AEROPLANES CLASS A

PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

PERFORMANCE CLASS A
AEROPLANES - JAR 25 CERTIFIED
JAR ATPL - 032 03
Version 0 / MAR 06
Predava:
Zlatko irac,dipl.ing.
zlatko.sirac@croatiaairlines.hr

LIMITATIONS

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LIMITATIONS
Environmental
Envelope

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

VMCG - minimum control speed on the ground

It is the calibrated airspeed during the take-off run, at which, when
the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to
maintain control of the aeroplane with the use of the primary
aerodynamic controls alone (without the use of nose-wheel
steering) to enable the take-off to be safely continued using normal
piloting skill.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LIMITATIONS
Speeds

VMCA - minimum control speed in the air

It is the calibrated airspeed, at which, when the critical engine is
suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the
aeroplane with that engine still inoperative, and maintain straight
flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

VMCL - Minimum control speed during approach and landing

It is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is
suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the
aeroplane with that engine still inoperative, and maintain straight
flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LIMITATIONS
Speeds

VMU Minimum unstick speed

It is the calibrated airspeed at and above which the aeroplane can
safely lift off the ground, and continue the take-off.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Engine Failure Speed: VEF
VEF is the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail.
VEF must be selected by the applicant, but may not be less than VMCG.

TAKEOFF
Speeds

Decision Speed: V1
V1 is the maximum speed at which the crew can decide to reject the takeoff,
and is ensured to stop the aircraft within the limits of the runway.
V1 may not be less than VEF plus the speed gained with the critical engine
inoperative during the time interval between the instant at which the critical
engine is failed, and the instant at which the pilot recognises and reacts to the
engine failure.
The time which is considered between the critical engine failure at
VEF, and the pilot recognition at V1, is 1 second.

VMCG VEF V1

VR Rotation speed
The speed at which the pilot initiates the rotation, at the appropriate
rate of about 3 per second in order to achieve V2 at 35ft.
VR 1.05 VMCA

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Speeds

VLOF Liftoff speed

The speed at which the aeroplane first becomes airborne.
VLOF 1.05 VMU (OEI)
VLOF 1.10 VMU (AEO)
V2 Takeoff safety speed
The minimum climb speed that must be reached at a height of 35
feet above the runway surface, in case of an engine failure.
V2 1.1 VMCA
V2 1.13 VS1g (Fly-By-Wire aircraft)
V2 1.2 VS (Classic types)

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Maximum Brake Energy Speed: VMBE

The Maximum speed at which the brakes will absorb aircraft kinetic
energy and stop aircraft safely.
When the takeoff is aborted, brakes must absorb and dissipate the
heat corresponding to the aircrafts kinetic energy at the decision
point.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Speeds

V1 VMBE
Maximum Tire Speed: VT
The tire manufacturer specifies the maximum ground speed that
can be reached, in order to limit the centrifugal forces and the heat
elevation that may damage the tire structure.
VLOF VTIRE

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Takeoff speeds limitations summary

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Speeds

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

TAKEOFF DISTANCES

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TOD - Takeoff distance

TAKEOFF

Takeoff distance is the greater of the following values:

Distances

TODN-1 = Distance covered from the brake release to a point at which

the aircraft is at 35 feet (15 feet on wet runway) above the takeoff
surface, assuming the failure of the critical engine at VEF and
recognized at V1
1.15 TODN = 115% of the distance covered from brake release to a
point at which the aircraft is at 35 feet (15 feet on wet runway) above
the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating.

TOD = max of {TODN-1 , 1.15 TODN }

The takeoff distance on a wet runway may not be lower than on a dry one.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TOD - Takeoff distance

TAKEOFF
Distances

TODAll engines
From BR to 35 ft above runway surface.

+ 15%

All engines operative

V2
V1 VR

TODOEI

35 ft

35 ft

1 engine
out 1 E/O
TOD

One engine out at V1

10

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

TOR - Takeoff run

The takeoff run is the greater of the following values :
TORN-1 = Distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant
between the point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the
aircraft is 35(15) feet above the takeoff surface, assuming failure of the
critical engine at VEF and recognized at V1,

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Distances

1.15 TORN = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a

point equidistant between the point at which VLOF is reached and the
point at which the aircraft is 35(15) feet above the takeoff surface,
assuming all engines operating.

TOR = max of {TORN-1 , 1.15 TORN }

11

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TOR - Takeoff run

TAKEOFF
Distances

TORAll engines
From BR to middle point.

+ 15%

(between 35ft and LOF point)

All engines operative

V1 VR

V2
35 ft

35 ft

1 engine out

TOR1 E/O
One engine out at V1
12

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

ASD Accelerate-stop distance

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

The accelerate-stop distance is the greater of the following values:

TAKEOFF

ASDN-1 = Sum of the distances necessary to:

- Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF,
- Accelerate from VEF to V1, assuming the critical engine
fails at VEF and the pilot takes the first action to reject the
takeoff at V1 (delay between VEF and V1 = 1 second)
- Come to a full stop
- Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1
speed.

Distances

ASDN = Sum of the distances necessary to:

- Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V1,
assuming the pilot takes the first action to reject the takeoff
at V1
- With all engines still operating come to a full stop
- Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1
speed
13

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ASD Accelerate-stop distance

TAKEOFF

All engines operative

V1

2s
All engines

V=0

Distances

idle

ASDall engines
1 Engine out

V1

All engines

2s
1 E/O

V=0

idle
14

ASD 1 E/O

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

TakeOff Run Available (TORA)

The length of runway which is declared available by the appropriate
authority and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane taking off.
TOR TORA

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Distances

Takeoff Distance Available (TODA)

The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the
clearway available.
TOD TODA

15

Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA)

The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway,
if such stopway is declared available by the appropriate Authority and
is capable of bearing the mass of the aeroplane under the prevailing
operating conditions.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Distances

ASD ASDA

16

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Distances

TOR TORA
TOD TODA
ASD ASDA

17

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Loss of Runway Length due to Alignment (Line-up distance)

JAR-OPS 1.490(c)(6): an operator must take account of the loss, if any,
of runway length due to alignment of the aeroplane prior to takeoff.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Distances

18

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Balanced field

TAKEOFF
Distances

Balanced field: TOD = ASD = RWY LENGTH

V1 = Balanced V1
MTOWFIELD MAX. VALUE
19

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Influence of V1

TAKEOFF

Long TOD
Low V1

V1

Distances

VR
Short ASD

Short TOD
High V1

VV
1R
Long ASD
20

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Influence of V2

TAKEOFF
Distances

High V2 = Long TOD and High Climb gradient

Low V2 = Short TOD and Low Climb gradient
V1

VR

Short TOD
Long TOD
21

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

RWY Conditions
Dry runway: A dry runway is one which is neither wet nor
contaminated.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS

Damp runway: A runway is considered damp when the surface

is not dry, but when the moisture on it does not give it a shiny
appearance.
JAR-OPS 1.475 states that a damp runway is equivalent to a
dry one in terms of takeoff performance. In the future, a damp
runway may have to be considered as wet.
Wet runway: A runway is considered wet when the runway
surface is covered with water or equivalent, with a depth less
than or equal to 3 mm, or when there is a sufficient moisture on
the runway surface to cause it to appear reflective, but without
significant areas of standing water.

22

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Contaminated runway: A runway is considered to be

contaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface area
within the required length and width being used is covered by the
folowing:
-surface water more than 3mm in deep
-slush or loose snow equivalent to more than 3mm of water

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS

Standing water: Caused by heavy rainfall and/or

insufficient runway drainage with a depth of more than
3mm (0.125 in).
Slush: Water saturated with snow, which spatters when stepping
firmly on it.
Wet snow: If compacted by hand, snow will stick together and
tend to form a snowball.
Dry snow: Snow can be blown if loose, or if compacted by hand,
will fall apart again upon release.
Compacted snow: Snow has been compressed.
Ice : The friction coefficient is 0.05 or below.

23

Effect on Performance
There is a clear distinction of the effect of contaminants on aircraft
performance. Contaminants can be divided into hard and fluid
contaminants.
Hard contaminants are :
They reduce friction forces.

Compacted snow and ice.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS

Fluid contaminants are :

Water, slush, and loose snow.
They reduce friction forces, and cause precipitation drag
and aquaplaning.
Precipitation drag causes following effects:
Improve the deceleration rate: Positive effect, in case of a rejected
takeoff.
Worsen the acceleration rate: Negative effect for takeoff.
So, the negative effect on the acceleration rate leads to limit the
depth of a fluid contaminant to a maximum value.
On the other hand, with a hard contaminant covering the runway
surface, only the friction coefficient is affected, and the depth of
contaminant therefore has no influence on takeoff performance.

24

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Aquaplaning Phenomenon
The presence of water on the runway creates an intervening water
film between the tire and the runway, leading to a reduction of the dry
area. This phenomenon becomes more critical at higher speeds,
where the water cannot be squeezed out from between the tire and
the runway. Aquaplaning (or hydroplaning) is a situation where the
tires of the aircraft are, to a large extent, separated from the runway
surface by a thin fluid film. Under these conditions, tire traction drops
to almost negligible values along with aircraft wheels braking; wheel
steering for directional control is, therefore, virtually ineffective.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS

25

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

JAR 25.1591:
Supplementary performance information for runways contaminated
with standing water, slush, loose snow, compacted snow or ice must
be furnished by the manufacturer in an approved document, in the
form of guidance material, to assist operators in developing suitable
guidance, recommendations or instructions for use by their flight
crews when operating on contaminated runway surface conditions.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS

The information on contaminated runways may be established by

calculation or by testing.

Example data for A320F provided by the Airbus Industrie

26

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Braking action

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Data published by ATR Industrie

TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS

27

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Takeoff path
The takeoff path extends from a standing start (brake release) to a
point at which the aeroplane is at a height:
Of 1500 ft above the takeoff surface, or
At which the transition from the takeoff to the en-route
configuration is completed and the final takeoff speed is
reached,
whichever point is higher.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations

The takeoff flight path begins 35 ft above the takeoff surface at the
end of the takeoff distance.
The takeoff path and takeoff flight path regulatory definitions assume
that the aircraft is accelerated on the ground to VEF, at which
point the critical engine is made inoperative and remains
inoperative for the rest of the takeoff.

28

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations

Minimum required groos gradient (%)

JAR 25.121

Aircraft

1st SEG

2nd SEG

3rd SEG

Final SEG

2 ENG

>0

P 2.4%

P 1.2% (accel.)

P 1.2%

3 ENG

P0.3%

P 2.7%

P 1.5% (accel.)

P 1.5%

4 ENG

P 0.5%

P 3.0%

P 1.7% (accel.)

P 1.7%

Commuter category aircraft (JAR 23)

2 ENG

>0

P 2.0%

P 1.2% (accel.)

P 1.2%

29

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Gross Net takeoff flight path

Net takeoff flight path must clear all obstacles in the Obstacle Accountable
Area for at least 35 ft.

AIRCRAFT

TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations

Mandatory gross gradient reduction

JAR 25.115

2 ENG

0.8 %

3 ENG

0.9 %

4 ENG

1.0 %

30

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Track changes
JAR-OPS 1.495(c)(1): Track changes shall not be allowed up to the point at
which the net take-off flight path has achieved a height equal to one half the
wingspan but not less than 50 ft above the elevation of the end of the takeoff run available.

TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations

Maximum Bank Angle During a Turn

Height above RWY END

Standard
procedure

Specific
approval

Below 200 ft

15

15

Between 200 ft and 400 ft

15

20

Above 400 ft

25

30

Loss of climb gradient during a turn must be taken in account.

31

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Obstacle Accountable Area (OAA)

All obstacles inside the OAA must be taken in account.

TAKEOFF
Track changes
up to 15

Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations

Track changes
more than 15

32

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Engine Failure Procedures (Contingency Procedures)

JAR OPS1.495(f): An operator shall establish contingency proedures to provide a safe
route , avoiding obstacles, to enable aeroplane to either comply with the en-route
requirements or land at the aerodrome of departure or at a takeoff alternate.
Designed by the operator to safely clear all obstacles in case of an engine failure during
takeoff, providing max. possible takeoff weight in given conditions.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations

33

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations

34

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TOW Calculation

TAKEOFF

Limitations
TOD,TOR,ASD (runway)
Speeds
1st Segment gradient (>0%)
2nd Segment gradient (>2.4%)
Brake energy
Obstacle
Tire speed
Final Take off (>1.2%)

Take off parameters.

TOW
Calculation

Configuration
Speeds (V1, Vr, V2)

Allow the take off with a maximum performance TOW

35

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

To obtain MATOW explore all range of V1/Vr and V2/Vs

TAKEOFF

V2/Vs=1.27

TOW
Calculation

2nd

optimum weight

TOD
Obstacle
ASD

36

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Takeoff Data
Takeoff data are usually presented in Runway Weight Charts (RWC).

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Takeoff Data

37

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Reduced thrust takeoff (FLEX T/O)

The aircraft actual takeoff weight is often lower than the
maximum regulatory takeoff weight. Therefore, in certain cases, it
is possible to takeoff at a thrust less than the Maximum Takeoff
Thrust.
It is advantageous to adjust the thrust to the actual weight, as it
increases engine life and reliability, while reducing maintenance
and operating costs.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF
Flex T/O

38

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Noise Abatement takeoff

Aeroplane operating procedures for the take-off climb shall ensure that the
necessary safety of flight operations is maintained whilst minimizing
exposure to noise on the ground.
The following two procedures for the climb have been developed as
guidance. The first procedure (NADP 1) is intended to provide noise
reduction for noise sensitive areas in close proximity to the departure end of
the runway . The second procedure (NADP 2) provides noise reduction to
areas more distant from the runway end .

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Noise
Abatement
takeoff

The two procedures differ in that the acceleration segment for flap/slat
retraction is either initiated prior to reaching the maximum prescribed height
or at the maximum prescribed height. To ensure optimum acceleration
performance, thrust reduction may be initiated at an intermediate flap setting.
NOTE 1: For both procedures, intermediate flap transitions required for
specific performance related issues may be initiated prior to the prescribed
minimum height; however, no power reduction can be initiated prior to
attaining the prescribed minimum altitude.
NOTE 2: The indicated airspeed for the initial climb portion of the departure
prior to the acceleration segment is to be flown at a climb speed of V2 plus
10 to 20 kt.

39

ALLEVIATING NOISE CLOSE TO THE AERODROME (NADP 1)

This procedure involves a power reduction at or above the prescribed
minimum altitude and the delay of flap/slat retraction until the prescribed
maximum altitude is attained. At the prescribed maximum altitude,
accelerate and retract flaps/slats on schedule while maintaining a positive
rate of climb, and complete the transition to normal en-route climb speed.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Noise
Abatement
takeoff

Maintain positive rate of climb. Accelerate smoothly to enroute climb speed. Retract flaps/slats on schedule.
3000 ft

Climb at V2 + 10 to 20kt. Maintain

reduced power/thrust. Maintain
flaps/slats in the takeoff configuration.

800 ft

Initiate power/thrust reduction at or above 800 ft.

Takeoff thrust, V2 + 10 to 20kt.

40

ALLEVIATING NOISE DISTANT FROM THE AERODROME (NADP 2)

This procedure involves initiation of flap/slat retraction on reaching the
minimum prescribed altitude. The flaps/slats are to be retracted on
schedule while maintaining a positive rate of climb. The power reduction is
to be performed with the initiation of the first flap/slat retraction or when
the zero flap/slat configuration is attained. At the prescribed altitude,
complete the transition to normal enroute climb procedures.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Noise
Abatement
takeoff

Transition smoothly to en-route climb speed.

3000 ft

800 ft

RWY

Not before 800 ft and whilst maintaining a

positive rate of climb, accelerate towards VZF
and reduce power with the initiation of the first
flap/slat retraction,
- or when flaps/slats are retracted and whilst
maintaining a positive rate of climb, reduce
power and climb at VZF + 10 to 20 kt.
Takeoff thrust, V2 + 10 to 20kt.

41

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Many locations continue to prescribe the former Noise

Abatement Departure Procedures A and B.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Flap retraction and accelerate smoothly to en-route climb speed.

Noise
Abatement
takeoff

3000 ft

CLimb at V2 + 10 to 20 kt.
1500 ft
Reduce to climb power/thrust.

Takeoff thrust
V2 + 10 to 20kt.

Runway

42

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Noise
Abatement
takeoff

Accelerate smoothly to en-route

climb speed.
3000 ft

Climb at VZF + 10 kt.

Reduce power/thrust.
Retract flaps/slats on schedule.

1000 ft

Accelerate to VZF.
Takeoff thrust
V2 + 10 to 20kt.

Runway

43

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

CLIMB

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Flight Mechanics
CLIMB
Flight
Mechanics

Thrust x cos = Drag + Weight x sin

Lift = Weight x cos
sin tan (in radian)
cos 1 and cos 1

THRUST DRAG THRUST T

1
=

=
WEIGHT
WEIGHT W L
D

RC = TAS x sin TAS x

RC = TAS

THRUST DRAG POWER

=
WEIGHT
WEIGHT

44

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

The climb angle () is proportional to the difference between the

available thrust and the required thrust.
The rate of climb (RC) is proportional to the difference between the
available power and the required power.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CLIMB
Flight
Mechanics

45

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Influencing parameters
Altitudeeffect
Climb gradient and the rate of climb decrease with pressure altitude, due
to a lower excess of thrust.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CLIMB
Influencing
parameters

Temperature effect
As temperature increases, thrust decreases due to a lower air density. As
a result, the effect is the same as for altitude.

Weight effect

THRUST DRAG THRUST

=
WEIGHT
WEIGHT

RC = TAS

THRUST DRAG POWER

=
WEIGHT
WEIGHT

46

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Wind effect

CLIMB
Influencing
parameters

Headwind:

- Rate of climb
- Fuel and time to TOC
- Flight path angle (g)
- Ground distance to TOC

Tailwind:

- Rate of climb
- Fuel and time to TOC
- Flight path angle (g)
- Ground distance to TOC

47

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Climb profile
Constant IAS / Mach tehnique

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CLIMB
Climb Profile

Crossover Altitude
-switch from constant IAS to constant Mach during climb to avoid
reaching critical Ma (Makr).
-switch from constant Mach to constant IAS during descent to avoid
exceeding VMO.

48

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Climb data

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CLIMB
Climb data

49

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

CRUISE
Flight Mechanics

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CRUISE
Flight
Mechanics

L=W
D=T

T=

W
L
D

Min. Thrust required for best L/D ratio

50

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Specific Range

SR AIR =

Jet aircraft:

Prop. aircraft:

SRAIR =

SRAIR =

AIR DISTANCE
FUEL USED

TAS
1
=
TSFC T TSFC T

CRUISE
Specific
Range

TAS

TAS
1
=
PSFC P PSFC P

TAS

(NM ton)
(NM ton)

SR=f(WEIGHT, ALTITUDE, SPEED)

51

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CRUISE
Specific
Range

52

Max. Range vs. Long Range

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CRUISE
MR & LRC

Flight at Long Range cruise speed will result in significant speed

increase (more comfort by shortening flight time on long distance
flights) and slight decrease in Specific Range (SRLRC will be 99% of
the SRMR).
53

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CRUISE
MR & LRC

Min. T/TAS ratio

SRAIR =

TAS
1
=
TSFC T TSFC T

TAS

(NM ton)
54

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Wind-Altitude trade

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

390

CRUISE

380

FLIGHT LEVEL

370
UM
IM
T
OP

360
350

U
TIT
L
A

340
330
320
310

DE

MR & LRC

5
-2/ 0
1
-3/
20
-5/ 0
3
-7/
40
-9/ /50
-11

300

SR

WC

[kt

MACH .78

290
74

72

70

68

66

64 62 60 58 56
GROSS WEIGHT [ton]

GIVEN
Aircraft
GW
Speed
Wind

54

52

50

48

46

FIND
A320 9A-CTF
62.0 ton
M0.78
At Optimum Altitude HW=60kt
At FL330 HW=20kt

Optimum Altitude
37100
At FL330
-6/25
(interpolated)
It means that at FL330 the Specific Range
is 6% worse than at the Optimum Altitude,
but it may be compensated with at least 25
kt favourable wind.
As at FL330 there is 60-20=40 kt less HW,
it is better choice to fly at FL330.

55

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Cost Index
Long-range Cruise Mach number was considered as a minimum fuel
regime. If we consider the Direct Operating Cost instead, the
Economic Mach number (MECON), can be introduced.

CRUISE
Cost Index

DOC = (C F F ) + (CT T ) + CC
That is:
CC = fixed costs
CF = cost of fuel unit
F = trip fuel
CT = time related costs per flight hour
T = trip time
Minimum fuel costs correspond to the Maximum Range Mach
number. The minimum DOC corresponds to a specific Mach
number, referred to as Econ Mach (MECON).

56

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

D.O.C.

CRUISE
Cost Index

The MECON value depends on the time and fuel cost ratio. This
ratio is called Cost Index (CI), and is usually expressed in kg/min
or 100lb/h:

Cost of Time CT
CI =
=
Cost of Fuel C F
57

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CI => MECON

CRUISE

CI => MECON

Cost Index

The extreme CI values are:

CI = 0: Flight time costs are null (fixed wages), so
MECON = MMR (lowest boundary).
CI = CImax: Flight time costs are high and fuel costs are low,
so MECON = MAX SPEED in order to have a trip with a minimum
flight time. The maximum speed is generally (MMO - 0.02) or
(VMO - 10kt).

58

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Ceiling

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Lift equation

CRUISE

1
n W = S V 2 C L = 0.7 PS S C L M 2
2

Ceiling

PS Static air-pressure = Pressure Altitude (PA)

Critical Ma (Makr) Speed of aircraft in term of Ma at which for the first

time speed of sound is achieved locally, usually at wing upper surface).
Makr < 1
59

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

At given weight, depending on the Lift equation, each of CLmaxxM2 value

corresponds to a static pressure, that is pressure altitude. There is direct
relationship between CLmaxxM2 and PA same curve shape.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CRUISE
Ceiling

n=1

(L/D)max

Ma

60

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

At given weight and given altitude (PA), depending on the Lift equation,
each of CLmaxxM2 value corresponds to one load factor (n) . There is
direct relationship between CLmaxxM2 and n same curve shape.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CRUISE
Ceiling

Coffin
Corner
PA3=Absolute Ceiling

61

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Flight Envelope

Altitude

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Coffin corner

Absolute Ceiling
Buffet Ceiling
Max. Altitude

Operational Ceiling

CRUISE

VY

VX

VMO limit

Buffeting Area

all
spee
d st

y
lit
bi
pa
ca

Low

it
lim

C
R/

stall
speed
High

M MO

Ceiling

TAS, R/C

Altitude

R/C

Climb gradient

Absolute ceiling

- No more R/C capability, MCT

- Flight is only possible at Best (L/D) ratio speed

Buffet ceiling

- Protection from buffet (stalling) in term of manouv.

capability usually 1.3g load factor

Max. Altitude

- R/C capabilty of 300ft/min @ MCT

Coffin
Corner

62

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CRUISE
Max. Altitude

Example: 1. Determine max. bank angle limited by buffet:

Data:
M=0.56, FL=330, CG=35%, GW=60t
Result:
Load factor available=1.2g or 30 bank
2. Determine low and high speed limited by buffet:
Data:
47 bank or 1.6g load, GW=70t, CG=35%, FL=330
Result:
Mmin.=0.72 (low speed buffet), Mmax.=0.81 (high speed buffet)

63

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

39000

Altitude [ft]

38000

et
uff
b
g
1.3
0
+1
ISA

37000

CRUISE
et
uff
b
g
1.5
5
+1
ISA

w
elo
&b

I SA

36000

Max.
Altitude

Max. Altitude
Buffet Ceiling

0
+2

35000

MACH 0.78

34000
33000

70

68

66

64

62

60

58

56

54

52

50

48

46

GW [ton]

The 1.3g load factor corresponds to turn in level flight with 39 bank angle.
The 1.5g load factor corresponds to turn in level flight with 48 bank angle.

64

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Data presentation
STANDARD CRUISE - ALL ENGINES RUNNING
A320-211/212
300 KT / MACH .78
ISA
CG POSITION 30%
WEIGHT
ton

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

FMS SIMULATION
CLEAN CONFIGURATION
LOW AIR CONDITIONING
WITHOUT ANTI ICING

FL150

FL200

FL250

FL270

FL290

FL310

FL330

FL350

FL370

552 .593
79.0 300
1516 371
122.5
546 .593
78.3 300
1471 371
126.2
539 .593
77.5 300
1433 371
129.6
533 .593
76.9 300
1399 371
132.8
527 .593
76.2 300
1365 371
136.1
522 .593
75.7 300
1336 371
139.1
518 .593
75.2 300
1311 371
141.7
514 .593
74.8 300
1289 371
144.0

568 .651
82.5 300
1503 400
133.1
562 .651
81.7 300
1457 400
137.3
557 .651
80.9 300
1417 400
141.2
553 .651
80.3 300
1381 400
144.9
549 .651
79.6 300
1346 400
148.6
545 .651
79.1 300
1316 400
152.0
542 .651
78.6 300
1290 400
155.1
540 .651
78.2 300
1268 400
157.8

596 .717
85.8 300
1513 432
142.6
586 .717
84.9 300
1456 432
148.1
577 .717
84.2 300
1408 432
153.2
569 .717
83.5 300
1368 432
157.7
562 .717
82.8 300
1332 432
161.9
555 .717
82.2 300
1298 432
166.2
549 .717
81.6 300
1270 432
169.9
546 .717
81.1 300
1246 432
173.2

608 .745
87.1 300
1519 445
146.4
598 .745
86.3 300
1468 445
151.5
588 .745
85.6 300
1421 445
156.6
580 .745
84.9 300
1377 445
161.5
574 .745
84.3 300
1339 445
166.2
567 .745
83.7 300
1304 445
170.6
561 .745
83.1 300
1275 445
174.5
556 .745
82.6 300
1249 445
178.1

623 .775
88.3 300
1530 459
150.0
612 .775
87.6 300
1475 459
155.6
601 .775
86.8 300
1425 459
160.9
592 .775
86.1 300
1381 459
166.1
584 .775
85.5 300
1343 459
170.8
577 .775
84.9 300
1310 459
175.2
571 .775
84.4 300
1281 459
179.1
566 .775
83.9 300
1253 459
183.0

635 .780
89.2 289
1502 458
152.4
618 .780
88.1 289
1427 458
160.4
606 .780
87.3 289
1371 458
166.9
595 .780
86.6 289
1321 458
173.3
584 .780
85.8 289
1276 458
179.4
576 .780
85.2 289
1238 458
184.8
569 .780
84.6 289
1206 458
189.8
562 .780
84.0 289
1178 458
194.2

654 .780
90.4 277
1489 454
152.3
631 .780
89.1 277
1399 454
162.2
611 .780
87.8 277
1318 454
172.1
597 .780
86.9 277
1259 454
180.2
585 .780
86.1 277
1207 454
187.9
573 .780
85.2 277
1162 454
195.2
565 .780
84.5 277
1125 454
201.6
557 .780
83.9 277
1094 454
207.4

653 .780
90.3 264
1391 450
161.6
627 .780
88.9 264
1298 450
173.2
604 .780
87.5 264
1215 450
185.0
587 .780
86.4 264
1150 450
195.4
574 .780
85.5 264
1099 450
204.6
562 .780
84.6 264
1054 450
213.3
553 .780
83.9 264
1018 450
220.8

629 .780
89.0 252
1207 447
185.3
604 .780
87.5 252
1122 447
199.4
583 .780
86.2 252
1053 447
212.4
569 .780
85.2 252
1001 447
223.4
556 .780
84.3 252
957 447
233.8

EGT C

MACH

N1%

IAS - KT
TAS - KT
SR NM/ton

FF/ENG kg/h

FL390

CRUISE
Data
Presentation

638 .780
89.4 241
1124 447
199.0
610 .780
87.8 241
1037 447
215.7
587 .780
86.4 241
966 447
231.5
571 .780
85.3 241
914 447
244.6

65

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

DESCENT

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Flight Mechanics
DESCENT
Flight
Mechanics

L = W cos
D = W sin
1
)
tg =
L
D
RD = TAS sin =

TAS D
W

66

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Min. descent gradient when (L/D) ratio is max.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Min. rate of descent when TAS x Drag is min.

DESCENT
Flight
Mechanics

67

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Weight Effect:

DESCENT

Heavy goes heavier

Flight
Mechanics

Wind Effect:

Headwind: - Rate of descent

- Fuel and time from TOD
- Flight path angle (g)
- Ground distance from TOD
Tailwind: - Rate of descent
- Fuel and time fromTOD
- Flight path angle (g)
- Ground distance from TOD

Temperature Effect:

No significant influence

68

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Speed schedule
DESCENT
Speed
schedule

Cross-over
Altitude

A320F Standard Descent Rule: 0.78/300/250

Cross-over Altitude switch from constant Ma speed to constant

IAS during descent, to avoid exceeding VMO.

69

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Descent Data
STANDARD DESCENT 2 ENGINE
M0.76/280/250KT
ISA
IDLE
CG = 30.0 %
WEIGHT
(ton)

FL

390
370
350
330
310
290
270
250
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
50
15

A320-211/212

CLEAN CONFIGURATION
HIGH AIR CONDITIONING
WITHOUT ANTI ICING

50
TIME
(min)
21.2
20.5
19.8
19.2
18.6
17.9
17.2
16.4
16.0
15.3
14.5
13.7
12.9
12.1
11.3
10.5
7.5
5.6

CORRECTIONS

TIME
FUEL
DISTANCE
13.2-113 A320-211/212

FUEL
(kg)
213
209
205
202
199
194
190
185
183
178
172
167
161
155
149
143
116
97

DESCENT
Descent Data

70
DIST.
(NM)
104
99
94
90
86
80
75
70
68
63
58
53
48
44
39
34
20
12

LOW AIR
CONDITIONING

- 2.5 %
CFM56-5A1/A3

N1
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE

TIME
(min)

FUEL
(kg)

DIST.
(NM)

N1

22.0
21.3
20.6
19.9
19.1
18.2
17.3
16.8
15.9
14.9
14.0
13.0
12.0
11.0
10.0
6.5
4.3

217
213
209
205
200
194
188
185
179
173
166
159
152
144
137
106
83

114
109
104
99
92
86
80
77
71
65
59
53
47
42
36
20
10

IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE
IDLE

ENG ANTI ICE ON TOTAL ANTI ICE

+ 11 %
+ 57 %
+ 11 %

+ 12 %
+ 74 %
+ 11.5 %

23100000C5KG300 0 018400 0 0-1 0.0 0.0 0.00

IAS
(kt)
234
245
257
269
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
250
250

PER 10ABOVE
ISA

+4%
+5%
1 03 0.760280.000250.000 0

70

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

EN-ROUTE ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Regulatory requirements
EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY

OEI

OEI
Operation

H
S PAT
GROS

2000ft

ATH
NET P

1000ft

1500ft

JAR OPS 1.500 Net path must:

1. Clear all obstacles in OAA for at least 2000ft during descent
2. Clear all obstacle in OAA for at least 1000ft in horizontal flight
or climb
3. Must be positive at 1500ft overhead airport of intended
landing.

71

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

JAR 25.123 Gross gradient reduction

AIRCRAFT

1 ENG INOP

2 ENG INOP

2 ENG

-1.1 %

3 ENG

-1.4%

-0.3%

4 ENG

-1.6%

-0.5%

EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY

OEI
Operation

Obstacle Accountable Area (OAA) JAR OPS 1.500

72

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Descent Strategies

EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY

OEI
Operation
NO OBSTACLE LIMITATIONS

Maintain horizontal flight untill

best (L/D) ratio speed is reached
Maintain Best (L/D) ratio speed
(Drift-down speed)

73

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Descision Point

Descision Point

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY

OEI
Operation

Critical segment A-B

Either to have operating
diversion airport or to
reduce TOW

74

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

DRIFT -DOWN - 1 ENGINE OUT

A320-211/212 CFM56-5A1/A3

CLEAN CONFIGURATION

MAX. CONTINUOUS THRUST

HIGH AIR CONDITIONING

CG POSITION 30.0 %

W ITHOUT ANTI ICING

ISA+10

INIT. GW
(tons)

390

370

350
417

74

75

248 2.8
19100
405

70

386

62

65

67

242 2.6
19000
334

62

344

64

240 2.5
18900
309

58

319

60

238 2.3
18800
278

52

232 2.1

230 2.0

228 1.7

226 1.1

20700

20700

20600

20500

20200

67

353

65

332

61

309

58

279

53

238

45

232 2.3

230 2.2

228 2.1

226 2.0

224 1.9

222 1.6

220 1.2

22500

22400

22400

22400

22300

22200

22000

370

67

353

65

332

61

310

58

282

53

243

46

178

214 1.2

24000

23800

63

328

60

306

57

280

52

242

46

183

35

220 1.9

218 1.9

216 1.8

214 1.7

212 1.6

210 1.4

208 1.1

26000

26000

26000

25900

25900

25800

25600

327

60

306

57

279

52

244

46

190

36

212 1.8

210 1.7

208 1.6

206 1.5

204 1.4

202 1.1

27800

27800

27700

27700

27600

27500

306

56

280

52

247

47

194

37

30

202 1.5

200 1.4

198 1.3

196 1.0

194 0.2

29600

29600

29500

29500

29300

28900

52

246

46

195

37

29

196 1.4

194 1.3

192 1.2

190 0.9

188 0.1

31600

31500

31500

31300

30900

242

45

189

No Drift-dow n re quire d in
sha de d a re a .

204 1.6

278

36

188 1.1

186 1.0

184 0.8

33600

33500

33400

A/I BLEED CORRECTIONS LEVEL-OFF (ft)

T IM E (m in )

ENG A/I ON

FUE L (to n )

ENG. & Wing A/I ON

L EV EL O FF (FT )
1 1 .5 -1 0 2 A3 2 0 -2 1 1 /2 1 2 CFM 5 6 -5 A 1 /A 3

OEI
Operation

34

216 1.6

346

EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY

32

22500

24000

INIT . SP E ED (KT )

166

234 2.3

218 1.8

DIS T . (NM )

18300

30

234 2.3

370

170

30

18600
153

20700

70

154

233 1.2

236 2.3

24100

50

44

46

190

234 1.8

20800

220 1.9

56

18700
233

239

238 2.4

24200

60

54

236 2.1

20800

222 2.0

63

286

210

240 2.5

24200

66

230

20800

224 2.1

273

42

19000
354

365

24200

304

46

68

70

244 2.6

226 2.1

327

50

19000
373

384

24200

346

54

70

73

246 2.7

228 2.2
365

58

69

389

400

250

242 2.5
387

66

73

INITIAL FLIGHT LEVEL

330
310
290
270

2 3 5 0 0 0 1 0 C6 KG 3 0 0 0 0 1 8 4 0 0 0 0 3

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0 0

-2000
-3500

0 0 2 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 1 0

The influence of wind on Drift down distance can be calculated by this equation:
Driftdown time
Distance = DIST (zerowind)
WC(KT)
60
Note: + for tailwind component, - for headwind component.

75

CABIN DECOMPRESSION

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Regulatory requirements
JAR-OPS 1.770
An operator shall not operate a pressurized aeroplane at pressure
altitudes above 10,000 ft unless supplemental oxygen equipment [] is
provided.

EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY

Cabin
decompres.

Summary of regulatory requirements on oxygen supply:

The duration of passenger oxygen supply varies, depending on the system.

As of today, two main oxygen system categories exist:
- Chemical systems
- Gaseous systems.

76

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

As a result, it is possible to establish a flight profile, with which the aircraft

must always remain, taking into account the above-mentioned oxygen
requirements. This profile depends on the installed oxygen system

EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY

Cabin
decompres.

Nevertheless, this doesnt mean that the aircraft is always able to follow
the oxygen profile, particularly in descent.

77

The performance profile must be established, and this profile must

always remain below the oxygen profile. The calculation is based
on the following assumptions:
Descent phase: Emergency descent at MMO/VMO. Airbrakes
can be extended to increase the rate of descent, if necessary.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY

Cabin
decompres.

Cruise phase: Cruise at maximum speed (limited to VMO).

78

Obstacle clearance
A net flight path is not required in the cabin pressurization failure case. The
net flight path shall be understood as a safety margin, when there is a risk
that the aircraft cannot maintain the expected descent performance (engine
failure case).
In case of cabin depressurization, any altitude below the initial flight altitude
can be flown without any problem as all engines are running. Therefore, the
standard minimum flight altitudes apply and the descent profile must,
therefore, clear any obstacle by 2,000 feet.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY

Cabin
decompres.

A319 Obstacle Clearance Profile Pressurization Failure

79

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

LANDING

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Regulatory requirements
JAR 25.125
The horizontal distance necessary to land and to come to a complete stop
from a point 50 ft above the landing surface must be determined (for
standard temperatures,at each weight, altitude and wind within the
operational limits established by the applicant for the aeroplane) as follows:
The aeroplane must be in the landing configuration
A stabilized approach, with a calibrated airspeed of VLS must be
maintained down to the 50 ft.

LANDING
Regulatory
requirements

Actual landing distance (ALD): Distance between a point 50 feet above the
runway threshold, and the point where the aircraft comes to a complete stop.
VP1.3VS0 or 1.23VS1g

80

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Required Landing Distance (RLD) It is the ALD increased by regulatory

additions to provide safety margin.

RLD DRY

ALDDRY
=
0.6(0.7 )

Turbojet:

0.6

LANDING
Regulatory
requirements

Turboprop: 0.7

RLD WET = 1.15 RLD DRY

1.15 ALDCONTAM.
RLDCONTAM. = greater of
RLD WET

RLD O LDA

81

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Landing Distance Available (LDA) Distance available for landing

and stoping the aircraft. Published in the AIP, Jeppesen, ...
Stopway may not be calculated in the LDA.

LANDING
Regulatory
requirements

82

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Limitations
Max. Allowable Landing Weight of the aircraft may not be higher than
-MLW limited by structure (MLWSTRUCT)
-MLW limited by field (MLWFIELD)
-MLW limited by approach (go-around) climb gradient (MLWACG)
-MLW limited by landing climb gradient (MLWLCG)

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LANDING
Limitations

MLWSTRUCT
Prescribed by the aircraft manufacturer.
Limited by landing gear strength.
May be exceeded only in owerweight landing (emergency).
Maintenance action must follow.

83

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Field limits

RLD O LDA

LANDING

RLD=f(ALD)

Limitations

Approach climb gradient (ACG)

.A
n
i
M

CG

Descision Altitude

Conditions:
One engine inoperative
TOGA thrust (rem. engines)
Gear retracted
Slats and flaps in approach configuration
VREF V and V VMCL
84

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

AIRCRAFT

Min. ACG required by

regulations (certification)

LANDING

2 ENG

2.1%

Limitations

3 ENG

2.4%

4 ENG

2.7%

Terrain configuration (obstacles) may require higher ACG than min.

required by regulations.
Go-around procedures are normally desgined with assumed ACG of 2.5%. If
required ACG is greater than 2.5%, it will be published on the approach
chart.

85

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Landing climb gradient (LCG)

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LANDING
M

CG
L
in.

Limitations

50ft above THR

Conditions:
All engines operative
Thrust available after 8sec from IDLE to TOGA
Gear extended
Slats and flaps in landing configuration
V2 V VREF and V VMCL
86

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

AIRCRAFT

Min. LCG required by

regulations (certification)

Limitations

2 ENG
3 ENG

LANDING

3.2%

4 ENG

Terrain configuration (obstacles) may require higher ACG than min.

required by regulations.
Landing climb gradient is never limiting due to fact that all engines are
operative. Approach climb gradient limit always prevail.

87

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Affecting factors

Atmosphere (Density Altitude)

LANDING
TAS

DA

ALD

Affecting
factors

rZ
Climb gradient

RWY slope
Max. +/- 2%
Upslope

ALD

Downslope

ALD

88

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY conditions
Friction coefficient

ALD

LANDING

Precipitation drag

ALD

Affecting
factors

Depending on the type of contaminant and its thickness, landing

distance can either increase or decrease. So, it is not unusual to
have a shorter ALD on 12.7 mm of slush than on 6.3mm.

Flap settings
Landing distance
Flap deflection
Climb gradient

89

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Landing data

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CONF FULL
LANDING
WEIGHT
[ton]

78
74
70
66
62
58
54
50
46

A320-211/212
REQUIRED LANDING DISTANCE [m]
DRY RWY
WET RWY
WIND [kt]
WIND [kt]
TAIL
TAIL
-10
0
-10
0

2220
2090
1940
1790
1640
1530
1460
1400
1340

1910
1790
1650
1510
1400
1340
1280
1230
1170

2550
2400
2230
2050
1880
1750
1680
1610
1540

2200
2060
1900
1730
1610
1540
1480
1410
1350

CONF 3
LANDING
WEIGHT
[ton]

78
74
70
66
62
58
54
50
46
Note:

A320-211/212
REQUIRED LANDING DISTANCE [m]
DRY RWY
WET RWY
WIND [kt]
WIND [kt]
TAIL
TAIL
-10
0
-10
0

2430
2280
2120
1950
1790
1650
1570
1500
1430

2110
1980
1830
1670
1530
1440
1380
1310
1250

2800
2630
2440
2250
2060
1900
1800
1720
1640

2430
2280
2110
1920
1760
1660
1580
1510
1440

- No correction for headwind due to wind

correction on approach speed.
-Shaded area indicates overweight landing

Autoland Correction
Weight [ton]
Length [m]

60 and
above
no
corrections

55

50

45

+30

+60

+90

Increase values by 15 % on wet runway

Altitude Correction
per 1000 ft above SL
3%

CONT. RUNWAY
LANDING
WEIGHT
[ton]
78
74
70
66
62
58
54
50
46
LANDING
WEIGHT
[ton]
78
74
70
66
62
58
54
50
46
Note:

CONF FULL
A320-211/212
REQURED LANDING DISTANCE
6mm water
6mm slush
Comp. Snow
WIND [kt]
WIND [kt]
WIND [kt]
-10
0
-10
0
-10
0
2590
2200
2550
2200
2550
2200
2510
2070
2450
2060
2400
2060
2390
1970
2340
1930
2230
1900
2250
1840
2200
1820
2060
1790
2110
1720
2070
1720
1970
1700
1980
1610
1940
1630
1880
1620
1850
1520
1820
1540
1790
1540
1710
1430
1710
1450
1700
1450
1590
1350
1610
1350
1610
1370

LANDING
Landing
data

REQURED LANDING DISTANCE

12mm water
12mm slush
Ice
WIND [kt]
WIND [kt]
WIND [kt]
-10
0
-10
0
-10
0
2550
2200
2550
2200
4790
3920
2400
2060
2400
2060
4720
3840
2270
1900
2230
1900
4580
3700
2140
1780
2100
1760
4400
3530
2010
1670
1970
1670
4230
3360
1890
1560
1850
1580
4060
3200
1770
1480
1750
1490
3890
3040
1650
1410
1650
1410
3720
2880
1540
1350
1550
1350
3560
2720

Landing distance
Climb gradient

- No correction for headwind due to wind correction on

approach speed.
-Shaded area indicates overweight landing
Autoland Correction
Weight [ton]
60 and above
55
50
45
No corrections
Length [m]
+ 30
+ 50
+ 60
Altitude Correction + 5% per 1000 ft above sea level

90

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CONF 2
OAT
10
20
30
40

ACG=2.5%
PRESSURE ALTITUDE [ft]
1000
2000
4000
6000
8000
74.0
72.3
69.1
65.8
62.0
73.8
72.1
68.9
64.6
59.0
72.5
69.7
64.4
59.5
54.5
67.0
64.4
59.5
54.9
A320-211 CFM 56-5A1

0
75.7
75.4
75.2
69.6

CONF 2
OAT
10
20
30
40

ACG=3.0%
PRESSURE ALTITUDE [ft]
1000
2000
4000
6000
8000
70.8
69.2
66.1
62.9
59.3
70.6
69.0
65.9
61.8
56.5
69.3
66.7
61.7
57.0
52.1
64.1
61.6
56.9
52.6
A320-211 CFM 56-5A1

0
72.4
72.2
71.9
66.6

CONF 2
OAT
10
20
30
40

10
20
30
40

Landing
data

ACG=4.0%
PRESSURE ALTITUDE [ft]
1000
2000
4000
6000
8000
65.2
63.7
60.8
57.9
54.6
65.0
63.5
60.7
56.9
52.0
63.9
61.5
56.8
52.5
48.0
59.1
56.8
52.5
48.5
A320-211 CFM 56-5A1

0
66.7
66.5
66.3
61.4

CONF 2
OAT

LANDING

ACG=5.0%
PRESSURE ALTITUDE [ft]
1000
2000
4000
6000
8000
60.4
59.0
56.4
53.7
50.5
60.3
58.9
56.2
52.7
48.2
59.2
57.0
52.7
48.7
44.5
54.8
52.7
48.7
45.0
A320-211 CFM 56-5A1

0
61.8
61.6
61.4
57.0

AIRBLEED CORRECTION [ton]

Eng. A/I ON

E. & W. A/I ON

A/C OFF

-0.3

-0.8 up to 5500 ft
-4.1 above 5500 ft

+1.4

91

RWY BEARING STRENGTH

RWY bearing strength may limit Max. Weight of aircraft in order to
avoid permanent deformation of the RWY surface.
The ICAO introduced the ACN/PCN System as a method to classify
pavement bearing strength for aircraft with an All-up Mass of more
than 5700kg.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY
BEARING
STRENGTH
ACN/PCN

ACN (Aircraft Classification Number) - A number expressing the

relative effect of an aircraft on a pavement for a specified standard
subgrade category.
PCN (Pavement Classification Number) - A number expressing
the bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations.
ACN for selected aircraft types currently in use have been
provided by aircraft manufacturers or ICAO (refer to Airplane
Characteristics Manual or Jeppesen Airport Directory.
PCN will be determined and reported by the appropriate authority.
Data are published in the AIP, Jeppesen Airport Chart, etc.
92

PCN will be qualified by type of pavement, subgrade strength, tire

pressure and calculation method information, using the following
codes:
1. The Pavement Classification Number:
The reported PCN indicates that an aircraft with an ACN
equal to or less than the reported PCN can operate on the
pavement subject to any limitation on the tire pressure.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY
BEARING
STRENGTH
ACN/PCN

2. The type of pavement:

R - Rigid
F - Flexible
3. The subgrade strength category:
A - High
B - Medium
C - Low
D - Ultra-low
4. The tire pressure category:
W - High, no pressure limit
X - Medium, limited to 1.5OMPa (218psi)
Y - Low, limited to 1.OMPa (145psi)
Z - Very low, limited to 0.50MPa (73psi)

93

5. Pavement calculation method:

T - Technical evaluation
U - Using aircraft experience
Coding Example: PCN 80/R/B/W/T
The bearing strength of a rigid pavement, resting on a medium strength
subgrade, has been assessed by technical evaluation to be PCN 80 and
there is no tire pressure limitation.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY
BEARING
STRENGTH
ACN/PCN

Generally, for regular operations:

ACN O PCN
Occasional minor overloading operations are acceptable for:
- flexible pavements by aircraft with ACN not exceeding 10
per cent above the PCN;
- rigid or composite pavements by aircraft with ACN not
exceeding 5 per cent above the PCN;
- unknown pavement structure, a 5 per cent limitation above
the PCN should apply.
Where overload operations are conducted the Appropriate Authority
should be consulted.
The appropriate authority may establish criteria to regulate the use of a
pavement by aircraft with an ACN higher than the PCN reported for that
pavement.

94

ACN are published for Max. Ramp Weight (MRW) and Operating
Empty Weight (OEW). Between those two values, it varies linearly.
If the RWY PCN is below the ACN for the MRW, then the Max.
Weight may be obtained by linear interpolation.
ACN

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY
BEARING
STRENGTH
ACN/PCN

ACNMRW

PCN

ACNOEW

OEW

Max. Weight

MRW

Max.We ight = OEW + (PCN ACN OEW )

Weight

MRW OEW
ACN MRW ACN OEW
95

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY
BEARING
STRENGTH
ACN/PCN

Example:
A320 (MRW=73900kg), PCN 35 F/B/W/T. May we operate?
PCN=35 < ACNMRW=39 Max. Ramp Weight must be limited!!
OEW=45000kg, ACNOEW=22

MRW = 45000 + (35 22)

73900 45000
= 67100kg
39 22

96

LCN Method

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

At some airports the bearing strength of runway pavement is defined

by Load Classification Number (LCN) / Load Classification Group
(LCG). The LCN / LCG has to be determined for a given aircraft and
compared with the specific runway LCN / LCG.
Normally the LCN / LCG of an aircraft should not be above that
of the runway on which a landing is contemplated.
Pre arranged exceptions may be allowed by airport authorities.

RWY
BEARING
STRENGTH
LCN

The aircraft LCN / LCG can be determined as follows:

1) Obtain Single Isolated Wheel Load (SIWL) for the
aircraft from Aircraft Operations Manual and locate this
figure on the left scale of the chart.
2) Locate tire pressure on the scale to the right.
3) Connect the points found in 1 and 2 with a straight line.
Where this line crosses the center scale read your aircraft
LCN / LCG.
4) This LCN / LCG should not be above the published
runway LCN / LCG.

97

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Example:
Aircraft SIWL = 36,500 lbs or 16.5 tons
Tire pressure = 70 PSI or 4.9 kg/cm2

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY
BEARING
STRENGTH
LCN

LCN = 32
LCG = IV

98

ETOPS

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Regulatory requirements
JAR-OPS 1.245: Unless specifically approved by the Authority , an
operator shall not operate a two-engined aeroplane over a route which
contains a point further from an adequate aerodrome than the distance flown
in 60 minutes at the [approved] one-engine inoperative cruise speed.

ETOPS

When at least one route sector is at more than 60 minutes flying time, with
one engine inoperative from a possible en route diversion airfield, the airline
needs specific approval, referred to as ETOPS approval.

60 Minute Rule

99

ETOPS (Extended Twin Operations) is the acronym created by ICAO to

describe the operation of twin engine aircraft over a route that contains a
point further than one hour's flying time from an adequate airport at the
approved one-engine inoperative cruise speed.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

ETOPS regulations are applicable to routes over water as well as remote

land areas.
The advent of the ETOPS regulations permitted an enlarged area of
operation for the twin-engine aircraft. This area of operation has been
enlarged in steps by allowance of maximum diversion time to an adequate
airport from the nominal 60 minutes up to the current 180 minutes.

100

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

A second benefit to operators is that ETOPS permits twins to be used on

routes previously denied them.
The increase of the diversion time to 120-minutes easily permits an operator
the flexibility to use twins on an route which would otherwise remain the sole
preserve of larger three and four-engine aircraft.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

101

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

ETOPS area of operation

The ETOPS area of operation is the area in which it is authorized to conduct
a flight under ETOPS regulations and is defined by the maximum diversion
distance from an adequate airport or set of adequate airports. It is
represented by circles centred on the adequate airports, the radius of which
is the defined maximum diversion distance.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

Suitable airport
A suitable airport for dispatch purposes is an airport confirmed to be
adequate which satisfies the ETOPS dispatch weather requirements in
terms of ceiling and visibility minima within a validity period. This period
opens one hour before the earliest Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) at the
airport and closes one hour after the latest ETA. In addition, cross-wind
forecasts must also be checked to be acceptable for the same validity
period.
Field conditions should also ensure that a safe landing can be accomplished
with one engine and / or airframe system inoperative.
Diversion / en-route alternate airport
A "diversion" airport, also called "en-route alternate" airport, is an adequate /
suitable airport to which a diversion can be accomplished.

102

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE

Maximum diversion time

The maximum diversion time (75, 90, 120, 138 or 180 minutes) from an enroute alternate airport is granted by the operator's national authority and is
included in the individual airline's operating specifications.

ETOPS Entry Point (EEP)

The ETOPS Entry Point is the point located on the aircraft's outbound route
at one hour flying time, at the selected one-engine-out diversion speed
schedule (in still air and ISA conditions), from the last adequate airport prior
to entering the ETOPS segment. It marks the beginning of the ETOPS
segment.

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

103

ETOPS segment
The ETOPS segment starts at the EEP and finishes when the route is back
and remains within the 60-minute area from an adequate airport.
An ETOPS route can contain several success if ETOPS segments well
separated each other.

AEROPLANES CLASS A
PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

Equitime Point (ETP)

An Equitime Point is a point on the aircraft route which is located at the
same flying time (in forecasted atmospheric conditions) from two suitable
diversion airports.
Critical Point (CP)
The Critical Point is one of the Equitime Point (ETP) of the route which s
critical with regard to the ETOPS fuel requirements if a diversion has to be
initiated from that point. The CP is usually, but not always, the last
ETP within the ETOPS segment.

104