteristic youre examining, and depth of field, which is the area in front of and behind
the object youre examining. When you switch to higher magnification, you shorten
the working distance, focal distance, and depth of field.

This makes loupes with magnifications higher than 10X more difficult
to use effectively. The higher the loupes magnification, the closer you
have to get to the gem, and the harder it is to focus on an individual
feature within the stone.
The shortened working distance at higher powers also leaves less
room for lighting and makes it more difficult to light a stone effectively. Another disadvantage is that it creates a shallower depth of
field. Depth of field is the distance thats sharp and clear in front of
and behind the pointsuch as a small inclusionthat youre focusing
on. With higher-power loupes, the depth of field is very small. To keep
an object in focus, you need to keep both the loupe and the stone as
still as possible.
Another consequence of higher magnification is that the area of the
gem that you can examinethe field of viewbecomes smaller.
Despite these limitations, the loupe can be an amazingly revealing
instrument.
8

MAGNIFICATION

Reflected light is best for examining a

stones surface.
Darkfield illumination works best for
examining the interiors of transparent
stones.

Eric Welch/GIA

Darkfield lighting lets you examine the interior of a transparent stone. You can create
it by taping a sheet of black paper to the back edge of a lampshade.

LOUPE LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

There are two basic types of lighting you can use to examine transparent
gem materials with a loupe. One lets you examine the gems surface
while the other lets you see internal inclusions more clearly.

Reflected lightingIllumination of
a gems surface by reflecting light
from it.

The first is reflected lightingstrong, direct lighting reflected off a

gems surface. Under reflected light, features like surface-reaching
fractures, abrasions, and cavities stand out strongly against the gems
polished surface.

Darkfield illuminationLighting of
a gemstone from the side against
a black, non-reflective backround.

You can use almost any strong light source, such as a desk lamp, a
high-intensity lamp, or a fiber-optic light source like a FiberLite. Hold
the stone face-up with tweezers and position the light source and the
stone so the light reflects off the stones surface. Tilt the gem until each
facet in turn shows a bright, shiny, reflective surface. Examine the stone
face-up first and then keep turning the stone until youve examined it
from every side.
The second techniquedarkfield illuminationlets you see into a
gems interior. With this form of illumination, inclusions within the gem
stand out strongly against a dark background.
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GEM IDENTIFICATION

6
You can use a desktop lamp and black paper to create darkfield illumination for a standard 10X loupe. Follow these steps:
1. Use tape strips to hang a sheet of black, non-reflective paper from the
back edge of the lampshade.
2. Turn the room lights off. Turn the lamp on, and direct the light
straight down.
3. Hold the stone face-up with tweezers. Position the stone so the girdle
plane lines up approximately with the front edge of the lampshade.
4. Examine the stones interior against the black background, adjusting
the stones position to find the best view. Keep the stone in the light
and the loupe out of the light. This directs light in from the sides of
the stone without creating too many distracting reflections off the
crown.
If youre trying to distinguish diffusion treatment, a third type of
lightingdiffused lightingcan be helpful. You can create diffused
lighting by placing a sheet of translucent white material, such as a facial
tissue, between the light source and the stone.

Eric Welch/GIA

You can create diffused lighting by

taping a translucent white sheet to the
front of a lampshade. It can help you
detect the characteristic color zoning in
diffusion-treated corundum and curved
color banding in flame-fusion synthetic
corundum.

Using a loupe, you can perform almost any basic magnification test.
But for more powerful magnification needs, the gemological microscope
is the instrument of choice.

GEMOLOGICAL MICROSCOPES
Why is a binocular microscope the best choice for gem

identification?
Whats the best way to focus a gem microscope?
What are the various types of lighting needed for

examining gems?

PodThe housing for a microscopes optical system, also called

the head.

With its sophisticated optical system, sturdy construction, integrated

lighting, and greater working distance, the gemological microscope can
almost always help you identify treatments and make the vital separation
between natural and synthetic gemstones.
Most microscopes designed for grading or identifying gems are
binocular, which means they have two sets of lenses. The binocular
optical system has a great advantage over the monocular system, which
has only one lens set. The binocular system produces a three-dimensional
image with normal orientation. This makes manipulating the gem much
easier. Most monocular systems produce images that are flat, upside
down, and reversed.
There are four basic parts to a typical binocular gemological microscope. The housing at the top of the microscope that contains the optical
components is called the pod. You can move the pod up and down to
change the instruments focus. You do this by turning the focus-control
knob on the instruments arm.

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MAGNIFICATION

StageA microscopes working

platform.

GEMOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE

Light wellHousing for a microscopes light source, located

below the stage.

pod

zoom adjustment

oculars

objectives

BaseThe support platform that

contains a microscopes electrical
controls.
OcularsThe eyepiece lenses on
a gemological microscope.

overhead light

focus adjustment

ObjectivesThe lenses nearest

the stone on a gemological microscope.

stage

light well

base
overhead light switch

rheostat for
light well

A binocular microscopelike this one from GIA Gem Instrumentsis a superior tool
for any gemological task that requires magnification.

Directly below the pod, theres a working platform called the stage,
where you place the gem for examination. Beneath that, theres housing
for a light source called the light well. Finally, theres the base, which
supports the microscope and contains the electrical controls.
The pod contains a complex system of lenses and prisms. The eyepiece lenses are called the oculars, and the lenses nearest the stone are
the objectives. Most microscopes have eyepieces that you can adjust for
individual comfort. Some are equipped with plastic or rubber eyecups
that help eliminate extraneous light, keep your eyes at the correct distance
from the oculars, and make the microscope more comfortable to use.
The eyecups are removable, and some gemologists, especially those
who wear glasses, prefer to work without them.

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GEM IDENTIFICATION

6
You can determine the power of a microscopes magnification by
multiplying the power of the oculars by the power of the objectives.
For example, 10X oculars and 2X objectives give 20X magnification.
The typical range is 10X to 30X or 45X, but some models go up to
70X or more.
With some gem microscopes, you change magnification powers by
switching oculars. With others, you turn the objectives to one of several
settings (1X, 2X, or 3X, for example). But the most versatile models let
you zoom smoothly from one power to another. The zoom adjustment is
usually on the side or top of the pod. It can be a single knob or a pair of
knobs, with one on either side of the pod. A calibrated dial displays the
magnification of the objectives.

Terri Weimer/GIA

The stoneholder attaches to the side of

the microscopes stage and holds the
stone in place. The iris diaphragm at the
top of the light well consists of a series
of metal plates that slide together or
apart to control the amount of light coming up through the light well. You operate it by moving the lever on the left. At
the bottom of the light well, theres a
metal flap called the baffle. When its
closed, it prevents light from shining
directly through the stone. You operate
it by turning the knob on the right.

Iris diaphragmA device in the

microscopes stage that you can
open or close to control the
amount of light coming from the
light well.
StoneholderA device that
attaches to a microscopes stage
to hold a gem steady.
BaffleA small metal plate that
you can close to prevent the
microscopes light from shining
directly through the stone from
below.

Many models let you attach a doubler, which is a 2X lens that screws
on under the objectives, doubling the power. You can accomplish most
gem identification with 10X to 45X magnification. Very few identifications require more than 90X.
While higher magnification decreases the depth and width of field in
a microscope, its depth and width of field are much larger than a loupes
to begin with, so there are fewer practical problems. As with a loupe,
higher magnification makes it more difficult to light the stone properly,
but the lighting systems built into many gemological microscopes provide
effective illumination at higher powers.
The microscopes stage has an opening that allows light to pass
through from the light well below. Most gem microscopes have an iris
diaphragm at the top of the stage that you can open or close to control
the amount of light that comes up from the light well.
The stage might also have a number of sockets where you can attach
a stoneholder, which has spring-loaded jaws designed to hold a gem.
Because it attaches to the stage, it holds the gem firmly in place and leaves
both hands free to operate the microscope or to record what you see. If
you use tweezers rather than a stoneholder, rest them against the edge of
the light well on the microscopes stage to hold your gemstone steady.
Theres often an overhead fluorescent light sourcea removable
source of daylight-equivalent lightmounted at the front of the stage.
The light well consists of a frosted glass or plastic cylinder inside a
reflective metal bowl. The microscopes light source is positioned at the
base of the bowl, immediately below the cylinder. Above that, at the base
of the cylinder, theres a bafflea small metal flap that can be opened
or closed. When its open, light comes directly through the opening to
light the stone from below. When its closed, the light is forced to come
up from the sides of the light well rather than through the opening. As
youll see, this is essential for darkfield illumination.
The microscopes base contains most of its electronics. On the back
of the base is a small knob called a rheostat that turns the internal light
bulb on or off and also controls the lights intensity.

12

MAGNIFICATION

All by Eric Welch/GIA

To set up a microscopes focus, begin by turning the well light on (top left). Next, make sure the baffle is closed and the iris
diaphragm has only a small opening (bottom left). Then, using 10X magnification and both eyes, turn the focus-control knob to
focus on the edges of the small opening in the iris diaphragm (right).

FOCUSING THE MICROSCOPE

Its important to focus your microscope before you begin each work
session. You should also refocus it periodically during long work sessions.
Follow these steps:
1. Turn the well light on. Make sure the baffle is closed and the iris
diaphragm is shut down to a small opening. At 10X magnification and
using both eyes, focus on the edges of the iris diaphragms opening,
which is near the center of the field of view. Most gem microscopes
have one ocular (usually the left) that you can focus without the
focus-control knob. Remove that ocular and look through the right
ocular, keeping both eyes open.
13

GEM IDENTIFICATION

All by Eric Welch/GIA

Continue by removing the left ocular and looking through the

right ocular. Keep both eyes open. Turn the focus-control
knob until the edges of the opening in the iris diaphragm are
in sharp focus.

Next, replace the left ocular and remove the right ocular. With
both eyes open, look through the left ocular. Focus on the
edges of the iris diaphragm opening by turning the ring at the
bottom of the left ocular.

2. Turn the focus-control knob until the iris diaphragms opening is in

focus in your right eye. Release the focus-control knob. Dont touch it
again until after you focus the left ocular.
3. Replace the left ocular. Remove the right ocular and look through the
left ocular, keeping both eyes open. Bring the iris diaphragms opening
into focus by turning the ring at the bottom of the left ocular.

14

MAGNIFICATION

Continue by replacing the right ocular and adjusting the distance between the oculars to suit your eyes.

Finally, look through both oculars at the same time to confirm

sharp focus on the edges of the iris diaphragm opening.

4. Replace the right ocular. Adjust the distance between the oculars for
your comfort. Confirm the focus by looking at the opening in the iris
diaphragm through both oculars at the same time. You should see a
single image, and it should look sharp and three dimensional. If it
doesnt, repeat the focusing process.

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GEM IDENTIFICATION

Eric Welch/GIA

A GIA Gem Instruments FiberLite, like other fiber-optic sources of condensed light,
is especially good for horizontal, oblique, and pinpoint lighting. Fiber-optic light is
valuable for identifying treatments and for separating synthetic from natural gems.

MICROSCOPE LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

A microscope offers many more lighting options than a loupe, and different types of lighting work best for seeing different gem features. The
most useful techniques are darkfield, brightfield, diffused, reflected, and
polarized lighting.
An overhead light source makes it easier to see surface characteristics.
Some microscopes come with a small fluorescent light or let you attach
one to the stage for this purpose. You can also use a desk lamp as you
would with a loupe. A fiber-optic system like the FiberLite is a versatile
supplementary light source thats vital for some separation processes.
Varying the lighting can have a dramatic effect on the visibility and
appearance of characteristics, and what you can determine by examining
them. Surface characteristics visible in reflected light are invisible in
darkfield light. And internal characteristics visible in darkfield light are
invisible in reflected light.
16

MAGNIFICATION

DARKFIELD ILLUMINATION

stoneholder
microscope stage

baffle closed
to create dark
background
for stone

With the baffle closed, no light

enters the stone from below. Light from
the sides makes inclusions stand out
dramatically against a dark background.

light source

Peter Johnston/GIA

Most gemological microscopes are designed with a baffle to provide the option of
darkfield lighting.

DARKFIELD ILLUMINATION

Most gem microscopes have the built-in ability to provide darkfield

illumination for examining inclusions. You just have to turn on the
microscopes internal light source and close the baffle in the light well
so no light can enter the stone from directly below. Light enters the
stone from the sides and a little behind, making inclusions stand out
brightly against a dark background.

ReliefContrast between an
inclusion and its host gem.
Included crystalA mineral crystal
trapped within a gem as it grows.

The degree to which a characteristic stands out against the surrounding

gemstone is called its relief. For example, included crystals are minerals
trapped within a gem as it grows. The brassy, metallic surfaces of pyrite
included crystals stand out readily in pale emerald, so theyre described
as having high relief.
An included crystals relief depends on its RI and often its color,
especially compared to the color of the host gem. A cluster of moderately
sized, colorless calcite inclusions in a blue sapphire might be much harder
17

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Alan Jobbins

Karl Schmetzer

Low-relief inclusions like this spinel crystal in ruby (above) are not as easy to see as
high-relief inclusions like the black chromite crystal in peridot (left).

Liquid inclusionPocket in a gem

thats filled with fluids and, sometimes, gas bubbles and crystals.

John Koivula/GIA

Low-relief inclusions like this one, which contains a liquid, a gas, and a tiny crystal,
are common in some emeralds from Colombia.

to see than a few black chromite crystals scattered around the interior of
a pale green peridot.
Most included crystals are relatively easy to see under darkfield
illumination. Other characteristics, like liquid inclusionspockets in
gems filled with fluids and sometimes other materialsmight require
different lighting techniques because they tend to blend into the host
18

MAGNIFICATION

John Koivula/GIA

Horizontal lighting reveals minute flux

particles in a Kashan synthetic ruby.

Both by Eric Welch/GIA

By using a fiber-optic light source to illuminate a stone horizontally and examining

the gem with the well light both on (left) and off (right), you can see inclusions that
might otherwise go undetected.

Eric Welch/GIA

Oblique lighting places the illumination from a fiber-optic light at an angle between
horizontal and overhead.

gems background if you use darkfield.

Horizontal lighting is a pinpoint darkfield technique, where you direct
a narrow beam of light toward the side of the stone. A fiber-optic light
works best for this type of lighting. You can aim the light straight at the
stone or from an oblique angle. When you look at the stone from above,
pinpoint crystals and gas bubbles stand out as bright objects.
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GEM IDENTIFICATION

Both by Eric Welch/GIA

With the light wells baffle open, brightfield illumination

transmits light up through a transparent stone to your eye.

You create brightfield pinpoint illumination by keeping the

baffle open and closing the iris diaphragm until its opening
is smaller than the stone.

Curved striaeCurved growth

patterns seen in flame-fusion
synthetics.

John Koivula/GIA

Brightfield pinpoint illumination reveals gas bubbles and curved striae in a flamefusion synthetic ruby.
BRIGHTFIELD ILLUMINATION

Brightfield illuminationsometimes called transmitted lightresults

when you open the light wells baffle so the light is transmitted directly
through the stone to your eye. To keep from being dazzled by the bright
light, close the iris diaphragm so the opening is smaller than the stone.
This will create focused, pinpoint illumination. If necessary, adjust the
intensity of the light source with the rheostat.
Brightfield illumination makes inclusions look dark and featureless
against a bright background, so it works well for seeing low-relief
features like curved striae in flame-fusion synthetics. Curved striae
are structures that represent the layers of crystal growth around the
20

MAGNIFICATION

Use brightfield illumination to detect lowrelief features like curved striae.

Both by Terri Weimer/GIA

By rocking and tilting a stone in darkfield lighting, you can create a brightfield effect.
Alternating dark to light can help you detect flash-effect colors in fillers or see if an
inclusion is liquid or solid, transparent or opaque.

Both by John Koivula/GIA

Rocking and tilting this emerald to alternate dark (above) and bright (right) backgrounds revealed an orangy yellow to blue flash effect in the filler.

cylindrical or rod-shaped boule, which is a typical product of the flamefusion process.

The brightfield technique works best if you close the iris diaphragm
and restrict the light source to a small opening directly under the stone.
This lets you see structures like curved striae more clearly.
You can actually create an effect similar to brightfield by rocking and
tilting the gem under darkfield lighting to create alternating dark and
bright backgrounds. This can be helpful for detecting flash-effect colors
in fillersseen mostly in fracture-filled diamond and emeraldor
determining if an inclusion is liquid or solid, transparent or opaque.
21

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Eric Welch/GIA

To create vertical overhead illumination with a stone like this coral cabochon, angle
the stone so light strikes at about a 90 angle to its surface (above). Reflected overhead light and magnification reveal the characteristic straight, irregular, fibrous
structure in this shell cameo (left).
REFLECTED LIGHTING

Darkfield, brightfield, and diffused lighting make many inclusions easier

to see, but reflected light works better for surface characteristics and
some types of inclusions. To examine a gems surface characteristics,
you need to position the light source, which is usually the microscopes
overhead light unit, so the light reflects off the gem. The light should
strike the gems surface at close to a 90 anglethis is called vertical
overhead illumination.
Thin, flat inclusionslike the thin films seen in many rubiesare
easiest to see when light reflects from their surfaces. But you cant use
vertical overhead illumination to see internal characteristics like these
because reflections from the gems surface block your view of the
stones interior. Instead, you need to use a light sourcesuch as a fiberoptic lightto direct a narrow beam of light at the stone from an
oblique angle. Light entering the stone from that angle reflects from
internal fractures, cleavages, and fingerprints, and makes them much
easier to see.
DIFFUSED LIGHTING

Both by Eric Welch/GIA

You can create diffused light by opening the baffle and placing a tissue or a
piece of translucent white plastic on the
stage over the well (top). Diffused lighting reveals uneven color zoning in this
diffusion-treated sapphire (bottom).
22

For diffused lighting, open the baffle and the iris diaphragm and cover
the stage opening with a white, translucent material. You can use facial
tissue or even the white plastic diffuser from the microscopes overhead
light source. Diffused light can help you detect liquid inclusions in natural
gems. Its especially good for detecting curved color banding in flamefusion synthetics. And its excellent for detecting uneven color zoning in
diffusion-treated corundum, where surface-related color often stands out
against the white background.

MAGNIFICATION

John Koivula/GIA

By revealing interference colors,

polarized light can help you distinguish
between included crystals and gas
bubbles or gas-filled cavities, which
show no color.

Liquid inclusions, curved color banding,

and uneven color zoning show up best in
diffused lighting.

Eric Welch/GIA

You can create polarized light with a microscope by opening the baffle, placing one
polarizing filter over the light well, and holding another between the stone and the
objectives. Rotate the handheld polarizing filter to cross the filters.
POLARIZED LIGHTING

You can create polarized light by opening the microscopes baffle and
placing one polarizing filter over the light well and another between the
stone and the objectives. You can hold the second filter or attach it to the
objectives. Your microscope then functions as a magnifying polariscope.
Use this type of lighting to distinguish included crystals from similarlooking gas bubbles or gas-filled cavities. Crystals might show interference
colors and are often surrounded by halos caused by strain, while cavities
or gas bubbles wont have these features.
23

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Both by Eric Welch/GIA

To examine the surface of a stone, turn the well light off and use the microscopes overhead light. Rotate the stone to examine
every side.

EXAMINING A STONE

Always start the examination process at

10X magnification.

As you become more comfortable with the microscope, the steps involved
in examining a stone will become second nature to you. The first step is
always to thoroughly clean the stone youre about to examine. This is
very important: Its easy to mistake grease and dust on the gems surface
for abrasions or even inclusions.
Its important to hold the stone steady. If you use a stoneholder, attach it
to the stage and position the stone over the light well. If you hold the stone
in tweezers, rest them gently on the side of the light well.
Examine the stone thoroughly. If the gem is transparent to translucent,
examine both its surface and its interior. As you examine the stone, record
what you see on the Gem Identification worksheet. If possible, turn off
the other lights in your area while youre working.
1. Set the magnification to 10X. Always start at this magnification
level.
2. Start with the well light turned off, and use the microscopes overhead
light to examine the gems surface. Position the light and hold the
stone so light reflects from its facets. Look at the top and the bottom,
then all the way around the sides.
3. If your stone is transparent to translucent, examine its interior next.
Turn off the overhead light and turn on the microscopes internal light
source. Make sure the baffle is closed and the iris diaphragm is completely open.

24

MAGNIFICATION

All by Eric Welch/GIA

To examine a stones interior, turn the well light on, close the baffle, and turn the
overhead light off. Vary the focus between the stones upper and lower surfaces
to thoroughly examine its interior. Turn the stone to several positions and repeat
the process.

4. To examine the interior, start by focusing on the surface, then hold

the stone still and move the focus down slowly until the back of the
gem comes into focus. Slowly raise the focus back to the gems
upper surface.
5. Repeat the process from the top, from the bottom, and from every side
to make sure you view the interior of the stone from every possible
viewing angle.
6. Switch to higher-power magnification to identify any characteristics you
cant see at 10X. This will also help you determine the nature of hardto-see characteristics. If you have a microscope with a zoom system,
youll soon learn to move from low to high magnification with ease.
25

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Seeing Doubling

All by Terri Weimer/GIA

If you look through a DR stone in an optic axis direction, you wont see doubling
(left). As you rotate the stone farther away from the optic axis, the doubling keeps
increasing (center and right).

The splitting of light in a doubly refractive (DR) gem produces

doubling: doubled images of facet junctions, inclusions, and other
characteristics. To see doubling, you must look at the object through
the stonebut not in an optic axis direction.
Although birefringence, which is the cause of doubling, is a very
constant property, the amount of doubling you see varies with the
stones size. The larger the stone, the more doubling youll see. It
also depends on your viewing angle when you observe the stone.
Doubling is hard to see in gems like quartz and corundum, but
readily visible in calcite, synthetic moissanite, and synthetic rutile.
Its especially useful for proving that over-the-limits stones like
zircon are DR. With practice, you can even estimate birefringence
by judging the separation between the doubled images.
When you look for doubling:

Always use the same power, such as 10X or 20X.

Look through the stone to the opposite side. Look for doubled
images of facet junctions, inclusions, and scratches. Make sure
that an image isnt just a reflection. (This can occur close to facet
junctions.)

Look in at least three different directions to make sure youre not

looking down an optic axis. The strength of the doubling also
varies with direction. Estimate birefringence in the direction of
greatest doubling.

To confirm doubling with a microscope, hold a polarizing filter

between the stone and the microscopes objectives. When you
rotate the filter back and forth about 90, the doubling appears and
disappears.
26

MAGNIFICATION

Both by Terri Weimer/GIA

You might see doubling in some transparent DR stones when you examine them
in darkfield lighting (left). You can confirm doubling by holding a polarizer between
the stone and the objectives and rotating it, making the doubling appear and
disappear (right).

Taijin Lu/GIA

When you look at a synthetic moissanite under magnification, you see double
images of its facet junctions (20X).

27

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Both by Nicholas DelRe/GIA

Low magnification is best for detecting overall patterns of clarity characteristics

(above), while high magnification is best for close examination of individual
characteristics (left).

Low power is best for detecting overall patterns of clarity characteristics, while high power is best for identifying and examining individual
characteristics in detail. Use only as much magnification as you need to
identify an inclusion. If you magnify the feature too much, you might
miss important patterns that would be more obvious at lower power.
Now that youve been through the basic steps of examining gems
with both the loupe and the microscope, its time to identify the basic
characteristics youre looking for in natural and synthetic gemstones as
well as imitations.

IDENTIFYING CLARITY CHARACTERISTICS

Which inclusions are typical of natural gems?
Which characteristics are typical of synthetic and

imitation gems?
How can the microscope help you identify assembled

stones?

Clarity characteristics are often the key to a gems identity. They can
help separate a gem that grew naturally in the earth from one grown
synthetically in a laboratory. In rare cases, inclusions can even help
establish the geographic origin of an important natural ruby, sapphire,
or emerald. They can also usually tell you if a gem has been treated.
Later, in the separation assignments, youll read much more about the
inclusions that identify specific gems. This section is a brief overview to
remind you of the various types of characteristics youll encounter,
starting at the gems surface.
28

MAGNIFICATION

Alan Jobbins

Gems that grow in the earth often contain clarity characteristicssuch as mineral
crystals and needlesthat you wont see in synthetic stones. This helps you separate
natural gems from synthetics.

John Koivula/GIA

A gold or platinum platelet is a telltale sign of a hydrothermal or flux synthetic gem.

The environments these synthetics grow in often contain those metals, and microscopic remnants end up in the stones.

SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS

As youve learned, you use overhead, reflected light to examine a stones

surface. Pay attention to areas that are vulnerable to damage, like the
girdle and culet.
You can hold large stones with tweezers or your fingers. Hold small
stones with tweezers. With a loupe, look for blemishes like scratches
and abrasions that indicate a stones hardness. Polishing wheels tend to
29

GEM IDENTIFICATION

The amount of wear a gemstone shows

can indicate its hardness.

Maha Tannous/GIA

Characteristics like melted surfaces are evidence of heat treatment in corundum.

Terri Weimer/GIA

Rounded facet junctions and the orange-peel effect are signs of molded glass.

round the facet edges of gems with hardness below Mohs 7. If a gems
hardness is below Mohs 8 and it has been worn for any length of time,
its facet edges will probably be abraded.
Heat treatment leaves gems like colorless or blue zircon and tanzanite
slightly brittle, so these gems often have abraded facet junctions. Heattreated corundum often has melted surfaces along the girdle and in
other areas.
Glass and plastic imitations are often shaped in molds, resulting in
rounded facet junctions. As molten glass cools, it shrinks slightly, often
producing concave facets with surface texture that gemologists call the
orange-peel effect.
Fractures that reach the surface can sometimes help you identify a gem.
The surfaces of fractures in aggregates often have a granular, rough, or
30

MAGNIFICATION

Is the Characteristic Internal or External?

There are three methods you can use to distinguish between a transparent gems external and internal characteristics. With a microscope,
its best to use fairly high magnification30X to 50X.
REFLECTED LIGHT

Reflected light is the best and most widely used method. Hold the
stone so light reflects from the surface the object appears to be on. If
the object is external, such as a piece of dust on a facet, it will stand
out. If its internal, youll see an unbroken, mirror-like reflection from
the facet.
PLANE OF FOCUS

Hold the stone so youre looking at the surface the object appears to
be on. Try to bring both the surface and the object into the sharpest
possible focus. If both come into focus at the same time, the object is
on the surface or extremely close to it. If the surface comes into focus
first, the object is inside the gem.
ROCKING

Choose a nearby feature you know is externalsuch as a facet

junction or a scratchto use as a reference. Then rock the stone
slowly back and forth while you watch the object in question and the
reference feature. If the object is on the same surface as the reference,
it will move the same amount. If its within the gem, the object will
move less.

Peter Johnston/GIA

When you use the plane-of-focus technique, you know an object is on the facet
surface when the object and the surface
are in focus at the same time (top). If the
object is below the surface, its out of
focus when the facet surface is in focus
(center), and in focus when the facet surface is out of focus (bottom).

irregular texture, like the surface of a sugar cube. Fibrous materials like
tigers-eye quartz can have splintery fracture surfaces.
Most transparent gems, such as quartz, beryl, corundum, and tourmaline, have a conchoidal, or shell-like, fracture surface. If the stone
has cleavage, you might see either flat cleavage faces or small conchoidal fractures alternating with flat cleavages, creating a step-like
appearance.
Surface-reaching fractures can contain some of the oil or dye used
to conceal the fractures or to enhance the gems color. You can locate
them by examining the gems surface in reflected light. Once youve
found a surface-reaching fracture, switch to darkfield illumination to
follow the fracture as it extends into the gem and look for signs of a
filling material.

John Koivula/GIA

Reflected light is best for finding surfacereaching fractures like this one. Its been
filled, which makes its length difficult to
determine. Switching to darkfield would
help you detect the filling.

31

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Edward Gbelin/GIA

Needle-like mineral inclusions in emerald (above) and ruby (left) mean these gems
are natural. The group of intersecting needles in the ruby is called silk.

INCLUSIONS IN NATURAL GEMS

Natural gems often have an abundance of clarity characteristics. In

general, natural gems contain a far greater range of characteristics than
synthetic ones.

Kari A. Kinnunen

Blocked crystal growth causes hollow

or filled growth tubes in beryl.

NeedleA long, thin inclusion that

can be a solid crystal or a hollow
tube that might be filled with liquid
or gas.
SilkGroup of fine, needle-like
inclusions.
Two-phase inclusionA cavity in
a gem filled with a liquid and,
typically, a gas.
Three-phase inclusionA cavity
in a gem filled with a liquid, a gas,
and one or more crystals.
32

Natural gems grow in an environmentthe earths rockswhere

theyre in competition with many other minerals for the ingredients of
crystal growth. As they grow, they often trap other minerals as included
crystals. By comparison, synthetic and imitation stones grow in much
more controlled surroundingsthe pristine environment of the laboratory
or factory. As a result, theres less opportunity for them to acquire foreign
materials as they grow.
This means that when you see a range of different mineral inclusions,
you know youre looking at a natural gem. A natural ruby, for example,
might contain a variety of included mineral crystals. You might see
colorless, rounded calcite, zircon, or apatite crystals and dense patterns
of tiny, slender rutile needles that intersect to form silk.
Needles can be solid or hollow. If theyre hollow, they might be filled
with liquid or gas. Solid needles occur in corundum, garnet, and some
emeralds. Hollow needles are frequent features of chrysoberyl. In tourmaline and beryl, the hollow needles are called growth tubes. Theyre
often much coarser than hollow needles in other gems, and might be
capped by tiny included crystals.
Gems that grow in mineral-rich, watery solutions often contain liquid
inclusions. Topaz, beryl, and quartz can have abundant liquid inclusions.
Sometimes an inclusion also contains a gas or a solid, or both. When
only two of those things are presenta liquid and, typically, a gasits a
two-phase inclusion. If all three are present, its a three-phase inclusion.

MAGNIFICATION

Natural gems typically contain a far

greater variety of inclusions than
synthetic gems.

John Koivula/GIA

Three-phase inclusions are evidence of naturally formed emeralds. They contain a

liquid, a solid, and a gas.

Negative crystalAn angular,

hollow space within a gem that
resembles a mineral inclusion.

Eduard Gbelin/GIA

Negative crystals are angular, hollow spaces that usually contain a liquid and a gas.

Sometimes, a gem might contain angular spaces that adopted the

shape and symmetry of the enclosing gem crystal when it cooled. They
look like mineral inclusions, but theyre not. These hollow areas are
called negative crystals, and they usually contain a liquid or a gas, or
both.
Negative crystals are common in corundum, quartz, topaz, and beryl.
They can also occur in synthetic gems, so youll have to look for other
evidence to be sure the gem is natural. If you suspect youre looking at
a negative crystal, you can use polarized light to confirm it. Unlike a
solid mineral crystal, a negative crystal shows no strain colors.
33

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Both by Mike Havstad/GIA

Michael Waitzman/GIA

Fingerprint inclusions can contain a variety of materials. The fingerprint in the spinel
(above) contains crystals and negative crystals. The fingerprint in the first blue sapphire (top left) contains negative crystals and two-phase or liquid inclusions. The
other blue sapphire (bottom left) has a fingerprint thats composed of liquid within
partially healed fractures.

Crystals often fracture during growth. Sometimes fluids seep into the
breaks and become trapped as the fracture recrystallizes. If a break
doesnt heal completely, it creates a pattern of small, disconnected fluid
inclusions within the stone. Because of its appearance, the inclusion is
called a fingerprint. Fingerprints can also consist of included crystals,
two-phase or three-phase inclusions, or negative crystals, as long as
they form a fingerprint-like pattern.

Robert Kane/GIA

Distinctly bluish clouds often occur in

Vietnamese rubies.

Inclusions can be so tiny and numerous that its hard to see them
individually, even at the highest magnification. When theyre numerous
enough, describe them as a cloud. A cloud is any hazy or milky area
that cant be described as a feather, fingerprint, or group of included
crystals or needles. Many diamonds, rubies, and sapphires contain
clouds.

CloudAny hazy or milky area

that cannot be described as a
feather, fingerprint, or group of
included crystals or needles.

As crystals grow, their growth stages often show up as color zoning.

Color zoning is a pattern of alternating light and dark areas or of
different colors. Its often seen in gems like corundum, quartz, and
tourmaline. Its caused by variations in trace elements during crystal
growth.

FingerprintInclusions that form a

pattern that often resembles a
human fingerprint.

In natural gems, the bands are straight and angular, following the
gems crystal structure. Synthetics can have straight or angular color
zoning, which indicate flux and hydrothermal growth processes, or

34

MAGNIFICATION

Rolf Schwieger

John Koivula/GIA

Angular color zoning (above) and straight color zoning (right) often occur in blue
sapphires. The zoning follows the gems crystal structure.

curved color zoning, which means they were produced by flame-fusion

or pulling processes.
INCLUSIONS IN SYNTHETICS AND IMITATIONS

The inclusions in synthetic gems often indicate the growth process

the manufacturer used to produce them. You might see gas bubbles in
synthetics produced by the flame-fusion or pulling processes. Theyre
especially likely in flame-fusion synthetics, where they can be spherical,
elongated, or distorted. Spherical gas bubbles might have dark centers
that make them look like doughnuts.
The only untreated natural materials that contain gas bubbles are
natural glasses like obsidian and moldavite and natural resins like amber.
Gas bubbles occur in these natural amorphous materials, but almost
never in natural crystalline materials, except as part of two-phase or
three-phase inclusions or in the junction planes of assembled stones.
They might also occur in glass or plastic fillers or where mineral inclusions were melted by heat treatment. Some natural gems can contain
rounded crystals that resemble gas bubbles.
Synthetics grown by the flux process usually contain inclusions that
are remnants of the medium that the ingredients for crystal growth were
dissolved in. Although theyre often thick and coarse looking, resembling

John Koivula/GIA

Gas bubbles are common in flamefusion synthetics like this manmade ruby.

The only untreated natural gem materials

that contain gas bubbles are natural
glasses and resins.

35

GEM IDENTIFICATION

John Koivula/GIA

Karl Schmetzer

The thick, coarse, grainy texture of this inclusion is typical of

material trapped in synthetic ruby crystals as they grow by the
flux process.

Some flux inclusions look delicate and are called wispy veils.
These appear in a Russian synthetic alexandrite.

John Koivula/GIA

Duncan Pay

These large, white flux inclusions in a synthetic emerald are

interconnected with smaller flux channels.

The appearance of included flux can vary according to the

manufacturers process. These yellow-to-orange flux inclusions
appear in a Ramaura synthetic ruby.

icicles, they can also be delicate in appearance. Gemologists often

describe the delicate ones as wispy veils. They can resemble the
fingerprints in natural gems, but are often folded and twisted, while
fingerprints usually look flattened. Flux has higher relief than fingerprints, and it might contain trapped gas bubbles. Its normally white,
but it can be colorless, yellow, orange, or brown.
As you read earlier, flame-fusion synthetics often show curved growth.
Flame-fusion synthetic blue sapphires might show curved color banding.
Unlike curved striae, the bands are different tones of the same color
often with alternating colorless bandsbut theyre still curved. Youll
never see curved striae and curved color banding in natural crystals.
John Koivula/GIA

Flame-fusion synthetic blue sapphires

like this often show curved color banding. Here, its in the gems crown.

36

Flux and hydrothermal synthetics can show straight or angular color

zoning like that seen in natural material. The difference is that the zoning is
generally more uniform in the synthetics than it is in natural stones. This is

MAGNIFICATION

Some hydrothermal synthetic emeralds can show liquid and two-phase inclusions
and fingerprint-like patterns.

Flame-fusion synthetics might show

curved striae or curved color banding, but
natural gems never do.

John Koivula/GIA

In some hydrothermal synthetic emeralds, growth blockage can cause nailhead

spicules to form. Theyre usually near the seed plate and point away from it in the
growth direction.

because of the more controlled environment the synthetics grow in.

Some hydrothermal synthetic emeralds contain nailhead spicules, which
are cone-shaped spaces extending from synthetic crystal inclusions.
Modern heat-treatment techniques can alter many natural corundum
inclusions so much that it can be difficult to separate them from some
flux-grown synthetics. Youll learn much more about the inclusions in
synthetic stones in Assignment 11.
IDENTIFYING ASSEMBLED STONES

Youve learned that assembled stones are composed of two or more pieces
of material glued or fused together to form one piece. In Assignment 2,
you learned some ways to identify them. Typically, a 10X loupe is useful
for detecting signs of assembly. Its important to be careful, however, not

37

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Rene Moore/GIA

Heat treatment damaged this sapphires surface, forcing the

cutter to repolish the gem. Repolishing added extra girdle
planes. Dont mistake them for the separation planes that indicate an assembled stone.

When inclusions that show in only natural or synthetic stones

appear together in the same stone, you know its assembled.
This sapphire-synthetic sapphire doublet shows straight
growth and gas bubbles.

Curved color banding and a separation plane between the green crown and blue
pavilion prove this is an assembled stone.

to confuse the multiple girdle planes that can occur in natural gems with
the separation planes that indicate the presence of assembled parts.
The ability to examine a gemstone under magnification is an absolutely
indispensable skill for the gemologist. Now that you understand the
basics, you should get as much practice as possible. In later assignments,
as you test stones in your practice sets, take the time to look at each of
them carefully. The gems in your practice sets can teach you a lot. In
the future, something you see in these sets might help you identify a
difficult gem.
Even if you have access to a microscope, dont rely on it exclusively.
Practice with a loupe as well, because on buying trips, youll usually
have to depend on it. In the next assignment, youll learn about the
spectroscope. Its another compact, portable instrument that you might
want to take along with you.
38

MAGNIFICATION

Magnification is a valuable tool for detecting treatments and

for separating natural gems from their synthetic counterparts.

Liquid inclusions, curved color banding, and uneven color

zoning show up best in diffused lighting.

Practical experience and up-to-date knowledge are the keys

to using magnification successfully in gem identification.

Always start the examination process at 10X magnification.

A fully corrected 10X triplet loupe is an essential gemological

tool.

The amount of wear a gemstone shows can indicate its

hardness.

Reflected light is best for examining a stones surface.

Natural gems typically contain a far greater variety of

inclusions than synthetic gems.

Darkfield illumination works best for examining the interiors

of transparent stones.

The only untreated natural gem materials that contain gas

bubbles are natural glasses and resins.

Use brightfield illumination to detect low-relief features like

curved striae.

Flame-fusion synthetics might show curved striae or curved

color banding, but natural gems never do.

39

GEM IDENTIFICATION

key terms
BaffleA small metal plate that you can close to
prevent the microscopes light from shining directly
through the stone from below.
BaseThe support platform that contains a microscopes electrical controls.
BlemishCharacteristic or irregularity confined to
the surface of a polished gemstone.
Chromatic aberrationColor distortion caused by
the inability of a lens to bring the various colored
wavelengths of light into focus at the same distance.
CloudAny hazy or milky area that cannot be
described as a feather, fingerprint, or group of
included crystals or needles.
Curved striaeCurved growth patterns seen in
flame-fusion synthetics.
Darkfield illuminationLighting of a gemstone from
the side against a black, non-reflective background.
Depth of fieldThe distance thats clear and sharp
in front of and behind the point you focus on.

Light wellHousing for a microscopes light source,

located below the stage.
Liquid inclusionPocket in a gem thats filled with
fluids and, sometimes, gas bubbles and crystals.
NeedleA long, thin inclusion that can be a solid
crystal or a hollow tube that might be filled with
liquid or gas.
Negative crystalAn angular, hollow space within
a gem that resembles a mineral inclusion.
ObjectivesThe lenses nearest the stone on a
gemological microscope.
OcularsThe eyepiece lenses on a gemological
microscope.
PodThe housing for a microscopes optical system,
also called the head.
Reflected lightingIllumination of a gems surface
by reflecting light from it.
ReliefContrast between an inclusion and its host
gem.

FingerprintInclusions that form a pattern that often

resembles a human fingerprint.

SilkGroup of fine, needle-like inclusions.

Focal distanceThe distance from the surface of a

lens to a point thats in sharp focus.

Spherical aberrationBlurring around the edges

that occurs when a lens cant get an entire image
in focus at the same time.

Fully corrected triplet loupeA loupe that contains

a three-part lens that magnifies and corrects for
spherical and chromatic aberration.

StageA microscopes working platform.

Included crystalA mineral crystal trapped within a

gem as it grows.
InclusionA characteristic enclosed within a gemstone or reaching its surface from the interior.
Iris diaphragmA device in the microscopes stage
that you can open or close to control the amount of
light coming from the light well.

40

StoneholderA device that attaches to a microscopes stage to hold a gem steady.

Three-phase inclusionA cavity in a gem filled with
a liquid, a gas, and one or more crystals.
Two-phase inclusionA cavity in a gem filled with
a liquid and, typically, a gas.

MAGNIFICATION

ASSIGNMENT

QUESTIONNAIRE

Each of the questions or incomplete statements below is followed by several possible answers. Choose
the ONE that BEST answers the question or completes the statement. Then place the letter (A, B, C, or
D) corresponding to your answer in the blank at the left of the question.
If youre unsure about any question, go back, review the assignment, and find the correct answer.
When youve answered all the questions, transfer your answers to the answer sheet.

________1.

Diffused lighting is most effective for detecting

A.
B.
C.
D.

________2.

A fringe of color that occurs when a lens focuses different wavelengths of light at
different distances is a result of
A.
B.
C.
D.

________3.

astigmatism.
full correction.
spherical aberration.
chromatic aberration.

The distance from the surface of a lens to a point thats in sharp focus is called
A.
B.
C.
D.

________4.

thin, flat inclusions.

high-relief inclusions.
surface features like glass-filled cavities.
curved color banding in flame-fusion synthetics.

relief.
depth of field.
focal distance.
spherical aberration.

If a microscopes oculars are 15X and the zoom adjustment is set at 2X, the
magnification is
A.
B.
C.
D.

7X.
15X.
17X.
30X.
CONTINUED NEXT PAGE...

IF YOU NEED HELP: Contact your instructor through GIA online, or call 800-421-7250 toll-free in the US and Canada, or 760-603-4000; after
hours you can leave a message.

41

GEM IDENTIFICATION

________5.

The amount of wear a gemstone shows can indicate its

A.
B.
C.
D.

________6.

cloud.
needle.
fingerprint.
negative crystal.

A natural, untreated gem material that might contain gas bubbles is

A.
B.
C.
D.

________9.

a fracture.
high relief.
deep inside the stone.
very near the surface.

A long, thin inclusion that can be a solid crystal or a hollow tube is called a
A.
B.
C.
D.

________8.

density.
hardness.
optic character.
specific gravity.

Under the microscope, if the inclusion and the facet surface are both in focus at the same
time, the inclusion is probably
A.
B.
C.
D.

________7.

ruby.
peridot.
obsidian.
diamond.

The contrast between an inclusion and its host gem is called

A.
B.
C.
D.

relief.
saturation.
fluorescence.
distinctiveness.

________10. The small metal flap that can be closed to prevent a microscopes light from shining
directly through the stone is called the
A.
B.
C.
D.

42

pod.
baffle.
ocular.
light port.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE...

MAGNIFICATION

________11. To examine a gems surface, use

A.
B.
C.
D.

reflected lighting.
darkfield lighting.
monochromatic light.
brightfield illumination.

________12. If you find curved striae or curved color banding in a gem, you know it is
A.
B.
C.
D.

natural.
synthetic.
heat treated.
fracture filled.

________13. You can be sure that a gem is natural if it contains

A.
B.
C.
D.

a feather.
wispy veils.
straight color banding.
a range of different mineral inclusions.

________14. Which of these would probably have concave facets?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Molded gems
Enhanced gems
Assembled gems
Synthetic materials

________15. An angular, hollow space within a gem that resembles a mineral inclusion is called a
A.
B.
C.
D.

cloud.
cavity.
feather.
negative crystal.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE...

43

GEM IDENTIFICATION

Distance Education students: The following questions ask you to examine the stones in the set youre
currently working with. Choose the best answer to each question and continue filling in your answer
sheet as you did with questions 1 through 15.

________16. Which of the following do you see in stone 4 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Doubling
Wispy veils
Gas bubbles
Curved striae

________17. Which of the following do you see in stone 9 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Wispy veils
Curved striae
Included crystals
Three-phase inclusions

________18. Which of the following do you see in stone 10 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Curved striae
Flux inclusions
Nailhead spicules
Natural inclusions

________19. Which of the following do you see in stone 13 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Wispy veils
Curved striae
Included crystals
Three-phase inclusions

________20. Which of the following do you see in stone 15 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.

44

Wispy veils
Negative crystals
Included crystals
Curved color banding

1. Introduction

12. Detecting Gem Treatments

2. General Observation

13. Separating Red, Pink, and

Purple Gems

3. Refraction and the Refractometer

4. Polariscope Testing
5. Pleochroism and the Dichroscope
6. Magnification
7. Selective Absorption and the
Spectroscope
8. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
9. Additional Tests
10. Separation and Identification
11. Separating Natural Gems from
Synthetics and Imitations

14. Separating Blue and Violet

Gems
15. Separating Green Gems
16. Separating Orange, Yellow,
and Brown Gems
17. Separating Colorless, White,
Gray, and Black Gems
18. Identifying Rough Gems,
Parcels, and Mounted Gems
19. Advanced Laboratory Testing