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External Fertilization
What is it?
What is it?
Advantage:
Advantage:
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
Picture/Example:
Picture/Example:
Budding
Binary Fission
What is it?
What is it?
Advantage:
Advantage:
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
Picture/Example:
Picture/Example:
Cloning
Vegetative Propagation
What is it?
What is it?
Advantage:
Advantage:
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
Picture/Example:
Picture/Example:
Answer Guide
Asexual Reproduction
Cloning
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Binary Fission
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Budding
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Vegetative Propagation
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Sexual Reproduction
Internal Fertilization
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External Fertilization
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Photodisc/Photodisc/Getty Images
Budding is a type of asexual reproduction. It is most commonly
associated with bacteria and yeast, but some animal species
reproduce via budding, too. A parent organism creates a bud
from its own cells, which then form the basis of the offspring
organism and develop into an organism resembling the parent.
Animals that reproduce this way are basic organisms, either
without reproductive organs or with both male and female
reproductive organisms located internally.
Flatworms
The vast majority of flatworms reproduce by budding. These
animals, biologically, are extremely basic. They have no
respiratory or circulatory systems and therefore no need for
body cavities. They take in oxygen and nutrients through the
process of diffusion. To reproduce, flatworms produce selffertilized eggs and release them. Upon release, these eggs split and go on to grow into entirely
new organisms. All types of parasitic flatworm, such as tapeworms, use budding. Budding is an
important adaptation for parasitic animals, as this method of reproduction means offspring are
guaranteed to be born into the ideal habitat, namely the host organism.
Jellyfish
Jellyfish dont rely solely on budding to reproduce. They first release a sperm and egg into the
water. Once fertilized, the sperm and egg grow into a basic organism called a polyp, which lives
attached to the base of a rock. The polyp then grows, before releasing a genetically identical bud
of itself, that grows into an adult jellyfish.
Sea Anemones
Sea anemones reproduce in a similar fashion to jellyfish. The first stage of reproduction,
whereby the polyp is produced, is sexual; the second stage of reproduction, whereby the polyp
buds, is asexual. The polyp then goes on to form a medusa" that reproduces with itself to form a
polyp.
Corals
Due to the nature of budding, large colonies of organisms can be produced at a very fast rate with
minimal interference from outside factors. One of the best examples of this phenomenon is the
coral reef, which is a huge colony of living organisms, almost identical to one another, created
via reproductive budding.
Questions:
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What is budding?
Why is budding considered asexual reproduction?
How do the offspring compare to the parent?
What are 3 organisms that reproduce with budding?
Why is budding an advantage over sexual reproduction?
Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation, like many things, has its advantages and disadvantages. It is beneficial
for plants that are well suited for their environment and when the environment is stable.
Remember that asexual reproduction results in genetically identical organisms, so these
organisms must be well adapted to their environment in order to survive. Because asexual
reproduction doesn't allow for evolution and adaptations to occur as frequently as sexual
reproduction, vegetative propagation is not advantageous for plants that live in changing
environments. In unstable environments, plants that are identical to each other may all die out at
once. However, if plants are genetically different, which is a result of sexual reproduction, some
plants may survive in an unstable environment.
Tubers are somewhat similar to bulbs. Tubers, such as potatoes, are enlarged, fleshy
underground stems. While potatoes do not always reproduce by using tubers, if you've ever left a
potato for too long, you know that new potato plants can develop from the tuber. These new
stems start on the eyes of the potato and, if you plant a potato with new growth from the eyes, a
potato plant will develop.
Questions:
1. What is a disadvantage of making seeds and pollen for sexual reproduction?
2. When is vegetative propagation an advantage for a plant?
3. How is vegetative propagation an evolutionary disadvantage?
4. What are two types of vegetative propagation?
Both the male and female parents interact only during a specific breeding
period and spawning is observed
In some animals like fishes or certain frogs. the process differs a little where
parental care is observed as far as care of the young are concerned
The eggs and the sperm are released together after a little sport ,under
appropriate conditions of temperature, light, rainfall etc
The sperms find their way to the ova by chemo-taxis involving specific
chemicals
The fertilized embryo develops inside the egg covered by thin shell, in
certain cases, they may be carried by the mouth, or borne on the back
External fertilization does not require specialized structures like placenta etc.
for survival of fetus
It is prevented from desiccation (drying out) by environment
There is a potential for high rate of reproduction
Parental care is not essential
Developing larvae are supplied by the egg resources itself(yolk)
Hatched young's are independent and can find food for themselves
Frisky Fish
Almost all species of marine fish reproduce using external fertilization, although a few
exceptions exist. Fish such as tuna, cod, wrasses, groupers and flounders all fertilize their eggs
using this method. Some types of fish, such as parrotfish, are able to spontaneously change
gender from female to male if there aren't enough males in the area to fertilize the females' eggs.
Suave Starfish
Starfish have several methods to ensure the success of their external fertilization. Rather than
simply releasing their gametes and hoping for the best, they synchronize their spawning to
increase the chances of fertilization. They gather themselves in groups on certain days and at
certain times -- using the length of the day and the amount of light as indicators -- and use
chemical signals to let other members of their species know they're ready to spawn.
Questions:
1. What is external fertilization?
2. What types of organisms use this reproductive
method?
3. Where does it usually occur?
4. How many eggs and sperm are used?
5. What are some animals that use this
reproduction method?
Most land animals, both invertebrate and vertebrate, use internal fertilization. In effect, the
sperm cells are provided with the sort of fluid environment that is no longer available to them
outside the animals bodies. The sperm can remain aquatic, swimming through the film of fluid
present on the walls of the female reproductive tract. Once fertilized, the egg is either enclosed in
a protective shell and released by the female (egg), or held within the females body until the
embryonic stages of development have been completed. Internal fertilization requires close
physiological and behavioral synchronization of the sexes, which involves extensive hormonal
control.
Internal fertilization developed in evolution when the animals started to migrate onto the land
from water. Initially when life was only in water, there was no problem of leaving eggs without
the fear of them getting dried out. But as the species moved onto land, that condition of a moist
environment was altered. This was solved by development of an egg that was provided with its
water and food for the embryo, called a cleidoic egg (like the hen's egg). This development was
ushered in the reptiles which are oviparous.
There are three ways that offspring are produced following internal fertilization: oviparity,
ovoviparity, and viviparity.
In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the female's body and
develop there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of
the egg. This occurs in many reptiles, two mammals, and all birds.
Reptiles and insects produce leathery eggs, while birds and turtles
produce eggs with high concentrations of calcium carbonate in the
shell, making them hard. These animals are classified as oviparous.
In ovoviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female, but the embryo obtains its nourishment
from the egg's yolk; the young are fully developed when they are hatched. This occurs in some
bony fish (such as the guppy, Lebistes reticulatus), some sharks, some lizards, some snakes (such
as the garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis), some vipers, and some invertebrate animals (such as
the Madagascar hissing cockroach, Gromphadorhina portentosa).
In viviparity, the young develop within
the female, receiving nourishment from
the mother's blood through a placenta.
The offspring develops in the female and
is born alive. This occurs in most
mammals, some cartilaginous fish, and a
few reptiles, making these animals
viviparous.
Internal fertilization has the advantage of
protecting the fertilized egg from
dehydration on land. The embryo is isolated within the female, which limits predation on the
young. Internal fertilization also enhances the fertilization of eggs by a specific male. Even
though fewer offspring are produced through this method, their survival rate is higher than that
for external fertilization.
Questions:
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Cloning
Reproductive cloning is a method used to make a
clone or an identical copy of an entire
multicellular organism. Most multicellular
organisms undergo reproduction by sexual
means, which involves genetic hybridization of
two individuals (parents), making it impossible to
generate an identical copy or clone of either
parent. Recent advances in biotechnology have
made it possible to artificially induce asexual
reproduction of mammals in the laboratory.
Parthenogenesis, or "virgin birth," occurs when an
embryo grows and develops without the
fertilization of the egg occurring; this is a form of
asexual reproduction. An example of
parthenogenesis occurs in species in which the
female lays an egg. If the egg is fertilized, it is a
diploid egg and the individual develops into a
female; if the egg is not fertilized, it remains a
haploid egg and develops into a male. The unfertilized egg is called a
parthenogenic, or virgin, egg. Some insects and reptiles lay parthenogenic eggs
that can develop into adults.
Sexual reproduction requires two cells; when the haploid egg and sperm cells fuse,
a diploid zygote results. The zygote nucleus contains the genetic information to
produce a new individual. However, early embryonic development requires the
cytoplasmic material contained in the egg cell. This idea forms the basis for
reproductive cloning. If the haploid nucleus of an egg cell is replaced with a diploid
nucleus from the cell of any individual of the same species (called a donor), it will
become a zygote that is genetically identical to the donor. Somatic cell nuclear
transfer is the technique of transferring a diploid nucleus into an enucleated egg. It
can be used for either therapeutic cloning or reproductive cloning.
The first cloned animal was Dolly, a sheep who was born in 1996. The success rate
of reproductive cloning at the time was very low. Dolly lived for seven years and
died of respiratory complications . There is speculation that because the cell DNA
belongs to an older individual, the age of the DNA may affect the life expectancy of
a cloned individual. Since Dolly, several animals (e.g. horses, bulls, and goats) have
been successfully cloned, although these individuals often exhibit facial, limb, and
cardiac abnormalities. There have been attempts at producing cloned human
embryos as sources of embryonic stem cells. Sometimes referred to as cloning for
therapeutic purposes, the technique produces stem cells that attempt to remedy
detrimental diseases or defects (unlike reproductive cloning, which aims to
reproduce an organism). Still, therapeutic cloning efforts have met with resistance
because of bioethical considerations.
parthenogenesis
This type of asexual reproduction involves the development of offspring from
unfertilized eggs. It is particularly common amongst arthropods and rotifers, can
also be found in some species of fish, amphibians, birds, and reptiles, but not in
mammals. Parthenogenetic development also occurs in some plants species, such
as roses and orange trees.
In most cases, parthenogenetic reproduction occurs when environmental conditions
are favourable and there is plenty of food that can sustain the generation of large
numbers of individuals in a short period of time. When external conditions change
and food supplies become less abundant, or when the environment becomes
unpredictable, these species shift to a sexual mode of reproduction. Although sexual
reproduction is considerably slower and generates fewer organisms, it gives rise to
individuals containing variations in their genetic material. Some of these individuals
might be at an advantage over their predecessors, because they might be more
able to adapt to new conditions.
questions:
1. What is cloning?
2. How do cloned offspring compare to the original?
3. Why did dolly have the finn-dorset appearance if the sheep that gave birth to
her was a scottish blackface?
4. What would be the advantage of a species reproducing by parthenogenesis?
5. Why dont these species alway reproduce by parthenogenesis?
Binary fission
Binary fission, is a form of asexual reproduction that involves
the separation of the body into two new bodies. In the
process of binary fission, an organism duplicates its genetic
material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then divides
into two parts (cytokinesis), with each new organism
receiving one copy of DNA.