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Description
Retrieves certain records from one or more tables
Creates a record
Modifies records
Deletes records
Description
Gives a privilege to user
Takes back privileges granted from user
Description
Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in database
Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.
Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other object in the
database.
Description
Commit command is used to permanently save any transaaction into
database
restores the database to last commited state. It is also use with
savepoint command to jump to a savepoint in a transaction.
savepoint command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that
you can rollback to that point whenever necessary.
Dr. Edgar F. "Ted" Codd of IBM is known as the father of relational databases. He described a
relational model for databases.
SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing, manipulating and
retrieving data stored in relational database.
Primary and Unique Key difference:- Both primary key and unique enforce uniqueness of the column on
which they are defined. But by default primary key creates a clustered index on the column, where are
unique creates a non-clustered index by default. Another major difference is that, primary key doesn't
allow NULLs, but unique key allows one NULL only.
Difference between GROUP BY and HAVING Clause:- Specifies a search condition for a group or an
aggregate. HAVING can be used only with the SELECT statement. HAVING is typically used in a GROUP BY
clause. When GROUP BY is not used, HAVING behaves like a WHERE clause. Having Clause is basically used
only with the GROUP BY function in a query. WHERE Clause is applied to each row before they are part of
the GROUP BY function in a query.
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NORMALISATION
Normalization is a technique of organizing data in the database. Normalization is a systematic approach of
decomposing tables to eliminate data redundancy and undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update
and Deletion Anomalies. It is a multi-step process that puts data into tabular form by removing duplicated
data from the relation tables.
Normalization is used for mainly two purpose:
Eliminating redundant (useless) data.
Ensuring data dependencies make sense i.e. data is logically stored.
Problem Without Normalization :- Without Normalization, it becomes difficult to handle and update the
database, without facing data loss. Insertion, Updation and Deletion Anomalies are very frequent if
Database is not normalized.
Updation Anomaly:- To update address which occurs twice or more than twice in a table, we will have to
update Address column in all the rows, else data will become inconsistent.
Insertion Anomaly:- Suppose for a new admission, we have a Student id (S_id), name and address of a
student but if student has not opted for any subjects yet then we have to insert NULL there, leading to
Insertion Anomaly.
Deletion Anomaly has only one subject and temporarily he drops it, when we delete that row, entire
student record will be deleted along with it.
Normalization rule are divided into following normal form.
1) First Normal Form
2) Second Normal Form
3) Third Normal Form
4) Boyce and Codd Normal Form (BCNF)
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E-R Diagrams
ER-Diagram is a visual representation of data that describes how data is related to each other.
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Attribute:- An Attribute describes a property or characteristic of an entity. For example, Name, Age,
Address etc can be attributes of a Student. An attribute is represented using eclipse.
Key Attribute:- Key attribute represents the main characteristic of an Entity. It is used to represent Primary
key. Ellipse with underlying lines represents Key Attribute.
Composite Attribute:- An attribute can also have their own attributes. These attributes are known as
Composite attribute.
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Binary Relationship:- Binary Relationship means relation between two Entities. This is further divided into
three types.
One to One:- This type of relationship is rarely seen in real world.
The above example describes that one student can enroll only for one course and a course will also have
only one Student. This is not what you will usually see in relationship.
One to Many:- It reflects business rule that one entity is associated with many number of same
entity. For example, Student enrolls for only one Course but a Course can have many Students.
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The arrows in the diagram describes that one student can enroll for only one course.
Many to Many :- The below diagram shows the many to many relationship
Recursive Relationship:- When an Entity is related with itself it is known as Recursive Relationship.
RDBMS CONCEPTS
A Relational Database management System (RDBMS) is a database management system based on
relational model introduced by E.F Codd. In relational model, data is represented in terms of tuples (rows).
RDBMS is used to manage Relational database. Relational database is a collection of organized set of tables
from which data can be accessed easily. Relational Database is most commonly used database. It consists
of number of tables and each table has its own primary key.
What is Table?
In Relational database, a table is a collection of data elements organized in terms of rows and columns. A
table is also considered as convenient representation of relations. But a table can have duplicate tuples
while a true relation cannot have duplicate tuples. Table is the simplest form of data storage.
What is a Record?
A single entry in a table is called a Record or Row. A Record in a table represents set of related data. For
example, the above Employee table has 4 records. Following is an example of single record.
What is Field ?
A table consists of several records (row), each record can be broken into several smaller entities known as
Fields. The above Employee table consists of four fields, ID, Name, Age and Salary.
What is a Column?
In Relational table, a column is a set of value of a particular type. The term Attribute is also used to
represent a column. For example, in Employee table, Name is a column that represents names of
employee.
Codd's Rule
E.F Codd was a Computer Scientist who invented Relational model for Database management. Based on
relational model, Relation database was created. Codd proposed 13 rules popularly known as Codd's 12
rules to test DBMS's concept against his relational model. Codd's rule actually defines what quality a DBMS
requires in order to become a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS). Till now, there is hardly
any commercial product that follows all the 13 Codd's rules. Even Oracle follows only eight and half out
(8.5) of 13. The Codd's 12 rules are as follows.
Rule zero
This rule states that for a system to qualify as an RDBMS, it must be able to manage database entirely
through the relational capabilities.
Rule 1: Information rule
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Features of Ring Topology: A number of repeaters are used and the transmission is unidirectional.
Date is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit.
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Features of Star Topology: Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
Acts as a repeater for data flow.
Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
MESH Topology:- It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. Traffic is carried only between
two devices or nodes to which it is connected.
Network Architecture
Network architecture is the design of a communications network. It is a framework for the specification of
a network's physical components and their functional organization and configuration, its operational
principles and procedures, as well as data formats used in its operation.
Transmission:- There are two type of transmission
1. Parallel Transmission:- In this mode, message information is transmitted bit by bit over the link. The
transmission speed of the transmitting site depends on the signaling speed. The Signaling Rate is defined
for the communication device and usually expressed in Baud.
2. Parallel Transmission:- In this Transmission mode, Each Bit is assigned a specific, separate channel
number and all the bits are transmitted over the different channels.
There are different configurations of transmission of a signal for example
1. Simplex:- Information always flows in one direction.
Examples of simplex Mode is loudspeaker, television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and
monitor etc.
2. Half Simplex:- Allows the transmission of a signal in one direction at a time.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in
both the directions.
3. Full Duplex:- Allows the transmission of a signal in both directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by
a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Multiplexing:- Multiplexing is a set of technique that allows a simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link.
Type of Multiplexing:
1. Frequency division multiplexing:- is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a
link is greater the combined band width.
2. Time division multiplexing:- is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high
bandwidth of signal.
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Wireless Network
It is the fastest growing segment of computer. They are becoming very important in our daily life because
wind connections are not possible in cars or aeroplane. We can access Internet at any place avoiding wire
related troubles
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Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services:- These are the two services given by the layers to
layers above them. These services are :
1--Connection Oriented Service
2--Connectionless Services
Connection Oriented Services:- There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection
oriented service. These are
Connection is established
Information is sent
Connection is released
Connection Less Services:- It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where the
message (letter) is to be carried. Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The
order of message sent can be different from the order received.
Difference between Connection oriented service and Connectionless service
In connection oriented service authentication is needed while connectionless service does not need
any authentication.
Connection oriented protocol makes a connection and checks whether message is received or not
and sends again if an error occurs connectionless service protocol does not guarantees a delivery.
Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service.
Connection oriented service interface is stream based and connectionless is message based.
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Functions of Different Layers:Layer 1: The Physical Layer :- It activates, maintain and deactivate the physical connection. Voltages and
data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer. It converts the digital bits into electrical
signal.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer :- Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the
data. Error controlling is easily done. The encoded data are then passed to physical. Error detection bits are
used by the data link on layer. It also corrects the errors. Outgoing messages are assembled into frames.
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IP ADRESSING
IP:- IP provides communication between hosts on different kinds of networks (i.e., different data-link
implementations such as Ethernet and Token Ring). It is a connectionless, unreliable packet delivery
service.
IP Address:- IP defines an addressing scheme that is independent of the underlying physical address (e.g.;
48-bit MAC address). IP specifies a unique 32-bit number for each host on a network. This number is
known as the Internet Protocol Address, the IP Address or the Internet Address. These terms are
interchangeable. Each packet sent across the internet contains the IP address of the source of the packet
and the IP address of its destination. For routing efficiency, the IP address is considered in two parts: the
prefix which identifies the physical network, and the suffix which identifies a computer on the network. A
unique prefix is needed for each network in an internet. For the global Internet, network numbers are
obtained from Internet Service Providers
(ISPs):-- ISPs coordinate with a central organization called the Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA).
IP Address Classes:- The first four bits of an IP address determine the class of the network. The class
specifies how many of the remaining bits belong to the prefix (aka Network ID) and to the suffix (aka Host
ID). The first three classes, A, B and C, are the primary network classes.
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Operating System
Process:- A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be implemented in
the system.
Components of a process are following:
1. Object Program: Code to be executed.
2. Data: Data to be used for executing the program.
3. Resources: While executing the program, it may require some resources.
4. Status: Verifies the status of the process execution. A process can run to completion only when all
requested resources have been allocated to the process. Two or more processes could be executing the
same program, each using their own data and resources
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SEMAPHORES
Semaphore is a synchronization tool. semaphore is a value that indicates the status of common resources.
A semaphore, in its most basic form, is a protected integer variable that can facilitate and restrict access to
shared resources in a multi-processing environment. The two most common kinds of semaphores are
counting semaphores and binary semaphores.
Counting semaphores represent multiple resources, while binary semaphores, as the name implies,
represents two possible states (generally 0 or 1; locked or unlocked). Semaphores were invented by the
late Edsger Dijkstra.
Points to Remember about:
1- A semaphore can only be accessed using the following operations: wait() and signal()
2- wait() is called when a process wants access to a resource.
3- signal() is called when a process is done using a resource, or when the patron is finished with his
meal.
4- If there is only one count of a resource, a binary semaphore is used which can only have the values
of 0 or 1. They are often used as mutex locks
Scheduling
The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of the running
process from the CPU and the selection of another process on the basis of a particular strategy.
Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming operating system. Such operating systems
allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable memory at a time and loaded process
shares the CPU using time multiplexing. Schedulers are of three types
1- Long Term Scheduler
2- Short Term Scheduler
3- Medium Term Scheduler
Long Term Scheduler :- It is also called job scheduler. Long term scheduler determines which programs are
admitted to the system for processing. Job scheduler selects processes from the queue and loads them
into memory for execution. Process loads into the memory for CPU scheduling. The primary objective of
the job scheduler is to provide a balanced mix of jobs, such as I/O bound and processor bound. It also
controls the degree of multiprogramming.
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Page Replacement
Page Replacement Algorithm:- Page replacement algorithms are the techniques using which Operating
System decides which memory pages to swap out, write to disk when a page of memory needs to be
allocated. Paging happens whenever a page fault occurs and a free page cannot be used for allocation
purpose accounting to reason that pages are not available or the number of free pages is lower than
required pages.
1.First In First Out (FIFO) algorithm :
A- Oldest page in main memory is the one which will be selected for replacement.
B- Easy to implement, keep a list, replace pages from the tail and add new pages at the head.
2.Optimal Page algorithm :
A- An optimal page-replacement algorithm has the lowest page-fault rate of all algorithms. An optimal
page-replacement algorithm exists, and has been called OPT or MIN.
B- Replace the page that will not be used for the longest period of time . Use the time when a page is to be
used.
3.Least Recently Used (LRU) algorithm :
A- Page which has not been used for the longest time in main memory is the one which will be selected for
replacement.
B- Easy to implement, keep a list, replace pages by looking back into time.
4.Page Buffering algorithm:
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RISK MANAGEMENT
Risk Analysis Terminology
Asset - Anything with value and in need of protection.
Threat - An action or potential action with the propensity to cause damage.
Vulnerability - A condition of weakness. If there were no vulnerabilities, there would be no concern for
threat activity.
Countermeasure - Any device or action with the ability to reduce vulnerability.
Expected Loss - The anticipated negative impact to assets due to threat manifestation.
Impact - Losses as a result of threat activity are normally expressed in one or more impact areas. Four
areas are commonly used; Destruction, Denial of Service,Disclosure, and Modification.
IP Security
IP Security, a set of protocols developed by the IETF to support secure exchange of packets at the IP layer.
IPsec has been deployed widely to implement Virtual Private Networks (VPNs).
IPsec supports two encryption modes: Transport and Tunnel. Transport mode encrypts only the data
portion (payload) of each packet, but leaves the header untouched. The more secure Tunnel mode
encrypts both the header and the payload. On the receiving side, an IPSec-compliant device decrypts each
packet.
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IPSec
IPSec is not a protocol, but a set of services provides various types of protection such as:
1- Encryption of user data for privacy
2- Authentication of the integrity of a message
3- Protection for various types of attack such as replay attack
4- Ability to negotiate key and security algorithms
5- Two security modes: Tunnel and Transport
IPSec General Operation
Devices to work using IPSec must:
6- They must agree on a set of security protocols to use, so that each one sends data in a format the other
can understand.
7- They must decide on a specific encryption algorithm They must exchange keys that are used to unlock
data that has been cryptographically encoded.
FIREWALL
A firewall is a system or group of systems that enforces an access control policy between two or more
networks.
1- Generally, firewalls are configured to protect against unauthenticated inter- active logins from the
outside world. This, more than anything, helps prevent vandals from logging into machines on your
network.
2-Firewalls cant protect against tunneling over most application protocols to trojaned or poorly written
clients. Tunneling bad things over HTTP, SMTP, and other protocols is quite simple and trivially
demonstrated
3-Basically there are three types of firewalls: Network Layer, Application Layer and Hybrid Firewalls.
Important Security Terminologies
1- Attack:- In the context of computer/network security, an attack is an attempt to access resources on a
computer or a network without authorization, or to bypass security measures that are in place.
2- Audit:- To track security-related events, such as logging onto the system or network, accessing objects,
or exercising user/group rights or privileges. Availability of data Reliable and timely access to data.
4- Breach:- Successfully defeating security measures to gain access to data or resources without
authorization, or to make data or resources available to unauthorized persons, or to delete or alter
computer files.
5-Brute force attack :-Attempt to crack passwords by sequentially trying all possible combinations of
characters until the right combination works to allow access. Buffer a holding area for data.
6- Buffer overflow:- A way to crash a system by putting more data into a buffer than the buffer is able to
hold.
Countermeasures Steps taken to prevent or respond to an attack or malicious code.
7- Cracker:- A hacker who specializes in cracking or discovering system passwords to gain access to
computer systems without authorization. See also hacker.
8- Crash:- Sudden failure of a computer system, rendering it unusable.
9- Exposure:- A measure of the extent to which a network or individual computer is open to attack, based
on its particular vulnerabilities, how well known it is to hackers, and the time duration during which
intruders have the opportunity to attack.
10- Hacker :- A person who spends time learning the details of computer programming and operating
systems, how to test the limits of their capabilities, and where their vulnerabilities lie.
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Data Structures
Data Structure is a way of collecting and organising data in such a way that we can perform operations on
these data in an effective way. Data Structures is about rendering data elements in terms of some
relationship, for better organization and storage. For example, we have data player's name "Virat" and age
26. Here "Virat" is of String data type and 26 is of integer data type.
Basic types of Data Structures
As we discussed above, anything that can store data can be called as a data strucure, hence Integer, Float,
Boolean, Char etc, all are data structures. They are known as Primitive Data Structures.
Introduction to Sorting
Sorting is nothing but storage of data in sorted order, it can be in ascending or descending order. The term
Sorting comes into picture with the term Searching. There are so many things in our real life that we need
to search, like a particular record in database, roll numbers in merit list, a particular telephone number,
any particular page in a book etc.
Types of Sorting Techniques
There are many types of Sorting techniques, differentiated by their efficiency and space requirements.
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In the first pass, the smallest element found is 1, so it is placed at the first position, then leaving first
element, smallest element is searched from the rest of the elements, 3 is the smallest, so it is then placed
at the second position. Then we leave 1 nad 3, from the rest of the elements, we search for the smallest
and put it at third position and keep doing this, until array is sorted.
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