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Stratigraphy
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DOl: 1O.l007/978-3-642-77025-8
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cotillon, Pierre. [Stratigraphie. English] Stratigraphy/Pierre Cotillon; [translated by
James P.A. Noble]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13:978-3-540-54675-7
1. Geology, Stratigraphic. 1. Title. QE651.C7313 1992 551.7-dc20 92-19762 CIP
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Foreword
VI
Foreword
Preface
Pierre Cotillon
Contents
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
2
3
1
1
3
Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chronology of Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles of Correlation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 2
Elaboration of the Fundamentals of Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . .
1
2
2.1
2.2
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
4
Lithostratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biostratigraphy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evolution, the Reference System for Age Dating. . . . . .
The Zone Concept of Oppel .......................
Chronostratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
The Concept of the Stage. . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Event Stratigraphy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
The General Chronostratigraphic Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
8
9
10
12
12
15
17
17
Chapter 3
Modern Stratigraphy
19
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
19
20
24
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
33
37
37
47
56
62
62
Contents
Chapter 4
From Stratigraphy to Paleogeography ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
65
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
65
65
67
68
75
75
77
77
78
81
82
Chapter 5
The Major Stages of Earth History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
83
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
83
83
85
86
1.5
2
2.1
2.2
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
The Precambrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Boundaries and Subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Methods of Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
The Geography of the Precambrian .................
Early Segregation and Establishment
of Fundamental Processes .........................
Conclusions on the Precambrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
The Paleozoic: the Formation of Pangea .............
Lower Paleozoic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Upper Paleozoic ..................................
The Mesozoic and Cenozoic: Breakup of Pangea. . . . ..
The Mesozoic ....................................
The Cenozoic ....................................
Conclusions on the Mesozoic and Cenozoic ..........
87
100
100
101
114
132
133
155
171
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 177
Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185
Chapter 1
1 Definitions
The aim of stratigraphy, or the science of geologic strata, is to study the
distribution in space and time of these strata and the events which formed
them, i.e. to reconstruct the organization and history of the outer crust of
the Earth on the basis of the lithologic documentation obtainable from these
superficial layers. The rocks record in their facies the signature of all or part
of the dynamic events constituting this history, biological, physical, and
chemical. In normal usage, the term stratigraphy is reserved for sedimentary
rocks which occur as bedded successions; however, some stratigraphic
methods are also applicable to crystalline rocks.
2 Chronology of Events
Any history presupposes a succession of events of variable duration within a
certain time framework; it is this succession of events, arranged against an
appropriate time scale, which represents history in the most natural way.
Just as the falling sand of an hourglass gives a notion of time, so does a
sedimentary layer formed during a particular time interval also represent
that interval, albeit fossilized. Prior to all historical reconstruction, therefore, a stratigrapher must establish the order of deposition of all beds under
study, assuming, for normally stratified beds, that the lower bed of any
superposed pair is the older (principle of superposition). However, a few
exceptions to this principle are illustrated by alluvial terraces, sedimentary
veins, cave deposits, etc. (Fig. 1). The order of deposition of different
sedimentary beds defines ipso facto the relative chronology of the events
which they represent.
A succession of sedimentary beds provides a local or regional history,
though generally incomplete, by virtue of the record of events it contains.
These include metamorphic and plutonic rocks, volcanic flows, veins which
cut one another on a regional or thin-section scale, continental erosional and
depositional structures, tectonic deformations, and inclusions (Fig. 2). All
Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
111111\
)(
AlIlIO
'~X
)(
)X~
(
1X 1 1
>c
JC
Xx
J(
.>c.>c
xX
l(
l(
)(
f.}'
~"
+
+ +
+ +
2
..... .
/'1
Fig. 2. Local history. A Photographed on Mars by Viking. 1 Old impact crater partially
filled with lava; 2 volcanic cone later than 1; 3 impact crater later than 2. B Regional
observations: the granitic batholith 2 is later than formation 1 and its deformation. The
erosional surface 3 is later than 2 but earlier than the discordant rocks 4. C Observations
under the microscope: the foraminifer 1 included in the fragment 2 is older than it. The
fragments 2, forming part of the rock, were deposited at the same time. The vein 3,
cutting the shell fragment 2 is later than the formation of the rock but earlier than the
vein 4 which cuts and offsets it
Principles of Correlation
E
-.-------_'!4Permla".
easement --
1 - Granite of the basement; 2 - Permian sandstone Infilling depressions of basement reliefs; 3 - The
"Conglom6rat principal" forming the first cuestas of the Paris basin and overlying the Vosges sandstones; 4 - Voltzia sandstones and Wellenkalk; 5 - anhydritgruppe; 6 - Upper Muschelkalk (second
cuesta); 7 - Keuper; 8 - Rhetian carbonate sandstones with Avicula contorta; 9 - Levallols marls (Upper
Rhetlan); 10 - Hettangian sandstones (basal Jurassic and third cuesta) (After Pommerol1975)
Fig. 3. Trias section from the Vosges to Lorraine (NE France): 2-3 sandstones; 4-6
dominantly carbonates; 7 evaporites
3 Principles of Correlation
In order to contribute to general Earth history, the local histories must be
related to one another by correlation, i.e. compared with respect to their
characteristics and chronology. For example, in eastern France and the
Germanic Basin the oldest rocks, constituting the basement, are covered
with red beds, which pass upwards into a dominantly carbonate assemblage
and then into varicolored evaporitic beds. This sequence of three sedimentary events, grossly simplified, constitutes the Trias (Fig. 3)1. But it has been
demonstrated that the three lithological groups are not synchronous across
the area in question. Furthermore, the Permo-Triassic red beds, or just the
Trias, are often discordant on a basement of older, deformed, metamorphic
rocks. This discordance can be considered as an important break in the
continuity of a geologic history (see below). The correlations of local
histories can have two results:
1. An inventory of events and determination of their lateral extent
(paleogeographic stage).
2. Documentation of major events of widespread importance, useful for
the erection of a global framework subdivided into distinct periods
(geochronologic stage).
Correlations are effected in two ways:
1. By attempting to follow beds or bed boundaries (litho horizons) from one
region to another, the principle o~ lateral continuity is applied. This
1
Of which the lower sandy part is a continuation of the underlying Permian red beds.
Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
--------~--~~~-----o
.~
--......=c::::::::: -:-
-=cu::u::r:o:u
:>7
----------------
11111 """llltlllllllll
------------------------0
--------------
Time
----------- - - - - - G
~~-~__7~~-~=
=-::.. - - - -
~----{
A'
Fig. S. Correlation of events between two points. These events are symbolized by the
beds in which they are expressed (see text)
Principles of Correlation
a) The duration of an event, as well as its beginning and end, can vary
from place to place. For example, a faunal migration will result in
such a variation. Therefore, a stratigraphic correlation is not necessarily a time correlation.
b) New events can appear between two areas (C, G), and others can
disappear (E).
c) One event can be laterally replaced by another (lateral facies variation for example; A, A').
d) Gaps in events (lacunae), due to nondeposition or erosion, can exist
in any lithologic sequence without necessarily being recognizable
(B, E).
e) Evidence for events may also be altered by diagenesis or metamorphism.
Events of limited lateral extent are of little use in correlation. On the other
hand, they can be useful in characterizing the environment. In contrast,
major widespread events are very much sought, for they permit longdistance correlations, many of which are regarded as time correlative. The
ideal would be a series of events of worldwide extent that are easily recognizable. The search for such a series is one of the major tasks of stratigraphy, as the history of this science demonstrates. To this end, tectonic,
biological, climatic, eustatic, chemical, and paleomagnetic events have all
been sought; so far, a truly universal stratigraphy has not been possible.
However, the search for worldwide correlations today has the advantage of
plate-tectonic theory, which does consider geologic phenomena and their
causes on a global scale. This theory, if used cautiously, can enrich stratigraphy by providing new means of correlation.
The value of an event in geochronologic correlation depends also on
its duration. The shorter it is, the less diachronous its beginning and termination are likely to be. The disappearance of many groups of organisms at
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary is not as abrupt as one might imagine
from its supposed link with some cosmic cataclysm. This extinction is, in
fact, gradual over a period of several hundreds of thousands of years. And
no proof exists of the perfect synchronism of this event throughout the
globe.
The history of those outer layers of the Earth, capable of being described today, can thus be deduced from a juxtaposition of local, more or
less well-correlated histories, allowing the recognition of the most important
events. The latter are fundamental for long distance correlation and for the
construction of a stratigraphic framework necessary for the division of
geologic time. The recognition of these events is a precondition to all
paleogeographic reconstructions. In other words, the task of stratigraphy is
to solve a gigantic three-dimensional jigsaw puzzle. The pieces of the same
age must first be assembled before it is possible to reconstruct the successive
pictures of the Earth's history.
Chapter 2
1 Lithostratigraphy
The first European stratigraphers set out initially to describe local histories
illustrated by vertical lithologic sequences. Among them, William Smith
(1769-1839) is generally considered the founder of stratigraphy, including
biostratigraphy. He saw in the succession of sedimentary deposits a sort of
representation of the passage of time. He recognized their continuity in
space and was able to use fossils to distinguish lithologically similar beds.
Inspired by this, Quenstedt and Leopold de Buch subdivided the rocks of
the Swabian Jura into three parts: (1) a lower group or "Black Jura" (Lias),
formed of marls and dark shaly limestones; (2) a middle group or "Brown
Jura" (Dogger), consisting of ferruginous layers; and (3) an upper group or
"White Jura" (MaIm), composed of light-colored limestones. In addition,
three superposed sequences of sands were soon distinguished in the Paris
area: lower, middle, and upper sands, separated by shaly or calcareous
formations.
This objective lithologic stratigraphy, or lithostratigraphy, is still the
basis of descriptive sedimentary geology. It is the basis of the measured
section in the field and its representation as a stratigraphic column. It is also
the starting point for sequential analysis. Finally, the cartographer is above
all a lithostratigrapher who attempts to follow previously defined sedimentary units around the land surface. The first European geologic maps, like
those of Guettard (18th century) and those of Dumont (19th century) were
strictly lithologic, without any chronologic significance.
The basic lithostratigraphic unit is the Formation, whose genetic basis
implies deposition under uniform conditions. Its limits are placed where
the lithology changes or where there are significant breaks in the continuity
of the sedimentation. Formations are subdivided into Members and associated into Groups. They were originally named in various ways, by figures,
numbers, lithologic character, and names of the places where the units were
particularly well exposed (stratotypes). The present nomenclature is in many
cases inherited from those original names, in spite of the stratigraphic codes
that have since appeared l . Figure 6 shows, for example, the stratigraphic
1 Suggesting the use of lithological characteristics and stratotype locality. Example:
Comblanchian limestone (Bathonian, C6te-d'Or).
PseudolHhographic
Corallian
or
limestone.
(RICHE 1898)
lubcorallian faclel
Spherll. layera
(ENAY 1966)
Dogger
Fig. 6. Lithostratigraphic relations of the Oxfordian sequences in the southern Jura. The
author and date when each lithologic unit was defined are shown in parentheses (After
Enay 1966, with names of authors added)
2 Biostratigraphy
The history of the Earth must be reconstructed in its continuity, but the
successive sedimentary events, arranged in time sequences using lithostratigraphic methods, cannot always be correlated with one another. The
Lithostratigraphy
9
Time
10
11
Lithostratigraphy
"
.,.,
:!'
<:
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r,{:::;-12
CJ 3
Ce nozoic
c
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u..
.
G;
c.,
<i>
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a;
J.
JuraSS IC
TriassIC
Permian
vo' u U' '''<'uu,
Devon ian
Sllurta n
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Cambria n
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.2
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.,.,
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....
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V
due to increasing climatic zonation and consequent increased faunal provincialism. Other groups evolved slowly (bradytely), are geographically
restricted, and appear to be confined to certain types of sediment. They are,
therefore, dependent on sedimentary facies, a concept also introduced in the
last century by the Swiss geologist Gressly (1838). Finally, the fossils can be
classified according to their usefulness in biostratigraphy. The data of Fig. 8,
however, are only generalizations. Among the groups considered there can
be exceptions. For instance, the hippuritids of the Upper Cretaceous,
although dependent on a reef environment, evolved rapidly and are very
useful stratigraphically.
Since Oppel, and following his lead, many biostratigraphic studies
have been produced. Ammonite zones have been refined and increased in
number, especially in the Jurassic where that group's evolution was particularly rapid. The practice of biostratigraphy in a growing number of
countries, however, has revealed that the horizontal extensions of biozones
are limited. With the exception of the Liassic zones mentioned above, some
are restricted to Europe, while the majority do not extend beyond certain
faunal provinces (Fig. 9). Interprovincial extensions of a zone are only
possible when certain taxa overlap in their geographic ranges. And these
extensions can be complicated by the phenomenon of migration. Certain
genera or species, responding most often to variations of the environment,
modify their distributions through time, expanding or contracting them, or
even displacing entire distributions (Fig. 10). In an invaded region, the
vertical range of a taxon will be shorter than in its province of origin, and its
12
Fig. 9. The Tethyan domain and its faunal provinces (ammonites) from the Upper
Bajocian to the Middle Bajocian (after Cariou et al. 1985). The Phylloceratina dominate
the Mediterranean province of deeper-water environments. Faunas very diversified in the
European Submediterranean province, less diversified in the Ethiopian. J Probable land;
2 epicontinental seas; 3 zones of ocean floor; heavy lines denote boundaries of provinces
3 Chronostratigraphy
3.1 The Concept of the Stage
The biostratigraphic zones are related to the historically older chronostratigraphic stages. The stage was originally defined as a group of beds deposited during a specific interval of geologic time, this interval being a
geochronologic unit. It can be divided into subunits and is, by definition,
universal. The first subdivisions of European sedimentary series into stages
by d'Orbigny, Brongniart, Marcou, Oppel, etc. were based on both their
lithologic character (facies) and some of their faunal elements. The facies
refers to the nature of the beds in the region where the stage was defined.
Chronostratigraphy
Time
13
Fig. 10. Change of areas of faunal distribution with time. A Restriction; B spreading; C
displacement
"
G,)'(i;
-.
~:;
"
'~
::S~
~.~
-.
OJ ~
-l'"
::s
Rhetian
Hettangian
Sinemurian
Pliensbachian
(= Charmouthien)
Toarcian
Blijocian
Aalenian
Neocomian pro-parte
Portlandian p.p.
Lotharingian
Sinemurian S.s.
Carixian
Domerian
Angoumian
Oxfordian s.s
Callovian
Bathonian
Oxfordian
Kimmeridgian
Portlandian
Pubeckian facies
W. Gumbel, 1861
and E.Renevier, 1864
A.d'Orbigny, 1849
G. Bonarelli, 1894
A. Oppel, 1858
J. Lang, 1913
E. Haug, 1910
A. d'Orbigny, 1849
E. Renevier, 1864
A.d'Orbigny, 1852
1. Omalius d'Halloy,
1831, and A.d'Orbigny,
1852
A. d'Orbignyi, 1852
C.Mayer-Eymar, 1864
J. Marcou, 1848
A. Brongniart, 1829
A. Brongniart, 1829
J. Thurmann, 1832
J. Marcou, 1848
1. P. Greppin, 1870
A. Brongniart, 1829
Authors of terms
Origin of terms
Fig. 11. Origin of stage and substage names of the Jurassic. (Note that the substage names Argovian, Sequanian, and Rauracian
are no longer used)
-180M.A.
Triassic
Cl
"!:8'"
::s
OJ
Neocomian
-135 M.A.
Subsystem
boundaries
'<
::r
~.
So
aen
8('b
g
po
0-
:::
;p
So
;.
('b
:::
o~
tTl
;cr'
..,o
15
Chronostratigraphy
Eras
Systems
Quaternary
Holocene
Pleistocene
-------------------- -- ------Neogene
Pliocene
Miocene
Cenozoic
Paleogene
or
Nummulitic
1======-= ==
Oligocene
Maim
Jurassic
Pasadesian
Rhodanian
Attican
Savian
Helvetan
Pyrenean
Paleocene
===== ===== :: ~
Cretaceous
Mesozoic
-s
- 23
- 34
- 65
I--
- 130
Cimmerian
Palatinian
- --
Saalian
Asturian
Sudetian
Bretonian
- f-- - 21)0
Austrian
Neocimmerian
Andinianor
Nevadian
======:-
Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian
Caledonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Taconian
Salai"r
Cambrian
----
- 1,6
---
Laramidian
Triassic
Paleozoic
- --
DOJlSer
Lias
------------- -------
Time in Ma
Orogenic stages
Assyntican
- f-- f-= --
- 204
- 245
- 360
-400
- 425
- 495
- 530
Fig. 12. Principal subdivisions of the general chronostratigraphic scale. Orogenic phases
from Stille. Radiometric ages after Odin et al. (1982b)
16
The concept of tectonic phases is, therefore, out of date today, especially
since the fundamental mechanisms for orogeny became known. The movement of lithospheric plates gives rise, in fact, to slow, gradual, continuous,
and shifting deformations.
It follows that an orogen is active throughout the course of its history,
but especially in its beginning, i.e. in the basin where synsedimentary
tectonics are now commonly recognized. In this continuum some periods
can, nevertheless, be discerned in the intensification or generalization of
movements, sometimes accompanied by important regressions, detrital
pulses, etc. Only such major events can be used in long-distance correlation,
but they do not permit a fine division of time. At the best they can be used
to indicate certain major cycles like orogenic cycles or sedimentary cycles.
For example, the PaleozoiclMesozoic boundary has been related to a global
geodynamic event, the beginning of fragmentation of Pangea, also rep-
Conclusions
17
4 Conclusions
Such were the first steps of a stratigraphy aimed at a useful subdivision of
time (stratigraphic scale) based on the lithologic, fossil, and deformation
information observable in sedimentary sequences. The litho- and biostratigraphic scales are the most objective and their scope is regional or provincial. Lithostratigraphy can be applied to all rocks, sedimentary, volcanic
or metamorphic, but each lithostratigraphic unit, a result of specific physical
phenomena, can be repeated several times in the course of time. Biostra-
3This was not always the case. In 1830, Lyell subdivided the Cenozoic into three systems
(Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene) characterized by an increasing percentage of modem
species.
18
Chapter 3
Modern Stratigraphy
In the latter two cases, the drilling techniques have spawned new stratigraphic tools, seismic and downhole logging methods in lithostratigraphy,
micro- and nannofossil time scales in biostratigraphy. The stratigraphy of
ocean sediments is constructed on oceanographic ships by international
teams, an important factor in the establishment of a chronostratigraphic
framework with worldwide validity, in the rigorous redefinition of old
established units and in the sharpening of concepts used in stratigraphy. This
need for consensus in the stratigraphic codes used has generated numerous
discussions and yielded numerous resolutions at international meetings. A
fortunate consequence of plate tectonics has been to elevate scientific debate
to a planetary level, and stratigraphy, drawn into this movement, has felt
compelled to find new methods of correlation dependent on events and
phenomena of global significance: eustasy, oceanic geochemistry, climate
and paleomagnetism. Similarly, striving to escape slowly from the relative
nature of its chronology, stratigraphy is more and more supported by precise
measures of absolute age. Finally, one can observe a will to adapt stratigraphy to the progress realized in paleontology (evolution, species concept),
in paleoecology (influence of the environment) and in sedimentology
(interpretation of sedimentary discontinuities, reworked beds and variable
rates of sedimentation).
20
Modem Stratigraphy
100m more or less of drilling can have a considerable effect on the budget of
an exploration company, there is a necessity for a finer subdivision of the
stratigraphic scale in order to increase the resolving power of stratigraphy.
This need has also led to the establishment of other scales (micro- and
nannofossil) utilizable in drilling and related where possible to a radiochronologic scale. Stratigraphy has also had to redefine its concepts more
rigorously in light of new methods of correlation and dating and contributions from other disciplines.
1.1.1 Radiochronology
A radioactive element A, contained in a mineral at its crystallization, will
disintegrate progressively and be transformed into a daughter element B,
said to be radiogenic. The ratio of concentration AlB will depend on the
time duration of the disintegration and on the half-life T of the element
(time required for the disintegration of half of the element) or on the decay
constant (coefficient of decrease of the element as a function of time).
t = 11l0g(1 + N'IN),
where N' is the number of atoms of the radiogenic element B (daughter
element) and N is the number of atoms of the element A (parent element)
after time t.
21
Half-life in years
87 Rb~
232 Th ~
40K ~
238 U ~
235 U ~
234 U ~
230 Th ~
14C
3T
~
~
87 Sr
208 Pb
40Ar
206Pb
207 Pb
230Th
226 Ra
14N
2H
5 or 4.7 x 1010
13.9 X 109
11.9 X 109
4.6 X 109
7.0 X 108
250000
75220
5568
12.26
The results of these age dates must be used with great caution, since the
resolving power of the method decreases with increasing age so that the
error can be 50-l00m.y. for the Precambrian. Also, the radiometric age
may correspond to a first event (e.g. formation of a rock) when the chemical
system closed and the radiometric clock was set, or to the latest of its
transformations (metamorphic or deformational) which resets the clock at
zero by reopening the chemical system.
Age dates of plutonic and volcanic rocks are the least problematic.
Many silicates are suitable for radiochronology because their crystallization
usually corresponds to the rock formation. In metamorphic rocks, the date
Modern Stratigraphy
22
+ '-0:::-----_--_-------+ + -f-=-+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+
Ma
.40(
+ + (j)+
HARLAND
et aI.
LAMBERT
(1971)
(1982)
(1980)
(1964)
Devonian
..... Silurian ? .-
-500 ~?
......
Silurian
.-
..-
--
I~.
..
~ /
: Cambrian I
...... ---
Cambrian
Cambrian
CambriaJ!.
I ..
Cambrian
Ordovician
Ordovician
Ordovician
Ordovician
.....~Silurian ~
Silurian
Silurian '"
Ordovician
:-600
GALE
ARMSTRONG GALE
(1978)
et al.
.-'
.........
ii
.
.
Fig. 14. Different geochronologic scales for the Lower Paleozoic, after Gale (1982). Note
the indication of limits of error related to geochemical and analytical techniques for the
latest scale
23
60
Ma
Va
Hinle
1976
7o -
Ca
8:o-~
Co
90
AI
11 0-
"'" 5
~
Ca
Sa
Ca
Sa
c-p.....
Sutoniu
~~.~
Ce
c -.....
AI
AJbiIII
Ha
Ap
Aptla
Ba
Barnmiul
Ha
liauterlrilll
"
VIIqiniu
AI
140
Be
74. 5
i---
f---=-
M.crichlilo M
Ap ~
n..
Ba
12U f - - Ha
13o
HulaDd Kenl 81
eill.
Gladstein
1982
1985
Ce
100
OdIn
eill.
1982
Benlullll
Fi
7.
91
97. 5
11 3
119
124
131
138
144
150
24
Modern Stratigraphy
and Gradstein (1985) adopt the following principle for the Jurassic. Based
on a system duration of 64-74 m.y. (according to different authors), they
calculate a duration for each stage proportional to the number of ammonite
subzones it contains. The reliability of this method assumes that all biostratigraphic units are defined homogeneously and that biological evolution
proceeds at a constant rate. Knowledge of stage time durations then allows
recognition of even shorter time spans. In the Toarcian, for example, a stage
duration of 5 m.y. and the recognition of 27 ammonite zones suggests that
an average ammonite zone lasted 185000 years. Many pelagic deposits are
formed of a series of alternating limestone and shale couplets defining global
cycles (see Chap. 3). From the number of cycles in different stages ranging
from Jurassic to the Quaternary it has been possible to calculate the average
time duration, varying from a few thousand years to a few tens of thousands
for each cycle.
1.1.3 Rates
Once time durations are known, it is possible to calculate rates, especially
rates of sedimentation. These are generally average rates, but in the case of
continuously deposited pelagic sediments they are also close to instantaneous rates2 Rates of erosion, uplift, subsidence, and lithification are also
determinable.
2 These are calculable in near-surface sediments by the decrease in the 230 Th/232 Th ratio
compared to this ratio at the surface.
25
/Sub-
~-+--f--:i~H"f-~ speCieS}
e
SpeclesE
.~+-;/,~H'-T--'--t Subspecies
abc
d e
Morphotypes
dm
A
dm
Fig. 16. A Cladogenetic evolution and B anagenetic (after Tintant 1972). dm Morphologic
variation; T time; f frequency; A,B,C,D,E distinct species; B,B' ,b,c,d,e subspecies
Transitions. The change from one species to another in a lineage can occur
by continuous transformation (anagenesis; Fig. 16), but the problem is how
this can be used to establish discrete biostratigraphic units, or in the words
of H. Tintant (1972) "how does the continuous flux of the evolution of life
flow within the discontinuous framework of stratigraphic division?" If the
morphologic stages of a lineage represent a succession of barely perceptible
changes, it is only by using numerical indices that biostratigraphic subdivisions can be constructed (autochronology). However, a species may also
originate abruptly by the branching of a lineage (cladogenesis; Fig. 16), and
this sudden event is frequently used to define higher-order stratigraphic
units. It should be noted, however, that biostratigraphic units are not all
based on single lineages but may also be based on the succession of species
belonging to different lineages (allochronology).
1.2.1.2 Relationships Between Paleontology and Other DiscipHnes
The multidisciplinary approach using paleontology, paleoecology, sedimentology, and paleogeography to solve problems is now a common
practice, to the benefit of biostratigraphy. For example, knowledge of a
paleoenvironment (bathymetry, degree of energy, temperature, salinity,
etc.) from a study of the sediments is indispensible for understanding the
true significance of faunal changes over time, because it can allow the
environmental component of the change to be separated. Faunal changes
due to the environment are reversible because they are generally not yet
fixed in the genotype; they are repetitive and can be diachronous within a
single basin. Changes due to evolution have the opposite characteristics.
Thus, in the Late Pleistocene, the direction of coiling of the two species of
Globigerina, Gl. pachyderma and Gl. hirsuta is temperature controlled; in
the cool waters of glacial periods, the coiling is dominantly sinistral, while in
the warmer waters of the interglacial periods it tends to be dextral. It is only
because we know a great deal about the biology of these globigerines that
we can avoid confusing these intraspecific variations with mutations in the
26
Modem Stratigraphy
J
J
I
I
I
~ ;,-
I
I
I
I
J
----j-----i
I
I
:
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
J
I
I
I
Lenticulina
ouachensis bartenstein; MOULLADE
I
J
I
I
I
I
I
I
J
I
I
--
Gaudryinella
eichenbergi
MOULLADE
61 5 I
I
I
I
I
Lenliculina bus
nardo; MOUllA
HE
I
I
I
J
I
I
I
I
I-
1 3
I
I
I
I
J
I
I
.~
Haplophragmoides
"ocontionus
MOUllADE
I
I
-l-
I
I
I
I
iii
J
J
I
I
1 2
Lenticulina ouachensisouachensis
(SIGAl)
Lenliculina nodosa nodosa (REUSS
:
I
11
Frondh'ularia d.
bit/(,IIIDIU
CUSHMAN
Ammonite Zones
Fig. 17. Comparison between the distribution of the principal foraminifers of the
Ardeche border (thick lines) and of the Vocontian Basin (thin lines) during the
Valanginian (Moullade 1979). 1 Otopeta; 2 Pertransiens; 3 Campylotoxum; 4
Verrucosum; 5 Trinodosum; 6 Callidiscus; 7 Radiatus (After Darmedru 1984)
direction of other species. This allowance for the effect of the environment
on fossil species is necessary before any biostratigraphic subdivision is
attempted; and those index forms too dependent on facies should be
eliminated. The benthonic representatives are especially affected, for
example the nummulites, which favor shallow calcareous facies, and numerous small foraminifers of the platform and the basin. In the Valanginian of
southeastern France, for example, several calcareous (Lenticulina) and
agglutinated (Dorothia) species have vertical distributions which differ in
the southern sub-alpine chains (Drome, Hautes-Alpes, Alpes de HauteProvence) from those in Ardeche (Fig. 17). These areas correspond respectively to a basin and its border and therefore represent very different
27
~9~~ETe:j;3
s:
=
o
g.
S.
::s
n
('1) n
('1)
"1
0
......
0'5-
0 ,...;j::S
::S::s" OCI
('1) I\)
('1) '< ",
e.::O
~ O~
~::S9'
('1)1\);;I0."'~
:>
::r::r'" 0. I\)
('1)
I\) ('1) ::s
= ",
I\) 9('1) ...
", ('n1)
",
"1
('1)
I\)
....
0 ::r'2 0"
...... ('1)~(;"
"'0 ~,...
::s
" 1 - 5 0 1\)=
('1)
::s
('n1)
o
......
1\)
?I ....
1\)!'l",::r~('1)
I\)no.~n::h
,<('1)el"1::;"1
=::r0.('1)~('1)
g.Qfta"'l\)
1\) .... ::s::r0":::-
8,.00
(;" S. :!1
0""'''-''''1'''
0.
~ ET ;- fj;'
9 g-~ 0. 0 ~
:" .... ~O
.... ::sMO"
('1)::"=
'7" I\) I\) ~
~"T1",::s~ ::s
9.
c.:
ae:n~~~('1)
~~~0"ii;"~0'
....
", I\) .... ('1)
I\)
('1)::s::rS'n .... ::s
a::s ('1) "1 0
,~07'('1)=I::s1\)
W'
.....
,;:0., ~
('1)
::s
~
0.S'~0"~
('1) ::s "1 "1 ('1) ::s
--
t--
..j
r--:::E
..j
..j
..j
Concayum
Murchisonae
Opalinum
5 Sauzei
4b Laeyiuscula
48 Discites
HumphriesiL
~~~~tiana
Parkinsoni
Zipas
10
Subcontractus
Discus
11
Gracilis
Macrocephalus
Coronatum
Jason
17
16
15
14
Lamberti
Athleta
19
18
ZONES
AMMONITE
''Cenocel'llS''
Untlfltus
et
heudllfll!lidt!l
IIGceki
"Cenocenu"
obe/IUS
''CenocertU "Ioordi
Digoniocertlll exclIlIGtllm
-----
---- -----
Insens, Subansula
- t.eCkhamptonensii
Trilineata
Praya, Ruthenensil
Miihlbersi,
Latoyalis
t- .!!!I~'l!.r~n:!,~
Parvula
CtH!1I. roy';
CtH!nocidtuis
cucumi/em
___ !!~!.~f- _.
it:
D;,onioc~1IS
displllllUm
t .~
S:~~p!~a____
ECHINOIDS
FORAMINIFERS
--
spectrum
Lenticulina d'Orbignyi
Pillniinvolutil ctJrilltltll
Collyrltes
IlCUtll
Flexuosa
--------Dorsoplicata
_ J>!lIi&ru:.ana___
CoUyritu
elliptiCII
Aromuiensis
nn . "I.
Almerasi
... ~enuiformis
paffiiCa - - - Dorothill owwlenm
Divionensis
"Tithooill"
Boueti
yIIIvulllltlluscll
blondeti
Globata CircumdL
- -LentkuUnll
-------What1eyensis
ntkuilltll
OyfJftl,
__ _ L_btl.!!D!ie_",!! ___
BivaData
i
2,Q ~~~.,.cr
emil
Buseysiaca
Trlpllllill btlrt_teini
1-"/001
Dumortieri
------ Mevendoifillltl btlthonicil
Voultensis
r----B
-----Pturlcidlll'u
Ferryi
ZONES
PseudocertU
IINcillCense
l'Ieudocenocenu
ctllloviense
lltkus
-- --tIftlII
------
heudDllflnides
NAUTILOIDS
BRACHIOPOD
Fig. 18. Comparison of different biostratigraphic successions of the Middle Jurassic useful in southeastern
France (After Elmi 1984)
CQ
~
U
~
CQ
!<
0
0::
~
Z
:s>
fI3
",
"~ ~~
=t3
g.
CIl
::
29
4The latter are very resistant except to metamorphism and prolonged oxidation (red
beds).
=n= :c
x
Modern Stratigraphy
30
Inlerzone
_J._
I
I
Subzone b
Subzone a
rI
4
Ir
YI
A
forms, often only two, are considered out of the total present; for instance,
the Rotalipora montsalvensis-Rotalipora cushmani zone, which is the
third subdivision of the Cenomanian according to Porthault (1974), and is
designated Cn3.
Range zones correspond to the vertical and horizontal ranges of a given
taxon (species, genus or family), for example, the Acanthodiscus radiatus
(ammonite) zone of the basal Hauterivian, or more simply the Radiatus
zone. This zonal concept goes back to that of d'Orbigny. If an homophyletic
biostratigraphy is practiced, i.e. one based on the evolution of a single
phylum, as advocated by certain authors, then species in a continuous
evolutionary lineage or clade have to be separated. This is not easy and
often leads to more or less arbitrary zonal boundaries (phylozones). Moreover, the use of range zones assumes that the chosen species had short time
ranges and that their distributions within a formation are perfectly known.
Overlapping range zones are defined by the overlapping parts of ranges
of several taxa. Oppel's zones are of this type. This method uses taxa of
restricted vertical range within the zone. It follows, as we have already
emphasized, that all taxa used in this way are not necessarily present in all
locations and their coexistence may correspond to only the middle part of a
zone.
Abundance zones or acme zones are based on the abundance or maximum development (acme or hemera) of certain forms independent of their
time range. Clearly, this is somewhat subjective and dependent on the
original environment as well as on the hazards of collecting. Also, the actual
moment of this maximum is often difficult to fix because it does not necessarily correspond to the beds enclosing the most abundant fossils. Finally,
some species are mono, poly, or ahemeric.
31
Interval zones represent the stratigraphic interval between two biohorizons, i.e. between two surfaces possessing distinctive biostratigraphic
characteristics (see below).
Each of these different types of zones is useful according to the circumstances: faunal or floral abundance (often linked to the rate of sedimentation), rate of evolution and diversification, environment of deposition.
The object is to gradually improve the resolution, the universality and the
facility of use of biostratigraphy. These attributes are necessary in ocean
drilling for precise and rapid correlation and have been made possible by the
use of widely applicable time scales. From this point of view, refinements of
the calcareous nannofossils have proven to be particularly useful. Nevertheless, the limits of ranges of taxa are not precisely known and not perfectly
isochronous due to the hazards of sampling, especially in those beds in
which first appearances or disappearances are supposed to take place.
Biozonation can also be augmented by the use of biohorizons, which are
surfaces or very thin beds corresponding to particular biological phenomena,
such as first appearance, disappearance, evolutionary change etc. These are
also called horizons, reference levels or marker beds. Invaluable for correlation, they are equally valid at the boundaries of biozones as they are
within them. Examples include the extinction of Pseudoemiliana lacunosa
and the first appearance of Emiliana huxleyi (coccoliths), synchronous with
certain chemostratigraphic reference levels (stages 12 and 18 of the 8180
curve, see below). Both define horizons of worldwide validity.
In practice, extinctions (which are first appearances during drilling) are
preferable to first appearances because the latter are often gradual (phyletic
gradualism) and difficult to detect during drilling because of contamination.
Moreover, the emergence of new species by geographic isolation is a diachronous phenomenon by definition.
Modern Stratigraphy
32
_______ Datlngs
Locations -..............
K/A r
IIquitaine (France)
Provence and
Corsica
Italy
Sardinia
Algeria
Morocco
15
Datum
P1anea
..
o
6
V
<>
5
10
15
20
20
25
25
30~--7~0--~6~r~~50~~4~0~3~0--~20--~10~~030
-400 -300 -200 -100
0 .. 100
Fig. 20. Curves expressing rates of evolution from biometric indices. A represents the
calibration in millions of years of the Scott index, ratio of height to width of the principal
opening of Globigerinoides of the primordius-trilobus line; the index multiplied by 100 in
the abscissa varies from 0-70. B represents the calibration of the gamma index of
Drooger for the Miogypsinidae of the evolutionary assemblage made up of the
Miogypsinoides complanata and Miogypsina gunteri-intermedia groups. The index varies
from -400 to + 100. Points shown by solid symbols correspond to potassium-argon ages;
points with open symbols correspond to datum planes. Different symbols indicate different
geographic locations of samples. The geographic region defined is the minimum area of
validity of the curves (After Gourinard 1984)
the same section, the base of the NP25 zone, defined by the appearance of nannofossils, has a position which can vary up to 45 m according to different authors.
33
order in which that locality was colonized, and not necessarily the real
chronology of biological events.
3. Selecting the most significant subdivisions of the scale by multivariate
analysis. For example, from 100 species of Jurassic radiolaria determined
in 210 samples coming from 43 localities, Baumgartner (1984) has defined
14 unitary associations distributed among 7 biozones.
4. Establishing correlations with certain confidence limits.
The choice between these two solutions has depended on the actual case. At
Valangin and Hauterive (Switzerland), urban development has resulted in
the disappearance of most of the sections on which the Valanginian and
Hauterivian stratotypes were based. Additional type sections (hypostrato-
34
Modern Stratigraphy
35
60
Late
Paleocene
Early
Eocene
(Selandlan)
(Ypresian)
Million
years
_.
Selandlan
Thanetlan
t--
--
Lutetian
Ypreslan
Sp~~_
-- -
Stratotype
positions
ash beds, magnetic reversals, etc. In short, either a biomarker or a lithomarker can be used as a reference. Also, it is necessary that this boundary
be related as precisely as possible to several biostratigraphic scales so that it
is as widely applicable as possible.
The stages redefined in this way between precisely defined boundaries
related to a clear reference system then correspond to the totality of time,
and in so doing clearly demonstrate the incomplete character of the majority
of stratotypes (Fig. 21). Is it therefore necessary to determine precisely the
lithologic and faunal content of a stage at one locality, knowing that this can
change rapidly in a lateral sense? In other words, do the stratotypes, or even
the stratotypic regions advocated by some, have any use?
The higher-order boundaries have also been redetermined more precisely, with international working groups seeking the best boundary stratotypes. For example, for the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, two sections are
in competition: that of Gubbio in Italy and that of The Kef in Tunisia. In
both cases the boundary has been suggested where the greatest number
of important events occur, such as climatic variation, faunal renewals,
magnetic reversals, geochemical anomalies etc. Thus modern research
on global phenomena, while helping to define major chronostratigraphic
boundaries, rejects Lyell's principle of uniformitarianism (uniform distribution through time of all geodynamic processes). Instead, it reintroduces in
modernized form the "revolutions" of d'Orbigny.
36
Modem Stratigraphy
37
Zonation
by planktonic
Foraminifers
(W.H.BLOW)
Germany
52 lat. N
Italy
45 lat. N
Florida
30 lat. N
g P19
(!)
P18
P 17
w
~ P16
ow
P 15
P14
2"
Fig. 22. Ericsonia subdisticha zone in the North Hemisphere, defined by two diachronous
markers. 1 Disappearance of Discoaster barbadiensis and/or of D. saiponensis. 2
Disappearance of Cyclococcolithus formosus (After Cavelier 1979)
38
Modern Stratigraphy
1---1
Clay
E:]
....
Sands
E:i9
Platform
carbonate
deep
limestone
Conlinental
red beds
Platform
limestone
and marl
c:
Fig. 23. Representation of lithologic units of a basin on a space-time diagram on the basis
of seismic and drilling data, offshore West Africa (After Vail 1977)
39
Pleistocene
i. . . ; "I
Jurassic
Basalt + Pliocene
Fig. 24. Geological map of sediments in contact with the Atlantic Ocean floor (from the
Geological Atlas of the World of Freeman, Lynde and Tharp, in Daly 1984) . Isochronous
bands symmetrical about the mid-oceanic ridge offset by transform faults
40
Modern Stratigraphy
.,:::>
'"o
~
U
Sandstone
Dolomitic limestone
Dolomite and anhydrite
:ii '
'is
c
t:
o
0..
800
.,
"r;;
f!
Limestones
...,:::>
700
c
I
"a'
"C
.~
E
E
c
I
"c
:.::
~~.....I----H~+---4l-L,:+--+I-L~----.i+!::=t--+
800
Sublithographic limestone
Valiant-St.Georg.. 1
Grandvilia 101
(/) Gelannes1
Nozay 1
Mailly 102
~
Romi Ily-sur-Sei
Fig. 25. Example of electric-log correlations between holes in the Paris basin (After
Perrodon 1968)
abc
abc
T7 c
41
CONDAT
EAST
Sequences
---
Rhythm C
100
RhythmB2
80
--
--
60
Rhythm B1
"'!I-f--......~~-+--
__
---
Rhythm A
20
o
Fig. 27. Sequence correlation (here the rhythms A, B1, B2, C) in the Middle Jurassic of
Quercy (after Delfaud 1972). Ideal sequence: 1 lignitic marl; 2 micrite with gypsum
pseudomorphs; 4 azoic micrite; 5 micrite with algal balls; 6 sparite with ooliths
density, porosity, resistivity and sonic) define for each bed what Serra
(1972a,b 1986) has called an "electrofacies", expressed by the character of
the recorded curves, and may be used in correlation. Especially the electrofacies makes it possible to determine the lithology and the internal
structure of the rocks (beds, rhythms, discontinuities). For example, shales,
porous and full of retained water rich in ions, are much less resistant to
electric currents than a compact limestone. The two are, therefore, easily
separable by a resistivity log. Reference markers such as unconformable
surfaces (enriched in phosphates), cinerites and derived claystones (tonsteins) are recognizable by radioactive logs. The degree of resolution in the
analysis of strata obviously depends on the resolving power of the various
tools used: lOcm for the more classic methods, 1 cm for dipmeter logs.
A "composite log" combining all types of measurement is a convenient
method of defining a lithologic sequence. These can then be used by comparing the shape of the curves and their cyclic character to establish correlations between wells within a basin (Fig. 25). The degree and reliability of
the correlations may be quantified using appropriate coefficients. In sum-
42
Modem Stratigraphy
1981).
43
Callovian
IIthoclin.
Upper
Bathonian
--v-v-
Discontinuities
Isochronous lines
1_ _ I
Marls
Fig. 28. Relations between time units and lithologic units in the Callovian lithocline along
the eastern border of the Paris basin (after Purser 1972). These relations imply a
displacement of the zone of deposition with time
Isochronous line
can result from progradation, as commonly seen in the deposition of sedimentary prisms at the edges of basins. Variation in sea level appears to
be one of the major causes of this progradation, with diachronism being
more pronounced, the slower the changes in sea level. When the eustatic
movement is reversed, the direction of sedimentary progradation must also
be reversed, and the positions of the points of reversal theoretically define
an isochronous surface, in the absence of tectonic movements and given
uniform subsidence (Israelski principle; Fig. 29).
A generalization of the relation between sequences and sea-level
fluctuations has been proposed by Vail et al. (1977). According to Vail, the
sequences of strata defined on the continental margin by seismic reflection
are objective stratigraphic units bounded by discontinuities. The majority of
the major sequences are deposited under the double control of rate of
sedimentation and the cyclic variations in relative sea level. The latter
generally involve a rapid rise, a period of stability and then a rapid drop,
with a total average estimated duration, according to Vail, of about 1
million years. The discontinuities which bound the sequences may be due to
nondeposition during periods of stability, or both erosion and nondeposition
44
Modem Stratigraphy
during the fall of sea level. They are considered as practically isochronous,
regionally, to within a few hundred thousand years. It has been possible to
use such markers for the correlation of biostratigraphic scales established in
different faunal provinces, for example in the Cenomanian between the
Tethys and the temperate zones.
Struck by the similarity in the character of continental margin submergence when compared by sequential analysis, Vail has proposed a
curve of relative sea-level fluctuations of global scale (Fig. 30) 7 . Superimposed on this curve is a true stratigraphic scale of global eustatic cycles
related to the chronostratigraphic scale. Seen from the eustatic point of
view, therefore, the sedimentary sequences may be regarded as tools of
correlation, as well as being useful in dating, but their resolving power
remains rather low. Also, the chronostratigraphic significance of the Vail
curves is refuted by some scientists.
Although traditionally used to solve lithostratigraphic problems, the
sequences are also very useful in the search for economically useful resources such as petroleum and water, and in paleogeographic studies (see
below).
curve has been criticized because it is based mainly on data derived from the
Atlantic margins, which have been appreciably affected by vertical movements.
45
RELATIVE VARIATIONS
OF SEA LEVEL
EPOCHS
Plio-Pleistocene
TERTIARY
...
P_ Rising_
...r:==~M~lo~ce~n~eL:==~_
......-..,p.?~a;r.IO;~~'!lcne~ene.....;..~_- -
CRETACEOUS
-~
TRIASSIC
......---:-I-..:..:..:c-S
---;
_~_~
______
......- - - - - - I - - - I - - - - - - f
S
PERMIAN
Lowering ~
_ = _ ~;Td.-O
Tc
I-------+....-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-~:s'_-_-_:r- - - - JURASSIC
NOTATIONS
- -
,- - - - -
p:s:(J-1 ~_~~~
Ka
UJ
sea l e v e l .
-----r ..----
1!;
FP
1-:300
\.
t---------ir--r--:I-===:;::~ CAMBRIAN
_200 ~
o-S
ORDOVICIAN
TR -
"
PENNSYLVANIAN
-100
Kb
--------
PRECAMBRIAN
Fig. 30. Major cycles of global sea-level variations (After Vail et al. 1977)
8
5
i=
.
1-500
COo
46
Modern Stratigraphy
Fig. 32. Correlation of a bundle of beds and interbeds in the Valanginian of the
Vocontian basin, southeastern France. The sections occur in the deep zone indicated on
the map (After Cotillon et al. 1980)
Site 534
Vergons
47
48
Modem Stratigraphy
tourmaline
Useful for correlation, the heavy minerals can also help to trace the tectonic
evolution of a region by their distribution in time. In the perialpine molasse,
for example, glaucophane is a valuable marker indicating the first erosion of
the Schistes Lustres of the Piemontaise zone. Figure 34 summarizes the
distribution of the principal minerals of the alpine association during the
Tertiary in the molasse of the region from Switzerland to Isere (Latreille
1969).
49
Haute-Savoie (France)
North Usses
Savoie
(France)
South Usses
HELVETIAN
BURDIGALIAN
AQUITANIAN
OLIGOCENE
EOCENE
Fig. 34. Principal mineralogic groups in the detrital subalpine and peri alpine Tertiary
(after Latreille 1969). Gr Gamet; Ep epidote; Gl glaucophane >5%
Modern Stratigraphy
50
.."
-"
"
"'u
:2.,
90
100
~a;
110
~~
~u
120
51
52
Modern Stratigraphy
IX!
a..
o
o
CD
-co
NORMAL BRUHNES
REVERSE MATUYAMA
10
11
12
13
14
Depth (m)
Fig. 36. Curve of /) IH O of planktonic foraminifera correlated with the magnetostratigraphic scale in a core from the Pacific (after Shackleton and Opdyke 1976). The
numbers up to 17 refer to Emiliani's (1955) isotopic stages
-2
Fig. 37. Variation in composition of oxygen isotopes from tests of foraminifera in four
cores from 1 the Caribbean sea; 2 the Indian Ocean; 3 the Mediterranean; and 4 the
Pacific. Time scale in millions of years. On the ordinate, variations of /)180 in parts per
mil relative to PDB (Peedee Belemnite Standard) (after studies by Emiliani 1966;
Shackleton and Opdyke 1973; Be and Duplessy 1976; Cita et al. 1977)
53
Ma
PPliol
Miocene
lp
2,0
10 I igocene I
-2
o
2
p
10
JPalaeocene
of
+-0
I0"),+
00
6.0
~o
o/~'w
: +
~O+ O
Eocene
40
30
C\)
00
0
o
h;\/o
1}ty"'~+"++.o
..
....++ ..
+'!.o >,\-o
0
~40 ,\.t
I
+
101801
Fig. 38. Temporal variation of the oxygen isotope composition of total carbonate (0) at
two sites in the northeastern Atlantic and planktonic foraminifera ( +) at three sites in the
South Pacific (after Vergnaud-Grazzini 1979). Arrows indicate events
Ages ~
ot
Paleo
cene
Miocene
Late
Late
Cretaceous
Jurassic
+6:
('t)
'Ma
10
20
jo
, ,
50
40
6'0
70
80
90
i i i
100
110
120
1!m
140
Fig. 39. Change in carbon isotope ratios of pelagic carbonates (total carbonate) since the
Upper Jurassic (After Renard 1985)
and the depth of the euphotic zone. It increases during transgressions and
decreases during regressions. Modifications of the continental and marine
biomass (fixing 12C preferentially) lead to modifications of the 013C of
sediment. For example, sediments enriched in organic matter on the shelves
during transgressions, or significant deposits of coal, increase 013C.
In summary, the isotopic variations of oxygen and carbon in marine
carbonates reflect changes in the temperature, geochemistry, and other
parameters of the environment of formation related more or less directly to
global changes in climate and sea level. These variations are sharp at certain
times and may then be used as stratigraphic markers.
Other isotopic ratios under study may also become tools of correlation.
The 034S curve, expressing changes in the 34SP2S ratio, defines a megacycle
54
Modern Stratigraphy
Total volume of evaporite. (t O km')
0,25
0,75
Neogene
Paleogen
Cretaceous
Jurassic
,-,
,
I
Triassic
Permian
Carbonlfero~'s .. ,
\
,- .-
Devonian
I
Silurian
---- --
,,-- --
... - -"
"
,
f
Ordovician ,
10
20
--'
rn
a::
c(
>z
:J
...J
~
~
20
",'
60
./
...... J
100
I
140 I
180
.......
220
~
260 \
'\
300
...........
",'
340
380
I
.~
420
460
500
540
580 0
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
---
Permian
Carboniferous
'.
<::"">........
...o
...
o
87 Sr/86 Sr ratio
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Precambrian
01
~.
55
(Fig. 40), with a minimum value in the Permo-Trias. In general, but not
always, times when evaporites (rich in 34S) were important were also times
when marine waters were enriched in 32S and, therefore, had lower 034S
values. The 87Sr/86Sr ratio reflects the contributions of submarine volcanism,
related to ocean spreading, and continental erosion. When plotted against
time, this ratio varies inversely with the activities of the mid-oceanic ridges,
the lows in the curve corresponding to periods of major oceanic spreading
or, as in the Permian, to periods of major fragmentation (Fig. 41).
2.2.4.3 Organic Matter
Geological history has been punctuated by periods characterized by sediments abnormally rich in organic matter. This imparts a dark color to the
sediments ("black-shales") and results in a high content (greater than 1 or
2%) of organic carbon. The classic black shales include the graptolitic shales
of the Paleozoic, the bituminous shales of the Upper Lias, the CallovoOxfordian black marls of the Tethys and those of the Cretaceous known
from the North and South. Atlantic, from the United States, from Western
Europe and from North Africa, deposited during phases of maximum
extension between the Upper Aptian and the Coniacian. The most remarkable black shales, by virtue of wide geographic distribution and short
stratigraphic duration, were formed at the Cenomaniah-Turonian boundary
(Fig. 42). This was truly a black shale event. Similarly, the Upper Lias
bituminous shales were deposited over a large part of western Europe. They
are known in France as "carton shales". In the Quaternary of the eastern
Mediterranean, beds of black sapropels have been encountered in drilling.
The apparent causes of such events are varied, but all appear to be related
to global phenomena such as climate, eustasy, and distribution of continental masses, guaranteeing their synchronism over very large distances.
The composition of organic molecules can also be a basis for stratigraphic correlation. Recent studies (Brassell et al. 1986) have shown that
Quaternary marine sediments of the last million years contain unsaturated
organic components (alkenones) derived from certain coccolithophorids.
The index of unsaturation of these products is a function of the surface
water temperature at the time of their synthesis. The variation of this index
through a sequence parallels the 0180 curve, which is also (partly) related to
temperature. The index of unsaturation curves may, therefore, be used in
correlation in the same way as the 0180 curves. They are especially useful
for low-carbonate sediments deposited below the CCD. Alkenones have
been used as far back as the Cretaceous, but the importance of further
diagenetic change in older formations has yet to be evaluated.
Of all the mineralogic and geochemical markers, it is the latter which
promise to be of greatest use. The majority of them express the chemistry of
former seas, with temporal variations in this chemistry being immediately
valid for all the world's ocean; thus the great significance of chemostratigraphy for correlation. The use of this method, however, is limited by
Modem Stratigraphy
56
diagenesis, the influence of which increases with the age of the sediments,
decreasing the precision of measurements and, therefore, of correlation.
57
58
Modem Stratigraphy
2.3.3 Magnetostratigraphy
The utilization of paleomagnetism in stratigraphy is difficult. The Earth's
history shows that only two types of magnetic polarity are possible, as
against an infinity of other types of events, especially those nonrepetitive
events related to biological evolution. A magnetic reversal, therefore, has in
itself little chronologic significance, other than allowing conclusions on the
different ages of rocks in different locations by virtue of their different
polarities or similar polarities but different magnetic declinations. However,
stratigraphic information can be greatly improved by reference to a standard
paleomagnetic time scale. Figure 44 illustrates such a time scale with the
superimposed oceanic magnetic anomalies numbered 1 to M29 and several
polarity periods or magnetozones (5 to 22) following the four previously
designated (Bruhnes to Gilbert). Since anomalies and magnetic zones are
correlated with the radiometric time scale, their relative durations are
known and they consequently are valid geochronologic units. In addition,
some higher order groupings are apparent, specifically "disturbed" periods
with numerous reversals of polarity and "quiet" periods, with mainly normal
or mainly reversed polarities. How has this time scale been constructed?
The first succession of magnetic reversals was constructed by Cox et al.
(1963a,b) for the last 7 million years and based on exposed lavas. This time
scale was continued back into the Cenozoic and Mesozoic using positive and
negative magnetic anomalies measured on the seafloor. It is known that the
latter is formed from a continuous supply of basaltic rocks with ferromagnetic minerals which fossilize the Earth's field as they cool. This takes the
paleomagnetic time scale back to the Upper Cretaceous, on the assumption
59
."
;;)
0
III
U
~
'"'
III
'"
>-
...l
~
III
NORMAL POLARITY
REVERSE POLARITY
DISTURBED ZONE FROM THE
SINEMURIAN AT ~EAST
Fig. 44. Magnetic polarity scale for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic (After Channell 1982;
and, for the Jurassic pre-Kimmeridgian, after Kent and Gradstein 1985)
60
Modern Stratigraphy
200m
250
300
II
.....0 - - - - -
3
34
...
II
K'T
6 2 5 k m - - -......
~
II
....
0-----
350
I
1_
9 5 5 k m - - -.........
III.,.
33
5 1 5 k m - - -.........
34
,-3_3",-_
of a constant rate (1.9 cm/year) of ocean floor spreading for the South
Atlantic l l . This method has two disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to date the ocean basalt anomalies, the potassium-argon
method being inaccurate beyond 5m.y. This often makes it impossible to
separate radiometrically two adjacent magnetozones.
2. The paleomagnetic signals weaken considerably with the age of the
oceanic crust because of the alteration of its upper part.
The sequence of paleomagnetic polarities has been subsequently compared
with events used in biostratigraphy, such as first and last appearance of taxa,
using sections on land and wells drilled in the ocean. These have made it
possible to extend backwards the magnetostratigraphic time scale. The
Cretaceous has been most studied on land, in central Italy, where it has
been possible to correlate the biostratigraphy with the succession of polarities. This vertical sequence is then comparable directly with the horizontal sequence of oceanic magnetic anomalies, to provide them with the
same calibration (Fig. 45). The anomalies should also be datable by microfossils in the sediments immediately overlying the basalts, but this is somewhat inaccurate because of the discontinuities which can exist between the
basalt and this sediment. The data for the Jurassic come from boreholes in
the ocean floor and from sections in Italy and northern Spain. The oldest
oceanic data are from anomaly 29 of Oxfordian age. Before that was a long
period of stability or weak magnetic field, as in the Middle and Upper
Cretaceous, which lasted until the Callovian. This followed a disturbed
11 It has since been shown that this approximation is correct for many sectors of the
world's ocean.
61
Fig. 46. Example of zonation by calcareous nannofossils in the Paleogene, and relation to
the chronostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic scales (After Aubry 1983)
62
Ma
Modem Stratigraphy
Moon stratigraphy
1000
COPERNICIAN
1800
ERATOSTHENIAN
3000'
IMBRIAN
~OOO
4?1V1
NECTARIAN
PRENECTARIAN
2.5 Conclusions
Geophysics, geochemistry, mineralogy, sedimentary cycles, and geomorphology all now contribute to stratigraphic methodology. This is not to say
that they replace or even compete with classical lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy, which remain the basic tools, but they are an indispensible
complement, allowing, for example, the correlation of different paleon-
63
to logic zonation schemes and the testing of the synchronism of the appearance and disappearance of taxa at different latitudes. For instance, the
comparison of various biological events with the paleomagnetic scale shows
that many of them are synchronous to about O.1-0.4m.y. According to
Johnson and Nigrini (1985), the disappearances of species are much more
synchronous than their appearances, based on Cenozoic radiolaria of the
Indo-Pacific region. In this way, a more useful biostratigraphy and lithostratigraphy not influenced by facies is slowly being established. Conversely,
biostratigraphy can be used to test the value of a physical or chemical
marker. This reciprocal control by different methods is one of the more
significant factors contributing to the progress in stratigraphic methodology
during the last two decades.
Chapter 4
1.1 Facies
This term, introduced by Gressly in 1838, refers to all the physical, chemical
and biological characteristics of a sedimentary rock reflecting its depositional
environment. Thus, a facies (or isopic) map is implicitly a paleoenvironmental map. Lithofacies and biofacies represent often the two major components of a facies, the one physical and chemical, the other biological
(fossils and/or traces). For example:
1. The Triassic red sandstones of the Vosges have characteristics which
suggest a slightly inclined alluvial plain, with meandering rivers and
sparse vegetation (Voitzia, Equisetum), and a climate like modern Sudan
with contrasting wet (when silicate iron dissolves out) and dry (when
ferric iron precipitates on sand grains) seasons.
66
Transltlonallacles
I;:;.~.:J
Gravelly limestone
Pelagic Neocomlan
Neritic Neocomian
Fig, 48. 1 Geometric relations of different facies near the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary
(dashed line) in Haute-Provence (Castellane region). 2 Restored section for the beginning
of the Cretaceous, based on facies interpretation. Note the platform carbonate to basin
transition (After Cot ilion 1975)
67
tions between these two facies show that the transition from one to the other
is both gradational and by interdigitations. The change of facies along a N-S
cross-section suggests the transition from a platform to a basin with significant bathymetric variations. In addition, the subfacies within the "Calcaires
Blancs" enable variations in the environment of the platform to be mapped.
1.2 Paleobiogeography
Contributing to the knowledge of the environment (water depth, oxygenation, temperature, climate etc.), the biofacies is a fundamental element in
paleogeographic syntheses. It provides information especially on the distribution of biological populations, the basis of paleobiogeography, whose
aim is the study of the relations between the evolution of life and the
evolution of the Earth. The first paleobiogeographic synthesis (Neumayr
1872) involved Jurassic rocks and introduced the idea of faunal provinces,
generally very large regions often containing smaller areas defined by the
occurrence of different taxa. Uhlig (1911), for example, distinguishes in the
northern hemisphere in the Mesozoic:
1. A temperate zone in the north, or Boreal province.
2. A warm zone in the south, or Tethyan province, subdivided into several
subzones (Mediterranean, Caucasian, sub-Mediterranean, Himalayan,
Japanese, Pacific)2. None of these regions can be defined precisely
because of faunal exchange across their boundaries. Western Europe was
often the locus of such exchanges, espcially in the Toarcian, Callovian
and Neocomian. These events complicate, as we have seen, the problems
of time correlation but they do allow correlation between adjacent
provinces with different biostratigraphic zonations. They also help
to differentiate certain paleogeographic domains: for example in the
Callovian-Oxfordian, the faunal expansions of boreal origin never
crossed the north Tethyan boundary in Europe (Cariou et al. 1985)
which is, therefore, identifiable by its immigrant faunas. For much older
epochs, the faunal distributions may not always be related to climatic
gradients; this could be the case, for example, for the two major trilobite
provinces of the Lower Cambrian (Fig. 49), the Olenellus province of
North America, Scotland, and Scandanavia and the Redlichia province of
Asia and Australia.
68
69
\(
30
30
60
Fig. 50. Migration of Central Atlantic foraminifera to the South Atlantic in the Albian.
Points represent studied wells (After Moullade and Guerin 1982); arrow denotes direction
of migration
70
Fig. 51. Facies map of the Upper Cretaceous showing the distribution of continental
basins (vertical hachuring) and the maximum extension of marine sediments (dashed line
and dotted area) in the Rhodanian basin (After Debrand-Passard et al. 1984)
positions. The maps resulting from this unfolding are palinspastic maps
(Fig. 52).
71
ft~t~!&J
Continental areas
Dinosaurian fields
Marine area
Fig. 53. Paleogeographic map of the Upper Jurassic showing the uncertainty regarding
the distribution of oceans of that time (After Furon 1972)
tary and tectonic phenomena. For example, when some detrital sediments
implied the existence of some offshore continental source, subsequently
submerged beneath the ocean, this "source land" could be located and its
extent determined only with great difficulty. Moreover, the great distances
72
73
Emerged lands
ti"jlTj.YJ
Oceanic crust
AI: Albonn
=ffi..
B : B~onnai.
SI: Sila
t:X.:. f
AClive Ridge
ST) : Stilo
K : Klbylil
Fault
.=-.=- =
L:
~ Ophiolites obdUction
Clay
Lom_
TA: Tatra.
~!aJeolatilude
TR : Triclentin
VL: Valoi.
4. The percentage of land covered by sea can lead theoretically to a calculation of the altitude of sea level in relation to the present day (Fig.
57). In fact, knowledge of the exact part played by eustasy in determining
shoreline positions is necessary, since the latter is also controlled by
subsidence, sediment compaction, and tectonic movements.
5. The oceanic and atmospheric paleocirculations depend on two factors:
a) The general global climate: the distribution of facies on a global scale
gives a good illustration of this because it indicates the significance of
latitudinal temperature gradients, which control the major circulations
of air and water.
b) The distributions of land and sea on the Earth's surface. Taking into
account these distributions, several models have attempted to recreate
74
..
0'
, ..... :.
... . . .
:,': : : : .. . '. ,.
:.,
:'.. :: .::
.......
0,,'
'.'
','
,"'
...::.:.,',0',.,'
,' ....... ' ... ' ..........
....... ..
'
'
.'
: ,0
Fig. 55. Paleogeographic map of the Oxfordian constructed from outcrops on the
continents (after Hallam 1975). Interpreted area of continental inundation is probably
maximal, especially in Europe
Sea level
Tithonian
Kimmeridgian
Oxfordian
Callovian
Bathonian
Bajocian
Aalenian
Toarcian
Pliensbachian
Sin em urian
Hettangian
75
E 8000
.~ 6000
"C
.a
~
E
.S
g.
.t::.
Present marine 0
2000
4000
6000
8000
0 10
30
50
70
the circulations on the basis of locations of supposed high- and lowpressure atmospheric zones (Fig. 58). It appears that in the Cretaceous,
the traditionally assumed relation between low thermal gradients and
slowness of current flow is doubtful, the atmospheric circulation
appearing not to be too low at this time (Parrish et al. 1982).
76
H: High pressures
lID
Maln'eontlnental rellets
W ni d trend
Fig. 58. Model of winter atmospheric circulation in the North Hemisphere in the
Tithonian (After Parrish and Curtis 1982)
77
its formation, but also the continental margins and cratonic regions. It also
influences the loci of sedimentary basins and their evolution. Finally,
epeirogenesis appears also to effect continents as a group. According to
Worsley et al. (1984), the thermal tumescence of continental masses, which
are weak conductors of heat, is proportional to their surface areas and
inversely proportional to their rate of displacement above the asthenosphere. Under these conditions, the supercontinents of the Pangea type
would not be invaded by seas because of their relatively high mean elevations. Epeirogenic movements result also from isostatic adjustments. The
lithosphere, overloaded by an ice sheet, sediments or lavas, sinks into the
asthenosphere, indicating that a part of the subsidence of basins is due to
the weight of sediments. Periodic volcanic eruptions (the Hawaiian islands,
for example) similarly create a sagging of the lithosphere, thereby reducing
a part of the former relief. Conversely, a lessening of the load on the
lithosphere leads to its uplift. When the Wiirm ice sheet covering northern
Europe began to melt, Scandinavia rose. This movement began 12000 years
ago and continues today. The maximum uplift, centred on the Gulf of
Bothnia, reached about 400m. Unloading of the lithosphere can also result
from erosion of its upper part. Since the intensity of this process is generally
a function of its elevation, it follows that an elevation of the lithosphere by
thermal tumescence will tend to increase the effect of erosion.
78
they are deposited. This continental transfer of material from the continents
to the oceans should eventually flatten the continents. It has been calculated
that in only 50 million years the continents would disappear in spite of
isostatic readjustments due to this unloading. Such a scenario appears to be
reflected in the peneplains which are developed at the end of orogenic
cycles, before the transgression which initiates the following cycle advances
over the erosional surface. However, as long as the internal motor of the
Earth remains active and therefore capable of deforming its crust, the
destruction of all continental relief can only be transitory for any given area
and cannot be a condition of the whole globe at anyone time.
Submarine relief also seems to be largely due to mechanical and
chemical erosion, as direct observations from submersibles have recently
revealed.
Sedimentation acts in a sense opposite to that of erosion. It fills basins
and can in some situations lead to emergence. In the marine environment,
this may occur only in the relatively shallow epicontinental regions. This is
illustrated in nearshore areas by the progradation of deltas and coastal spits
and the construction of barrier reefs. Beyond the continental platform,
sedimentation plays an important morphologic role at the base of the
continental slope, where submarine deltas are built in front of large rivers.
2.4 Eustasy
2.4.1 Paleogeographic Effects
Whatever their causes, variations of sea level have profound repercussions,
especially on the continental margins, although the shifts of paleoshorelines
are generally due more to local or regional deformation of the cratonic
margin than to eustatic fluctuations. Drowning terrestrial topography, and
especially the low-lying valleys, a marine transgression creates an incised
coastline with isolated islands. Regressions are characterized by smoother
coastlines. The degree of immersion of the continent controls the base level
of the fluvial system, and, therefore, the interplay of erosion and sedimentation, both continental and marine. A high sea level decreases erosion in
the low fluvial valleys and increases the sedimentation on the continental
shelf; a low sea level causes erosion of the shelf and the terrigenous products
are transferred directly to the base of the slope, where they accumulate as
submarine deltas or may reach as far as the abyssal plain (Fig. 59).
The variations in sea level also affect oceanic circulation. A eustatic
rise creates new communications by drowning sills and highs. It therefore
facilitates interprovincial exchanges. A eustatic drop tends on the contrary to isolate basins from each other and may cause the development of
restricted, brackish or hypersaline environments. Paleobiogeographic
evolution is directly affected by these variations.
79
Fig. 59. Influence of eustacy on oceanic detrital sedimentation. 1 High sea level; 2 low
sea level
Finally, eustasy controls to some extent the global climate. Transgressions increase the ocean's surface and decrease the average albedo of
the Earth, thereby creating a warmer and more humid climate (if other
factors remain the same). Regressions have the opposite effects. The
Jurassic and Cretaceous, characterized by two major transgressions, were
generally warm and humid periods. On the other hand, the end of the
Cretaceous, marked by a major regression, was typically cold and dry. The
end of the Jurassic, which also coincided with a regression, but of less
significance, was also a time of relatively dry conditions, according to
Hallam (1984).
1. First order cycles of very long periods (200-400m.y.), of which there are
only two from the end of the Precambrian to the Present. They are
parallel to the Wilson cycles and consequently follow the rhythm of the
contraction and dispersion of continental crust.
2. Second order asymmetric cycles of 10-100m.y., taken generally from the
major subdivisions of geologic time. Their limits coincide, therefore, with
several of the discontinuities separating the systems and subsystems of
the stratigraphic scale.
3. Third and fourth orders cycles of 1-10 and of 10000-lm.y. The larger
80
81
82
2.6 Conclusions:
the Earth in Relation to Other Planets of the Solar System
The paleogeographic changes evident at the Earth's surface are characteristic of a planet often called "living", not by reference to its biosphere, but
rather to the dynamic nature of each of its envelopes. This leads to continual
modification of its surface and its climate. The energy needed for this is of
thermal origin, coming mostly from internal sources and partly from the sun
(atmospheric and hydrospheric movements). Terrestrial relief, therefore,
does not depend on external agents such as meteorites, which cannot leave
any durable imprint on the surface. Other planets of the solar system,
especially the inner "telluric" planets, owe their surface morphology primarily to very intense crater-forming impacts at approximately 4600m.y.,
i.e. at the end of the period of planetary accretion. Mercury is most typical;
being very close to the sun, it lost its fluid envelopes very soon and preserved its primitive surface, pockmarked by large craters. On the Moon, also
lacking water and an atmosphere, volcanic outpourings of lava testifying to
an internal activity have locally masked its primitive surface. Mars is much
more like the Earth, but tectonism there has remained somewhat rudimentary, partly due to a very thick lithosphere (200km). However, erosion
and deposition due to wind and runoff, as well as to volcanic flows, have
destroyed the initial relief of its surface. The Earth long ago lost all trace of
its primitive morphology. It is also the only planet (together with Venus?)
manifesting the processes of plate tectonics.
Chapter 5
1 Precambrian Time
We will define the Precambrian as the period of time from the formation of
the Earth to the lower boundary of the Cambrian, although a narrower
definition starts the Precambrian from the first dated rocks (3800m.y.). This
traditional term is not the best because it does not fit with the names of later
eras, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic. Thus, some people prefer the term
Archeozoic.
The Precambrian is five times as long as all the other eras combined,
which are commonly grouped into a single chronostratigraphic higher-order
unit (eon) named the Phanerozoic. The Precambrian should, therefore, be
regarded as the first, or even first two eons of geologic history.
84
I~
8....
It)
USA
Mexico
GO
GO
Late Proterozoic
Canada
o
o
o
-
Scandinavia
Vare
gian
Daslandian
France
Eocambrian
Brioverlan
WAfrica
Pharusian
EdlaAustralia carian
Adelaidian
Ven
dian
g~Fa~
Eo-
0
0
'0'
0
0
000
It)
Middle Proterozoic
Hadrynian
USSR
ARCHEAN
PROTEROZOIC
EONS
"
It)
..
Early
Archean
Late
Middle
Early Proterozoic :t.rchean~rcheanl
Heliklan
Gothian
It)
Aphebian
Presvecocarelian
Svecocarelian
Icartian
Pentevrlan
Suggarlan
Karelian
Riphean
Epiprotozoic
Neoprotozoic
pr::::~i~
Byelomorian
Katarchean
Paleoprotozoic
Katarchean
---~~~------------~------~~----~------~I~------~
~
Pha-
;;j
Eons
..
'e."
o
~~I~
EozolC
Protozoic
c: c:
"c: >
.!! ..
";::
....
~~
00..
.
c:
.~
c:
c:
.!!!
::I
85
Precambrian Time
86
Phanerozoic
Proterozoic
Archean
fZ:iJ
Precambrian Time
87
majority of the old massifs. The map in Fig. 62 shows the distribution of
shields and platforms in the Permian Pangea. A famous section is that of the
Grand Canyon of Colorado (Fig. 63) where two major unconformities are
visible. One between the Archean and the Proterozoic, the other between
the Proterozoic and the Cambrian (Huronian unconformity).
88
composed largely of the lighter elements such as Si, K, Na and Ca. The
subsequent history is still being debated. One possible scenario, according to
Kroner (1984) is as follows. From the stage when a crust was established
above a mantle, an embryonic plate tectonics began to operate. The mantle,
undoubtedly hotter than at present, would be stirred by vigorous convection
currents. At the surface where these currents emerged, the crust would be
thinned and broken into rigid fragments, much like one sees today in lava
lakes. These plates would be rapidly recycled in the underlying mantle, into
which they would sink by virtue of their high density, or under the impact of
meteorites whose maximum effect was between 4500 and 4000m.y. From
4000m.y. the heat flux and temperature of the mantle diminished, the
primitive crust therefore persisted longer, and the volcanism resulting from
partial melting of the upper mantle was able to thicken certain plates and
thus make them more buoyant.
The first silica crust, composed essentially of granitoid plutons, then
developed progressively at the expense of subcrustal magmatic differentiations. The end result was a relatively light crust composed of two constituents: at the base, high-grade gneiss complexes and at the top, a mixture of
volcanics and granitoid intrusions. When this crust emerged above sea level,
erosion produced the first sediments, some of which are believed to be still
extant: for example, the gneisses of the Limpopo belt in South Africa, dated
at 3800m.y. (Fig. 64). The evolution of the continental nuclei into blocks
too light to be assimilated into the mantle occurred slowly by vertical
accretion, leading to thickening of their roots. This scenario therefore
suggests vertical accretion as the mechanism for the formation of primitive
continental crust, which was perhaps 25 - 30 km thick by 3500 m. y. It also
rejects the uniformitarian explanation of marginal accretion during collision,
although it seems to be valid for Phanerozoic times.
Precambrian Time
89
Fig. 64. Simplified mantle plume model for the origin and growth of primitive continental
crust. Arrows denote movements of convection (Kroner 1984, after Condie 1980)
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
N2
O2
CO 2
CO
H 2O
H2
He
Ne
A
NH3
----
CH4
Fig. 65. Principal atmospheric constituents of the planets in the solar system
90
91
Precambrian Time
\(
T .ripnou. ledimentl,
biotenic c.bonate.
1l1li.................
..
Fig. 66. Dynamics of the Archean lithosphere. A Evolution after small-scale convection
in the upper mantle. B-E Different stages of formation of a green stone belt (After
Kroner 1983a)
cooling. This latter process is estimated to have formed 85% of the crustal
section between 2800 and 2500m.y.
In the Lower and Middle Proterozoic (2500-900m.y.), the strongly
cratonized continental masses were relatively stable, with large basins which
became filled with volcano-sedimentary sequences, especially in West
Africa, Brazil and Canada. These basins sometimes developed along rifts or
aUlacogens. These fold belts always arise, according to Kroner (1983b),
from an intracrustal or ensialic tectonism, implying weak plate movements
92
93
Precambrian Time
+ -
<~ ~
+..
..
-----~C
.. ,
Subcrustallithosphere
... 'It.
II
II
Asthenosphere
-"
"'+'"5'"".j'?!~ -
1-
......
-----:~- - p
The principal effects of the dynamic evolution of the Earth during the
Precambrian were as follows:
1. The thermal flux decreased gradually from the Archean when it was 2.5
times as high as at present.
2. The crust increased its heterogeneity as well as its thickness and rigidity,
mainly in the Archean with the formation of granulites. Related to this,
the cratons grew in size and stabilized to their final dimensions by the
94
C
A
o
o
M
I
A
N
o
R
o
G
E
N
95
Precambrian Time
scattered across the shields and which denote local high thermal fluxes
could be due to such impacts (Fig. 70).
The Precambrian ended with a series of more or less contemporaneous
orogenies: Assyntic, Cadomian, Baikalian and Pan-African, during which
the continents were displaced significantly before coming back together
(Fig. 71). These movements affected Australia, China and North America,
initially joined (Eisbacher 1985), then separated during a phase of rifting
between 800 and 700m.y.
1.4.3.2 Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Climate
The reducing and acid combination of the primitive atmosphere was slowly
modified during the course of the Precambrian, profoundly affecting the
climate, sea water composition and sedimentation. At the beginning of
the Archean, the atmospheric pressure was probably 10-20 bar because of
the abundance of water and CO2 maintaining a high surface temperature
(greenhouse effect) and reducing the penetration of solar radiation. The sea
was warm (60-90C), somewhat acid, chlorine and carbonate-rich3 . Wider
than in the Phanerozoic, it was also shallower on average. The climate was
very uniform and scarcely affected by latitudinal gradients.
These initial conditions were gradually modified, as a number of sedimentary indicators show.
3 According
to another hypothesis (Kempe and Degens 1985), the oceans were sodic,
therefore very alkaline, with low concentrations of Ca and Mg. Only after l000m.y. did
they become chlorine-rich from the leaching of oceanic crust.
96
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
Pan-African range
Pan-African Pangea boundary
West Africa craton
Congo craton
Kalahari craton
Guyana craton
Sao Francisco craton
North America craton
Antarctic craton
Australia craton
China craton
Siberia craton
Fig. 71. The Pan-African chain at about 6OOm .y. (After Black 1978)
The first red beds, with iron oxide, appeared about 2000m.y.
(200m.y.) in the Lower Proterozoic, together with some free oxygen in
the atmosphere. They subsequently became more abundant, with hematite
(Fe203) and goethite (FeO-OH) gradually replacing siderite (FeC0 3) in the
sediments but especially in the paleosoils. Also, certain gold and uranium
minerals requiring a reducing atmosphere for their bacterially controlled
formation disappeared after the Lower Proterozoic.
It is possible that at about 1S00m.y. (beginning of the Upper
Proterozoic) the atmospheric oxygen content reached the Pasteur level (1/
100 of today's concentration) and by the end of the Cambrian, one-third of
the present level.
The first abundant evaporite deposits indicate that the seas were becoming more chlorine and sulphate-rich (towards the end of the Proterozoic).
Carbonate deposits never formed in the Archean because of the acidity
of the oceans, but they accumulated in the Proterozoic, implying a reduction
of atmospheric CO 2, The relative abundance of dolomites is explained by a
higher Mg/Ca ratio and a CO 2 concentration in sea water higher than today,
allowing a direct precipitation of dolomite.
Oxygen isotope ratios of siliceous rocks indicate a lowering of sea-water
temperature to about 30-40C at the end of the Eocambrian. This gradually
produced a climatic zonation.
Tillites, however, show that marked climatic deterioration occurred
eight times, leading to glaciations, some of which were of near-global extent
(Fig. 72), with their glacial deposits useful as stratigraphic markers. The
duration of these different cooling periods seems to be of the order of a few
Precambrian Time
97
EOCAMBRIAN
LATE
PROTEROZOIC
30
-600
6777
40
750
0 758
eB
50
775
0 820
850
900
.2300
02000
2200
n 2450
u
ARCHEAN
6950
EARLY
PROTEROZOIC
6816
} Generalized
marks
on continents
4 glaciations
North America
2750
South America. Transvaal
Fig. 73. Precambrian glaciations. Dates with triangles from Steiner and GriIImair (1973),
with solid squares from Crowley (1983), with open rectangles from Salop (1979), with
crosses in squares from Hambrey and Harland (1985)
tens of millions of years (Fig. 73) . These events are very distinctive and are
unlike Quaternary glaciations in the following respects:
1. Their universal character;
2. Their higher ambiant temperatures, more or less equally distributed
across the Earth's surface.
Their origins must, therefore, be sought outside the Earth, perhaps
in a temporary reduction of solar heat due either to variation in solar
98
During the Precambrian, different and contrasting environments of deposition became established. Initially, a single ocean, probably shallow,
covered all the Earth. Then the continents emerged, at first of limited
dimensions and unstable, later thicker, more rigid and therefore more
durable. Soon after emergence, the land provided the first detrital deposits of
Archean age, very immature (e.g. greywackes), from which the gneisses of
the Limpopo belt in South Africa could have been derived. The gradual
enlargement and thickening of the continents, together with the appearance
of active margins in the Proterozoic, was to gradually accentuate the
morphological differences between continents and oceans, the former
becoming higher and the latter deeper. A consequence of this was a growing
and more diversified deposition of clastics in the marine environment, often
dominating over carbonate and siliceous sedimentation.
Detrital sediments are abundant, especially near the coastlines and on
the continents. Molasse first appears in the Archean in association with
orogeny, psammites, sandstones with cross-stratifications, current ripples,
desiccation cracks, tidal and deltaic sediments, greywackes and arkoses, etc.
The erosion of the greenstone belts produced deltaic conglomerates locally
rich in uranium and gold (Lower Proterozoic of Transvaal, Canada, Brazil)
and placer gold and diamonds (Middle Proterozoic of India, Brazil, Siberia,
Precambrian Time
99
Africa). Flysch sediments appear episodically only in the Proterozoic, evidence of deepening environments. The abundance of sediments at the
continental margins slowly increased the continental areas as large prograding shelves covered by epicontinental seas, especially in Africa and North
America. Extensive already from the Middle Proterozoic, these shelves
accumulated mainly detrital sediments, but also carbonates, sometimes
mineralized (Pb, Cu, Zn, Mn in Siberia and Anti-Atlas), phosphorites,
sedimentary iron minerals (siderite, hematite), glauconite, and evaporites.
The latter, known from 3500m.y., are indicative of marginal-littoral environments of some aridity. Some aluminous deposits are also known and
these are indicative of extreme continental weathering. Restricted environments are indicated by shungite (algal carbon from the Middle Proterozoic
of Finland), black slates and graphitic schists (Lower Proterozoic of Karelia
and Transvaal). The most notable chemical and biochemical deposits
include stromatolitic dolomites and the banded iron minerals or jaspers. The
former appear in the Archean and become increasingly important. The
latter, particularly abundant in the Lower Proterozoic, consist of alternating
beds of silica and iron-rich minerals (hematite, magnetite, siderite). They
appear to be the products of chemical precipitation controlled by bacteria or
algae, but opinion is divided on the environment of deposition. Narrow
marine basins, subsequently closed tectonically, as well as other types of
basins, shelves, and even lakes have all been suggested. In the Archean,
iron and silica were clearly of igneous origin, but later, weathering of
large areas of emerged land was an additional source. With the increasing
abundance of oxygen in the atmosphere and hydrosphere during the
Precambrian came a decrease in the leaching of reduced iron from soils,
especially since the latter were devoid of plant organic matter. This may
explain the absence of jasper in the Upper Proterozoic. Whatever the
reason, these deposits constitute the major occurrences of iron of old basements dated from the Lower Proterozoic (Lake Superior in the United
States, northern Europe, and Gabon). The growing importance of the continents during the Precambrian is also shown by the increased deposition of
continental sediments; red beds indicative of dry climates, alumina-rich
sediments from deeply weathered profiles (metabauxites of the Steap Rock
Group, Archean of South Africa, Eocambrian bauxites of Siberia). In
general, there was a thickening of the sedimentary cover accumulating
within basins of increasing diversity, intracratonic at first, then marginal
and oceanic. This epicrustal accretion contributed by metamorphism to
lithospheric thickening, and thus to better thermal insulation of the mantle.
This may have lead, according to some authors, to increased tectonism with
time.
1.4.3.4 Development of the Biosphere
The earliest Archean (3800-3700m.y.) already contains the traces of
anaerobic microorganisms, undoubtedly prokaryotes, and evidence of their
metabolic activity (stromatolites, oncolites) is signaled by 3400m.y.
100
101
STAGES
lab
Systems
Subsystems
400 39'"
Europe
S
A
L
Late
SILURIAN
423
Early
425 435
Cayugan
WENLOCKIAN
Late
445 450
""'"Ardenian
Niagarian
LLANDOVERIAN
~
Ashgillian
430
Orogenic
stages
LUDLOVIAN
0
p
I
North America
Medinlan
Taconian
I
Cincinnattian.
CARADOCIAN
LLANDEILIAN
455
Champlain ian
LLANVIRN IAN
ORDOVICIAN
Early
-----ARENIGIAN
SKIDDAVIAN
480
Canadian
TREMADOCIAN
495 1,-
Sardinian
SHIDERTINIAN
Late
51S
TUORIAN
Crolxian
MAYIAN
CAMBRIAN
Middle
Albertian
LEN IAN
54G
Early
530 570
AMGIAN
ALDAN IAN
Waucobian
Cadomian
-!...-
Fig. 74. Subdivisions of the Lower Paleozoic. Two radiometric age scales: a according to
Odin et al. (1982b); b according to Van Eysinga (1985)
102
considerably and the continental crust had stabilized. However, the principal focus of activity took place at the boundaries between the continents
and the oceans. Sediments, augmented by significant contributions of biogenic origin, spread across the broadening shelves and became much more
diverse, although detrital sediments remained dominant because continents
still lacked vegetation. Biological evolution, stimulated by the growing
amounts of oxygen in the atmosphere, initiated its major future patterns,
while living organisms utilized all marine ecologic resources as well as
setting foot, for the first time, on the continents.
103
2
Fig. 75. Distribution of the continental masses in the Lower Paleozoic. 1 Cambrian; 2
Silurian (After Seyfert and Sirkin 1979)
104
4 Miogeocline
105
1....-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1::.\: ~:':.:I
Emerged lands
Pacific trilobites
1a: Scotland
2b: E Newfoundland
~
o
1b: England
3: Nova Scotia
Epicontinental seas
Atlantic trilobites
2a: NW Newfoundland
4: New Britain
Fig. 77. Pacific and Atlantic faunal provinces on both sides of the Protoatlantic, or
Iapetus, at the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary (After Windley 1984)
106
Dalradian basin
-==- --
:..:.:.-::.:-.-.~~.r
Uplands
Midlands
...
Iapetus
--
1
Grampian
Iapetus
Skiddaw
Lake District
~~~M
2
Grampian
1: Middle Cambrian
4: End Silurian
Iapetus
2: Early Ordovician
Snowdon
3: Late Ordovician
Fig. 78. Evolution of the British Caledonides (After Watson and Dunning 1979)
Its maximum width in the Lower Ordovician is still debated, but estimates
vary between 1000 and 3500 km. This ocean spread transgressively on to the
continental margins as a shallow sea depositing thick sequences of sands and
tidal and subtidal carbonates up to 3000 m thick in the Appalachians.
An immense carbonate platform, which Rodgers (1970) has compared
to that of the Bahamas, extended from Texas to Newfoundland in the
Appalachians, then into northwest Europe and eastern Greenland. On the
continental slope and base of slope, thick detrital sediments (up to 15000 m)
accumulated, including some flysch and volcanics. On the margin of the
American continent, there were marginal seas isolated by microcontinents,
the Piedmont and Avalon terranes in the Appalachians, and the Southern
Upland terrane in the Caledonides. Certain margins rapidly became active,
for example, in northern Great Britain and at the Atlantic border of the
United States (Figs. 78, 79). Evidence for a subduction zone in the MidCambrian of the Midlands of Scotland can be seen in the blue schists and
107
o/t.N.A~rica;0WJ Alrl~
~,A;;lca
Late Precamblan
EBR-P
CB,(:SB
~;'rtamDNLL
Late Precamblan
Ordovician - Silurian
lJJTI7J2b",
,~5>
....,.7,~rm""~~_7%lJ'-"",?~_ _-.zlJC"'lrlca
zzz=-C;
@l)22* ~=~~77.
Devonian
QAirica
()
4.
---..:
CB
CS8
lfI,77J%'17.7#J13~~~~~~z=i~~C8
Carboniferous - Permian
MolasseV&R
BZ
1Zti+*5i'I~~c.
l'Ig. 1':1. bVOlUtJOn 01 me eastern margm of North America between the Grenville (Upper
Precambrian, 9OOm.y.) orogeny and the formation of the Appalachians (PermoCarboniferous). EBR Eastern Blue Ridge; P Piedmont; CB Charlotte Belt; CSB Carolina
Slate Belt; BR Blue Ridge; V and R Valley and Ridge; BZ Brevard zone (after Hatcher
and Odom 1980). This interpretation does not take into account the Pangea stage at
6OOm.y. subsequent to the Pan-African and Cadomian orogenies. 2 to 4 Opening of the
Protoatlantic; 5 to 8 closing of the Protoatlantic, then collision of Africa and America.
Continental crust hachured, oceanic crust in black
mineralized (Pb, Zn, Au, Ag) ophiolites forming the Ballantrae Complex.
Instability of the margin is documented by megabreccias derived from the
platform and resedimented in the marginal ocean basin. In the Ordovician,
the marginal seas closed with collision of the American continent and the
microcontinents . At the beginning of this period, the ophiolites at Ballantrae
were obducted onto the continent and a volcanic arc was initiated. A strong
deformation (Grampian phase) affected the basin to the north. At the
same time, a volcanic arc appearing in the southern Appalachians and the
"Dunnage Melange" of Newfoundland, consisting of an olistostrome
with sedimentary and volcanic components resting on ophiolites, was emplaced thus signifying the emplacement of a northwest-dipping subduction
zone. It is associated with copper and iron mineralization. All the early
deformations, dated as Lower and Middle Ordovician, define a first Taconic
phase. In the Lower Ordovician, a second subduction zone symmetrical to
the first occurred along the southeastern margin of the Protoatlantic in the
Caledonian domain, resulting in the closure of this ocean. In the Upper
Ordovician, the faunal provinces began their first exchanges. A consequence
of this subduction was the appearance of an andesitic volcanic arc in North
Wales and mineralization of gold and copper. The Ballantrae region was
uplifted several thousand metres at this time and partly eroded, yielding a
thick flysch sequence. In the Appalachians, the collision of the American
continent with the Piedmont microcontinent defines the second Taconic
phase (Middle and Upper Ordovician), characterized by metamorphism,
northwest-thrusting, including slices of crystalline Precambrian basement,
108
109
110
~
~
CJ
Fig. 80. Paleogeography of the Upper Silurian in northeastern United States (After
Alling and Briggs 1961)
2.1.3.2 Sedimentation
Depositional environments of the platform contrasted with deep-water
zones corresponding to the continental slope and base of slope environments
(marginal ocean basins).
The truly oceanic pelagic environments have left few traces, having
mostly disappeared by subduction: but some obducted formations, always
metamorphosed (schists, greywackes, volcanics) and deformed, do exist, for
example in the interior zones of the Caledonides.
The platforms were covered by shallow seas which often advanced far
onto the land during transgressions, as on the Russian, American and
Gondwana platforms. Several transgressive sequences are known from the
Lower Paleozoic. The most widespread, in the Cambro-Ordovician, consists
of basal sandstones (often glauconitic), shales, and limestones and dolomites
at the top attesting to very shallow environments (shelly limestones, oolites,
stromatolites, desiccation cracks). Frequently found on or at the margins of
continents, this sequence may sometimes be replaced by detrital sediments
(Andes, Cap region), or by carbonates (Canadian Cordillera). On the
shelves, areas of active subsidence sometimes accumulated carbonates up
to thousands of metres thick in marginal cratonic basins (Appalachian,
111
112
Another basic climatic indicator is the presence of an ice cap in the Upper
Ordovician, covering the Sahara, part of Brazil and perhaps Arabia, an area
of about 6 x 106 km2 around the South Pole of that time. Other indicators of
glaciation described from southwest Africa, New Zealand, Spain, France,
and Scotland could correspond to material transported by icebergs.
2.1.4.3 Global Climatic Evolution
In the Cambrian, the wide distribution of algal and archeocyathid reefs in a
broad equatorial belt (to 75 S in Morocco) suggests a warm climate even in
high and middle latitudes. Evaporites and red beds were deposited in a zone
between 15 and 30 Nand S. In the Upper Cambrian, however, a slight
cooling, possibly related to the Sardian phase, caused a retreat of reefs and
limestones.
In the Lower and Middle Ordovician, the polar regions again became
free of ice and the climate generally warmer.
113
114
conquest of the terrestrial environment may have coincided with the formation of an ozone layer in the high atmosphere, sufficiently effective to
protect the Earth's surface from UV radiation damaging to life.
115
Leon-Asturias
Ruhr (Germany)
Fig. 81. It is not possible to construct a unified biostratigraphic scale based on fossil
plants for separate coal basins fonned at different altitudes (After Bouroz, in Pomerol
and Babin 1977)
1. The Devonian, originally defined in Devonshire6 , is sometimes considered as the transition between the Caledonian and Hercynian cycles,
sometimes as the dawn of the modern age, because of the beginning of
terrestrial colonization by living organisms.
2. The Carboniferous was named in England for the coal-rich rocks. The
best definition of its base in western Europe occurs in the Visean Basin,
where there is a continuous marine sequence permitting the use of
foraminifers and conodonts. The coal-bearing continental series is more
difficult to subdivide stratigraphically because the plant materials used
are very sensitive to environmental conditions, particularly altitude
(Fig. 81). Most useful are the paralic sequences, deposited near sea level
and likely to contain marine intercalations which can be dated from
cephalopods, foraminifera, and conodonts. American geologists subdivide the Carboniferous into two parts only: the Mississippian below and
the Pennsylvanian above.
3. The Permian. This name evokes the Finno-Hungarian kingdom of
Permya. Its boundaries are still unsettled, but its lower boundary may be
fixed in the Donetz basin (USSR), where sedimentation was continuous,
at the stratigraphic level where the foraminifera Schwagerina appears.
Figure 82 summarizes the principal subdivisions of the Upper Paleozoic.
6The actual type region is not Devon, where the rocks are very defonned and metamorphosed, but the Ardennes.
116
No
245
Systems
STAGES
Subsystems
EUROPE
23
North America
Palatinlan
Tartarlan
Late
258
Thuringian
Late
Kazanlan
24().
260.
Orogenic
stages
----.....!SJ!!tg~
Permian
Saxonian
Artinskian
Early
Early
~saallan
Autunian
290
Sakmarian
:zao
Late
300
r------
190-
Middle
Late
310
320
355
360
315
Stephanian
Carboniferous
u;
Early
Namurian
c
Middle
370
Devonian
Early
Asturian
Mississippian
~Sudetian
Namurian
~co
Tournalsian
l>t[l!!lilln
~Bretonian
Chantanquian
Senecian
Frasnian
Givetian
Couvinian
Emsian
~
Pennsylvanian
Baskhlrian
is
345
Late
385
,-
Moscovlan
Visean
360
Czellan
"c
Westphalian ~
Famennian
375
Orenburg Ian
Early
335
:;
r------
325
Elfelian_Zlichovian _
Praguian
Erian
Ulsterian
Slegenian
Lochkovian
400
395
Gedinian
Ardenian
Fig. 82. Subdivisions of the Upper Paleozoic. Two radiometric scales; a according to
Odin et al. (1982b); b according to Van Eysinga (1985)
east of America as well as the oceanic areas of middle Europe (Fig. 84).
These latter aspects will be considered in more detail.
2.2.2.1 Collision Between West Africa and North America:
the Appalachian Chain
Along the eastern border of North America, the situation inherited from the
Silurian was an active margin with a subsiding platform to the west and a
closing sea to the east (Fig. 79).
Lower to Middle Devonian: Acadian Orogeny. The border of the platform was deformed and uplifted into a mountain chain stretching from
Newfoundland to Pennsylvania, by the accretion of a microcontinent called
"Avalon-Florida". The erosion resulting from this uplift spread sediment
over a large alluvial plain including the red molasse of the Catskill Delta.
117
Fig. 83. Paleogeography of the Upper Carboniferous about 300 m. y. ago, showing the
formation of Pangea (Daly 1984, after Irving 1977). Note the difference between this and
Matte's reconstruction (Fig. 84). Dashed lines indicate boundaries between oceans and
epicontinental seas
Fig. 84. The Hercynian orogenic cycle and its principal motor, the approach of
Gondwana and the North American-Eurasian (or Laurussian) block. A The situation in
the Silurian before the beginning of the cycle; B in the Permian at the end of the cycle. 1
Caledonian orogen; 2 Appalachian orogen; 3 Hercynian orogen; 4 Mauritanian orogen; 5
Ural; a Iapetus; b Paleotethys (After Matte 1986)
This molasse filled the basin by progradation, slowly pushing the sea
westwards.
Carboniferous and Lower Permian . This detrital regime continued, interrupted locally by episodes of limestone and coal deposition suggesting
118
119
----
~~
......
-;~
'
+++
"
A: Rhenohercynian zone
B: Saxolh urlnglan zone
C: Moldanubian zone
Fig. 85. Structural elements of the Variscan chain of Europe (after Matte 1986), with
paleogeographic zones. 1 Principal thrust faults; 2 internal crystalline nappes and
ophiolitic sutures; 3 domains of flow cleavage or foliation ; 4external basins of DevonianCarboniferous age; 5 platforms or blocks with little or no Variscan deformation; 6
direction of transport of nappes and verging directions of major recumbent folds; 7 major
ductile transcurrent faults
120
'
1
'.:-'
I:::: I
Mantle
Oceanic crust
330MA
190
200Km
Continental crust
Paleozoic deposits
Fig. 86. Evolution of the Variscan chain in Europe as seen in an Ardennes-Massif Central
transverse section (after Matte 1986). 1 Silurian, initial stage, closure of the Rheic ocean
(to the north) and Galicia-Massif Central (to the south) by subduction of oceanic crust. 2
Lower Carboniferous, final stage, hypercoliision with intracrustal thrusting
sediments of the Devonian are limestones such as the Griotte marble. This
facies continued until the Lower Carboniferous in Asturia, then early paralic
sedimentation, still influenced by the marine environments of Asturia, was
established.
In the Pyrenees, the Upper Carboniferous tends to be detrital and of
flysch facies below the Permian beds.
Tectonic Evolution. Two periods can be distinguished.
1. An Alpine period, in the Devonian, marked by one or two ocean
closures followed by subductions, obductions, and collisions between
Africa and Laurussia. The scenario proposed by Matte (1986) is: opening
of two oceans in the Cambro-Ordovician, the Rheic in the north, the
Galicia-Central Massif in the south 7 ; their closure by subduction of the
oceanic crust beginning in the Silurian (Fig. 86) with completion in
the Devonian as shown by subductions and collisions associated with
ophiolitic sutures in a northern belt, Cape Lizard-North Bohemia, and a
southern belt, northwest Spain, Groix island, Vendee, Central Massif,
Bohemia (Fig. 85). These belts are marked by high-pressure metamorphism (eclogites, granulites, blueschists), volcanism, and intrusions.
A "barrovian" metamorphism is associated with the first stage of the
emplacement of the major crystalline nappes in Spain, Vendee, Central
Massif, and southeast Bohemia. The Upper Devonian movements define
the "Breton" tectonic phase.
7 Other authors assume only a single middle European ocean between a peri-Gondwanian
platform and Laurussia.
121
study (ECORS = Etude des Continents et des Oceans par Reflexion Sismique) of the
continents and oceans by reflection and refraction seismic, undertaken by several French
research organizations, has demonstrated the presence of the Dinant Nappe, transported
more than 100 km and limited to the north by the Midi Fault, which is also found in North
America as the Frontal Thrust of the Appalachians.
122
between Africa and North America). The rotation of Africa towards the
west may have resulted in the opening of a Paleotethys, until then nonexistent to the south of Europe. According to another model, the West
African craton, acting as a ram against the North American craton, may
have caused the European craton to slide sinistrally to the northeast along
the Great Glen fault (Sect. 2.1.2.2, this Chap.). Recent paleomagnetic
measurements allowing more precise fixing of relative movements of the
continents may enable this question to be resolved. Finally, it is worth
noting that the Variscan chain, in contrast to the Caledonian chain, is
particularly rich in mineralizations: Pb, Zn in the platform limestones; Cu,
Pb in the rifts (Silesia, Rio-Tinto); Sn, W, V in the Carboniferous granitic
plutons of Cornwall, Brittany, Central Massif, Germany, and Siberia.
2.2.2.3 Other Tectonic Manifestations in the World
The formation of the Asian continent as a single unit began in the Lower
Paleozoic with the approach of the Siberian, Chinese, and European plates,
and the first deformations of the Angara and Ural belts, continuing until the
Upper Paleozoic. Consequently, the ocean separating Europe and Siberia
disappeared in the Upper Carboniferous and the Uralides arose as a consequence of deformations which continued into the Upper Permian.
Similarly, China and Siberia were joined in the Upper Carboniferous. In
Afghanistan, the Asian margin was the locus of successive orogenic phases
induced by ocean consumption and collisions with continental blocks and
island arcs.
Elsewhere in the world, the Variscan orogeny had numerous
repercussions:
1. At the active peripacific and periarctic margins. These include the
western American (Cordilleran area with the Antler orogeny, the Andean
area, and the Franklin belt of northern Canada), the Tasmanian, New
Zealand, Antarctic, and Japanese margins. In most cases deformation
occurred from the Middle to Upper Devonian, climaxing in the
Carboniferous (northern Canada, Tasmania, Japan) often with mountain
building. The last traces of activity are recorded in the Upper Permian.
Apart from deformation, granitization, metamorphism, and volcanism
have been observed in most ofthe mentioned orogens.
2. On the cratons. It appears that the principal period of tectonic activity
occurred in the Lower Carboniferous, especially between the Upper
Visean and the Namurian, when it was almost worldwide in its effects,
including North America, the Russian platform, Siberia, Altai, southern
China, and the Sahara. An important regression was associated with it.
In North America, the uplift of the Marathon Mountains in southern
Texas occurred at this time together with thick local accumulations of
detrital sediment, as shown by the 4000 m of red sandstones, conglomerates, and evaporites in the Paradox Basin of Utah. Mineralization
123
Paleopoles
~ Very humid
E=-:3
Humid
1;:;'-:1 Subhumid
[.:.::;.;] Arid
Fig. 87. Distribution of climatic zones on Pangea at the end of the Paleozoic as proposed
by Hay et at. (1981)
124
Lower and Middle Devonian. The climate was warm and rather dry. Reefs
flourished in the oceans up to 40 latitude; the continents were somewhat
dry with little vegetation covering the high relief of the Caledonian
mountains. The continent of the Old Red Sandstone, therefore, had a
tropical semiarid climate of the Chad type. In fact, evaporite basins formed
at this time in North America.
Upper Devonian. A relative deterioration of the climate occurred, related
to the first phases (Breton and Acadian) of the Hercynian orogeny, which
closed the ocean and its east-west circulation between Gondwana' and
Laurasia. Humidity increased and the oceans cooled. Minor glaciations took
place in the eastern United States (New York State and Pennsylvania) and
north of the 40 S latitude in Brazil and perhaps Niger and Ghana.
Lower Carboniferous. The same climatic trend continued, as shown by the
rarity of reefs in the oceans, partly maintained by the newly formed continental relief and in spite of being moderated by the great Dinantian
transgression. Thus, in spite of a warm humid climate without seasons in the
equatorial zone, mountain glaciers developed in Argentina and South
Africa. According to Chumakov (1985), however, there was no glaciation at
all in the Lower Carboniferous.
Upper Carboniferous. The humidity, together with the other factors mentioned above, caused the development of mountain glaciation in Europe and
Australia as well as the expansion of forests. The equator was at this time
located in the southern United States and in southern Europe, where the
125
Hercynian relief had just been created, with evaporite subtropical zones at
the present high latitudes. The Northern Hemisphere was slightly warmer
than the southern one, as shown by minor reefs in Japan at a paleolatitude
of 650 N.
Stephanian. This was the epoch of the major Gondwanian glaciation (Fig.
88), traces of which have been found north of the 65 0 S paleolatitude
in Brazil, Argentine, Uraguay, Falklands, South Africa, Oman, Dekkan,
Malaysia, Pakistan, and Australia. The structure of wood, from that time
provided with annular rings, demonstrates the appearance of distinct
seasons. This climate contrast may be related to the general lowering of sea
level caused by the glaciation.
Permian. Glaciation continued into the Lower Permian, especially in
Australia and Antarctica, while Africa and South America slowly became
free of ice. The climate became generally colder, drier, and seasonal,
although the Tethys remained mild and deposited fusulinid limestones, but
no genuine reefs. The aridity is indicated by red beds (New Red Sandstones
derived by erosion of the Hercynian mountain chain) and evaporites. Desert
dunes formed in northern Great Britain have enabled the determination of
the direction of the trade winds of the time. In the Middle and Upper
Permian a warming trend melted the Gondwana ice cap, leaving glaciers
only in the mountains. The European landmass became increasingly arid, as
clearly shown by the sequences of continental sedimentation, from the coals
of the limnic basins, through coals with halophytic floras, to the desert
deposits of the peneplained Variscan chain.
126
Drying sea
If"".=-~
Epicontinental sea
&
-4
Volcanism
k::.::}:'J
Continental deposits
Fig. 89. Europe in the Permian (After L ..... _. _.. ___ ..... _. ___ ~I
with its maximum in the Visean. In Europe, the Old Red Sandstone continent was everywhere covered except in Ireland and Scotland. However,
between the Lower and Middle Carboniferous the transgression was halted
by the Sudetic orogenic phase, causing central Europe to emerge and the
Tethys to withdraw southwards. Faunas became reduced in the Namurian
because of the shrinking seas which continued into the Middle and Upper
Carboniferous with the uplift of the Variscan mountains. The Asturian
orogenic phase was manifested in the emergence of southern Europe, North
Africa, Himalayas, eastern Siberia, and China. It should also be remembered
that the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation, superimposed on the orogenic
effects, resulted in a net eustatic character of sea-level changes. The retreat
of ice also caused a slight rise in sea level beginning in the Autunian.
Permian. The seas withdrew again from the continents. Was this the effect
of an emergence of Pangea due to a heat flow not easily dissipated, as
suggested by Worsley et al. (1984)? In any case, the epicontinental seas
were reduced at this time, and in the arid environments many dried up
127
128
129
130
2.2.4.1 Sedimentation
Devonian. The Old Red Sandstone continent was a remarkable paleogeographic entity, covering Spitzbergen, northwestern Russia, eastern
Greenland, western Norway, and Scotland. The products of erosion from
the Caledonian chain (arkosic sands, silts, shales, conglomerates) were
spread over extensive alluvial plains with deltaic deposits where crossstratification, current ripples, and mud cracks have been recognized.
Lacustrine deposits were also formed, in Scotland for example. In places
these sediments were very thick in intermontane and extramontane basins.
Their bright colors (red and white sandstones and varicolored shales) attest
to the predominantly arid climate, as do facetted pebbles, frosted sand
grains, aeolian dunes, and desert crusts. It should be noted, however, that
the first coals were formed in northern Russia. The Old Red Sandstone
facies is also known from the Siberian platform (Angara), from Kamtchatka
and from China. The deposition of the "Lower Continental beds" in the
Sahara, consisting of detritus distributed across a vast slope, drew to a close
in the Lower Devonian, having started in the Cambrian.
Carboniferous. A striking contrast was established between the northern
and southern hemispheres in the Upper Carboniferous. In Gondwana, sedimentation was essentially glacial, with tillites containing striated pebbles,
varves, eskers and floors channeled by ice flow. The measurements of
flow directions from these traces suggest that there were two centres of
glaciation, one in southwestern Africa, the other in eastern Antarctica (Fig.
88). In North America and Eurasia, on the other hand, coal-rich sediments
were deposited in a warm climate over most of the emerged land, forming
the coal-measure strata of North America and western Europe, in the latter
case occurring in a great elongate coal basin which can be followed from
England to Silesia. The coal-measure sedimentation was influenced by the
tectonic evolution during the Carboniferous. In the Middle Carboniferous,
while the land was still without much relief, paralic basins with coastal
swamps were characteristic. The combination of sea-level fluctuations, subsidence, prograding sheets of continental detritus from meandering rivers,
and a luxurious vegetation, lead to cyclic deposition, often very thick
(5000m in the Saar and Lorraine basin with 560 coal beds). Stratigraphic
correlations between basins depend on fossil plants and on tonstein horizons
(see methods of correlation above). In the Upper Carboniferous, the basins
became limnic and localized in the depressions of the Variscan chain as it
was uplifted (e.g. French Massif Central).
Permian. Marine regression and a climate once again arid created conditions similar to those of the Devonian. In Western Europe, erosion of the
Variscan chain leads to the deposition, below 40 latitude, of red molasse
(New Red Sandstone), often with evaporites, in intermontane basins. These
were relatively restricted in size, rapidly subsiding, and often localized along
131
132
This last page in the Earth's history seems at first glance to be the richest in
variety of events, as indicated for example by its finer subdivisions of
geologic time. However, in reality this merely reflects the greater and more
detailed knowledge that we have of post-Permian time, and which progressively increases towards the Quaternary.
133
72
Era
Systems
Subsystems
65
70
C
83
85
95
95 100
07
12
110
14 120
19
26 130
Emscherian
Cenomanian
Albian
Neo-
180
01
190
Late
U
A
170
Barremian
Hauterivian
cornian
70
81
95
Aptian
Early
R
S
S
I
C
Maim
Bajocian
~~g~~~::~=
Early
Lias
39
Late
TRIASSIC
20
Middle
nn
Early
p5
Vraconnian
ansayes pn
Gargaslan
Bedoulian
~an
Gault
Urgonlan
Wealdlan
Berriasian
Portlandian
Kimmeridgian
Callovisn
Middle Dogger f--- Bathonlan_
00
10
ligerian
Valanginian
Oxfordian
04
20
29
33
Provencian
Turonian
Late
50 160
Valdonlan
Conacian
0
30 140
35
40 150
Aturlan
Santonian
90
91
Fuvelian
Orogenic
stages
Local
Senonian
86
88
Campanian
75
80
European stages
General
Hognaclan
Maastrichtian
.Begudlan_
~ptlensbachlan
Sinemurlan
Hettangian
Rhetian
Norian
C~~ ___
VlraulianI-Pleroceroan_
[uslt8ni8n
Vesulian
Charmouthian
Lotharingl~
e"anCarlxlan~meria
Keuper
Carnian
Ladinian
Anisian
Scythian
Tithonian
--
Neocimmeria.
Purbecklan
Volglan
Vlrglorlan
Wertenlan
Muschelkalk
Buntsandstein
Fig. 90. Subdivisions of the Mesozoic. Two radiometric age scales: a according to Odin et
al. (1982b); and b according to Van Eysinga (1985)
134
Fig. 91. Paleogeography of 1 the Triassic and 2 the Upper Jurassic about 200 and
150m.y. ago . Fragmentation, then dispersion of Pangea (Daly 1984, modified from Irving
1977). Dashed line indicates boundary between oceans and epicontinental seas
135
From the Paleotethys to the Neotethys. The Tethys of the Paleozoic continued into the Trias as a gulf between Gondwana and Eurasia opening to
the Pacific in the east and closed to the west somewhere in Asia Minor. This
was the permanent Tethys (Aubouin et al. 1980) or Paleotethys.
To the south of this region, the Neotethyan ocean gradually opened
from the SE to the NW beginning in the Trias (Fig. 92) with a classical
rifting stage (subsidence of continental crust) and then spreading (with
formation of oceanic crust). The Cimerian continent (Tibetan), extending
westwards as Iran and Afghanistan, broke away from Gondwana during this
opening, drifted north, and so first reduced the Paleotethys then closed it by
collision with Asia. This closure, complete by Dogger time l l , is recorded in
the Indosinian suture running from northern Iran to China. These events,
together with major volcanic outpourings on the Siberian platform, can be
11 In another scenario two openings are envisaged; the Mesotethys and the Neotethys,
producing two continents (North and South Tibet), and leading to two collisions with
Asia, the later one occurring between the Upper Jurassic and the Neocomian.
136
Fig. 93. Tethys in the Upper Jurassic (after Bernouilli and Lemoine, 1980). 1 Caribbean
Tethys; 2 Central Atlantic; 3 Liguro-Piemontain ocean; 4 open Tethys due to drift of the
Cimmerian oceans; 5 margin of northwestern Australia. A Apulian block; EM East
Mediterranean; P possible remnant of Paleotethys
related to the Cimerian tectonic phase culminating at the end of the Trias
and known from Iran, the Balkans, and southeast Asia. In the Upper Trias,
the Neotethyan rifting spreads to the submerged East Mediterranean platform, fragmenting the thick limestones which had been deposited on it into
large blocks.
Further west, i.e. from the western Mediterranean, the rifting began
also in the Upper Trias but was conditioned by the earlier formation of
SW-NE Variscan faults. The rifting here also affected the emerged land
bordering the future Central Atlantic, including Morocco, northwestern
Africa (Liberia , Sierra Leone), and the eastern border of North America.
These grabens, generally accompanied by basic intrusions, functioned as
continental basins filled with sediment which formed the base of most
Mesozoic sequences. A tensional phase of tectonism also occurred in
northern Africa, Spain, southeastern France (Cevenole margin), and in the
Pyrenees region (outpourings of ophites) .
The Jurassic Tethys. After the Trias, rifting continued but generally affected
structures different from the preceding ones. Evidence for this is seen in the
tilted blocks, which affect the Trias but also the earliest Jurassic platform
deposits of northern Africa, southeastern France, the Subbetic domain, and
the Apennines, for example. Following this rifting, there was plate movement and the formation of oceanic crust. To the east of the Adriatic
promontory (Apulian block), rifting began early during the Lias, while to
the west (Fig. 93) it was not until the end of the Dogger that two Neotethyan
segments, separated by the Maghrebian-Ligurian transform domain,
(Bernouilli and Lemoine 1980) began to open as the Liguro-Piemontais
137
Oxfordian to Kimmeridgian
2
~r
Fig. 94. Evolution of the
western margin of North
America in the Jurassic
(After Roure and Sosson
1986)
1: America-Mexico craton
2: FranCiscan Basin
3: North American craton
Ocean and the Central Atlantic Ocean. As a result, the American block was
displaced to the west relative to northern Eurasia and there were two
further consequences:
1. The opening, at the beginning of the Upper Jurassic, of the westernmost
Tethyan segment, comprising the Gulf of Mexico to the north and the
Caribbean to the south, separated by a transform zone between the two
Americas.
2. An activation of subduction in the East Pacific region at the western
margin of the American Plate. According to Aubouin et al. (1986) this
subduction was to the west during the Jurassic and resulted in collision
between the West-American margin, passive since the Paleozoic, and a
volcanic island arc (American-Mexican block corresponding to the Sierra
Nevada, Klamath Mountains, and Blue Mountains). The American
margin was overridden by this block in the Upper Jurassic (Nevadan
phase), while the Franciscan intra-arc basin was formed (Roure and
Blanchet 1983; Roure et al. 1986; Fig. 94). Further north, on the other
hand, it appears that the Pacific was subducted under Alaska. Finally,
ophiolites were obducted on to the Canadian margin in the Lower and
Middle Jurassic.
Other World Events. From the Upper Trias to the Dogger, fractures and
associated basaltic extrusives were generated between the Africa-South
America and Madagascar-India-Antarctica-Australia blocks and in South
Africa (Triassic basalts of Drakensberg). These groups became separated
at the end of the Jurassic, giving rise to the Mozambique Basin and to
the Indian Ocean. In the Upper Jurassic, deformation was widespread.
Apart from the already mentioned Nevadan phase in the North American
Cordillera, an Andean phase in the Kimmeridgian affected the western
margin of South American. Finally, at the end of the Jurassic, the Tethys
was subjected to compression, especially at its two extremities, probably a
consequence of the initial opening of the South Atlantic (see below). To
138
Formation of the Great Southern Ocean (Fig. 95). The Atlantic Ocean
opened gradually from south to north during the Cretaceous and part of the
Tertiary. In fact, the separation of South America and Africa had already
begun in the Upper Jurassic following the phase of rifting. The basaltic
volcanism associated with this is seen up to the Upper Valanginian at the
continental margins of Brazil and Namibia. The sea invaded this rupture, in
the Oxfordian to the south, in the Aptian to the north. In the Middle
Albian, marine pelagic faunas were able to pass from the Central to the
South Atlantic, a movement facilitated by the higher sea level characteristic
of this epoch (Fig. 50). At the end of the Cretaceous, the South Atlantic was
3000 km wide. The opening of the Atlantic, from south to north, reached
the Tethys near the Central Atlantic and enlarged the latter from the Middle
Albian. Beyond this area, i.e. north of the Maghrebian-Ligurian transform
139
Albian to Campanian
Franciscan collision
Late Cretaceous
Continental subduction
Plutonism
Fig. 96. Evolution of the western margin of North American in the Cretaceous (After
Roure and Sosson 1986)
domain, the Atlantic opened between Eurasia and North America, where
already since the Upper Trias an arm of a northern epicontinental sea had
spread into the rift valleys. It is probable that opening took place near
offshore Spain from the Upper Aptian, following rifting initiated at the
beginning of the Cretaceous. That would explain the cutting off of western
Europe from the Tethys and its final dependence on the North Sea and
the Atlantic, beginning in the Albian. At the beginning of the Upper
Cretaceous, a rupture appeared between Greenland and Europe with only
minor subsequent separation until the Paleocene, when the opening of the
North Atlantic to the Arctic ocean was completed. However, also in the
Upper Cretaceous, another passage was opened between the Baffin and
Labrador seas.
140
~
190
131)
141
below the American continent, giving rise to vertical movements so characteristic of the Andes, may also have taken place. Several phases of deformation, folding, and thrusting, followed one another, with centres of
activity moving successively further to the east, and accompanied by intense
volcanism (up to 15 km of volcanics in the southern Andes in Upper
Cretaceous). In the central Andes, it appears that the Upper Cretaceous
marked the end of a phase of extension, dominant from the Trias, and the
beginning of a regime of compression continuing until present day.
The complex history of the Caribbean was conditioned by the movements of sinistral transcurrent faults between the two Americas. A CircumCaribbean orogenic phase in the Lower Cretaceous and the opening of the
Caribbean Sea in the Upper Cretaceous, when North America began to drift
to the northwest, then to the north, are both attributable to these fault
movements. Volcanic arcs were formed around the Caribbean Sea near the
subduction zones.
Finally, the difference in rate of opening between the North Atlantic
and the Central Atlantic decreased appreciably in the Campanian (80 m. y.).
As a result, the sinistral faulting between Africa and Eurasia, already
oblique since the beginning of the Cretaceous, gave way to a distinct N-S
convergence between the two continents (Fig. 97).
Initial Closure of the Tethys. This also was probably a consequence of the
opening of the South Atlantic, which pushed Africa and Arabia against
Eurasia. This compression began in the latest Jurassic (see above), and in
the Cretaceous it led to oceans closing and sometimes to the obduction
of ophiolites. Two paroxysmal periods have been noted, the Albian and
the Maestrichtian. However, no major volcanism occurred outside the
Carpathians and the Balkan-Caspian magmatic arc. The closure of the
Tethys was apparently complex and variable, but it did not prevent a
reopening in the Valaisan-Carpathian basin and in the East Mediterranean
basin in the Lower Cretaceous, for instance. Major compression began in
the Aptian, when the North Atlantic opened and when the eastern part of
the Arabian-African block exerted greater pressure against Eurasia (Fig.
97). Principal consequences were as follows:
1. Resorption of oceanic crust by subduction and overthrusting by obduction. These are preserved today in the strongly tectonized blueschist
ophiolitic belts. An example can be seen in the belt stretching from the
Alpine arc (earliest metamorphism of high pressure-low temperature
type, dated at 80m.y.) to Iran and northern Pakistan 12
2. Calc-alkaline volcanism at active margins, as seen in the Balkans and
southern Carpathians.
12The mechanics of this obduction in the Oman region, where it is of Upper Cretaceous
age, have been discussed in the classic works of Boudier and Michard (1981).
142
110
~----- ...
... ....
Fig. 98. Relative movement of Spain in relation to Europe from the Aptian (110m.y.) to
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (65m.y.). Arrows indicate sense of transcurrent
movement of the North Pyrenees (After the paleogeographic maps of Dercourt et al.
1985)
143
144
All these events appear to have affected the course of biological evolution,
as we will see below. However, according to Plaziat and Ellenberger (1982),
no exact synchronism between biological breaks, regression, and tectonic
movements can be demonstrated at the end of the Cretaceous.
145
The Mesozoic climate was warmer on average than that of the Paleozoic,
a possible consequence of the absence of major orogenies and the noncoincidence of poles and emerged land. The evolving climate on the continents was controlled partly by the apparent shift of the poles, which from
the Trias was in a meridian containing the Earth's present axis of rotation.
The widespread occurrence of Triassic red beds reflects tropical climates and
contrasting seasons. The Upper Trias was somewhat arid, especially in
Europe, as is shown by a band of evaporites stretching into North Africa
between 10 and 40 of latitude. In the Jurassic, the breaking up of Pangea
and the eustatic rise in sea level created a more humid climate in general,
with subtropical conditions existing between the 60th parallels north and
south. The warm seas favored the formation of carbonates and reefs 14 .
However, from the Pliensbachian, a Boreal province and a Tethyan province
can be distinguished on the basis of ammonites. Well established in the
Jurassic, they persisted into the Cretaceous. The Boreal province was
dominated by siliciclastic sedimentation, the Tethyan province by carbonates. On the continents bauxites were widespread, while coal-forming
forests flourished in the Boreal province (e.g., Siberia, Greenland, and
Spitzberg). Some aridity is recorded in Upper Jurassic sediments of southern
Eurasia (Hallam 1984), and the American continents. In the Cretaceous, the
equator was 20 from its present position and the climate was always warm
with less contrasting seasons than today because of a weaker latitudinal
thermal gradient 15 However, it appears that the climate in general had
become a little cooler (shown by a decline in the madrepores) and a little
drier; although, according to Hallam, the reverse tendency occurred in the
Atlantic and Tethyan regions where bauxites formed. In the north hemisphere, the Tethys, open at both extremities, played an important role. A
warm surface current flowed westwards, promoting the formation of platform carbonates. The closure of this sea in the Upper Cretaceous, and the
access of cooler water from the South Pacific to the Central Atlantic when
the South Atlantic opened, resulted in a narrowing of climatic zones and an
increase in humidity. Europe, Russia, and North America thus became
more temperate. The northern hemisphere probably cooled gradually during
the Mesozoic, but especially at the end of the Cretaceous, in contrast to the
southern hemisphere which very quickly rid itself of its Paleozoic glaciers.
Some authors do not share this point of view, believing that the highest
temperatures were concentrated in the Cretaceous (Crowley 1983), with a
high in the Albian to Turonian period. An appreciable cooling, however, is
generally accepted from the Campanian.
14 A reef complex 300 km long stretched between the Ardennes and Morvan in the Paris
Basin in the Upper Oxfordian.
15 10 3C average annual temperature at 85 N latitude in the Albo-Cenomanian
according to recent studies, but an equatorial zone warmer than it is today.
146
Basement
Brianconnais
11km
Piemontais zone
BATHONIAN
L - -_ _....J
lookm
Fig. 100. Graben subsidence of the European margin after the Dogger in the Alps (After
Argyriadis et al. 1980)
3.1.3.1 Trias-Jurassic
147
148
SE
NW
Marginal oceanic basin
(Tethyan Ocean)
Continental margin
Stable platform
(Paris basin. England.
Europe)
Plemontais lacies
BrianQOnnais lacles
Dauphinols lacits
Epicontinental facies
Fig. 102. Facies variations in the Jurassic from the Tethys (Piemontain Ocean) to the
western European platform
149
150
Fig. 103. Upper Cretaceous transgression in West Africa (After Kogbe 1976)
,---,
, ,"
'.. __
'---- .. ,
,
Fig. 104. The West European archipelago in the Santonian. Horizontal lines, land; dotted
line, deep-water subalpine zone and its Valaisan continuation; dash-dotted line, plate
boundaries
151
this connection was lost and the Sahara was covered by Cenomanian
evaporites over an area of 340000 km2 A second transgression from the
Maestrichtian to the Paleocene followed the same route and spread onto the
Arabian platform to the east. In central China, a lacustrine environment
was established in the Jurassic and Cretaceous.
Cratonic Margins. The sediments here are totally or partially marine and
many have been tectonically deformed, as in the following:
152
+ +
i'tTi'
+
T
+
T
T
+ +
i'+
Progradation prism
Discontinuities
0 0 0 001'
IIi1 Salt
Fig. lOS. Sediments of the West African continental margin (Gulf of Guinea). I Upper
Jurassic to Neocomian; Il Aptian to Oligocene; III Neogene and Quaternary (After
Delteil et al. 1975, see also Moullade and Nairn 1978, p. 393)
153
2
----,-.-:~
Oceanic crust
.....
L......
.......
;;...0"
"
'III II
II ~ ==
\I =
If.;::; __
.~ -
q ~""II "'" It /I
-~~v
'~""!- ...."-==
--- ,,,
___
_ --::i!,::3:==~~::::::::~
. . :.
-"""'..,..,
Fig. 106. The West American margin (California) in the Middle Cretaceous (After Roure
1981)
The truly marine beds, sands and shales, although intercalated with continental sands, begin in the Cenomanian.
Active margins. In the Tethys domain, the often very intense deformation of most of the continental margin has made it difficult, if not
impossible, to reconstruct the Cretaceous paleogeography. However, facies
sequences restored to their approximate original positions permit the following zones to be distinguished.
1. Highs, often called ridges, with carbonate deposits, either neritic or reefs
(South Alps, Carpathians, Hellenides, Dinarides, Appeninnes), or
relatively deep slope deposits (for example the condensed and incomplete deposits of the Brianc;onnais).
2. Deep zones where pelagic sequences, submarine breccias, and flysch
sediments were deposited. The latter are of varied ages like the deformations which gave rise to them. In the Lower Cretaceous, they can
be followed from Gibralter to the Balkans via the Maghrebides, the
Appennines, the Alps, and the Carpathians, marking a narrow structural
zone of nappes and the boundary between the external and internal
zones of the mountain chain. These deep zones became widespread in
the Middle Cretaceous (Maghrebides, Pyrenees, Ligurian domain), and
were still common in the Upper Cretaceous (Dinarides, Hellenides,
external Carpathians, Alps with Helminthoides flysch 18).
154
155
as the destabilization of the food chains whose bases are formed by these
plankton.
3. Continental fragmentation and dispersion, which reduced the possibilites
for migration of various organisms, terrestrial and marine and, therefore,
intensified biological competition.
4. Intense volcanicity in India, contributing to acid rain, has also been
suggested as a cause.
156
Me
ERA
0,01
Systems
Subsystems
Holocene
European stages
General
0,4
Versillan
0,6
A
Normal
Milazzlan
Bruhnel
~-------
Sicilian
0,8
cene
A
ReversE
1,4
Matuyama
1,6
Calabrlan
Villafranchian
NOiiiiif
ReverSE
Gilbert
15
C
E
23 25
30
35
40
34
45
45 50
60
6< 65
f----
Plalsanclan
Rhodanian
f----
Pliocene
Zanclean
(Tablanlan)
Late
Miocene
Ruscinian
Pontlan
Messinian
1~1~~1:~
Middle SerravaRran
LaiiQiifan
Early
Girondian
Turollan
ills an ._
,.... Marernmia!!_
Vindobonian
A
R
Y
Late
Chattlan
Early
Stampian
Late
Bartonian
Burdigalian
Aquitanian
""",,"Savian
Oligocene
Eocene
N
E
Attican
J.--.... Styrlan
E
52 55
Valachian
Astian
10
39
Normal
Oldwai
1,8
20
Emilian
Pleisto-
1,2
Orogenic
stages
Tvrrhenan
U
0,2
Local
Paleocene
Middle
Luletian
Early
Ypresian
Late
Selandian
Early
Danian
Sannoisian
f-M!-r~~!~~an
w~~~:~n
Ledian
BruxeJf,an
Sparnacian
Lattorfian
Asschian
Biarrl17i> n
Pyrenean
uisian
Landenian
Vitroliian
Laramldlan
Fig. 107. Subdivisions of the Cenozoic, Two radiometric age scales: a according to Odin
et al. (1982b); b according to Van Eysinga (1985)
157
Fig. 108. Paleogeography of 1 the Lower Eocene and 2 the Upper Oligocene about 50
and 25m.y. ago: Complete opening of the North Atlantic (Daly 1984, modified after
Irving 1977). Dashed lines indicate boundaries between oceans and epicontinental seas
158
3.2.2.2 Oligocene
Significant compression continued in the peri-Mediterranean chains (Internal
Alps with a cover of sliding nappes, Dinarides, Hellenides, and North
Africa, where it was dominant) and in Iran. In the Upper Oligocene, a
certain relaxation of orogenic activity can be noted worldwide, but especially
in western Europe where this period is called a phase of relaxation, following a brief episode of dextral transcurrent faulting affecting Africa from east
to west between 35 and 20m.y. (Fig. 97). Distension, therefore, followed
compression and was marked by the appearance of N-S rift valleys, some-
159
1. Ocean openings and closures. These resulted in the formation of the Red
Sea2l , the Algerian-Provencal basin in the Mediterranean, following an
anticlockwise rotation of 30 of the Corso-Sardinian block [Ligurian
Sphenochasm (Fig. 109)], the Tyrrhenian basin behind the Calabrais
arc, the Sea of Japan, and the Okinawa basin 22 . An opening was also
initiated in East Africa (Great Lakes Rift). Conversely, the renewal of an
active convergence between the African and European plates (Fig. 97)
could explain the closures in the Lower Miocene and the emplacement of
the Aegean Arc by subduction of the African plate under the European
plate, and the Tyrrhenian arc in the East Mediterranean. These activities
are still taking place today. In addition, the Tethys was cut off from the
Indo-Pacific domain at the end of the Lower Miocene by the approach of
Arabia to Eurasia. In the Messinian, the isolation of the Tethys became
complete when a slight rotation of Africa cut it off from the Atlantic.
0
2The origin of most of these grabens goes back to the Upper Eocene when they were
associated more with the dynamics of transtension than extension.
21 Resulting in a sinistral movement of Arabia in the Middle East (grabens) and the
formation of the Antilebanon chain. The accretion of oceanic crust in the centre of the
Red Sea began only in the Pliocene.
22 A mega pull-apart appeared in the Upper Oligocene in a shear zone between the North
American and Eurasian plates.
160
~ Siwallks
[s:;:J
Suture zone
II:II High Country series and nappes Issued from the Indian margin
IIlDIDJ
l'Ji!I
am
km
~ Tibet Slab
Ophiolitic nappes
Volcanic rocks
Fig. 110. Interpretive structural section of the Himalayas (after Mascle 1985). 1 SubHimalayas; 2 Low Himalayas; 3 Upper Himalayas; 4 Trans-Himalayas
There followed a salinity crisis (see below) which did not end until the
beginning of the Pliocene with the opening of the Straits of Gibraltar.
2. Major deformations. These mainly concern the Tethyan chains. Large
nappes, which may have been transported more than 100 km, were
emplaced in North Africa (where they originated from internal zones,
now submerged, of the eastern Mediterranean chains), in the Hellenides,
and in the Himalayas where the main thrusting was to the south from the
Upper onto the Lower Himalayas (Fig. 110). These emplacements were
accompanied by uplifts, by metamorphism and by the deposition of
molasse. Folding and thrusting also affected the Internal and External
Alps (the latter affected also by metamorphism), the Jura, the Appenines,
the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. In the Carpathians there was also
some volcanism, still active in the Pliocene.
3. Folding, volcanism, and/or plutonism characterize the major part of the
peri-Pacific belt: in New Zealand, where the movement on the Alpine
Fault was beginning; the Aleutians; the West Pacific Island Arc (collision
161
between the volcanic arc of Luzon and the Chinese passive margin);
Indonesia (continuation of the collision between the Indian, Eurasia, and
Pacific plates); the Coast Ranges; and the Andes. The latter region was
affected by a latest Miocene phase (Sub andean thrust sheets of Bolivia
and Peru, and the East Cordillera of Colombia). A reduced activity
(uplifts, extension and volcanism defining the "Basin and Range" phase)
occurred in the West American Cordillera (Great basin, Rocky
Mountains, and Mexican Sierra Madre).
In the Plio-Pleistocene, the compression between the Arabian-African
block and Eurasia continued, welding Arabia firmly to Asia and forming the
Zagros Chain. In the Lower Pliocene, significant deformation involving the
molasse basins was localized in the Apennines and in the External Alps.
The squeezing of India against Asia is still active (5 cm/year), producing the
most external overthrusts of the Himalayas (the Lower Himalayas onto the
Siwaliks and the latter onto the Indo-Pakistan Shield; Fig. 110). In total,
2000 km of shortening has resulted from the collision between India and
Asia.
In the Upper Pliocene, the Alpine and Maghrebian domains were
subjected to a regime of extension. Uplifts resulted in the Alps, for example
those of the external crystalline massifs, causing some folding and thrusting
in the external zones. The Jura was also uplifted, including the Bresse
region. Conversely, the Po Plain subsided. These vertical movements,
still discernible today, also affected areas more distant, as seen in the
rejuvenation of the French Central Hercynian Massif and the basaltic
volcanism of that region 23 However, the extension affected particularly the
Mediterranean domain with NW-SE and NE-SW directions, giving it the
following essential characteristics: those of an intermontane sea created
partly by major rifting (for example the Tyrrhenide sea, with the formation
of the modern Western Mediterranean), which appears oblique to the
Alpine structures. Zones of compression remain, however, as seen in the
Tyrrhenian and Aegean Arcs, implying a subduction and destruction of
oceanic crust (Fig. 111).
In the Pliocene, vertical and strike-slip movements occurred also in the
peri-Pacific belt, with very noticeable effects in the western Americas. These
include basaltic outpourings in the Rockies, the Canadian Cordillera, and
British Columbia; transcurrent movement of the San Andreas Fault System,
one result of which was the northern drift of the peninsula of Baja
California, until then joined with Mexico (Tardy et al. 1986); uplift in the
Rockies, the Great Basin, and the Andes, where interior grabens were
formed.
In the Quaternary, a compressive neotectonism, initiated in the terminal
Pliocene, has deformed recent deposits of the Mediterranean rim. The
23The latest manifestations of which occurred between 35000 and 40000 years ago.
162
Ophiolitic scar
Thrusting front
Fig. 111. Mediterranean chains resulting from the collision of Africa and Eurasia (after
Aubouin 1984). 1 West Mediterranean chain; 2 Middle Mediterranean chain (with
hypercollision of the eastern Alps); 3 East Mediterranean chain; a Tyrrenian arc; b
Aegean arc
163
I
\
',-, --'--x
I
"/
'
."
... ::':0'
.:"
Fig. 112. Western Europe in the Upper Eocene (inspired by Pomero11973; stereographic
support from Smith and Briden 1977). Horizonta/lines, land; dotted lines, zones of open
communication at other times (between the North Sea and the Paris basin in the Middle
Eocene, and between the North Sea and the Tethys via the Rhenan trough in the
Oligocene)
3.2.3.1 Platforms
In the Paleogene, the last major marine transgressions in global history
encroached upon the emerged continents of the terminal Cretaceous.
Western Europe was the scene of numerous marine invasions from the
permanent seas of the Tethys, the North Sea, covering Denmark at that
time and the North Atlantic. These transgressions and regressions were
largely controlled by deformations affecting the platforms, due to the
activities of orogenic belts nearby. The three oceans were able to communicate temporarily (Fig. 112) across the Paris Basin, the Channel, the
Rhenan Trough, the peri-Alpine depression (in the Oligocene only), North
Germany, Poland and the Russian platform. The marine facies were diverse:
sands, shales, marls and limestones generally organized into sedimentary
cycles related to marine oscillations, and always rich in fauna (molluscs and
164
165
166
400km
'----'
Fig. 113. Europe in the Tortonian (lOm.y.). 1 Perialpine depression; 2 Pannonian basin;
3 Dacian basin; 4 Pontic basin; 5 Aralo-Caspian basin (Inspired by Dercourt et al. 1985)
167
168
3. The arrival of arctic waters in the North Atlantic and part of the Pacific.
4. The reduction in exchange of waters between the Tethys and the Atlantic
by weakening of its E-W current.
5. The appearance of the mountain chains, the Alps and the Himalayas, at
the end of the Eocene, the result being a drop of 4C in average ocean
temperature and a drier climate during the Oligocene. This climate was
warm-temperate in Europe (evaporites in the fault troughs). In the
Upper Oligocene, a decrease in the 0 180 of the oceans indicates a
warming followed by the melting of a certain quantity of ice.
3.2.4.2 Miocene
The average elevation of the emerged lands increased. The Antarctic ice
cap formed in the Lower or Middle Miocene, while the total opening of
the Drake Straits between South America and Antarctica allowed unhindered ciculation of the cold circumpolar current, thus thermally isolating
Antarctica. The temperature of the ocean bottom waters dropped from an
average of 9 to 4C. The lowering of the Greenland-Faroes-Scotland Ridge
in the Upper Miocene also allowed a regular flow of Arctic water into the
North Atlantic. The first glaciers were formed in Alaska. Finally, from the
end of the Miocene to the beginning of the Pliocene the isthmus of Panama
was emergent, increasing the flow of the Gulf Stream and the warmth and
humidity associated with it, towards the north where rain and snowfall
intensified. This led to the first glaciers in Greenland (first traces of icebergs
are about Sm.y. in the Baffin Sea). In Europe, the climate became warm
and wet with an average annual temperature of lS-20C. A first important
glacio-eustatic drop in sea level was responsible, at least partly, for the
isolation of the West Mediterranean (see above).
3.2.4.3 Pliocene
In the orogenic belts the relief continued to increase. The average global
temperature dropped again, reaching 12-15C in France. At about 3m.y.,
the Arctic ice caps were formed at the same time as the peri-Antarctic ice
pack. Already the glacial-interglacial cycles were beginning, with an alternation of temperate warm stages and mild winters with stages more humid,
seasons more contrasting and winters dry and severe.
3.2.4.4 Terminal Pliocene-Quaternary
This was the true period of glaciations. Ice caps were formed in northern
Europe, in North America, and in the Alps, while mountain glaciers
developed in the Andes, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand (Fig. 114). Six
major glacial periods (Biber, Donau, Gunz, Mindel, Riss, and Wiirm) are
traditionally accepted for the last 2.4m.y. Each period contains cold phases
and warmer interstages within it, and each is separated by interglacial
periods, these in turn divisible into alternating warm and cold subperiods,
during which the climate was often as warm or warmer than it is today. The
169
.........
',
............ .
. ..
'
'
"
"
"
','
,'
..
::
. ':::: ::;>..~
"
... : .....
.. : . .
.'
..
i.'
...
'.
,',
'.:
"
Fig. 114. The major Wiirm glaciations 18000 years ago (after Lorius and Duplessy 1977).
Note the differences in continental contours from today due to a drop of sea level of
120m
pluvial and dry alternations in the tropics and variations in glaciation at high
altitudes may be related, but it has not yet been clearly established25 .
The Riss marked the furthest advance (as far as Lyon) of the Alpine
glaciers and of the northern European ice sheets which covered the London
Basin, Holland, and Germany. In the Wiirm, the European and American
ice sheets reached their largest size; 8 x 106 km 3 for an area of 6 x 106 km2
in Europe, 30 x 106 km 3 for an area of 12 x 106 km 2 in North America. Sea
level was 120 m below the present and icebergs travelled as far as PortugaL
The consequences of the glaciations were significant and varied. The
ocean temperature fell by 2 to 3C and the lowered sea level resulted in
increased fluvial erosion on the continents and the buildings of large submarine fans at the base of the continental margins. Many submarine canyons
also date from this period. The coastlines and the drainage patterns were
appreciably altered (Fig. 115). Cryoturbations, deposition of loess and the
development of cold steppes and tundras were also characteristic of these
cold periods. The disappearance of Wiirm ice resulted in a recent acceleration
of the rate of rotation of the Earth and an isostatic readjustment of regions
25 During the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene pluvial phases of Africa, the Nile discharged enormous volumes of fresh water into the eastern Mediterranean, causing a
stratification of waters, the formation of deep anoxic water, and the deposition of
sapropels (Sect. 2.2.4, Chap. 3).
170
26 According to Arthur (1979), the number of volcanic ash beds deposited per 1000-year
interval increased from the Oligocene to the Quaternary.
171
172
General Conclusions
174
(isotopic ratios), ocean openings, ocean currents, and the biological extinctions observed in the Eocambrian, at the end of the Lower Cambrian,
and in the Ordovician, Permian, Trias, and Cretaceous. These events
make the Earth's history nongradual and noncontinuous as believed by
uniformitarianists.
In summary, therefore, it is a complex history which the entrenched
dogmas of former times are not able to explain.
The movements and deformation of the plates are also a primary cause
underlying relationships between the Earth's internal and external geodynamics and biological phenomena. The amalgamation of cratons into
supercontinents results in a lowering of sea level, the creation of continental
relief (therefore possible barriers for the migration of faunas), and a cooling
trend which could initiate glaciation. In addition, marine areas are reduced
and CO2 in the atmosphere decreases. Geological history has included four
or five such glacial eras lasting from 20-200m.y. and generally coinciding
with the major orogenies. During times of continental dispersion, the
opposite effects are produced. Among others, the possibilities for circulation
and exchange of faunas are increased in marine environments. Another
notable interaction occurs between the processes in the Earth's core and
General Conclusions
175
References
178
References
References
179
180
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Subject Index
Abundance Zone 30
Acadian Orogeny 116, 124
Active Margins 104, 122, 153, 165
Alkenones 55
Alleghanian Orogeny 118
Allochronology 25
Alpine Chain 132, 153, 157 -161
- Cycle 17, 132, 162
American-Mexican Block 137
Ammonitico-Rosso 147
Anagenesis 25
Andean Phase 137
Andes 140, 141, 158-164
Appalachians 104, 106, 108, 116, 121, 164
Appenines 147, 153, 160, 161
Apulian block 136, 142, 157
Archean 83, 84, 90, 94, 98, 99
Arctic Ocean 139, 143, 158, 168
Ardennian Phase 108, 113
Armorican Sandstones 111
Arvinche Phase 143
Assyntic Unconformity 102
Asturian Phase 121
Atlantic 69, 137-139, 141, 158, 163, 167,
168
Atmosphere 87, 88, 95, 96, 102
Aulacogen 91, 94
Autochronology 25
Barrovian metamorphism 120
Basin and Range Phase 161
Biofacies 65
Biohorizon 31, 35
Biological extinction 5, 129, 154
Biozones 10, 29, 30
Black Shale 55, 147
Boreal Province 67, 145
Bradytely 11
Break 15,38
Breton Phase 120, 124
Buller Chain 105
Cadomian Orogeny 92, 95, 103
Caledonian Orogeny 100, 105
Subject Index
186
- Stage 51
Israelski principle 43
Jasper 99
Jura 158, 160, 161
Jurassic 79, 134, 145
Karroo Formation
149
187
Subject Index
Orogenic cycles 84
- Phase 15
Overlapping Range Zone
30
Radiochronology 20-23, 85
Radiometric Age 21
Range zone 30
Rangitata Phase 138
Red Beds 86, 96, 99, 112
- Sandstones 65
- Sea 159
Reefs 111, 112, 127, 145
Remanent magnetism 56-58
Rhythm stratigraphy 42
Rocky Mountains 140, 158, 161, 164
Saalian phase
121
Saamian Orogeny 90
Salinity Crisis 160, 165
Sapropel 55, 66
Sardinian Phase 108, 113
Sedimentary rhythm 20, 37
Sedimentation 77, 78
Seismic method 38, 43
Sequence Stratigraphy 42-44
Shield 85, 86
Shoreline 70-72
Silinic Disturbance 108
Silurian 102, 108, 109, 111, 112
Stage 17
Stratotype 7, 13, 33-35
Stromatolite 85, 99, 110, 111
Subsidence 76
Sudetic Phase 121
Sundance Sea 144, 148
Suspect Thrranes 140
Synsedimentary tectonics 16
System 17
'Thchytely 10
Thconic Phase 107, 109, 113
Thphrostratigraphy 48
Thrminal Continental 164
Tethyan Province 67, 145
Tethys 12,132,135-139,141,144-146,
153, 158, 159, 163, 168
Tigillite Sandstones 111
Tillite 96-98
Time correlation 10
Tonstein 41, 48, 130
Torridonian 105
nace elements 51
lrias 3,48,65, 135, 145-147
Unconformable surface 41
Uniformitarianism 35, 49, 85, 86
Unitary association 32
Urals 115
Varve 20,47
Vocontian Basin 45-47, 151
Volcanism 108, 129, 135, 143, 155, 158,
160, 170
Wealdian 144, 151
Well logging 39-42
Wilson cycle 76, 79, 92
Zagros Chain
Zechstein Sea
161
127, 128