ELECTRICAL

PRINCIPLES

ALTERNATING

TEXTS

ENGINEERING

OF

CURRENT

MACHINERY

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
TEXTS

series

which

Berg

Dean

Harvard

School,

mittee
com-

of

the

University,

Consulting

and

engineers

Clifford,

E.

Chairman

by

electrical

Harry

Engineering
is

outlined

well-known

of

of

textbooks

of

Editor.

"

OPERATIONAL

HEAVISIDE'S

Chaffee

LUS
CALCU-

"

THEORY

OF

THERMIONIC

VACUUM

TUBES
Dawes

"

COURSE

ELECTRICAL

IN

Vol.

I.

ING
ENGINEER-

Currents.

Direct

Second

"

Edition.
II.

Vol.
Third

Currents.

Alternating

"

Edition.

Dawes
"

INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRICITY"

INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRICITY"

Langsdorf

PART

PART

II

"

PRINCIPLES

OF

DIRECT-CURRENT

Fourth

MACHINES.

Edition

Lawrence
"

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING

Second

RENTS.
CUR-

Edition

Lawrence
"

PRINCIPLES

OF

RENT
ALTERNATING-CUR-

MACHINERY.

Lotos
"

ELECTRICAL

MEASUREMENTS

Second

Edition

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING

TEXTS

PRINCIPLES
OF

ALTERNATING

CURRENT

MACHINERY

BY

RALPH
PROFESSOR

OF
OF

ELECTRICAL

R.

LAWRENCE

MACHINERY
FELLOW

TECHNOLOGY;
OF

OF
OF

ELECTRICAL

ETC.

Impression

BOOK
YORK

INSTITUTE

INSTITUTE

Edition

Eighteenth

NEW

MASSACHUSETTS

AMERICAN

ENGINEERS,

Second

McGRAW-HILL

THE

THE

AND

1921

COMPANY,
LONDON

Inc.

copthiqht

1916,
Book

McGraw-Hill

IN

PBINTED

THE

THE

MAPLE

1920,

PRESS

Inc.

Company,

OF

STATES

UNITED

the

bt

YORK

AMEBICA

PA

PREFACE
The
in

TO

THE

by the author

use

1916,

well

as

of this book

constructive

as

teachers, has indicated

its clearness.

to

second

in the

has

been

transient

actually takes
added

sake

Although
book

ground

seemed

could

included

W,

V.

Lyon.

for

use

in

which

the

amount

of

new

to

the

offered

as

book

with

author's

in

out

book

no

much

material

been
for

book

to

on

years

of Technology.

in

senior

developed
several

with

operation

years' experience
Machinery

has

been

complete

more

Machinery"

of the

course

Institute

of

the

Professor

by

Alternating

in

of

than

set

Professor

compiled by

were

the

first edition

already published under

was

Lyon
Current

Technology

for

written.

was

R.

Lawrence.

from

by

EDITION

FIRST

THE

TO

deals

book

sense

clearly what

1920.

PREFACE

and

VIII,

Massachusetts,

Aprii,

This

peared
ap-

alternator,

an

more

Ralph
Cambridge,

the

problems, the addition

no

Massachusetts

the

at

bring

was

problems

connection

Machinery

in

Chapter

conditions

to

add

unavoidably

as

corrected.

Alternating Current

These

would

incorporated

errors

it contained

that

in the
in

fellow

completeness.

unnecessary

title "Problems

from

which

text

been

been

small

criticism

problems
be

of

some

the

on

have

expanded

place.

for the

have

pubhcation

its

received

changes in the

short-circuit

and

rewritten

in class since

typographical

first edition

EDITION

criticism

changes

Such

the

concerning

minor

These

edition.

SECOND

principles underlying

the

alternating-current

of

design.

It

teaching

the

students

in

the

set

of

author

is the

Electrical

printed
at

the

and

tion
construc-

It

is in

number

of

machinery.

result

subject

the

of

of

Alternating-current

Engineering
neostyled

Massachusetts

and

notes

has
used

Institute

PREFACE

VI

The

in

logically perhaps

and

apparatus

discussing

Experience

subject
those

the

has

of the

should

first

considered

be

alternating-current machinery.
just beginning the
however, that students

principles

shown,

of

principles of

the

grasp

simplest piece of alternating-current

is the

transformer

transformer.

alternator

the

For

this

reason

to

treat

readily than

more

is taken

alternator

the

first.

up

No

has

attempt

been

made
the

current

machines,

only

Certain

types

have

been

such

development

while

other

altogether.

No

been

material

it available

making

have

for

principles,

important

out

only briefly

considered

methods

new

bringing together

that
and

have

types

bring

to

detail where

in considerable

developed

seemed

considered.

being

important

most

alternating-

of

all types

which

has

scattered

much

been

is sufficient

students

it is believed

used, but

been

omitted

or

the

for

reason

publication of the book.

Mathematical

and

where

freely employed
The

W.

V.

many

Gordon

Lyon

of

the

to

the

and

criticallyread

the

especially

for

his

Wheeler

Company,

Westinghouse

thanks

Institute

of

Professor

to

of Electrical

and

original manuscript
also wishes
in

care

reading

the

Electric

photographs

to

express

the

General
and

from

to

of

at

Harvard

Technology,

his thanks

to

the

to

Mr.

and

Manufacturing

Company

who

drawings

of machines

prepared.
Ralph
Massachusetts

Boston,

Institute

September,

op

Technology,
1916.

R.

S.

N.

Crocker-

Company

the

who

tions.
sugges-

many

Electric

which

for

Clifford,

E.

H.

offered

proof, and

Professor

Technology

Engineering

Institute

been

book.

the

sincere

has

advantage.

any

throughout

his

Massachusetts

author

Marston

used

Massachusetts

Professor

McKay

offered

treatment

been

subject

of the

treatment

express

and

suggestions

The

has

wishes

author

University

such

notation

symbolic

The

analytical

Lawrence.

the
nished
furwere

NOTATION
general the

In

Electrical
used
a

terminal

indicate

the

that

all but

considered

line

in

A'

Ratio

Flux

b
E

El
E2

vector

sense

which

effect
turns

to

are

be

readily

are

following significance:

the

turns

ampere
real

per

pole.

reaction

armature

generally expressed

leakage reactance,

the

book

to

omitted

been

purely algebraic

are

have

including

Reaction,

of

the

sidered.
con-

equations

has

equations in

letters used

Armature

the

ampere

(B

in

of the

for

differs

machine

in

quantities

over

of

been

has

reserved

been

part of the

or

voltmeter.

Reaction, generally expressed in

Fictitious
and

used

Those

sense.

In general the

Armature

Most

cases.

vector

often

by

book

has

machine

considered

be

to

are

two

or

is

which

they

one

drop

the

Throughout

measured

in the

Institute

American

induced.

or

be

the

by

followed.

could

impedance

distinguished.
A

been

voltage which

by

The

In

recommended

Engineers
a
voltage generated
has

denote

to

from

notation

in

pole.

per

of Transformation.

Density.

Susceptance.
Voltage.

Generated

Induced

or

Primary

Induced

Voltage

Induced

Secondary

of

Voltage

transformer
of

of

or

transformer

induction

an
or

of

motor.

induction

an

motor.
F

Field

Impressed

of

ff

/
f
g

h+e

Conductance.

Current.

/"
/'i

I2

I
j

Force.

"

of

Magnetizing Current
Current

Core-loss

Exciting Current
Load

Component

induction

motor.

Primary

Current

of
of

of

of

Operating

transformer

Factor

which

rotates

Factor,

Breadth

Factor.

JV =' Turns.
n

Speed,

or

an

of
or

an

of

induction

induction

an

of

Current

an

induction

motor,

transformer

induction
an

motor.

motor.

or

of

an

motor.

induction

motor.

of Inertia.

Moment

fcj, Pitch

of

or

transformer

of

or

of

or

transformer

of Primary

Current

Secondary

transformer

transformer

a
a

ninety degrees,
fcb

generally

motor,

Frequency.

7i

or

turns

Function.

/^

expressed
Magnetomotive

synchronous generator
per pole,

in ampere

or

Number

of Phases.

vii

vector

anti-clockwise

through

NOTATION

VUi

P
p

p.f.

Power.

Number

Resultant

Field
in

expressed
(R

turns

ampere

Resistance

Primary
Secondary

/""

Effective

Slip

Vi

Synchronous

generator

generally

motor,

or

pole.

per

Reluctance.

r^

of

Resistance.

"

Ti

poles.

Factor.

Power

of

of

Resistance

of

Resistance
Number

or

transformer

transformer

Slots

of

an

of

or

induction

motor.

induction

an

of

Resistance

Equivalent

or

of

or

motor.

transformer,

Phase.

per

Torque.
Terminal

Voltage.
Terminal

Primary

of

Voltage

transformer

of

or

induction

an

motor.

Vi

Xa
xi
Xi
Xe

of

Primary

Reactance

of

Secondary

Reactance.

Equivalent

Reactance

7j

e
p

Synchronous

of

Number

motor.

or

transformer

of

or

transformer

of

of
or

induction

an

of

motor.

induction

an

motor.

transformer.

Inductors,

Angular
Efficiency

of

Angle
Coil

"P

Angular
the

Phase

Angle.

Constant.

Lag.

Velocity

letters

than
are

or

Hysteresis

or

Pitch.

Summation.

Where

Impedance.

Acceleration

Flux.

letters

generator

Impedance.

Reactance.

Synchronous

"

transformer.

Admittance.

Za

Reactance

Reactance.

Leakage

of

Voltage

X,

Terminal

Secondary

used,

as

given

or

in

27r/.
the

just indicated,
their

meaning

table

preceding
it

is

is stated

stated

so

in

the

are

in
text.

the

used
text.

with

other

Where

nificance
sigother

CONTENTS
Page

Preface

Table

Symbols

of

vi

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

CHAPTER

of

Types

Alternators

Armature

Frequency

"

Insulation

Washing

Air

Cooling

Electromotive

Force

Electromotive

Coil

the

Sides

Windings
Factor
Effect

or

Regulation

in the

of

"

of

an

which

for

Pitch
Pitch

"

Coil

Windings

Coil Pitch

Factor

Spread

of Pitch

Winding

Coil

Con-

"

and

phase
Poly-

Breadth

"

Harmonics

on

"

in

Harmonics

"

27

Half-coiled

Single-

"

Phase

"

Effect

"

of Distributing

and

Whole-

"

20

Degrees
in

Apart.

Windings

Wave

the

motive-force
Electro-

Degrees

and

Bar

Windings

and

IV

Magnetomotive

Forces

Alternator

with

with

the

Reactance

and

Armature

"

Poles

Effect

and

Regulation.
ix

"

and

Magnitude

51

Armature
tion
Reac-

Leakage

Effective

Effective

Concerned
"

Armature

"

Armature

"

Reactance

Fluxes
Reaction

Poles

Non-salient

Salient

Leakage

Influence

Armature
Best

an

Alternator

Equivalent

Reaction,

III

CHAPTER

Alternator

an

Factors

"

of

Operation

Reaction

CHAPTER

and

Induced

Force

Electrical

and

Electrical

180

are

180

"

Flux

of

Electromotive

Flux

Generators.

Three-phase

"

"

Different

for

Between

Shape

"

Sides

Coil

Windings

Form

Wave

on

Induces

not

are

Pole

"

Harmonics

"

Relation

the

Spiral, Lap

"

Phase

Distributed

and

Windings

"

of

Closed-circuit

and

centrated

Rating

Cores

Filtering

"

Temperatures

II

when

Calculation

"

when

Open-

Field

"

Cooling

"

CHAPTER

"

It

Force
Waves

Apart

Permissible

"

Cores

Insulation

of Insulation.

Types

Induced

Armature

"

Field

"

ance
React-

Resistance

"

of Armature

Resistance

"

ditions
Con-

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

V
Page

of

Diagram

Vector

Applied

gram

Poles

Alternator with

an
as

Approximation

an

Diagram
Methods

"

of

Potier

the

Method

Calculation

of

of A'

Value

Saturation

"

Regulation
Magnetomotive-forceMethods
of

Examples of the Calculation

"

Method

Institute

American

"

Example

of

"

Normal

of Regulation by the
Value of A' Obtained

Calculation

the

Method
for

Magnetomotive-forceMethod

the

of the

Example

"

Institute

American

the

Regulation by

of

Magnetomotive-force

Necessary for the

motive-force
Synchronous-impedance and the Magneto-

Synchronous-impedanceand

the

tor
Vec-

from

Alternator

84

Salient

with

Data

"

Methods

"

an

Determining Regulation

for

Application
by

to

of the Regulation of an
Synchronous-impedanceand

Dia-

Vector

"

Alternator

Calculation

"

Poles

Non-salient

Magnetomotive-force Method
Using the
Method
from
Blondel Two-reaction
a
Zero-power-factorTest
culation
Alternator
for Determining Regulation of an
Example of CalMethod.
of Regulation by the Two-reaction
"

"

VI

CHAPTER
Short-circuit

ZeroDetermining Leakage Reactance

Potier
for Determining LealiageReactance
of
Determination
Determining Reactance

Method

for

"

power-factorMethod
for
Triangle Method
from
Leakage Reactance
Removed

"

"

Measurements

Determination

"

118

Effective

of

with Field Structure

made

Resistance

with

Field

Structure Removed.
CHAPTER
Losses

"

Measurement

of the Losses

of Effective Resistance

ment

the Losses

"

"

VII

by

the

Retardation

Motor

Method

of

"

Measure-

123

Determining

Current

and

without

133

Methods

Applying

for

IX

Making

Heating

Calculation

of

Armature
in the Air
Teeth

Leakage

Power

Alternators

136

Ohmic
Resistance, Armature
Leakage Reactance, 142
Reaction, Air-gap Flux per Pole, Average Flux Density
ture
Gap and Average Apparent Flux Density in the Armafrom

the

Reactance

Saturation

of

Tests

Load.

CHAPTER

Zero

VIII

CHAPTER
Conditions

of

Efficiency.
CHAPTER

Short-circuit

Use

Curve

Dimensions
and

and

Factor"

of

an

Alternator

Armature

Reaction

Saturation

Curve

Calculation

of

from

Calculation

"

an

for Full-load

of

Open-circuit
Current

Flux
Equivalent-leakage

at
per

xi

CONTENTS

Page

Unit

Length

of Embedded

Test

Data

Calculation

"

Inductor
of

for Full-load Kv-a.

and

Effective Resistance

Regulation,Field Excitation

at 0.8

Power

and

from
ciency
Effi-

Factor by the A. I. E. E.

Method.

STATIC

TRANSFORMERS
CHAPTER

Transformer
"

"

of

Types

"

Terminals

Transformers

Cooling

"

XI

Oil

"

Cores

"

CHAPTER
Induced

Voltage
"

Transformer

Given

Open Circuit

on

of the

Shape

Curve

from

151

Curve
the

Reactance

"

Coil

164

XIII

of the Flux

Electromotive-force

Insulation

"

XII

CHAPTER
Determination

Windings

"

Breathers.

"

Curve

wnich

Correspondsto

Determination

"

Flux

Curve

Determination

"

169

of the Electromotive-force
of the

Magnetizing Current and the Current Supplying the Hysteresis

Loss from the HysteresisCurve and the Curve of Induced Voltage
"

Current

Rushes.
CHAPTER

Fluxes

in the

Concerned

Diagram

Vector

Current
Relative

Vector

Diagram

Factors

of Reactances

Diagram
and

"

and

Reaction

"

No-load

"

Calculation of Leakage Reactance

Solution of
Analysisof Vector Diagram
"

"

Calculation of Regulation.
XV

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Graphical Representationof
Approximate Equivalent Circuit Calculation of Regulation
from the Approximate Equivalent Circuit.
"

the

195

"

CHAPTER
Losses

179

of Secondary

Relative Values of Resistances

"

CHAPTER
True

Transformer

of Transformation

Reduction

Values

"Load
Vector

"

Operation of

Ratio

"

XIV

in

200
Eddy-current Loss
Hysteresis Loss"
Efficiency All-dayEfficiency.
Eddy

Transformer

ScreeningEffect of

XVI

"

"

Currents

CHAPTER

"

"

XVII

Separation of Eddy-current and Hystere- 213

of Equivalent Resistance
Measurement
Measurement
sis Losses
Measurement
of
of Equivalent Reactance, Short-circuit Method
Method
Opposition
EquivalentReactance, Highly-inductive-load
of Testing Transformers.
Method
of Core Loss

Measurement

"

"

"

"

"

xii

CONTENTS
XVIII

CHAPTER

Page

Potential Transformer"

Current Transformer"
former

Auto-transformer

"

Induction

"

with

Trans-

222

Regulation.
XIX

CHAPTER
Transformers

Constant-current

Secondaries;Parallel Opera-

IndependentlyLoaded

241

Single-phaseTransformers.

tion of

XX

CHAPTER

Three-phase Circuits Using

for

Connections

Transformer

Three

Trans-

252

Transformers
with Two
Three-phase Transformation
Three- to
Versa
and Vice
Threeto Four-phase Transformation
formation
Two- or Four-phase to Six-phaseTransSix-phaseTransformation
Three- to Twelve-phase Transformation.

formers

"

"

"

"

"

XXI

CHAPTER

Three-phase Transformers

Third

"

in

Harmonics

Exciting Cur-

the

A-connected

272

formers
Trans-

Voltages of Y- and
formers
Disadvantages of Three-phase TransAdvantages
or
Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers
Vand
nected
A-conTransformers
of
Single-phase
Three-phase Groups

rents

in the

and

Induced

and

"

"

"

in Parallel.

Transformers

XXII

CHAPTER

Density Primary and

Secondary Leakage Reactances,EquivalentReactance,Primary and
of a Transformer
Secondary Resistances Calculated from the Dimensions
Core
Loss
Current
Component of No-load
Supplying
Core Loss, Magnetizing Current and No-load
Calculated
Current
from Dimensions of Transformer
and Core Loss and Magnetization
Curves
from
Equivalent Resistance and Equivalent Reactance
Test Data
Calculated Regulation and Efficiency.
of

Ratio

Transformation,Flux

Flux

and

"

288

"

"

"

"

SYNCHRONOUS

MOTORS

CHAPTER
Construction

General

"

Methods

XXIII

Characteristics

"

Starting Explanation

of

"

Power

Factor

of the

"

Operation

V-curves
of

"

297

chronous
Syn-

Motor.

CHAPTER
Vector

Diagram

Diagrams
"

"

XXI

Magnetomotive-force

Change

Effect of Change

in Normal

in Load

and

and

Synchronous-impedance304

Excitation with
Field Excitation.

Change of Load

"

CONTENTS

xiii

CHAPTER

XXV
Page

Minimum

and

Maximum

Motor

Fixed

Excitation for Fixed Motor

Power

and

309

Motor
Power
Impressed Voltage Maximum
with Fixed
and
Maximum
Motor
Excitation
Fixed
V,
r,
wit
Ea',
possible
Xs)
Impressed Voltage and Fixed Resistance and Reactance
-Maximum
with
Motor
Fixed
Activity
Impressed Voltage and Fixed
"

Reactance

Resistance.

and

CHAPTER

Hunting

Damping

"

Stability

"

XXVI

Methods

"

of

Starting Synchronous

314

Motors.

CHAPTER
Circle Diagram

of the
of

struction

XXVII

Synchronous Motor

Diagram

Uses of the Circle

"

and

Disadvantages

OPERATION

"

Equal

Batteries

"

Alternators

Alternators

330

Some

"

338

ALTERNATORS

OF
XXIX

Direct-current

and

Parallel

in

Uses

"

CHAPTER

Parallel

Conditions

Con-

"

XXVIII

Efficiency Advantages

Statements

Diagram

Diagram.

PARALLEL

General

of

^Limiting Operating

"

CHAPTER
Losses and

Proof

"

"

Generators

Synchronizing Action,

in 341
Two

Reactance
Synchronizing Current
of Generators
for Parallel
Operation Constants
be
Inversely Proportionalto Their Ratings.
Operationneed not
"

for Parallel

"

CHAPTER

SynchronizingAction

is Necessary

"

XXX

Identical Alternators

of Two

of Paral- 353

Effect

"

Lines of High ImpedAlternators through Transmission

ance
^the Relation between
r and
x for Maximum
Synchronizing

lelingTwo
"

Action.
XXXI

CHAPTER
Period

of

Swinging or
Engine Torque during Each
Phase

Operation of

Alternators

"

Hunting

Damping

Revolution

and

"

Irregularityof

Its Effect

361

Parallel

on

Governors.
XXXII

CHAPTER
Power

"

Output of Alternators Operatingin Parallel and the Method of Ad- 370

Effect of Difference in the Slopes
justingthe Load between Them
"

of the

Division

of the

Load

Parallel

Effect

Engine Speed-loadCharacteristicson the

between Alternators which are Operatingin

"

of Changing the Tension of the Governor Spring on the Load

lied by an Alternator which is in Parallel with Others.

Car-

CONTENTS

XIV

CHAPTER

XXXIII
Page

Effect of Wave

Form

XXXIV

CHAPTER
A

Resumfi

the Conditions

u^

between

Difference

Generators

for Parallel

Operation of

Single-phase Generators

"

"

382

izing
Synchron-

for

Connections

Special Form

"

Alternators

Direct-current

and

ParallelingAlternators

SynchronizingDevices

"

377

ot Alternators

Operation

Parallel

on

of

Synchronizing

erators
SynchronizingThree-phase Gen^Lincoln
Synchronizer.
Using SynchronizingTransformers

Transformer

Connections

"

for

"

SYNCHRONOUS

CONVERTERS

CHAPTER
Means

of

XXXV

Converting AlternatingCurrent
CHAPTER

Voltage

Ratio

of

n-phase

an

into Direct Current

393

XXXVI

Converter"

CHAPTER

Current

Relations

396

XXXVII

Inductor Heating
Inductor
Copper Losses of a Rotary Converter
with a Uniformly Distributed
Heating of an n-phase Converter
Armature
Relative Outputs of a Converter
Winding
Operated as
Converter and as a Generator
a
Efficiency.
"

"

403

"

"

Reaction

Armature

"

CHAPTER

XXXVIII

Commutating

Poles

"

Hunting

"

Methods

of 414

StartingConverters.
CHAPTER
Transformer

Connections

"

XXXIX

Methods

of

ControllingVoltage
"

Split-pole422

Converter.
CHAPTER
Inverted

Converter

"

Double-current

25-Cycle Converters

"

Motor

Generator

Generators

CHAPTER
Parallel

XL

"

Versus

60-cycle Versus
ers.
Rotary Convert-

XLI

Operation

435

CHAPTER
Field Excitation

and

XLII

EfficiencyCalculated from
Core Loss and
Winding Data, Open-circuit

tion CurvesL

429

Armature

Resistance,437

Open -circuit Satutf

CONTENTS
POLYPHASE

XV

INDUCTION

CHAPTER

MOTORS

XLIII
Page

Machines

Polyphase Induction Motor

Operation of
Polyphase Induction Motor
Slip Revolving Magnetic Field

Asynchronous
the

Blocked

inductive
a

"

"

Rotor

"

"

Rotor

"

Resistance

on

Polyphase Induction

Induction

Free"

Load

is Equivalent to

Transformer

Motor

Non-

Diagram of
a Polyphase

Transformer

"

Equivalent Circuit of

"

443

"

Motor.
CHAPTER

Effect of Harmonics

in the

XLIV

Space Distribution
CHAPTER

of the

Air-gap Flux

455

XLV

Internal
Internal Torque
Maximum
Analysisof the Vector Diagram
Effect of Reactance,
Torque and the Slip CorrespondingThereto
and
Resistance,Impressed Voltage
Frequency on the Breakdown
Stability
Torque and Breakdown
Slip Speed-torque Curve
Effect
of
Starting Torque
Shape of
Fractional-pitchWindings
Rotor Slots on StartingTorque and Slip.
"

"

460

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTER

Coil-wound Rotors
Slots,Air Gap
and
Advantages
Disadvantages of the

Stator

of Rotor and
Rotors, Number
Squirrel-cageRotors
Two
Types of Rotor.

"

"

XLVI
"

CHAPTER

XLVII

of VaryMethods
Motors
Starting Polyphase Induction
of
Motors
Power
of
Division
Induction
the
Speed
Polyphase
ing
in Concatenation
in
Losses in Motors
Developed by Motors

Methods

468

of

"

471

"

"

Concatenation.
XL

CHAPTER

lent Circuit

"

of

Performance

of the

Calculation

an

Induction

of the

Determination

VIII

from Its Equiva- 484

Motor

Constants

for the

Equivalent

Circuit.
XLIX

CHAPTER

Circle Diagram

Power,

of the

Polyphase Induction

Factor

Power

and

Torque

"

Motor

"

Scales

Determination

"

Maximum

of the

490

Circle

Diagram.
CHAPTER
General

Characteristics

of the

Induction

Change in Slip
"

of the Induction
Generator

Power

"

Generator

Changes

in Power

Factor of the Induction

"

Circle

Diagram

Produced
Generator

"

by

Phase

497

CONTENTS

xvl

Page

between

Relation

Induced

Rotor

Generator

"

Referred

Current

Rotor

Voltage,Ei"

to

Diagram

Vector

and

Stater

the
of the

Induction

chronous
Voltage, Magnetizing Current and Function of SynGenerator
Induction
Apparatus in Parallel with an
"

of

Use

with

Parallel
Load

instead

Condenser

Hunting
Disadvantages

Generator
and

Advantages
Induction

Generator

Induction

of the

Induction

Synchronous

"

of the
Short-circuit Current
of the Induction Generator
"

Use

"

of

LI

Three-phase Induction Motor for the 505

ciency,
Calculation of Output, Torque, Input, Effiof

of the Constants

Stator
a

Generators

of Induction

Generators.

Equivalent Circuit
for

and

"

CHAPTER
Calculation

in

Generator

Voltage, Frequency

Generator"

Induction

an

of

Given

"

and

Current

Power

EquivalentCircuit

from

Factor

Shp.
MOTORS

INDUCTION

SINGLE-PHASE

LII

CHAPTER

of Ferraris
Motor
Windings Method
Single-phase Induction
Induction
Motor.
Explaining the Operation of the Single-phase

for

511

Revolving
Single-phase Induction Motor
Motor
Field of the Single-phaseInduction
Explanation of the
Comparison of the
Operation of the Single-phaseInduction Motor
Losses in Single-phaseand Polyphase Induction Motors.

516

"

"

CHAPTER
Field

Quadrature

of

LIII

the

"

"

"

CHAPTER
Vector

Diagram

Action of the

of

LIV

the

Single-phase Induction
Single-phaseInduction Motor.
CHAPTER

Motor

"

Generator

LV

Induction Motor
Power-factor
Commutator-type, Single-phase,
pensation Vector Diagrams of the Compensated Motor
"

"

"

of the

Control

Commutation

"

527

Com-

533

Speed

Motor
Induction
Commutator-type, Single-phase,
of the Commutator-type, Single-phase,
Induction

Motor.

CHAPTER
Methods

of

StartingSingle-phaseInduction
CHAPTER

Ibe

LVI

Induction

Motor

as

Phase

Motors

545

LVII

Converter

551

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-

CURRENT

MACHINERY

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

CHAPTER

Types

Alternators;

of

in

alternator

fact,an

set

in the

up

in which

addition

and

fixed

of collector

easier
armature

The

with

this
which

leads

only moving
and

field excitation

their

which

parts.

differ
The

with
an

the

usually

alternator

are

classes

at

those

are

current

are

at

may

Alternators

with

revolving fields.

(")

Alternators

with

revolving

alternators.
1

to

moving

be

mechanically

current

carry

generators

able
suit-

to

interchange the

protect and

to

required
carry

ception
ex-

satisfactory,

more

currents

mutator.
com-

ated.
gener-

have

to

over,
stationary, but it is,more-

(a)

(c) Inductor

as

low

be

armatures.

the

insulate

high potential.
for the

necessary

potential.
divided

mainly in the dispositionand

three

force

of

means

used

advantage

arrangement

these

Alternating-current
classes

distinct

contacts

not

direct-

connected
rings electrically

part of the machine

complex

more

be

may

only alternating
a

do

Any

generator,

electrically,to

and

only

by

winding, it is found

armature

parts when

It is not
the

is rectified

direct-current

any

mechanically

Insulation

of

alternating electromotive

unipolar generator,

points of its
both

the

inductors

Although
by the

Types

Permissible

exception of the unipolar generator, is,

the

armature

of the

Air;

generators for direct current.

generator, with

ing;
Cool-

Alternating-current generators

"

principle from

Field

Insulation;

Cooling

Different

for

of Alternators.

differ in
current

Washing

or

Temperatures

Types

Field

Insulation;

Filtering

Cores;

Armature

Frequency;

Armature

Cores;

into

three

arrangement

of

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

alternators with very few exceptionsbelong to the

first class for reasons
which have already been stated. Inductor
tion
alternators differ from the other two
by having the variaAll modern

types

in the flux

rotation
and

through

of iron inductors.

Fig.

1.

Fig.

2.

The

windings of

the field of this type of alternator

feature
distinguishing
set

windings producedby the

their armature

of armature

of

coils is

This fluctuates between

an

inductor

the armature

be

stationary. A

alternator

subjectedto

the limits of

may

both

flux of

zero

is that

only one
and maximum,

any

one

polarity.
but does

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

Figs. 1, 2, and 3 illustrate the three classes of

alternators in their simplestforms.
Fig. 3 shows two views of one
type of inductor alternator.
not

reverse.

The

left-hand

shaft about

view

which

is

portionof

the inductor

figureis a side view.

revolves.

letters

The

section taken

this

on

The

to
parallel

the

other half of the

figurehave the following

:
significance

F"

Field coil

A"

Shaft

CC

coils

Armature

"

iVJ,S" Inductor.

By referringto Figs. 1
coils

on

the armatures

and

2 it will be

of the

that both

sides of

and the revolvingrevolving-field

types of generators are

armature

seen

in active parts of the field at the

time, and, since the oppositesides of the coilsare under

polesof oppositepolarityat each instant,the electromotive forces

same

induced

in them

conditions

are

will be in

phase with respect to

different in the

In this alternator

case

only one

of the inductor
side of

an

the coil.

The

nator.
type of altercoil isin

armature

tween
part of the field at any time, the other side being bebe
two poles. Therefore,either the turns or the flux must
voltage as would be obtained if
doubled in order to get the same
winding reversed as it does in the
the flux through the armature
an

active

types of alternators.
characterized by largearmature

other two

Inductor

alternators

are

usually

high magnetic
reaction,relatively

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

air gap and greater weight than

The difficultiesin the designof a

density,small
other types.

alternator have

alternators

of the

inductor
satisfactory

this type of alternator to go out of

caused

use.

mon
which are most comfrequencies
In Europe
in America
60 and 25 cyclesper second.
are
both 50 and 40 cyclesare used.
Twenty-five cyclesis used for
but so low a frequency is not
long-distancepower
transmission,
noticeable flicker
suitable for lightingon
of the very
account

Frequency.

The

"

commercial

lightsand all incandescent lamps except

A frequency of 25
those with filaments of large cross-section.
of the series
motors
cyclesor less is best adapted for single-phase
or
repulsiontype such as are used for traction purposes.
its speed
The frequency given by any alternator depends upon
and number
of poles and is equal to
produced by it

on

arc

^f

where

/, p and

are,

~^^

(1)
^ ^

2(60)

the frequency in cyclesper

respectively,

ond,
sec-

polesand the speed in revolutions per minute.

nator
of poles for which an alterThe speed, and therefore the number
for a given frequency is designed,depends upon the method
of driving it. Engine-driven alternators as well as alternators
wheels operated from low heads must
at
driven by water
run
have many
relativelylow speeds and, consequently,they must
poles. On the other hand, alternators driven by steam turbines
operate at very high speeds and must have very few poles,usually
to six according to their frequency and
size. Lowfrom two
frequency alternators are always heavier and therefore more
kilovoltexpensivethan high-frequency alternators of the same
rating and speed, but the advantages of low frequency
ampere
transmission
for certain classes of work, notably power
and
than balance the higher cost of the lowtraction,usually more
frequency alternators.
the number

Armature

built up
coils on
more

of

Cores.

"

The

armature

cores

of all alternators

are

of thin sheet-steel

stampings with slots for the armature

oppositeedge usually has either two

edge. The
notches for keys which
one

the laminations
in the frame.

are

inserted in the frame

or

in which

built up, or projectionswhich fit in slots cut

Notches
cut in the sides of the teeth serve
to hold
are

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

Fig.

4.

Fig.

5.

Fig.

6.

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

wedges driven between adjacent teeth to keep the coils in

place. Typical armature
stampings are shown in Figs.4 and 5,
which illustrate,
respectively,
stampings for a slow- or moderatespeed alternator and a turbo alternator. The holes through the
the

laminations

for the

laminations

are

turbo

built up,

alternator

the
passages, when
air is forced for cooling

form

through which

the armature.

Fig.

7.

stampings are built up with lap jointsin a frame

and are held from slippingeither
or yoke ring,
usuallyof cast steel,
the laminations.
on
by keys inserted in the frame or by projections
They are securelybolted togetherand to the frame between end
plates. These platesusuallyhave projectingfingersto support
the teeth.
Fig. 6 shows a typicai frame for an engine-driven
The

armature

PRINCIPLES

OF

alternator with

portionof

an

one

lamination

armature

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

core

in
and

place. Fig. 7 gives a view of

frame

and

illustrates

one

form

of boltingthe laminations
together.
plate and a method
The frame or yoke which supports the laminations is hollow and is
tions
laminaprovided with openingsfor ventilation. The armature
are
places by the insertion of
separated in two or more
of end

Fig.

9.

provide radial air ducts for coolingthe

armature.
Except for very small generators, frames or yoke
sections bolted togetherwhich may
ringsare made in two or more
be separatedfor transportation.A complete engine-drivengenerator
in Fig. 8.
is shown
A typicalframe for a turbo alternator with the laminations
in

spacingpiecesin

order to

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

place is shown in Fig. 9. As turbo alternators requireforced

ventilation,
they must be completelyenclosed.
Field Cores.
All slow-speed alternators of standard
design
have laminated
salient or projecting
polesbuilt up of steel stampings.
"

These

bolted

are

CET"

together and either keyed

:":i

bolted to

or

;:^

^^

"TX^
Fig.

10.

Fig. 10 shows
of a complete
pole of the bolted-on type both with and without the winding.
A complete field with the
This type is also illustrated in Fig. 8.
polesand winding in place is shown in Fig. 12

spider which is itself keyed to the shaft.

typicalpole stampings. Fig. 11 shows the core
Steel

Fig.

The
have

field structure

of

projectingpoles.

It

high-speedturbo alternator
in form and has
is cylindrical

does not
slots cut

in its surface for the field winding. Such alternators have from
jecting
two to six polesaccordingto their size and the frequency. Proor

in

salient

addition

would

poleswould
make

cause

excessive

windage losses and

high-speed alternator

very

noisy.

10

PRINCIPLES

Moreover,

it would

field structure
the

OF

be

impossible to

difficult if not

with salient

strong
polessufficiently

to

make

safelystand

high speeds used for turbo generators.

The

field structure
is often

built up

for

small

solid steel

of thick discs cut

or

from

as

much

the hole

metal

thus weaken
end

flux

over

back

required in the
The

are

placedin

large machine

it is

rule pass
for this would

as

core

shaft,

through
remove

the
too

receive the field winding and

shaft is in two

platessecurelybolted to the
the pole faces is determined

field coils which

12.

of the slots which

the structure.

nator
alter-

forged steel plates. The

except in small machines, does not

core,

turbo

moderate-size

forging. For

Fig.

to

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

core.

The

piecesfastened
distribution

of

by the distribution of the

slots cut in the

core.

SYNCHRONOUS

There

are

two

11

GENERATORS

field
types of cylindrical

cores

which

differ in

the way in which the slots for the field winding are cut.
These
the radial-slot and the parallel-slot
are
trated
types. They are illusin

Figs.13

pole fields. When

and

both of which show

14, respectively,
parallelslots are used for fields with

Fig.

than

two

poles,they produce

fields are
pole parallel-slot
the better in most

cases,

more

13.

the effect of salient

seldom
even

two-

used.

when

there

The
are

poles.

Four-

radial-slot type is

only two

poles,as

subjectedonly to radial stresses. The teeth of the

in addition to the radial stress,have to
parallel-slot
type of field,
from the centrifugal
force on them
support a lateral stress arising

its teeth

and

on

are

the field coils.

Fig.

14.

their
slots have the slots cut across
parallel
coils to be
ends as well as on their faces,permittingthe exciting
these conditions,
It is obvious, under
completely embedded.
Field

cores

with

tions
plateswhich carry the shaft cover the end connecof the winding and that no external support is requiredto

that the end

12

PRINCIPLES

hold them

in

The

place.

end connections

held in

slot type of field are

place by

when

core

Armature

the

than

more

Insulation.

well
as
alternators,
much

of

same

the shaft
field,

On

generators.

which form

conductors

the conductors

as

of the

account

direct-current

be

be

integral

the coils of

be insulated

in

high voltages at which

more

tors
alterna-

insulation

than

The

materials

used

generators are

often not

suitable for alternators

machines.

of direct-current

must

coils of direct-current

and

usually operate, they requiremuch

radial-

used.

poles are

the coils themselves,must

as

way

The

"

two

ring of high tensile

parts and bolted on, but the shaft may

in two

with the

each end of

on

steel

them.
strengthwhich covers
With the two-poleparallel-slot
type
made

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

in the insulation

higher voltages of the latter and the higher

temperatures often reached by their windings.
fish paper, varnished cambric and
Vulcanized
horn fiber,
fiber,
of the

account

on

mica

paper,

other similar materials

and

used in the insulation

are

sisted
high temperatures do not have to be rewindings,double- or triple-cotton-covered
by the armature
wire is used for the coils. These
are
thoroughly impregnated
with insulatingcompound after being wound
and are then given
several layers of varnished
cambric
of some
other similar
or

of alternators.

material.
with

such

With

fiber

moisture

When

or

mica.

which

coils it is necessary
fiber has
Vulcanized
it to

causes

expand

and

to
a

also

insulate

the

slots

tendency to absorb
reduces its insulating

it should not be relied upon

late
to insuproperties. For this reason
high-voltagemachines.
Mica is the only reliable insulation when high voltageor high
The objectionto mica is its
temperature is to be encountered.
poor

mechanical

with

other

and
properties,

for this

reason

it has to be used

For

insulatingslots it is splitinto thin

flakes which are built up with lap jointsinto sheets with varnish
the mica together. It is then baked under
or bakelite to cement
pressure.

moulded

materials.

When
hot in

the slots
Mica

voltage

is now

built up

U-shaped troughs

or

the finished sheet may

be
into other shapes for insulating

other parts of the machine.

almost exclusively
used for the insulation of
or

alternators

alternators.

in this way,

With

and
the

especiallyfor the
high speeds

necessary

insulation
for turbo

high-

of turbo
alterna-

SYNCHRONOUS

tors, comparatively few armature

voltage. This

increases

insulation between

more
one

two

or

applied which

be

turns, mica

would

is the

armature

and

coils which

mica

which

applied

requiredfor

well

given

withstand

the
which

insulation could still

higher voltage between

will withstand

the

high

bedded
by certain parts of the coil which are emiron.
The portions of the inductors

in the

slots

are

insulated

is built up with varnish upon thin cloth

the straightportionsof the conductors

to

the slots

Although fibrous

embedded

are

are

voltage per turn and necessitates

turns.
Large machines often have only

only substance

temperatures reached
in the

turns

the

per coil.

turns

13

GENERATORS

or

with
and

paper

which

lie in

to similar

portionsof the finished coils. It is

found
in practicethat the supporting cloth or paper
be
may
destroyed by heat without impairingthe insulation of the coils,
provided they are firmlyheld in place in the slots. The percentage
of the space occupied by the cloth or paper is small as compared
with the space occupied by the mica, and experience has
shown
that the complete carbonization
of the cloth or paper by
maintained
the coils to loosen
high temperature does not cause
in the slots. The portionsof the coils which liewithout the slots,
i.e.,the end connections,are insulated with varnished cambric,
mica

as

tape

or

as

similar material.

some

generallyapplied and rolled hot on

and coils by the Haefly
the straightportionsof the conductors
which was
developed in Europe and is extensivelyused
process,
in America.
are
so
By this process the mica wrappers
tightly
of insulatingmaterial
rolled on the coil that they form a solid mass
thickness free from air spaces
and having good
of minimum
heat conductivity. Mica insulation applied in the ordinaryway
has a heat conductivity of only 60 or 70 per cent, of that of varnished
The

mica

insulation is now

cambric
The

static

armature

and

expected, the

insulation
One

often encountered

iron in the earlier

effect of the

at

the

As

would

be

marked
most
discharge was
lating
the edges of the radial venti-

pit the outside

tion.
even
destroyingthe insulastatic discharge,
which has

Its effect is to eat holes in and

coils,weakening or
method
of avoiding this

of the

between

high-voltagealternators

insulation is used.

static

sharp edges, as

were

ducts.

was

rolled-on mica

when

there

similar materials.

dischargewhich

copper

is avoided

where

and

to

14

PRINCIPLES

been

used

OF

with

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

some

wrapping with tin foil

pass through the slots

consists of

success,

portions of the insulated coils which

before giving them their protecting
layer of tape, and grounding
the

the metallic sheath

Field

Insulation.
for low

wound
much

thus formed
Since

"

voltage,125

of insulation

one

between

the

the turns

as

which

to the

core.

fields of alternators

volts,the problem is

to 250

shall be

not

so

separation

mechanical

providinga

of

always

are

mechanically strong and shall

ical
high temperature. Neither the problem of mechanstrength nor of high temperature is serious in the case of

withstand

since
slow-speedalternators,
have to be withstood by the
not

the stresses

and

temperatures which

field windings of such

machines

are

great.
In

case

be

may

an

alternator becomes

the field winding

short-circuited,

subjectedto high voltageduring the

due to the transformer

current

the armature

and field.

initialrush of

action which

This action

as

ture
arma-

tween
placebe-

takes

rule is not

serious.

It is least in alternators with non-salient

Sufficient insulation must

to

guard againstbreakdown
Generators

with

with

salient

double-cotton-covered

be

ance.
polesand low field reactprovided on the field winding

due to this

cause.

poles usually have

wire with

their fields wound

stripsbetween
insulating
sulating
are
impregnated with in-

layers. After being wound, the coils

lating
compound and taped. They are then placed on insuspoolsof fiber or similar material and slippedover the pole

pieces. Fields
edge.
another

In this

often

are

wound

with flat stripcopper

the successive

case

turns

are

insulated

by insulatingstripsof thin asbestos

paper

The

of

copper

at

field coils is left bare

the outside

surface

or

wound
from

other

on
one
terial.
ma-

edgewise-wound

to facilitate cooling.

The

such as are used for turbo

windings of cylindrical
fields,
are
alternators,
subjectedto much greater stresses,on account
of
the high speed at which they operate, than the windings of fields
having salient poles. At times of short-circuit the stresses in
the field windings of large turbo generators become
great.
very
Ordinary cotton insulation would not have sufficient strength to
withstand
if the

the

severe

insulation

temperatures

at

had
which

crushingstresses at such times, especially

become
slightlycarbonized by the high
the fields of such

machines

generallyop-

16

PRINCIPLES

One

OF

kilowatt actingfor

of 100

ft. of air

cu.

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

will raise the temperature

minute

one

Assuming

approximately 18"C.

20,000-

of 97 per cent., 600 kw. will

efficiency
have to be taken up by the cooling air. If the increase in the
is not to
temperature of the air in passing through the machine
quired
exceed 20", 600 X 100 X ^Mo
54,000 cu. ft. of air will be reIf this has a velocityof 5000 ft. per minute,
per minute.
kv.-a. generator

with

an

ventilatingducts of nearly 11 sq. ft. cross-section will be required.

Since,in the case of such a machine, the air would be passed in
from
both ends, ducts of only half this cross-section will be
required. With the cooling air passed in from both ends and
with velocities as high as 5000 to 6000 ft. per minute, such as are
actually used in practice,it would be exceedinglydifficult to
The
ducts of sufficient cross-section.
tilating
venprovide ventilating
duct formed
ture
by the air gap between the field and armaforced
alone would
not
begin to be sufficient. To use
ventilation

it is

obviously necessary

completely enclose

to

machine.
There

three

are

alternators which
air is passed

methods

is used

ventilation
in

ventilating turbo
artificially

designatedaccording to the

are

through the machine.

circumferential

and

These

are

the

way

cooling

radial ventilation,

axial ventilation.

Air-gap

tilation
ven-

conjunction with these.

Ventilation.

Radial

of

In

"

the

radial

method

of

coolinglarge

the cooling air is passed in along the air gap from

alternators,
in the armature
both ends and out through radial ducts made
the armature
tions.
laminacore
by insertingspacing pieces between
As a rule, when
radial-slot rotors
used they are
are
provided with radial ducts. Air is passed through the rotor
the slots,out
under
through these radial ducts and thence
through the stator ducts. All of the air passes out through the
radial ducts
air

in the stator.

is
velocity,

not

air gap
sufficient in most

of sufficient air for

has

been

used

with

cooling the

success,

it is difficult to pass
in
is no
There
difficulty
it
care

are

not

of.

over

10

or

The

15

but

alone,with
cases

stator.

when

to allow

the sage
pasventilation

Radial

keep the

cooling the rotor, but

cent,

able
reason-

appliedto large

sufficient air to

per

any

stator

the

ators
gener-

cool.

losses

in

of the total losses to be taken

SYNCHRONOUS

17

GENERATORS

Ventilation.
When
the circumferential method
Circumferential
of ventilation is used, the air for coolingthe stator is supplied
to one
or
more
of the stator
openings in the circumference
and
around
through ducts in the stator core in two
passes
directions from each opening and out other openingsalso in the
circumference
of the stator,without entering
If air is
the air gap.
admitted
at only one
it passes out at
point on the circumference,
a point diametrically
opposite. In addition to the air for cooling
"

the stator, air must

also be

supplied to the air

for

gap

cooling

the rotor.
Axial

Ventilation.

circumferential

and

in the

stator

the air ducts

of heat

rate

10

and

as

to

must

pass

great

as

radial

of

across

pileof

along them.

as

methods

laminations

Since

is not

in both

over

the radial

of

cooling the heat must

pass
the laminations
to the air ducts, neither of these methods
efficient as one
where the heat passes along the laminations

the air ducts.

is the way
the heat passes
cooling. For this method, numerous

method

of

punched

in the

This

When

stampings.

armature

built up, these holes form

parallelto the axis of the

outlet.

The

stator

machine, and

and

the

and

the

in the armature

ducts

which

uninterruptedlyfrom one side to the other

more
or
one
large central radial channels
the

the

coolingis that the heat developed

the laminations
to
transverselyacross
be carried off by the coolingair. The

in order to
conduction

both

objectionto

common

methods

circumferential

across

is

cent,

per

"

in the axial
holes

stampings
core

or

which

extend

may

or

are

from

each

ducts

which

are
are

either
side to
form

in
stamping shown
for axial ventilation.
Air-gap
armature

are
5, respectively,
ventilation is used for cooling the rotor.
the
Cooling Air. The quantity of
Filtering or Washing
air which
great
passes through a large turbo generator is very
minute.
ft.
Even
if
the
reach
and may
50,000 to 75,000 cu.
per
quantitiesof foreign
cooling air is reasonably clean,enormous
ducts in
be carried by it through the ventilating
must
matter

Figs.

"

the
of

course

of

year

this is serious.

is necessary

to

use

and

the

depositof

even

small percentage

Fortunately,the high air velocitywhich

in the

cleaning. If,however,
gets into the passages,

any

ducts

tends to make

generators self-

especially
any oil
quickly collect foreignmatter.

moisture

it will

it

or

more

18

PRINCIPLES

Certain

generators require cleaning

of

types

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

at

more

less

or

keep their ducts free,and it is

advisable to clean all types occasionally.
With the types of alternators used in America, it has not been

frequent intervals in order

necessary

to clean the

operated
contains

near

cooling air except when

as, for

particularlybad,

to

example,

coal mines

or

in

turbo

when

generators

smelting plant where

the

are
are

air

dust.

quantitiesof

enormous

the conditions

of cleaningthe air is by washing

satisfactorymethod
it by passingthe air through sprays of water before it enters the
This
method
of cleaning the cooling air has the
generator.
double
advantage of increasingits humidity and at the same
The

time

most

cooling it.
generator

maximum

decrease

will very

of

5"

even

or

10" in the

appreciably increase

its

air entering

permissible

output.

tion.
Types of InsulaTemperatures for Different
All insulating materials
are
injured or destroyed by
The
continued
applicationof a temperature
high temperature.
would
which
not
injure an insulatingmaterial if applied for a
short time will cause
it to slowly deteriorate and ultimately to be

Permissible
"

application of even
quite moderate
temperatures to cotton, silk,shellac,varnishes and other similar
used
materials
for insulating electrical apparatus
commonly
and
to carbonize
to lose their insulatingqualities
them
causes
and mechanical
strength. Mica alone is the one substance used
for insulatingelectrical apparatus which will stand high temperatures,
but mica
seldom be used alone without being built up
can
form of varnish as a
into sheets or stripswith shellac or some
binder.
the binder is used only for structural
Except where
and
the insulation is once
where its destruction,when
purposes
in place, does
decrease
not
the insulating properties or
the
mechanical
strength of the built-up material, mica insulation
be used for much
cannot
higher temperatures than cotton
or
destroyed. The

silk.
as, for
armature

In many

example,

continued

cases

for

coils which

where

built-upmica

is

employed,

insulatingthe slots and the straightparts of

are

embedded

destroyed without
injury
coils are held firmly in place.
be

insulation

to

in the
the

iron,the binder
provided
insulation,

may
the

SYNCHRONOUS

The

Rules

For

Ai.

A2.
for

only,

and

quaUties,

may

125"C.

any

be

in

American

other

Institute

fibrous

Engineers

of

materials

zation
Standardi-

revised

the

treated

not

are:

increase

to

named

under

Ai

but

treated

or

impregnated,

105"C.

asbestos,

which

the

and

substances

wire,

Mica,
in

recommended

96"C.

limit,
the

enameled

Bi.

silk

cotton,

For

of

(1914)

thermal

their

limits

temperature

19

GENERATORS

class

other

or

destroyed

materials

material
without

or

capable
binder

impairing

of

if used

the

resisting
is

for

high

structural

insulating

or

tures
temperapurposes

mechanical

and

CHAPTER

Induced

Electromotive
Fltjx

Flux

OF

Sides
of

Coil

THE

Induced

Sides

Electromotive

in

direct-current

of

number

and

manner

in

the
which

are

in the

the

electromotive

force
The

winding
The

the

N,

(p

its

is

and

series.

phase

Let

linking with

maximum

flux,
its

induced

made

the

value

the

arrangement

coil

spread.
coil

forces

of the

motive
electro-

of the

the

on

flux

different

give

to

electromotive

The

in any

brushes

the

in which

respectively, the number

are,

by the coil
of

The

and

the

ture
arma-

of

armature

of

usually consists
flux

from

any

armature

"p",

and

the

the

turns

coil and

terms

of

which

coil varies

angular

20

phase

so
as

pole.

coil,
in

be

fused.
con-

of coils which

cupy
oc-

must

not

connected

distributed
some

The

that

function

displacement,
a

laid

are

generally

are

in the

electromotive

which

number

poles be

position directly opposite

of turns

instantaneous

number

pairs of slots and

the

and

of the

independent

way

be

can

between

given by

of slots.

different

flux

upon

pitch

force

coil consists

single pair

from

such

flux enclosed

force.

flux

depend

alternator

the

upon

the

alternator, however,

an

of root-mean-square

will also

electromotive

where

total

of

case

its distribution.

as

is

duced
in-

speed,

series

distributed, provided

depends

and

in

pole, and

the

In

same

changing

force

is

Apart

force

its

upon

connected

per

flux

plane.

of maximum

merely

an

the

neutral

is distributed.

by

flux

total

when

Degrees

depends

generator

Coil

electromotive

The

"

inductors

armature

brushes

values

Force.

Coil

Calculation

in

Electrical

180

not

Shape

when

Apart;

Induced

Force

are

Waves

Degrees

Electromotive

the

between

Induces;

it

Force

Electrical

180

are

Force

Electromotive
Electromotive

and

Relation

Phase

Force;

the

and

II

a,

angle

the

of the

of the
a

in

coil

will be

SYNCHRONOUS

expressed in

21

GENERATORS

electrical radians

electrical

degrees where 2ir

electrical radians or 360 electrical degrees are equivalentto the
distance between
the centers of consecutive polesof like polarity.
If the generator is bipolar,
360 electrical degreeswill correspond
to 360

or

degrees. Then

space

and

The

root-mean-square voltage is

E=-N[lfj\i/'(^."-)\
dt'

If the flux in the air gap

is distributed in such

ture
pole faces and the armathat the flux through the coil
a way
varies as the cosine of the angular displacement,a, of the coil
from the position
where the flux through it is a maximum,

between

"

the

cos

^,u"^

dt
=

where

radians

and

second

sin
(jiNip^

o"N

2t

page

4.

have

the

requiredfor

sin^

o"t dt

N.p^

:^"

they had in equation(1)

significance

(2)

volts.
4.447V/"5"10-8

equation holds only when the flux distribution

in
is such as to produce a sinusoidal voltage wave

This

it to

Therefore,
E

gap

same

in electrical

wt

2 go

armature

in seconds

ipj
^-i"

"

p and

cot,

cos

wt.

where

"p^
-j-f

t is the time

through the angle a

move

Jy

angular velocity of the

is the
per

"

"

in the air
the

arma-

22

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

phase, and
if the adjacent coils are
separatedby a distance equal to the
distance between
either adjacent or alternate poles,the phase
voltagewill be equal to the electromotive force given by formula
ture coils.

If the armature

has

than

more

coil per

one

(2) multipliedby the number of coils connected in series. When

tween
the coils are separatedby a distance equal to the distance berightadjacentpoles,they must be connected alternately
left-handed

and
When

they

separated by
alternate poles,they
are

If the distance

way.

either the distance

connected

all be

must

tween
be-

the distance

equal to

distance

forces add.

their electromotive

in order to have

in the

same

adjacentcoils is not equal to

tromotive
adjacent or alternate poles,the electhe

between

between

generated in these coils will be out of phase and

be added
directly. The discussion of the effect of this
forces

cannot

will be taken
Phase

Relation

it Induces.

"

respect to

Flux and

in

difference

force it induces
coil and

should

inductor

the

between

The

electromotive

two

later.

up

both

when

phase between
when

be overlooked.

not

active sides of each

turn

of

both

coil.

Its

the

and

with

with respect to

inductor

An

flux

considered

are

considered

are

Force

Electromotive

the

is

of the

one

length is equal

that

the two

active sides of

coil

180

are

to

flux.

length of that portion of the coil side which actuallycuts

Assume

an

electrical

this condition,when
the coil is directly
degrees apart. Under
flux its two
active sides
over
a
pole and contains a maximum
are
midway between the poles and are in zero field. They are
cutting no flux and the electromotive force induced in them is
When
the coil has moved
forward
90 electrical degrees
zero.
the flux through it becomes
the inductors are
now
zero, but
directlyunder the centers of oppositepolesand are in the strongest

part of the fields. The

will be

the two

inductors.

vector
two

maximum

electromotive

forces induced

in them

and

opposite in direction with respect to

The voltage in the coil is always equal to the

difference between

the electromotive

forces induced

in its

inductors.

It follows that while

an

electromotive

quadrature with respect to

the flux

force in the inductors

the

density at the inductors

and
are

force in

coil is in time

through it,the electromotive

intensityof

in time

the field

phase. The

or

the

inductors

flux

move

24

PRINCIPLES

and

the

180

electrical

electromotive

space

The
when

force

produced

MACHINERY

in

coil with

of the Electromotive

Calculation

the sides of

coil

not

are

Induced

\j'

in

Coil

Electrical Degrees

angular
tri-

Apart. ^In
180 electrical degrees apart, the

180

not

are

Force

/A

inductors

sine,a rectangularand
distribution of the air-gapflux.

degrees apart, by

the Coil Sides

case

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

"

LlSOJori;!
rSth HiTl
I

3rd

Har.
-180

fOE fundamental

'

Fig.

voltagesin them

will not

16.

be in

phase at every instant when considered

around the coil. The voltage in the coil,however, will
difference of the voltages induced in
stillbe equal to the vector
its active sides.
If the distribution of the flux is not sinusoidal but its distribution
in terms
in the air gap is known
of a fundamental
and
series of harmonics, the voltage in the coil at each instant may

SYNCHRONOUS

be found

by takingthe

in the inductors

25

GENERATORS

differences of the

vector

voltagesinduced

of the coil

and each of the

by the fundamental
harmonics separately. Fig.16 gives a distribution of flux which
contains

fundamental

of this

and

should

curve

change

of

for the fundamental

in

Let the space

measured
from
(B

it clear that any

the two inductors of

phase between

the

and

na

voltagesin

(Bi sin

3rd

Hanuoaics,

coil corresponds
inductors

the two

alternator

(Bs sin 5a

6th

Fig.

in the

for the nth harmonic.

(B3 sin 3a

tion
Inspec-

change,a,

distribution of flux in the air gap of an

the poles be
a pointmidway between

Fundamentals,

where

fifth harmonics.

make

angular distance between

to

third and

Harmonics,

17.

the (B's represent the maximum

flux densities for the fundamental

angulardistance measured
the
the gap from the reference point midway between
around
poles. If the inductors of the coil are 160 electrical degrees
the

and

harmonics,and

of the

apart, the fundamentals

will be 20

degreesout

3 X

60

20

The

of

is the

voltages in the

the third harmonics

phase opposition,

degrees and the fifth harmonics

vectors

inductors

two

for the fundamentals

and

5 X

20

100

the harmonics

grees.
deare

26

PRINCIPLES

shown

in

Fig.
and

If

the

17.
2

coil

second,

and

the

voltage

in

inductor

volts

square

values

induced

cos

10"

cos

30"

sin

of

root

the

one-half
fundamental

sin

{Za

root-mean-square

of

in

with

referred

coil

the

of

velocity

cm.

is

flux

cut

L,
in

voltage

the

to

tages.
vol-

respectively.

which

inductors

the

and

moves

resultant

is

(Bs

The

of

length

the

are

inductors

in
and

turns

R's

the

figure

voltages
N

the

2LvN10r"{("i

the

contains

per

this

In

are

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

the

{a

10")

30")

value

of

this

sum

of

the

and

the

(B5

cos

50"

voltage
squares

harmonics.

sin

is
of

(5a

equal
the

50")

to

maximum

the

CHAPTER

Open-

Closed-circuit

and

Concentrated

and

Pitch;

Phase

Wave

ON

Effect

Form

Three-phase

in

Open-

and

windings

be

divided

into

Open-circuit

II.

Closed-circuit

An

open-circuit winding,
In

through

the

terminates
A

closed-circuit
their

its

as

All

"

alternating-current
:

groups

signifies,is

name

each

of

free

there

phase

is

continuous

the

on

closed

not

on

path
which

armature

ends.
has

winding
re-enters

continuous

itself,forming

on

have

windings

least

at

path

through

the

closed

circuit.

All

parallel paths between

two

terminals.

All modern
Either

direct-current

are

in

but, except
adapted

better

alternator

Multipolar

re-entrant,

two

parallelpaths

between

windings

between

their

windings
armatures,

terminals

general, windings

terminals
are

and

alternators

sometimes

continuous-current

are

with

called
used

for

winding
27

are

two

have

may

low-voltage
be

used

or

for

used.
more

windings

Windings
two-circuit

are

with
ings
wind-

parallel paths

more

multicircuit

may

two

such

called
or

employed

universally

are

but

windings.

ings
open-circuit wind-

i.e., closed-circuit, windings.

not

in

for

be

may

special cases,

few

closed-circuit

are

windings

armature

parallel paths through

or,

windings

closed-circuit

or

open-

alternators

Harmonics

windings.

closed-circuit
which

Effect

windings.

conductors
in two

armature

Winding;

general

two

open-circuit winding

an

Coil

Harmonics;

Harmonics;

Windings.

I.

itself.

Pitch;

Generators

Closed-circuit

may

Pole

on

Distributing

of

and

Windings;

Factor;

Pitch

of

Wave

and

Breadth

Windings;
Whole-

Windings;

Windings;

Spread;

Coil

and

Spiral, Lap

Polyphase

Factor;

Bar

Distributed

Windings;

Single-

Pitch

Windings;

and

Half-coiled

III

windings.

Such

alternators.
for

an

alternator.

28

PRINCIPLES

but

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

alternating-current
winding, since

an

be used

cannot

Bar

OF

and

for

Coil

direct-current

Windings.
"

Armature

it is not

re-entrant,

generator.

windings

may

be divided

general classes according to the way in which the coils

placed in the slots,
namely: bar windings and coil windings.

into two
are

In the

former,insulated rectangularcopper

slots and

armature

welding or
or
are

bars

are

laid in the

then

suitably connected
by brazing,
In
the
latter
of
bolting.
type
winding,coils of rectangular
of round insulated wire are wound
forms in lathes,
on

insulated

and

are

then

closed or
placed in the slots. When
used, it is sometimes
to wind
necessary

nearly closed slots are

the coils by hand directly
the armature
on
by threadingthe wire
coils are
through the slots. Form-wound
reliable and
more
are
generallyused,except where nearlyclosed slots are required.

SYNCHRONOUS

Whether

bar

coil

or

GENERATORS

windings are

employed, the

properlyinsulated by press board, mica

A

bar

wave

slot is shown

coil-wound
is

used, all the

of the

Two

When

armature

phase they

connections

as

coils

in

are

have

the

are
or

are

it does not

their

be

other suitable material.

coil and

four bars per

types of coils for

two

size and

same

positionon

on

the left

spective
shape irre-

the armature.

required for the other type of

permit as good bracing of the

the first.

Fig.

Concentrated

slots must

the type of coil shown

different shapes of coils

winding. Moreover,
end

or

winding with two bars per

in Fig. 18.
Fig. 19 shows

armatures.

29

19.

and Distributed

all of the inductors

ings
Windings. Concentrated windof any one
phase, which lie under
"

single pole,in a single slot. Better results can usually be

obtained
the inductors
several slots.
by distributing
among
Such windings are called distributed windings. They are completely
a

distributed

spread over
it.

distributed accordingas they are

partially

the entire armature

surface

or

over

only a portion of

armature
windings diminish
form and
reaction,give a better wave
of the heating due to the armature
copper
windings.

Distributed

armature

or

and

reactance
a

better

bution
distri-

loss than

centrated
con-

30

PRINCIPLES

Whole-

and

for all

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

Half -coiled

The

Windings.
"

one

windings is that all conductors

common

must

be

ment
requireconnected

togetherin such a way that their electromotive forces shall assist.

alternator with two inductors
Fig.20 shows a six-pole
per pole.
the
The short lines over
the poles represent diagrammatically
armature

and
inductors,

direction

of the

the

these lines represent the

for the
in them
forces induced
on

arrows

electromotive

clockwise rotation of the field. An

inductor

extending into the

Fig. 20.

paper

is represented
by

the armature

on

line drawn

is assumed

outward.
radially

to contain

two

inductors.

Each
These

slot
are

by side in Fig. 20. They may be connected in two

illustrated by Figs. 21 and 22.
the conas
nections
Electrically
ways
shown
in Figs. 21 and 22 are
identical.
The
lower
halves of these figuresrepresent the connections on the backs of
the armatures
as they would
actuallyappear.
side

shown

Fig. 21 represents

what

is known

as

half-coiled

whole-coiled

winding.
windings

winding. Whole-coiled
coils per phase as there are
have as many
poles. Half -coiled
windings have only one coil per phase per pair of poles. The two
in Fig. 22 would
be in a singlecoil.
turns per pairof poles shown
shows

Fig.

22

The

only real

difference between

the two

types of winding lies

32

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Fig.

22.

MACHINERY

SYNCHRONOUS

in

the

method

inductors

of

in the

making

slots.

The

33

GENERATORS

the

end

connections

connections

between

between
the

the

coils for

half-coiled

winding are simplerthan for a whole-coiled winding.

When
a half-coiled winding is used
on
a generator, the armature
frame or yoke may
be splitinto two
sections for shipmore
ment
or
without disturbingmany
end connections.
tributed
Spiral,Lap and Wave Windings. When the windingsare disthey may be connected in three different ways giving
a

"

what

are

known

as:

(a) Spiralwindings.
(6) Lap windings.
or
(c) Wave
progressive
windings.

Fig.

23.

also be used for concentrated

windings may
Lap arid wave
windings. The difference between these three types of windings
to Figs.23, 24 and 25, which show
clear by referring
will be made
winding.
winding, a lap winding and a wave
a spiral
respectively
All three

figuresshow

eightslots

per

pole.

distributed single-phase
windings with

34

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Fig.

24.

Fig. 25.

MACHINERY

SYNCHRONOUS

The

lap winding lends itself better

formed

coils than

coils will be

the

the

to the

spiralwinding as
If formed

same.

35

GENERATORS

of lathe-wound

use

all of the

in the former

coils

are

used

for

spiral
of coils,

winding,there will have to be as many

different widths
coil pitches,
there are slots per pole per phase for a halfi.e.,
as
coil winding,but only one-half as
for a whole-coil winding.
many
Single-and Polyphase Windings. A single-phasewinding has
only one group of inductors per pole. These may be in a single
slot or in several slots accordingto whether
the winding is concentrated
distributed.
A polyphase winding may
be conor
sidered
to consist of a number
of single-phase
windings displaced
suitable
from
electrical
placemen
another.
The
one
by
angles
space disbetween
the single-phase
elements must
be the same
the phase differences between
the voltagesto be induced.
as
For example, the corresponding elements
of the winding of a
three-phase alternator must be displaced120 electrical space
degrees from one another.
windings
Although the single-phase
which
make
independent of each
up the polyphase winding are
other, the windings are always interconnected in either star or
mesh.
The number
of leads brought out will be equal to the
is used when an
number
of phases,except when
star connection
additional lead may
be brought out from the common
junction
nators,
In
the
of
neutral point of the phases.
case
or
three-phasealterconnections
the Y
the star and mesh
are, respectively,
"

and

connections.

modern

Most

alternators

connected

are

in

permits the neutral point to be grounded and

phase
gives a higher voltage between terminals for the same
It also givesa higher slot factor,
voltagethan the A connection.
Y.

connection

to insulation for

the ratio of copper

i.e.,
for a given thickness

of insulation

High-voltagealternators
connection
it would

the strain

there is no

When
whether

F
the

the

with

be

standard
the

or

on

connection

for the

should

sometimes

voltage and

for the A

the slot insulation is only

consideration such

armature

than

given size slot is greater

invariablyF-connected

are

connection

phases is

as

be

fixed

with this

as

"

as

terminal

great as

voltage.

high voltageto determine

used, the

method

by the number

stampings which
the

same

"

connection.

of

necting
con-

of slots in

the frequency,
available,
permissible
range of flux density.
are

36

PRINCIPLES

For

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

voltage between terminals and line current, Y

and A connections
but the
of copper,
amount
requirethe same
Y connection
requiresfewer total turns than the A connection
("

the

"

same

0.58

many], and

as

since the

thickness

of insulation

the voltage and not upon

depends upon
their size,
the ratio of space
occupied in a slot by the copper to
the space occupied by insulation will be greater for the Y than

required on

the

wires

Fig.

for the A

connection.

nected

alternator

nected

alternator.

connection

than

Fig. 26 shows

In other

26.

words, the slot factor of a

will be higher than the slot factor of a
Therefore, smaller slots can be used

for A

F-conA-con-

for Y

connection.

ing
simple six-pole,
two-phase half-coiled windwith two inductors per slot. Fig. 27 shows a similar threephase winding. The phases 1, 2 and 3 of the three-phasewinding
indicated by full lines,dashed-and-dotted
lines and dotted
are
lines respectively.
a

SYNCHRONOUS

The

arrangement of the coils of

slot per

one

37

GENERATORS

pole per phase and

Fig. 29 shows an end

alternator having
three-phase
half-coiled winding is shown in

large turbo alternator

and illustrates one
of the most
methods
of bracing
satisfactory
the end connections
to resist the severe
stresses to which
they
"are subjectedat times of short-circuit (Chapter VIII).

Fig.28.

Pole
of

Pitch.

"

The

view

pole pitchis

adjacentnorth

and

south

Fig.

Coil Pitch.

"

The

distance

as

fraction of the

the distance

between

the

ters
cen-

poles.

27.

sides of any armature

Coil pitchis usually expressed

between

pitch.
polepitch,but

coil is called the coil

of

the two

it is sometimes

convenient

to

example: a coil
pitchof % would be a pitchof 120 electrical degreesor, if there
slots per pole,a pitch of eight slots. A winding
twelve
were
is
having a coil pitch of less than 180 electricaldegrees or unity
it in electrical degrees or

express

For

fradimal-pitchwinding. Since the

winding do not lie under
fractional-pitch

called
of

in slots.

two

sides of

the centers

coil

of ad-

38

PRINCIPLES

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

MACHINERY

duced
instant,the electromotive forces inin them
out of phase. The
voltage produced by a
are
less than that produced by
winding is,therefore,
fractional-pitch
tional-pitc
Fracof turns.
number
a
winding having the same
full-pitch
windings are often used. They decrease the length

jacent poles at

of the end

the

same

connections

and

thus the amount

Fig.

required.

of copper

28.

reduce the slot reactance

and give a means
They also somewhat
harmonic
from
of eliminating any
the electromotive-force
one
and reducing the others.
wave
turns
They require a few more
or

greater flux for the

having

full

same

electromotive

force than

winding

pitch.

Spread. The phase spread of a winding is the percentage

of
the
of the periphery
armature
which the windings of a
over
singlephase are spread. For example: a single-phase
winding
which covers
the entire surface of an armature
has a spread of
Phase

"

40

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

pairsof slots over which the phase is distributed. The

ratio of this voltageto the voltage which would be produced if
all the turns were
concentrated in a singlepair of slots is the

in all

three-phasegenerator having six

slots per pole,that is,two slots per pole per phase. Let N be
the number
of turns per coil. The voltage per coil is,
equation
breadth

factor.

Consider

(2),page 21,
E

4.44iV/^"10-"

180

The

adjacent slots is -^

angle between
is the

This

by the inductors
two
voltagesis

2E

would

voltagesproduced
of these

sum

cos

1.9S2E

in the

were

grees.
30 electricalde-

of coils. The

groups

E'

If all the turns

the

phase angle between

in the two

pair of slots,the voltage

same

be
E"

The

breadth

1.932
^

factor for

breadth

phase

be found

may

radians

Assume

winding with

follows.

as

Let

adjacentslots

between

of

slots per pole per

be the angle in electrical
n

winding having

be the inductors in series per

electromotive

of the first slot of the

force.

force induced

in the inductors

phase belt is
ei

is the maximum

Em

sinusoidal electromotive

The instantaneous

where

'~2~

pole per phase* and let Z

slots per

slot.

2E

is,therefore,

factor

E'

The

ZEm

sin u"t

electromotive

force induced

in

an

inductor.
The

instantaneous

electromotive

force for the

slots of the

phase belt is
e"

ZEm

The

{sin ut

sin

-f sin

+ (n
(a!"

pole per phase multipliedby the

of slots per pole.
necessarilyequal to the number

number

phases is not

+ a) +
{oit
sin {oit
+ 2a) -f-

of slots per

"

l)a)\

number

of

SYNCHRONOUS

The

series by
e"

is equal to
trigonometry
"

vv

Zi4"

41

GENERATORS

"

na

(coiH

sin

")

"

sin

cosec

-k-

value of this electromotive force may be found

determiningthe value of wt which makes e" a maximum

The

by
and

maximum

then

this
substituting

value of ut in the
n

fin will

be

maximum

sin

when
+

^sinM

Puttingthis
maximum

value of i"t in the

value of

"

n-

oji

=0

a)

"

e".

a) is a maximum.

(cat
+

^a)

H
(oji

cos

o)

expressionfor
1

"

expressionfor

e"

e"

givesfor the

na

sin

6n(mai.)
"

^.C^n

sm^
If the inductors of the
a

phase belt had all been

value of

singleslot,the maximum
e

The

breadth

factor

n(max.)

e"

would

concentrated

in

have been

nZEm

is,therefore,
na
sin

kt

"

^n(max,)

"(3)

71

(max.)
n

sin

uniformly distributed windings

assuming sinusoidal electromotive forces are given in Table I.
The

breadth

factors for

few

Table

For

harmonics

sign given by

the

certain conditions.

must

be

equation

multipliedby
for

the order of the harmonic.

hi is correct.

It may

be

The

negativeunder

42

PRINCIPLES

Harmonics.

by
X

"

valued
Any single-

Fourier

Ao -\-Ai sin

"

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

series

oit

Bi

MACHINERY

A2 sin 2cof -1-B2

ut

cos

with sine terms

Ao +

where

Ci sin {cot
+

the

angles ai,

harmonic

and the

cos

3coi -t-

the

originalsine

term.

Ci

Ci

(4)

to

+ "2) +
ai) -{"Ci sin {2oit
+ as) -tC3 sin (3a)"

etc.,are

2coi -|-

cos

only,equation(4)reduces

at, a^,

pressed
ex-

follows.

as

A3 sin 3a)" -t-B3

Written

be

periodicquantity may

angles between

(5)

ant
the result-

VaTTb?
y/A^"-f "2'
etc.,etc.

a.\

COS

7^

Oi

.Ai
CLl

'^

COS

77-

C2

etc.,etc.
Waves

which
contain

cannot

have
even

symmetrical positiveand
harmonics.

\y /

This

Fundamental

H
R

Second

and

second

Fig. 30 which

harmonic

the fundamental
No

matter

what

and

is

from

con-

Haononic

30.

the resultant of

different

fundamental

phase relations between

the harmonic.

the order

respect to the positiveand

wave

shows

for two

is evident

Kesultant

Fig.

sideration of

negative loops

of

an

even

harmonic

is,its phase with

negative loops of the fundamental

opposite. A little thought will

make

it clear that

od^l

SYNCHRONOUS

harmonics
halves

will have

the

The

conditions
of the

the same, consequently the voltage and

of alternators do not as a rule contain

are

The

and

current

El sin {ut +

waves.

in

waves

harmonics.

wave

properlydesignedalternators for the generation

tive-force
positiveand the negative loopsof the electromo-

wave

the current

phase with respect to the two

and will,therefore,
give rise to

same

of the fundamental

symmetrical resultant

43

OENERATOBS

also
even

generalexpressionsfor the electromotive-force

of

waves

alternator are,

an

"xi)+ E^ sin {Swt+

therefore,

a^) +
(5co"+ ai,)+

Ei sin

(6)

and
i

/i sin {cat
+

ai

"

+ as
Oi) + I3 sin (Scot
+ "6
76 sin (5cot
65) +

^3) -|-

"

(7)

where

the E's arid Z's

harmonics

and

the d's

the maximum

are

values

of the different

the

anglesof lag between the currents

and voltages of the correspondingharmonics.
The voltage generated in any singleturn on
Pitch Factor.
are

"

the

armature

of

an

alternator

is the
inductors

difference of the

vector

voltages generated in the

two

sides of the turn.

full-pitch
winding,these

are

in

With

phase when

considered

around

which

form

the active

two

voltages

the coil.

winding,the active sides of the

fractional-pitch
motive
coil are less than 180 electricaldegreesapart and the electrowill be out of phase.
forces generatedin them, therefore,
If p is the pitchexpressedin electrical degrees,the difference in
of the two
voltages will be p. In
phase for the fundamental
general,since the displacement for any harmonic such as the
for the fundamental,
nth must be n times the phase displacement
In the

case

of

the difference in

phase between

the harmonics

of any order,such
active sides of any coil of a

nth, generatedin the two

winding will be np.
fractional-pitch
Since the voltage in a coil is the vector difference of the
voltagesgeneratedin its active sides,the voltage.En, of the nth
as

the

harmonic

generatedin

coil is equalto

En
where
side.

E'n is the value

2E'"sm'^

of the nth harmonic

voltagein

the coil

44

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

pitchfactor is the ratio of the voltage,En, induced in a

duced
fractional pitchwinding to the voltage,2 E'" that would be inif the windinghad a full pitch. The magnitude of the
pitchfactor for any harmonic is
The

kp
For

odd

is given in

(8)

-g-

"

Effect of Pitch
from the

pitchthat

To

sin

harmonics,the signand magnitudeof the pitchfactor

terms
of pitchdeficiency
p) by
(180
hip

CU"

"

Harmonics.

on

rt

"

Any harmonic

voltagegeneratedin an

will make

the

armature

pitchfactor

zero

may

be eliminated

coil by

choosing

for that harmonic.

eliminate the wth harmonic

A;,
=

where

sin^=Oorp=^

(9)

q is any

integer.
For example, to eliminate the fifth harmonic pitchesof %,
%, %, etc.,could be used. Since any departurefrom full pitch
which
increases
diminishes the fundamental
by an amount
with the departure of the pitch from unity, in
progressively
practicethe shortened pitchwhich is nearest to unity,in this
case
^i, would be used. Pitches which are greater than unity
requiremore
copper for the coil end connections than shortened
pitchesand possess no compensatingadvantage.
Eliminatingany one harmonic from the voltageinduced in the
coils of an alternator not only eliminates that particular
armature
harmonic

but also diminishes the fundamental

and other harmonics,

usuallyby differentamounts, and changesthe phaserelations

of the harmonics with respectto the fundamental.
For example,

voltagegeneratedin the active side of

let the
e

If

an

armature

coil be

El sin wt + Ea sin Scat + E^ sin 5ut + Ej sin Icat

^i pitchis used,the

resultant

voltagegenerated in the coil

will be
e

1.73 El sin co"

1.73 Ei sin 5co"

1.73 Er sin 7wi

as it nearlycuts
y4 pitchis particularly
satisfactory

the fifthand seventh harmonics.

can

be

no

third harmonic

or

It will be shown

out both

laterthat there

of the third harmonic

multiples

between

F-connected generator. Therefore,

three-phase,
by usinga ^g pitchand Y connection there can be no third,ninth
ir fifteenthharmonics and only a small fifthand seventh between

the terminals of a

SYNCHRONOUS

the line terminals.

The

45

GENERATORS

firstharmonic

which

in any
high order as this

can

occur

magnitude is the eleventh,and harmonics of as

seldom are present in sufficient magnitude to have much
on

the

effect

form.

wave

The

magnitudes of the harmonics in fractional-pitch

windings
as compared with their magnitudes in a full-pitch
winding having
the same
number
of turns are given in Table II.

Distributinga Winding. When

than one
that is,when it occupies
more
a winding is distributed,
slot per poleper phase,the electromotive forces generatedin the
will
of a single
turns
phase,which occupy different pairsof slots,
of the voltagewave, this
be out of phase. For the fundamental
difference in phase will be equal to the angle between the two
For ^he third
pairsof slots occupiedby the two groups of turns.
five times;
harmonic it will be three times this angle;for the fifth,
for the seventh,
seven
times,the angle,of course, being measured
in electrical degrees.
out
a winding is to smooth
The generaleffect of distributing
form by diminishingthe amplitudeof the harmonics
the wave
The

with

Effect

on

Wave

of

Form

respect to the fundamental.

"

This

can

be made

clear

by

Take, for example,a generator which

motive
has a distribution of flux in its air gap which gives an electroforce containinga third and a fifthharmonic in each turn
of the armature
winding. Let the equationof this electromotive
case.
a specific
considering

force be
e

wt
i?(sin

sin 3a)" +

sin

5wt)

poleper phase.
pairof slots the
If all four turns are placedin a single
electromotive force generatedin them will be
Let there be four turns

Cr

Eii sin

per

ut +

1.33 sin Stat +

0.8 sin 5wO

resultant

46

PRINCIPLES

and

the harmonics

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

will have

followingrelative magnitudes:

the

1st :3rd :5th

1:0.33:0.2

four pairs of
Suppose the four turns are distributed among
tributio
slots which are
15 degrees apart. This correspondsto the disof the armature
winding of a three-phasealternator
having four slots per pole per phase and givesa phase spread of
60 degrees.
Let

ei, 62, 63 and

the four turns

ei

62

63

64

e^

be the electromotive

referred to the center

forces

generated in

phase belt.

of the

Then

"'[sin(a)"-22."5)-|-Ksin3(w"-22."5)+"^sin5(co"
E[sm (coi-7."5)-t-3^sin3(cof-7."5)+J^sin5(a)i-7."

E[sm {oit+7."5)+H sin 3io,t+7"5)+}i sin 5{(^t+7."5)]

+ i.isin3(wf+22."5)+Msin5(cof+22".5
E[sm (co"+22."5)

Adding
er

these
=

vectorially
givesthe resultant voltage er equal to

relative

The
wave

sin

E(3.84 sin coi-|-0.869sin Zoit+OMi

of the

magnitudes

5ut)

in this resultant

harmonics

are

1st :3rd :5th

all four

With

in the

turns

1:0.226:0.043

pair of slots the

same

root-mean-

voltage is

square

Er......
=

With

(HY
;^V(1)^
+

4.28

my

4;

distributed this voltage is

the turns

Er.,n...'
=

+ (0.869)2+
;^\(3.84)2

3-94;^

Distributingthe winding has diminished

10 per
cent,

the

voltage by about

either 10 per cent, more

turns
10 per
or
flux will be requiredin this particular
for the same
case

cent.

more

(0.164)^

Therefore

the flux or the turns is

voltage. The disadvantage of increasing
than balanced
by the smoothing out of the wave
usually more
The
distribution of the
form
by diminishing the harmonics.
loss is also improved. In the particularexarmature
copper

48

PRINCIPLES

Consider

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

F-connected

phase diagram of
generator and

Fig.31 represents a

generator.

the connections

MACHINERY

space-

phases of a F-connected
in
the voltagesinduced

of the

time-phase diagram of

them.
The
3-1

voltages across

the

1-2, 2-3 and

pairs of terminals

three

are

ei2

eio

eo2

Cio

^23

C20

^03

^20

631

630

-|-eoi

630

cao

"

630

"~

eio

"

E,

Fig.

31.

pair of terminals is,therefore,the

monics
difference of the phase voltages. Since the third harvector
in phase,
and all the multiplesof the third harmonics
are
be
they will cancel in the differences. Therefore, there cannot
third harmonic
or
multiple of it in the line or terminal
any
any
The third harmonics
alternator.
voltage of a three-phaseF-connected
the terminals and
and their multiplesexistingbetween
neutral point,however, will be in phase.
A study of the phase differences between
the harmonics
of the
order for the three phases will show that the voltages en,
same
The

623

voltage between

and

631

of

any

F-connected

alternator

when

referred to
30"

V^Ei

ei2=

sin

(aj"+ 30") +

0 +

V^Ej
623

V^Ei

sin

sin 5

VSE^

sin 7

co"

Ut

^j +

^j -t-

0 -I-

Cio are:

(a)" 120" + 30") -|-0 +

-

ut

120"

^)

120"+^)+0+
V3"7sin7(a)"....

SYNCHRONOUS

631

V^Ei

sin

{cot 240" + 30") +

"v/3^5sin 5 (wt

Consider

0 +

the

240"

sin 7

VBEj

49

GENERATORS

conditions

~]

(oit240"

^\

existingin

+ 0 +

A-connected

tor.
alterna-

The

voltageactingaround the closed delta is ew + do + 630.

By referringto Table III it will be seen that the three components
of the

third

be
therefore,

the

delta.

The

alternator

628

The

vector

in the closed delta and

when

zero

terminal

or

El sin {wt
El sin (ut

0 +
-

E^ sin 5wt +

120") +

0 +

Et sin 7 oit +

the

Although

240") +

0 +

terminal

magnitudes, the
different,due

wave

to

the

0 +

harmonics

same

of

different for the two

effective value

third harmonic

an

240") -|-0 -F

alternator

harmonics

in the

when

nected
con-

same

tive
rela-

given by the two connections

the phase displacement of 30 degrees
a

in this ratio since the

are

240") -|-

E^ sin 5(a)"

F-connected

alternator.

root-mean-square voltages given by the Y and

will be in the ratio of \/3 to 1, but the maximum
be

forms

in the harmonics

occurs

will not

The

A-connected

120") -|120") + 0 +
-

voHages of

in Y and in A contain

The

closed

which

all

E^ sin 5{cot

Ej sin 7icot

will be

the

around

voltages of

pear
ap-

and

harmonics,including

taken

Er sin 7(co"
631

ninth

will also be short-circuited

of all other

sum

The

cannot

are:

'= El sin oit +

=

line

phase. They will,

of the alternator.

will be

three

in

are

the third harmonic

fundamental,

delta.

ei2

the terminals

multiplesof

In the

voltage

short-circuited

between
other

harmonic

phase

tions
connec-

voltages

relations between

the

connections.

circulatorycurrent

of the

in the armature
and its multiples

caused
of

by

the

A-connected

generator is

(SEA
(BE
/7s
"""
)"+(")"+*"
^2'^\BzJ \3z9
1

where

the z's

phase for

are

the effective

impedances

the different harmonics.

of the armature

per

50

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

effective reactance

harmonic

any

will not

of the armature
the

by
forms

winding.

F-connected.

nected

This

The

Due

to

any

and

right,where

multiples. If

their

in the closed delta formed

combined

with

there

load

the

modern

by

the
rent
cur-

alternators
in

things which

A-con-

make

rule.
"

Fig. 169,
relative to

core

is

wave

great magnitude, there will

of several

one

Slots.

positionsof an armature
of the magnetic circuit
positionshown
the pole. The

reaction produced

the armature

effect of the third harmonic

preferableas

Harmonics

at the

multipliedby the order of

harmonics

current

generator is only

connection

synchronous reactance

or

dangerous heating. Most

cause

may
are

third

present in

are

for

the fundamental.

and

large short-circuit current

armature

alternator

an

is objectionable
for alternators unless their

free from

are

of

less than this

generalit will be considerably

the harmonics

third harmonics
be

be the effective

of the difference between

connection

in

MACHINERY

of the armature

for the fundamental

harmonic,but
account

on

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

are

four slots

over

Fig.

should

there

positionshown
pole,than for the

for the

the

only three slots over

the pole will therefore
of the slots across
movement
the pole flux to pulsate with a frequency of 2nf where
cause
is the number
of slots per pole and / is the normal
n
frequency
of the machine.
If,however, the effective width of the pole
at

the left where

two

pole. The reluctance

obviously less

326, shows

page

31a.

are

Fig.

316.

be

of times the width of a

equal to any whole number
slot plus tooth,there will be no variation in the reluctance of the
of the
magnetic circuit as a whole due to the relative movement
slots and poles. The
effective width
of the poles is slightly

greater than
flux at the
Due
will be

the actual width

on

account

of the

fringingof

the

pole edges.
to the slots entering and
leaving the polar region there
in the fringingof the flux at the pole
a periodicvariation

SYNCHRONOUS

which

tips

axis

the

to

For

the

the

width

left

side

pole

than

at

slots

which

also

move

ripples
since

of

and

which
in

pole

the

change

in

the

the

with

ment
move-

to

the

at

greater

will

fringing
respect

that

to

2nf.

flux

faces.

than

pole

relative

is

equals

in

approximately

equal

flux

the

fringing

(Fig.

wave

The
in

harmonics

any

after

slots

of

of

clear.

shown

pole

field
side

respect
this

make

will

right

the

axis

relative

no

slots

This

the

the

316

the

case

ripples

cause

is

this

and

with

axis

field

condition

to

right.

cause

cannot

the

125)

page

of

movement

these

voltage

armature

them

between

movement

60,

and

the

inductors.

armature

Either

variation

the

position

its

of

harmonics

in

the

in

the

Either

effect
in

frequencies
(2n

1).

in
with

axis

the

the

(2n

therefore
armature

poles

by

is of

sin

fc(sin 2nu}t)

may

the

to

induced

strength

^k[cos

of

field

induce

may

the

in

or

tooth

voltage.

force
field

the

magnitude

respect

armature

electromotive

variation

and

In

across

there

The

respect

the

the

at

the

frequency

the

greater

the

at

poles

The

with

of

31a

of

shows

316

oscillation

an

the

is

slot.

Figs.

position

Fig.

of

produce

poles.

fringing

the

of

of

the

left.

oscillation

an

relative
the

31a

cause

of

the

Fig.
at

will

50o

GENERATORS

"

the

either

the

oscillation

the

or

form

ut

l)ut

"

produce
winding,

cos

(2n

harmonics
the

order

l)oit]

of

two

being

different

{2n

"

1)

CHAPTER

Rating;

Regulation;

Concerned

in

Magnetomotive

Resistance;
Magnitude

of

Reactance

and

Best

The

"

its

by

of output

The

maximum

depends

upon

but

of the

parts

and

maximum

losses

rated

are

kilowatt

It is customary

at

present

been
carry

the

reached.

In

25

cent,

per

more

to

The
and

the

of the

their

armature

output

factor,

power

the

temperatures

voltage and

kilovolt-ampere

rent
cur-

For

factor.

power

per
cop-

kilowatt
the

the

upon

alternators

rate

parts above

of the
of

constant

overload

than

The

and, therefore,

this
and

output

run
a

1 hour

without

specified
"1

degrees after

temperature

for

that

so

an

the

mum
maxi-

specifiedambient

surroundings,

addition, generators

full-load

continuous
of

current,

of their

for

duration

sufficient

on

number

definite

duced
pro-

Usually

give continuously

can

pole.

depend

i.e.,temperature

certain

is limited

output.

rise in temperature

temperature,

for

of its parts

temperature

current.

nearly independent

their

upon

safe

alternator

an

Conditions

alternator

any

flux per

voltage, the

alternators

reason,
not

of

are

of

alternator

the

copper

Leakage

voltage regulation.

any

permissible

the

Armature

and

temperature.

the

and

core

its

the

by

voltage

upon

the

by

Effect

Rating

output

is fixed

loss limits

depends

Single-phase

losses, and

Effective

the

Resistance;

strength, by the

Leakage

Reactance;

Reaction,

Effective

maximum

by its mechanical

limit

Armature

an

of

Armature

Influence

which

Regulation;

Rating.

Leakage

Factors

Reaction

Poles;

Equivalent

ture
Arma-

Alternator

an

of

Armature

Salient

Fluxes

and

Alternator;

an

Reaction

Poles;

with

Reactance;

of

Armature

Non-salient

Alternator

Forces

Operation

the

Reaction;
WITH

IV

shall

not

full-load

conditions

ceed
ex-

of

run

to

have

usually designed

are

immediately
additional

number

of

to

following

rise in

degrees.

perature
tem-

The

52

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATINO-CURBENT

temperature of reference recommended

ambient

Institute of Electrical

Engineers is 40"C.

temperature rise in
the type of insulation

any

used

part of
and

upon

an

by the American

mum
maxipermissible
alternator
depends upon
The

the ambient

temperature

from the
be found
It may
limitingtemperatures for different classes of insulation given on
in which

the

alternator

operates.

by subtractingthe ambient temperature.

There is a growing feelingamong
engineersthat all electrical
kilovoltapparatus should have for its rating the maximum
jury,
output it is capable of giving continuously without inampere
instead of a full-load rating with a provisionfor an overload.
Such maximum
ratingsare already in use for large turbo
page

19

alternators.

Regulation. The regulationof an alternator is the percentage

excitation and
rise in voltage,under the conditions of constant
the rated kilovolt-ampere load is removed.
frequency,when
The change in voltage produced under this condition depends
of the
the magnitude of the load and the constants
not only upon
The regubut also upon the power
factor of the load.
alternator,
lation
inductive
and
will be positivefor both a non-inductive
an
load since both of these cause
rise in voltage when
a
they are
removed.
A capacityload,on the other hand, may,
if the angle
of lead is sufficiently
a fallin voltageinstead of a rise.
great,cause
this condition
Under
the regulation will be negative. The
inherent regulationis the regulationon full non-inductive
load.
The
four factors,
regulation of an alternator depends upon
namely:
"

I. Armature

II. Armature
III. Armature

IV.
Some

The

reaction.
reactance.

effective resistance.

change

in the

poleleakage with change in load.

of the four factors

produce similar effects and for this

in certain approximate methods
for
reason
they are combined
determining regulation. The relative magnitudes of the effects
the terminal voltage of an
alternator by these
produced upon
four factors depend not only upon
the magnitudes of the factors,
but

also upon
the power
factor of the load.
At 100 per
factor with respect to the generated voltage,armature
power

cent,
re-

54

PRINCIPLES

OF

the current

only upon

and

arrangement,

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

it

of turns

carries,the number

the total reluctance

and

path through

of the

distribution

their
which

of the

air-gap
flux will depend chiefly
the shape of the pole shoe, except
upon
In
in cases
where the cylindrical
drum
or
type of field is used.
these latter,the distribution of the field winding will determine
the

force acts.

magnetomotive

the distribution

The

of the

air-gap flux.
When
load is applied to an
alternator, the magnetomotive
force of the armature
current
will modify the flux produced by the
field winding. The effect of the armature
magnetomotive force,
armature
or
reaction,will depend not only upon the arrangement
of the armature
winding, the current it carries and the reluctance
the power
factor of the
of the magnetic circuit,
but also upon
load.

Neglecting field distortion,the voltage generated in any coil

the armature
of a single-phasealternator will have its
turn
or
on
maximum
value when the center of the coil lies midway between
two
adjacent poles. It will be zero when the center of the coil is
factor is
directlyopposite the center of a pole. If the power
with respect to the voltageproduced by the air-gapflux,the
zero
will occur
when the voltageis zero
when the
current
maximum
or
this condition the axis
coil is directlyopposite a pole. Under
reaction coincides with
of the magnetic circuit for the armature
the axis of the magnetic circuit for the field winding, and the
resultant
magnetomotive force acting to produce the field flux
of the magnetomotive forces of armature
will be the algebraicsum
reaction and

will either

reaction

distortion,
current

Under

field excitation.

weaken

strengthen or

v"e

will oppose

this condition

the armature

the field without

armaturereaction

caused

by

ducing
pro-

lagging
of the field winding
current
strengthens

the magnetomotivelorce

^iia~wiirweaSnjthefield.
_A leadingarmature
the^eld.

If,instead of the coil lying with its center oppositea pole when
it lies with its center
the current in it is a maximum,
midway
between

poles,it

two

winding
full-pitch
action

on

the other.

half of

is
one

will

half of two

cover

assumed) and
pole and a

adjacent poles (a
will produce a demagnetizing
magnetizing action on half of

It follows that one-half

".tidthe other

half is weakened

of each

pole is strengthened

by the action of the

armature

SYNCHRONOUS

These

56

GENERATORS

effects will be

equal under the conditions

and the resultant action,therefore,
assumed
tion
produces a distorin the flux distribution without changing the total strength
of the field. The application
tion
of the cork-screw rule to the direcof the current carried by the armature
coils will show that the
trailing poleti^g.are strengthenedand the leading pole tipsare
current.

weakgned-by
a

an

two

in

phase

shift in the flux from

armature

the

The

current.

leading pole tip to

just described,i.e.,with
coil midway between
two
armature
poleswhen
is a maximum,
correspondsapproximatelyto
with respect to the termjinal
voltage.
tip. The

condition

Fig.

the armature

factor and

power

and
In

current
a

is

for

factor of

power

unit power

While

considered.

reactive load of

unity

are

in

shown

respectively.Fig.32 shows the distribution

the precedingdiscussion only the instant when
was

factor

-r-

"

at

34

is a maximum

in it

the current

of the flux at the instant when

maximum

of the

the center

32.

approximate distributions

The

nierely
the trailing
pole
effect is

zero

Figs.33
no

load.

the current

the fieldis moving

through

the current in
correspondingto 360 electricaldegrees,
coil as ab, Fig. 34, will go through a complete
armature
any
cycle and consequentlythe value of the total flux from a pole
and its distribution will also go through a complete cycle. The
a

distance

average

when

distribution
the

current

of

passes

through

of the flux does

'Variation

alternator which
reaction of such

carries
an

the

flux,however, will be about

not
a

its maximum

occur

balanced

alternator

under

in the

value.

case

load, since
such

of

the

conditions

same

Such

as
a

polyphase
armature

is fixed in

56

PRINCIPLES

and

magnitude
effect is the

in

same

instant when

direction
as

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

with
in

occurs

the current

passes

respect

to

the

poles.

alternator at
single-phase
value.
through its maximum

The
the

reaction is as follows :
generaleffect of armature
with a non-inductive load,it distorts the field without appreciablychangingthe total field flux;with an inductive load of zero power
factor,it weakens the field without distortingit;and with a load
having a power factor between unity and zero, it both distorts
the field and modifies its strength.
In addition to the generaldistortion of the field which has been
there will be a local distortion in the neighborso far considered,
To

up, the

sum

FiG.

hood

of each

about

inductor.

the slots and

to

the

each

fluxes have

the

inductor

the armature

by the dotted
no

and

the main

inductors.

lines in

coils,it is convenient
flux.

These

consider

They

are

to

be due

field of local fiuxes which

Figs.33 and

to

considered

be

may

local fluxes

34.

real existence except about

of the main

region

the air gap and does not extend to any

faces. It is equivalent to a little ripple in

superpositionupon

surround

distortion is limited to the

to

depth into the pole

the flux about

This

33.

are

cated
indi-

Although the local

the end

connections

of

them

ponents
separately as comalternatingfluxes and are

them.
nearly in time phase with the currents which cause
They are the so-caUed leakage fluxes and give rise to a voltage
of self-induction in the inductors with which
they link. This
voltage will alternate with the same
frequency as the armature
and will lag 90 degrees behind that current.
current
The
actance
recorresponding to this voltage of self-induction is the sovery

SYNCHRONOUS

called

leakage or

slot reactance

said of this under

A

knowledge

GENERA

of

an

57

TORS

alternator.

will be

More

reactance.

of armature

reaction is necessary
in order to predetermine
the regulationof an alternator and also to determine

the number

of field ampere-turns required at full load to maintain

the rated voltage at different
factors.
In the case
of
power
alternators with salient or projecting
poles,such as are illustrated
in

Figs. 32,

33

and

34,

reaction

armature

produces

of the

air-gapflux except when the power factor

which is impossiblein practiceand which
under ordinaryoperating conditions.

distortion

is zero,
is not

tion
condi-

a
even

proached
ap-

Fig. 34.

The

distortion

of the

alternator

with

salient

difference

between

the

air-gap flux
poles is caused
reluctance

reaction and

of

which

place in an
almost entirelyby the
the magnetic circuits for
takes

impressed field. Except when the

factor of the load is zero, the magnetomotive forces of the
power
line. They are not
do not act along the same
field and armature
the armature

the

in space
phase and the axis of their resultant will not coincide
Since flux always distributes itself so as
with the axis of either.
to follow the

path of

minimum

reluctance,the

flux caused

by

the

magnetomotive forces of the armature

but it will be crowded
and field currents will stillclingto the poles,
side instead of being symmetricalabout their axes.
toward
one
of alternators with non-salient poles,however, the
In the case
reaction is constant
reluctance of the magnetic circuit for armature
factor and is equal to the
and independent of the power
reluctance of the magnetic circuit for the impressedfield. Under
combined

action

of the

58

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERN

MACHINERY

J NO-CURRENT

AT

condition,there will be no distortion of the magnetic field

under load provided the field and armature
windings each give
This condition
in the air gap.
a sine distribution of magnetic potential
be fulfilled exactly in practice.
cannot
this

Armature
The

Reaction

winding

space

will be assumed.

and

wave

distributed

condition,the

this

Under

in the air gap due

magnetic potential
will be nearly sinusoidal and will be so

to

distribution of the

the armature

current

armature

The

effect of the

and

the

Their

produce

field

little

slots

in

will
the

ripplesin

sumed.
as-

the

on

will be

core

presence

"

poleswill

alternator with non-salient

an

A sinusoidal current

firstbe considered.

Poles.

with Non-salient

Alternator

an

reaction of

armature

armature

of

lected.
neg-

reality
of flux

wave

distribution.
Under

reaction

armature

and

of

with

sinusoidal

will be
time

assumed, the
nator
single-phasealter-

conditions

the

will oscillate
with

is fixed in space

along

respect

an

to

axis which

respect to the

ture.
arma-

which
simple oscillatingvector
varies with time according to a sine law
be resolved into two oppositelyrotating vectors, each with
can
maximum
value equal to one-half of the maximum
value of
a
spectio
the vector
they replace and having the same
period. An inthis clear.
of Fig. 35 should make
The vertical dotted
the simple
line on
this figure represents the line along which
oscillates. A and B are the two oppositelyrotating vecvector
tors.
Their resultant,R, will be equal at every instant to the
originalvector and will lie along its axis.

Any

Consider

the armature

be resolved into two

will rotate

vectors

armature,
these

one

vectors

Tvillbe

reaction

of

alternator to
single-phase
Both of these
oppositely
revolvingvectors.

at

synchronous speed with

the
right-handedly,
will rotate

in the

other

left-handedly.One

direction

same

respect to the
as

of

the

field and

per

pole and

stationarywith respect to it.

Let N
let Im be

be the effective number

the

maximum

armature

of armature
current.

turns

The

value

of the

SYNCHRONOUS

59

GENERATORS

reaction which is fixed in direction with

component of armature
respect to the field is }4NIm per pole. Replacing/" by its rootvalue

mean-square

gives
A

where

(10)

0.707NI

I is the root-mean-square value of the current.

at twice

component rotates
the poles and will
harmonic

flux.

harmonic

This

terminals

in them

armature

of the

turns

alternator

which

will be

unless

of the flux is eliminated

component
in

synchronous speed with respect to

with the rotation of the fieldinduces

voltage in the
the

across

other

secondor
double-frequency
double-frequencycomponent of the field

set up

flux in combination

The

third-

present

this double

quency
fre-

by the reaction of

damping winding in the pole faces similar to the

(See page 318.)
damping winding for a synchronous motor.
The voltage generated in any armature
turn is
currents

where

fc is

and

constant

k"psin

is the

"p

cat

pole flux. Ordinarily

"a

is

for any
given excitation and load. If it varies with
be inserted in the formula for the electromotive
it must

constant

time,
force

as

function

flux variation
Then

if ^

double-frequency

sin 2ut is the value of this flux at each

^^

by it in the

force induced
e

armature

instant,

is

2cof sin oit

k(pmsin

cat
J^fc(pm{cos

"

cos

Scat]

duces
double-frequency component of the flux,therefore,proand triplefrequency in
voltages of both fundamental

The

by

the

reaction to be sinusoidal.

due to armature

the electromotive

each

Assume

of the time.

armature
armature

will be

very

reaction
much

actual variation in the flux

The

turn.

in the

poles of

produced

single-phasealternator

by the self-induction of the field

in the polesand by any short-circuited

reduced

winding,by eddy currents

damping winding there may

be

on

the field structure.

alternator is always provided with a damping

single-phase
those
winding or damper in its pole faces. This damper is like
bars
It consists of copper
all synchronous motors.
used on
inserted in holes punched in the pole faces and short-circuited
A

by boltingor welding copper

straps to the ends of the bars.

60

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

PRINCIPLES

damping winding is illustrated in Fig. 168, page 319, under

The
double-frequency flux generates
"Synchronous Motors."
damper which, according to the law of Lena,
These currents will
the change in flux producingthem.
oppose
variation.
very nearly damp out the flux
age,
current is in phase with the excitation voltIf the armature
tion
the voltagewhich would be produced by the field excitai.e.,
in the

currents

acting alone, the axis of the component

reaction

which

between

two

is fixed with

poles.

armature

respect to the field will lie midway

lag of the

If the

of the

current

behind

tage
the vol-

degrees,the axis of this component field will be along

the
the axis of the poles. In general,the space angle between
reaction is equal
of the resultant air-gapflux and armature
axes
the current and the
to 90 degreesplus the angle of lag between
excitation voltage. An angle of lead is equivalentto a negative
is 90

angle of lag.
effective number

The

of armature

turns, N, used in formula

turns per pole

of armature
(10),page 59, is the actual number
multipliedby a factor which is equal to the product of the
breadth
breadth
and
pitch factors of the winding. Some
and pitch factors are
given in Tables I and II, pages 41 and
45.

each phasemay be treated

polyphasealternator,
like the one
phase of a single-phasealternator. Consequently
each will produce a fixed reaction on
the field poles which
is
equal to 0.707NI, where N is the effective turns per phase and
the current carried by the conductors.
I is the phase current, i.e.,
Besides this fixed reaction,
each phase will also produce a doublefrequency reaction on the poles. The fixed part of the reactions
of all phases on any pole will lie along the same
axis and may
be
added
directly. If the load is balanced,the total reaction
In the

case

of

becomes

0.707NIn
where
turns

per

is the

number

pole per

of

phases. The number

phase multipliedby the number

of effective
of

phases is
per pole.

of effective armature
equal to the total number
turns
reaction of any alternator carrying a
Therefore,the armature
balanced load will be given by formula (10),page
59, provided
N

is taken

as

the total effective turns

per

pole in

all

phases.

62

PRINCIPLES

Im sin (oit

240"

their

Assume

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

6),where 6 is the angle of lag of

corresponding
voltages.

"

behind

OF

"

that

the currents

of the

magnetomotive
force due to any
mately
phase is sinusoidal. It would have approxithis distribution with a distributed armature
winding.
Then, if A is the maximum
magnetomotive force through a coil
magnetomotive force is
per unit angle,the average
the

distribution

space

Asin.rf.

?A

TT
7j-

The

is,therefore,
^

maximum

Let N
turns

per

pole per

maximum

value

and

of the average

for

...

tribution
sinusoidal dis-

the effective armature

be, respectively,
Then the
phase and i the current they carry.
of the magnetomotive force through the coil
i

TT

produced by the
The

is

Ni.

magnetomotive force due

in the air gap

and

current

also

on

will vary

phase

one

any

ment,
If,for the moand equal
constant

in the

instant due to all three

IInIisin

(a +

point b

of the variation in the current

account

phases are assumed

7i,I2 and I3, the magnetomotive force at

to

at

of the rotation of the field.

account

the currents

on

to

phaseswould

0)0 + NUsin

[a +

any

point,b,at

any

be

{wt

120")]+

^ [

^"73sin[Q;+
Putting the actual values of the

sin
-^iNIm

NIm

sin

6) sin (a +

[oit
"

{ot

120"

NI^

240"

in

and

ut) +
-

sin {cat

120")]-f-

6) sin [a -|-(co" 240")] (11)

that

Remembering
sin

at

e) sin [a -|- {o"t

place of 7i,I2
the point b

currents

Iz givesfor the magnetomotive force

240")]!

{oit

sin y

equation (11) may

cos
}'i{

be reduced

{a-\-e)
^A^/^jcoS
-

COS

cos

{y

x)

"

cos

{y -\-x)]

to

+
(2co"

{2wt-\-a-

"

a-

e) -\-COs{a^
240") -I-cos
cos

e)

{a-\-e)

i2wt -\roi

480")

SYNCHRONOUS

three terms

The

involving2w" are three second harmonics which

phase by 120 degrees. Their vector sum
is,therefore,
reduces
to
equation (11)

differ in
and

zero

63

GENERATORS

-^NI^
This

is

(a +

cos

entirelyindependent of

time

e)

when

occur

b is at such

maximum

value

distance

of the reaction

is

Its maximum

from

-j-

only with

varies

and

position of the point h in the air gap.

(12)

NI^

value

will

"d.

The

the average

value

that

and

the

2
per

pole is

of this

value

square
armature

lettingN be
pole,this reduces

and

per

the expression
When

%NIm.

or

Replacing /" by
the

total

its root-mean-

effective

to 0.707 N I which

turns
is the

on

the

same

as

previouslyfound.

the distribution

magnetomotive force is sinusoidal,

its maximum
value and, therefore,
the vector
representingit lie
its two zero
midway between
points. From equation (12) it is
obvious
that the maximum
value of the magnetomotive force
of armature
reaction lies at a distance from the reference point,a,
which is equal to the angle of lag, 6, of the current
behind the
voltage produced by the air-gap flux due to the resultant field.
With
an
angle of lag of 90 degrees,the vector representingthe
reaction will lie along the field
magnetomotive force of armature
reaction is negaaxis,and, since the expressionfor the armature
tive,
it will oppose
field.

Therefore, as has

Although
with

armature

on

respect to the field and

and

is

maximum
force

time
The

coil has
current

been

vector

when

to

vector

space

is

current

further

armature

considered

voltage

maximum

in the coil and

it due

is

in

with

tude
magnirespect

synchronous speed with respect to the

its center

maximum

The

through

at

when

the armature

after the

coils.

armature

field axis.

magnetomotive force of the impressed

already been shown, a lagging armature

reaction is fixed in direction and

armature

it revolves
field,

to the

the field.

weakens

current

the

the

of

with

occurs

respect to
in any

displaced90 degrees from

in any

armature

displacedby
the maximum

an

coil

coil
the

occurs

angle d. The
magnetomotive

occur
reaction,therefore,

at

64

the

instant.

same

Armature
has been
with

non-salient
with

factor

Figs. 37,
fluxes

caused

regard

current

armature

Alternator

an

not

are

as

in

reaction

time

phase.

with Salient Poles.

the armature

to

reaction

armature

"

What

of alternators

apply,except approximately,to

poles. In the latter case, the component

reaction varies with the
is caused by armature

salient

as

38

and

polesdoes

of the field which

power

of

Reaction

said in

machines

Considering

reaction

vector, armature

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

PRINCIPLES

well
and

as

39

with the current.

the distribution

show

by the impressed field and

Fig.

of the component
reaction

armature

and

37.

small, three-phase, Y-connected

alternator with a distributed armature
winding and with salient
poles. The first figureis for unit power
factor;the second, for
0.09 power
factor;and the third,for 0.7 power factor. Compare
Figs.37 and 38 with Figs.34 and 33.
reaction of an alternator with salient
Although the armature
a
tomary
poles cannot correctlybe considered
vector, it is quite cusered,
considto so consider it on vector
diagrams. When
so
also

the

resultant

the
Q.707
IS

constant

is used, the

often

flux

0.707

in

is sometimes

regulation found
approximately correct.

modified.
from

the

Even

vector

when

diagram

SYNCHRONOUS

65

GENERATORS

In order to represent more

ing
nearly the actual conditions existin alternators with salient poles when
calculatingtheir

Fig. 38.

Armature

Reaction

Fig.

39.

divided
reaction is sometimes
regulation,armature
quadrature components: one along the field axis,and
6

into

two

the other

66

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

rightanglesto it or midway between

at

with

constant

proper

results

by Andr6

be

can

Blondel

each

of these

obtained.

and is known

the

poles. By using the

components

two

method

This

or

factory
satis-

suggested

was

the two-reaction

as

very

the double-

106). Under ordinary conditions,the

cross-magnetizing
component has relativelylittle effect on the
voltage. For the usual ratios of pole arc to pole pitch the
coefficient for the demagnetizing component
of the armature
reaction method

(seepage

reaction is about

0.7.

-The armature
leakage flux of
Leakage Reactance.
alternator produces a voltage of self-induction in the armaan
ture
the curinductors which is very nearly 90 degrees behind
rent.
The equivalentreactance
corresponding to this voltage
coils gives
added to the reactance
of the end turns of the armature
the leakage reactance
of the armature.
in calculation,
For convenience
armature
leakage reactance
be divided into three parts, namely:
may
(A) That part which is caused by the leakage flux which links
Armature

with the

"

portionof

the armature

inductors

in the iron

embedded

core.

(B) That part which is caused by the leakage flux which links
with the portion of the armature
inductors which lies across
the
ventilatingducts. This is small.
(C) That part which is caused by the leakage flux which links
with

the end

connections

parts {A) is the most

None
been

part which

to

be divided

leakage flux which

which

into slot

into which

has any

links with the end

the inductors

coils.

Of these three

important.

of the three components

assumed

The

of the armature

the

leakage flux has

real existence,except that

connections.

causes

is embedded

leakage flux

the reactance

in the

portion of

in iron will be divided

for

venience
con-

and

tooth-tipleakage flux. The

slot leakage includes that part of the leakage flux which passes
the slots and returns
straightacross
through the armature
core.
The tooth-tipleakage is that part of the leakage flux which passes
from

one

returns
may

armature

through the

tooth

to

the next

armature

teeth.

get into the faces of the poles. In

zig-zagleakage. These

two

through

the

air gap and

of this latter

portion
this case it usuallyis called

parts into which

the

leakageflux

is

SYNCHRONOUS

divided
for

are

indicated

on

67

GENERATORS

Fig. 40.

The

paths

return

in the

iron

of the

leakagelines are shown.

The reluctance of that portion of the path for the leakageflux
which is in the iron is very small compared with the reluctance
of the portionof the path which lies in the air,and may
be neglected
in comparison with it in the calculation of the slot and
tooth-tipleakage reactance.
Let Fig. 41 represent a slot containingtwo coil sides of a winding
having a pitch of 180 degrees. With a full-pitch
winding,
the currents in the two coil sides will be in phase. Let each coil
only two

Fig.

Fig.

40.

side be

rectangular in cross-section and

series.

The
the

between
sides

are

cross-hatched

coil sides and

between

contain

in the

the

inductors

figure. The

coil sides and

in

spaces

the slot

occupied by insulation.
inductors.
This is equal
the embedded
a be the length of
length of the slot minus the total width of the ventilating
given on the figure. The
are
other dimensions
The

are

Let
to the

ducts.

coil sides

41.

dimensions, d^ and di, do

not

include the coil insulation.

that less flux will link with the upper coil side than
Consequently,the reactance of the upper coil
with the lower.
of the coil side in the bottom
side will be less than the reactance
of the slot. Since all forms of windings having two coil sides in
It is evident

slot have

one

side of each coil in the bottom

of

one

slot and

the

68

PRINCIPLES

other

side in the top of another

will be the
slot and
The

of

slot,the slot

of the reactances

sum

of

coil side in the top of

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

a
a

reactance

per

coil side in the bottom

coil
of

slot.
of

the bottom

linkageswill always be greatest at

slot.

Therefore,if inductors having a largecross-section are used, more

will flow through the upper
current
part of them than through
ductors
the lower part. As a result,the apparent resistance of such inwill be greater than

the resistance calculated

increase in the apparent resistance that may

the use
of large inductors in deep slots is made

cross-section.

The

be obtained

by
of in designinginduction

use

In what

for

motors

follows the current

largestartingtorque.

is assumed

of each
assumed
the

the

to

per

slot and

made

of two

up

sides which

components,

one

are

flux

is

return

in the iron

below

the slots.

than

more

one

slot

age
pole per phase,the slot leakflux in

containingcoil

The

directlyacross

pass

If there is
42.

cross-section

inductor.

of the armature

Fig.

tributed
uniformly dis-

be

to
over

slots

their

from

the

in the

teeth

phase will be

same

due to each

between

slot.

These

ponents
com-

The
slot
equal and opposite and will neutralize.
in
be assumed
to take the path shown
leakage flux may, therefore,
Fig.42. In this figurethe three slots shown are in the same
phase.
The phase reactance
caused by slot leakage will be the same
whether
the slots per pole are
considered individuallyor as a
If a singleslot is considered,the magnetomotive
force
group.
causing slot leakage is that due to the inductors in that slot.
This acts on a path in air which has an effective length equal to
the width of the slot. If the phase belt is considered,
both the
magnetomotive force and the reluctance are increased in the
with the singleslot,
same
proportion. The flux is the same
as
are

but

is linked

exactly the

with
same

the inductors
result

since in this
The

reactance

will then
number

be

case

as

of slots in

the slots

are

This

out

per

slot.

The

by multiplyingthe slot
series per phase.

produces

considered

the inductors in three slots are

will be worked
found

when

in three slots.

phase
reactance

vidually,
indi-

in series.
reactance

by the

70

PRINCIPLES

Part

(b).
"

OF

The

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

magnetomotive force

per

c.g.s. unit of current

actingacross the slot above the lower coil side is constant and is
It acts on a path which is made
equal to 4tZ.
parts
up of two
correspondingto the portions^3 + ^4 + dt and dt of the slot.
The reluctance of this path is
(w + w')
{dt+ ^4+^5+2^6) + aw' (^3+^4+^5)

ajdi+di+dj)

2ade
w-\-w'

The

aw

flux in ^3 +

^4 +

of the lower coil side.

JTraZ^

[w {dj +

di+

^6 +

all of the

de links with

inductors

Therefore,

2^5) +
w{w -{"w')
di +

{d% +

d^)]

^4 +

(c). The calculation of the tooth-tipleakage, at the

best, can
only be considered as an approximation,since the
path of the tooth-tipleakageis uncertain and will change with
the position of a slot with respect to a pole. Moreover, it is
Part

not

"

certain whether

it is best to consider

it for each

the group
of slots in each phase belt.
In findingtooth-tipleakage it is customary
the lines of induction
of concentric
tooth

from

circles drawn

from

tips (seeFig. 41). In what

be made

and

the

as

corners,

assume

of two

arcs

follows this

the slots will be considered

of the flux belt will be taken

is not

the teeth start

to

slot

and

or

for

that
groups

6, of the

assumption will

separately. The

equal to the width of

tooth.

width
This

accurate, but as the reluctance of any elementary

strictly
path (Fig.41) increases rapidly as the distance from the corner
of the tooth increases,
it is close enough to consider the width
of the flux belt as equal to the width of a tooth.
According to these assumptions, the tooth-tipleakage will
be constant
when the length of the air gap is equal to or greater
than the width of a tooth at its tip,as in this case
of the
none
flux
will enter the pole face.
In reality,
the
tooth-tipleakage
tooth-tipleakage is not constant
except for alternators with
non-sahent
poles. For alternators with salient poles, it has
different values according as a slot is opposite a pole or midway
between
two
poleswhen the current is a maximum.
The tooth-tipreactance
will be found in the following
manner:
that
the
Assume
radial length of the air gap is greater than the

SYNCHRONOUS

width

of

71

GENERATORS

tooth.

Referring to Fig. 41, it will be

reluctance of the path for the tooth-tipleakage is
a

irw" +

-dz
"KZ

The

that the

seen

aloge
"^

"\-w

magnetomotive force acting on

this

path due

to the lower

coil side per c.g.s. unit of current is ^Z.

The flux this produces
links with all of the inductors in the coil side. Therefore,

"^
loge'^^"

4aZ2

Reactance
Coil Side.

"

of the Lower
The

to the Current

Coil Side Due

linkagesof

(c).

Part

in the

flux for this will be divided

Upper

into three

parts:

(d) That

due

to the

due

to

flux which

across

passes

the upper

coil

slot above

the

side.

(e) That
upper

the

flux which

the

crosses

coil side.

(/) That due to tooth-tipleakage.

Part
(d). The magnetomotive force
"

elementary

ady

area

c.g.s. unit

per

acting through

of current

in the

any

upper

coil side is

di
w

This

divided

the

by

the

integratedbetween
through the

upper

reluctance,
"

This

Jo
All of this links with

of 0 and

Hmits

inductor.

di

of the

dy and
total

flux

flux is

coil side.

Part

element

di gives the

the lower

2iraZ^

-r-,

Therefore,

(d).

Part
across

(e)."The

force per c.g.s. unit of current

coil side is

magnetomotive

the slot above

the upper

47rZ

72

PRINCIPLES

This

acts

the

to

in

path which

is made

parts corresponding

of two

up

of this

reluctance

The

d^ of the slot.

and

portionsd^

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

path is
w{w + w')

adj

2ad6

The

flux

coil side.

-{-w'

this

across

portion

(/). The

Part

the lower

to the upper

linkages with
(c)

the

inductor

lower

tooth-tip

producing

force

magnetomotive

"

leakagedue

The

slot links with

of the

Therefore,
w{w +

Part

aw'df,

aw{di + 2^5) +

is

inductor

by this

caused

(see

are

"

The

total reactance

times
2ir/'10~'
the lower

in ohms

the total

of the lower

with

flux

linkages of

coil side is
the

equal

inductors

to

in

coil side.

This is

x\iot

2wf[{a+

b +

2irf(A + B)

(d + e+f)]

c) +

(13)

10-9

full-pitch
winding {a + h + c)
B are in phase and add directly. For
they must be added vectorially.
For

47rag^
A

(d + e + /)
winding
fractional-pitch

[Z

notches

expressionsfor
w'
may

The

slot for the

and

may

TW
,

W)
,,

-f-w
+

,.

]
,

w'

in the

depths da and
Let i
be replaced by d.
w.

tw"

w
W
,

'

irw" +

W,

wjdj + 2ds) + w'di

jdi
I 2

If the

-\-w'
,

iiraZ^

and

wjdj + di + di + 2di) + w'jda + di + dj)

[dj

10r"

wedge are neglected,the

be much
simplified. In this case
dt of the coil sides are equal and

da be the thickness of insulation

SYNCHRONOUS

between

the coil sides and

above

wedge.

the

Then

"^

neglectingthe

1"

-Ur

Reactance
Inductors.

of the

thickness

notches

0.73

0.73

'^ }

(16)

log.o

log.o"^j^

(17)

of the Upper Coil Side Due to the Current in its

For purposes
of calculation,
the linkagesof flux with

"

inductors

12

includingthe

('+ *')+

tion
of the insula-

let i' be the thickness

coil side

upper

73

GENERATORS

will be divided

That
(fif)

into three parts:

due to the flux which

(h) That

due

to

the

the upper coil side.

the slot above
the
crosses

crosses

flux which

coil side.

upper

(i) That

due

to the

tooth-tipleakage.
to Part (a) for the lower
(g). By referring

Part

coil side it

"

will be

that

seen

^TaZ^dt

(g).

Part

3w

similarityof this

the

(h).- From

Part

"

coil side it will be

lower

is the

(i). This

Part

"

4aZ2

(e) for the

Part

that

seen

[w{di + 2d6) +
w{w + w')

4^aZ^

to

same

as

w'dt]

"

(c)for

Part

I^"J^=

log,

Part

,,,
(n).

Part ^

the

lower

coil side.

(i).

of the Upper Coil Side Due to the Current

The
Coil Side.
linkages for this will be divided

Reactance
Lower

in the

"

into

three parts:

(j) That
(fc)That

due
due

to the flux which

to

the

flux which

crosses

the upper
across

passes

coil side.
the slot above

coil side.
the upper
(Z) That due to the
The

d,

sum

and

of

tooth-tipleakage.
parts j, k and I must be equal to

/, since the mutual

inductance

wires is independent of the group

between

to which

the

of parts

sum

two

groups

it is referred.

of

74

PRINCIPLES

Part
due

The

(j).
"

the

to

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

magnetomotive force

lower

c.g.s. unit

per

the

acting across

coil side

of current

elementary

area

dy (Fig.41) is

47rZ

reluctance

The

of the

the

path correspondingto

element,

dy, is
w

dy

Therefore,the

linkagesdue

total

C^*

47raZ2

Part

From

(k).
"

Part

2-KaZHt

"

same

.,

(c).

Part

as

(fc)is

(h) Part

Part

[wjdj+ 2di) + w'ds]

w(w + w')

is the

(I). This

wn

-r.

similarityto

iiraZ^

{j)are

Part

to

4"2Mog,'^^^^^^"^
Parta).
=

The

coil side in ohms

of the upper

total slot reactance

is

equal

to

x",iot

For

are

in

4iraZ2

( ^4

-5-

iwaZ^
^

[ Z

27r/(C+

h +

~ur'

I di
12"

Part D must
to the mutual

I
-{

be

D)10-^
h +

i)

;;

C and

log

"

"

between

k +

]
J

ttw"
-\-w
Trw"-\-w]

w
,

loge

"

equal to part B, since they

induction

TT

;
w

(j +

irw" +

w.
,

w'

Wd^
w{di + 2de) + w'di
w{di,
w

l)]10r'

k +

(J +

i) +

w(di + 2d6) +w'di

_
~

2Tf[{g+

full-pitch
winding {g +
phase.

"

are

the upper
and
in the slot for the

the

I)

.,".

(Is)

.,",
(19)

linkagesdue

lower

coil sides.

Neglecting the notches

wedge, replacing
the depth df,+ d^ of the top
di and ^4 by d and, as before,calling
of the upper coil side below the top of the slot t',
equations(18)
be
the
notches
and (19)may
simplified.Neglecting

SYNCHRONOUS

AiraZ^

f^

l+

D
w

For

"

t' +

"

to the reactance

of

reactance

of

Trw" +

""

log.

O.l^w

full-pitch
winding, the

75

GENERATORS

total

^^^ }

phase

equal
of a slot plus the
multipliedby the

coil side in the top of a slot

of slots in series per phase. Therefore,if s is the number

number

of slots in series per

a

phase,the total phase reactance

full-pitch
winding having slots with straightsides
a;'a
=

Let Z'

2t/s{A +5

of inductors

(22)

in series per slot.

in ohms
equation (22),the phase reactance
pitch winding due to slot and tooth-tipleakage is

{2.7d

"

This

does

not

This latter must

4t' +

include

""^

t +

2.9w
---

the reactance

logio
-

of

is

D}10-"

-f-C +

2Z be the total number

in ohms

Then, from

(21)
is

reactance

coil side in the bottom

of

full-

J"^)10-9(23)

of the end

connections.

be added.

of End

leakage flux which links

has its path chiefly
in air. Although
with the end connections
lie near
considerable masses
of iron,they
the end connections
are
always kept as far as possiblefrom such parts and usually
only a small percentage of leakage flux of the end connections
those parts. Due to the shape and the proximity of the
enters
to one
end connections
another, it is impossibleto make
any
this
the
end-turn
For
of
calculation
accurate
leakage.
reason,
Reactance

it is best

when
from

their

"

The

possibleto calculate the reactance

experimentaldata. An approximate

of the end

reactance

Connections.

connections

length by 2x/7\^VelO-^where

may

be found

"pe is the

of end
value

nections
con-

of the

by multiplying

leakageflux

per

pere
am-

The
end-connection
length of end connection.
0.5 and
1.0 line per
leakage flux,^e, will usually lie between
length of conductor.
per centimeter
ampere
is calculated
the end-connection
leakage reactance
When
of the end connections,it is customary to
from the dimensions
per

assume

unit

this reactance

to be

equal to

the reactance

of

circular

76

PRINCIPLES

coil

having the

the end

as

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

number

same

dash
the

The
lines

same

length

mean

left-hand

figurerepresents an

armature

portions or the portionsoutside the dot-andthe end connections.

These butted togethergive

are

has

figure. The right-hand figure is the circular coil

mean
length of the end
length equal to the mean

connections.
I is the

the

dotted

middle

which

and

connections.

Referringto Fig.43, the

coil.

of turns

MACHINERY

The

of this circular coil is

radius

mean

where

g-,

length of the end connections (seeFig. 43).

For purposes
of calculation,the lines of induction
for the
circular coil will be assumed
circles having their planes peras
pendicula
to the plane of the coil and having their centers in a
mean

Fig.

line which
coil.

passes

through the

This line is dotted

43.

center

of the cross-section

of the

in the

figure.
Consider
element in the plane of the coil at a distance x
any
from the dotted line,Fig. 43.
The length of a line of induction
for this element is 2-kx. All elements of width,dx, at this distance
will form a circular ring shown
dotted in the figure. The radius
I
of this

ring is

dx

the elements
in any

is

move

out

positionwill be ^

by the line
The

The

x.

j^

mean

radius

of the
x

cos

of this

ring will increase

plane of the coil. The

B, where

6 is the

as

radius

angle made

with the

plane of the coil.

cross-section of the ring between

6=0

and

2ir

78

PRINCIPLES

which

reactance

tip

OF

would

be-

for the inductors

equivalentleakageflux
centimeter

equal to

one-half

plus

reactance

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

of the

in

of the

reactance

The

pair of slots.

length
shape and size of the slots.
upon
If (pe is the equivalentleakage flux

inductor.

It

tooth-

end

value

2.5 to 6 lines per

varies from

of embedded

slot and

the actual

nections
con-

of this

ampere

per

depends mainly

the

of embedded

per unit

per ampere

inductor,the equivalentleakage

flux

per

length
slot is

l"PeZ
where

I and

inductors
slot

and

respectively,the length of the embedded

are,

the number

linkagesdue

of inductors

to this flux

The

slot.

in series per

are

l"PeZ'
if there

and
ohms

are

slots in series per

Efifective Resistance.
circuit to

to

and

steady current

losses

apparent

it may
an

or

effective resistance

is greater than

alternatingcurrent

an

(26)

2Tfl"peZ''slO-^

The

"

electric circuit carries

an

in

reactance

is
Xa

phase, the phase

be several

times

of

its resistance

greater.

When

alternating current, hysteresis

adjacent magnetic material and eddyin the

and
losses in neighboring conducting media
produced

are

current

conductor

in any

itself.

suppliedto the circuit and

of the voltage
component
drop through the circuit. This increase in the voltage drop is
equivalentto an apparent increase in the resistance of the circuit.
The tendency of the flux within the conductors
to distort the
current
distribution and make
the current
density through the
The

losses increase the total power

produce an increase in the energy

OTOSs-section

of

the

conductors

non-uniform

increase the apparent resistance when

already been mentioned

the

may

still further

conductors

are

large.

This

effect has

The

apparent resistance is called the effective resistance and

equalto
divided

be

leakage reactance.
is

in the circuit caused by the current

the total loss of power
If the apparent increase
by the square of the current.

in resistance is due
not

under

to

iron

losses,the effective resistance will

constant, since the iron losses

are

not

proportionalto

SYNCHRONOUS

the

square

of the

the

current

which

79

GENERATORS

flux

causing them.
Moreover, the flux and
in most
produces it will not be proportional

cases.

In the

of

case

in the armature
the

the leakageflux
alternator,

an

teeth and
inductors

armature

local losses in them

causes

themselves.

apparent increase in the armature

be

may

ohmic
as

much

as

and

50

as

These

and

losses

also in

produce

resistance which

in many
difference between

The

cent.

per

distorts the field

an

cases

the

effective resistance

factors such
depends upon many
the shape and size of the slots,
the cross-section of the armature

inductors

and

the

frequency. The effective resistance should

the regulationof an alternator and
always be used in calculating
also in calculating
its efficiency,
unless the effect of the local losses
due

to the load

Factors

which

the Effect

Leakage

Armature

Resistance.

"

of in

account

Influence

Reaction,
Effective

taken

are

Armature

other way.

some

and

Magnitude

Reaction.

the armature,

but the effect of

carry,

reaction
of

pole

arc

magnetic

power

the current

they

degree of saturation

factor
effect of power
With
been considered.
a

The

already

of inductors

of ampere-turns of armature
factor of the load,the ratio

given number
the

reaction

the number

their distribution and

depends upon the

to pole pitch and

circuit.

has

Armature

Armature

"

expressed in ampere-turns depends only upon

on

and

Reactance

of Armature

on

of the

armature

pole arc

action
re-

of 180

magnetomotive force due to

reaction is effective in modifying the flux,but with pole
armature
of less than 180 degrees,only that portion of the amperearcs
degrees, the full belt of

is

which

turns

in

considered

the

discussion
used

pole face

the

directlyover

reaction

armature

armature

in

is effective.

This

is

of the

direct component
of the
double-reaction
method
for

the

determining regulation.
make

To

ampere-turns

effective armature
made

small

as

high degree
large air
be

the

gap.

of

reaction

effect of armature

the

small,the

ratio of

field ampere-turns should

to

be

accompHshed by usinga
saturation in the magnetic circuit or by using a
the less will
The higher the degree of saturation,

as

effect of

possible. This

given number

may

be

of ampere-turns

of armature

reaction,but high saturation in the field circuit is undesirable

the field-pole
leakage. Increasingthe
it greatly increases
as

80

PRINCIPLES

lengthof
reaction
to

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

the air gap will have a similar effect so far as armature

is concerned, but it will not increase the field leakage

great

so

OF

extent

an

the degree of
increasing

as

saturation

of the

field circuit.

reducing the pitch of the

Distributing or
diminishes

armature

armature

reaction

to

extent, but

some

it also

proportion. To
generated voltage in the same
of
the voltage, either the air-gap flux or the number
be increased.
inductors must
Increasing the number
the

decreases
restore

the

winding

armature

of armature

inductors

the reaction

will affect both

and

age
the volt-

nothing will be gained. If the voltage is restored

reaction will be
by increasingthe flux, the effect of armature
alike and

diminished
Armature

depends

but

the

poleleakagewill

Leakage Reactance.

upon

the size and

"

The

shape of

in series in the slots and

be somewhat
armature

the

increased.

leakage reactance

the number
slots,

the number

of inductors

of slots in series per

ance.
shape of the slots has a largeinfluence on slot reactis proportional
the reactance
The leakage flux which causes
to the magnetomotive force producingit and is inverselyproportional
which
the
circuit
to the reluctance of the magnetic
through
magnetomotive force acts. The total magnetomotive force acting
of inductors
across
any slot is nearly proportionalto the number
in series per slot. The reluctance of the path for the flux caused
ent
by this magnetomotive force,however, will be far from independof the shape of the slot. It will be greatestfor a wide, shallow
slot and least for a narrow,
deep slot. Therefore, other things
slots will be greater
caused by narrow
being equal,the reactance
than that caused by wide slots. Shallow, wide slots are objectionable
of holding the
account
of the mechanical
on
difficulty
inductors in place and also on account
of the variations
armature
they produce in the air-gap flux. These variations will tend

phase.

to

The

introduce

harmonics

will also increase

the

of the armature

reactance, but

the

into the

electromotive-force

wave

and

sity
Increasing the flux denteeth will somewhat
decrease
the leakage

pole-facelosses.

influence of this will not

be great with

open

slots.

tooth-tipleakage of an alternator with salient poles will

be influenced
by the power factor of the load, since the position,
it carries its maximum
with respect to a pole,of any slot when
The

SYNCHRONOUS
current

of the

They

depends upon the power

factor.
full-pitch
winding, the slots will
poles at maximum

will be

midway

Consideringa
be

trated
concen-

opposite the

center

when

the power
factor is unity.
when the
current
polesat maximum

current

between

factor is zero.

81

GENERATORS

It will be

tance
Fig.44 why the relucof the leakage path for the tooth-tip
leakage is somewhat
the poles. Therefore,
greater when the slot is midway between
power

the

drop

reactance

will be

relative size of the slot

from

seen

least for

zero

power

factor.

The

compared with the pole is much exaggerated

in Fig. 44.
The change in the total slot reactance
caused
by ordinary changes in power factor is small,especiallyin the
of alternators with distributed windings and with air gaps
case
which
are
larger than the slot openings.
as

Fig.

The

thing which

has

44.

by far the

is the distribution of the armature

the

of the

square

the armature

single

of each

phase of

as

Therefore, if

alternator

are

tributed
dis-

to

1
n

"^

n^

distributed
than

them

an

slot.

varies

in
slots per pole instead of being concentrated
pair, the slot reactance, other conditions remaining

constant, will be reduced

per

reactance

among
a

of inductors

number

inductors

influence upon
winding. Reactance
most

winding will requiresmaller slots but

concentrated

one.

This

will tend to

more

decrease

of
the

magnitude of the local variation produced in the pole-faceflux

but the frequency of this variation will be increased.
by the slots,
losses.
The net effect will be a slightreduction in the pole-face

pitchof a winding will also influence the leakagereactance

fractional-pitch
a
winding is
polyphase alternator. When
with a distributed winding,there
a polyphase alternator
on

The
of

used

82

PRINCIPLES

will be

overlappingof

an

will contain

leakageflux

which,in

the

phases and

of these slots is

result

in the

not

are

as

slots

some

phase.

same

produced by

The

currents

two

three-phasealternator,differ in phase by
resultant flux will obviously be less than it

of

case

degrees. This

would

the

coil sides which

resultant

60

MACHINERY

ALTERNATINO-CURRENT

OF

slot carried currents

in anyone
decrease in the

be if the coil sides contained

leakage flux of some

phase. The
of the slots when
polya
winding is used on a phase
fractional-pitch
which

were

in

generator somewhat
with

decreases

the reactance

Armature
armature

resistance

and

of

part which

the

effective resistance

The

"

generator

connections.

of the end

Resistance.
Effective
winding is made
up

Decreasingthe pitch

corresponding full-pitchwinding.

of

the slot reactance

less than

of such

slot reactance

the average

generator will make

parts, viz.: the

two

is due

hysteresislosses in the teeth and

to

other

local

of

an

ohmic

eddy-current

metal

adjacent to

or

the

large cross-section are

used, the leakage flux will also produce eddy-current losses in
them.
the size,length
The ohmic
resistance will depend upon
of the armature
and
cross-section of the inductors
winding.
inductors.

armature

Since

considerable

for end

If inductors

portionof

connections,the

somewhat

decrease

the wire used

of

use

the armature

beside the reduction

with

on

an

armature

is

winding will
fractional-pitch

resistance.

of resistance determine

Other

whether

conditions
a

fractional-

The
pitch winding is used.
part of the effective resistance
is caused
which
by the local losses produced by the armature
inductors
and
current
depends upon the size of the armature
the size and the shape of the slots. In general,anything that
will increase the leakage reactance
of a winding will increase
the

tooth-tipcore

loss and

hence

Conditions

for Best

Regulation.

The

the effective resistance.

"

Ea
Xa

4.44i\^/^"10-8

kN^fs

and
4
The

letters have

the

oc

TV

significanceas when u?ed before.

If the voltage,
flux and frequency are fixed.A'' cannot
be reduced
without increasing
the speed, but the speed cannot
be changed
same

SYNCHRONOUS

it is fixed

as

be

of poles and the frequency.

by the number
by increasingthe flux density in the air gap.

reduced

will necessitate
increase

using

the

in this way

in the

is

cent,

per

To

flux

influence

the

in the
The

For
flux

best

regulation use

air gap

will

tained
ob-

is small.

three-phase

will have

gap

turns

armature

tant
impor-

an

alternator.

Increasing

reaction

and

prove
im-

high air-gap density with moderate

the

to

the

cause

the

as

it

to become

field distortion

of the

distorted

produced by

undesirable

are

ratio

field magnetomotive

magnetomotive force large.

will make
the regulationpoor

armature

form

wave

deep slots

narrow

make

is undesirable

exaggerating the
Very

of

the

reduce

an

be

can

reaction, increase

effect of armature

density in the fleld,and

short

and

regulation of
the

by

regulation.

force

and

effect of armature

This

is diminished
which

case

can

will

alternators

polyphase
in the

air gap

length will decrease

the

decrease

length of the air

the

on

of

case

reaction

and

field ampere-turns

maximum

reduce

density
proportionally.

its

in the

field

generator.
the

increase

an

leakage. Armature
distributed
winding, but the

About

83

GENERATORS

by

reaction.

armature

the

from

load

under

standpoint of

regulation.
The
in the

of densities

ranges

in lines per

design of alternators
Air

inch

square

ordinarilyused

are:

gap

40,000

to

60,000

Armature

teeth

90,000

to

120,000

Armature

core

50,000

to

100,000

Single-phase Rating. The ratio of the single-and three-phase

ratings of a three-phase generator for fixed inductor copper loss
"

is 16
Let

per

cent,

I, V, and

voltage and

than for A
connection.
greater for Y connection
$ he, respectively,the phase current, the phase
cos

the load

Then

factor.

power

for

(vS F)

Singh-phase outpvi

cos

"
_

^o

Three-phase output
V

Single-phaseoutput
for

connection

Three-phase

output

cos

(3/2 /)

cos

'

0
"

"

^^r

V I

-.

"

"

oir

3 V I

cos

_"

0.50

Diagram

Vector

an

of

Alternator

with

Applied

Diagram

Vector

CHAPTER

Alternator

with

Regulation

of

Salient

Approximation

an

as

Methods

Necessary

for

impedance

and

Examples

of

Calculation

the

Synchronous-impedance
Potier

Example

of

American

Institute

Calculation

Example

Obtained

Method

Two-reaction
of

Regulation

Vector

by

Consider

winding

and

is distributed

non-salient
in

magnetomotive
and

the

and

the
such

as

such
force

armature

way

in the

as

is

field may
proper

with

to

be

Blond

el

Calculation

of

Poles.

Non-salient
distributed

Assume

that

produce

the

armature

field

winding

distribution

sine

"

of

Then, if the load is balanced

air gap.

current

impressed
provided

A'

of

Method

having

poles.

the

Regulation

the

of

Alternator

alternator

polyphase

Value

the

Test;

Two-reaction

an

by

Determining

Example

the

of

Diagram

Using

for

Alternator;

an

Regulation

of

netomotive-fo
Mag-

the

of

the

Saturation;

Zero-power-factor

by

Normal

Method

from

A'

of

for

Calculation

Magnetomotive-force

Regulation

Value

Method;

the

of

the

Method;

Institute

of

Method

by

Magnetomotive-force

American

Method;

the

Methods;

Regulation

of
and

Methods;

Data

Synchronous-

the

of

Magnetomotive-force

the

gram;
Dia-

Regulation;

Application

the

the

of

Magnetomotive-

and

Determining

for

an

Vector

its

from

Synchronous-impedance
force

to

Calculation

Poles;

Alternator

an

Poles;

Non-salient

sinusoidal, the
treated

consideration

as

is

reaction

armature

and

vectors

given

to

combined
their

phase

relation.
A

field

winding
flux

with

structure

distribution.

be

can

non-salient
made

to

give approximately

spiral winding
84

poles and

such

as

is

properly
a

shown

tributed
dis-

sinusoidal
in

the

86

PRINCIPLES

alternator
the

same

is connected
the hne

as

connection,
3 for A

or

the

MACHINERY

ALTERNATINO-CURRENT

OF

current

or

the

current

divided

line current

per

terminal

by the

is

This

la is the phase current.

in Y.

for Y
root

square

of

connection.

angle of lag,6, is the angle between the phase current and

the effective resistance
the phase voltage. laVe and laXa are
and
the leakage reactance
drops respectively.Adding these
drops vectoriallyto V givesEa, which is the voltage rise generated
The

by the
combined
action of the impressed field and the armature
reaction,
lead the voltage
and will be called the resultant field. It must

by the air-gapflux,(pjj.

This is the flux which

Fig.

rise,Ea, in the armature

is produced

46.

Let R be the
degrees in time.
resultant magnetomotive force required to produce the flux ^".
All vectors, so far mentioned, are
time vectors.
R is also a
space

vector

Since

the

when

by

reaction

armature

time

coils.
in the
as

Both
same

time

them

vector

and

sense,

vectors

or

is,of course,

with

considered

with respect to the field it

also

90

when

is constant

space

the

and

the field structure.

fixed in direction

this sense, a space vector.

It is
considered with respect to the armature

reaction.A,

it is immaterial

but

to

is,in

the armature

as

respect

same

vectors.

in either

whether
The
case.

must

both

be considered
be considered

phase relation

between

SYNCHRONOUS

If it

force
has

as

for armature

not

were

of

the

already been

impressed field. The armature

explained,is in phase with the

by A on the diagram.
reaction,the impressed field must
balance
it. Adding R
and "A
magnetomotive
force,F, which
terminal
voltage 7. This assumes
leakage is unaffected by a change
nearly enough

reluctances

be the magnetomotive

reaction,R would

is shown

is

87

GENERATORS

correct

in most

On

that

with

assumed

was

Diagram

in

load, an

assumption which

It also

cases.

Salient

to have

Applied

Poles.

The

as

to

the coefficient of field

that the

assumes

of the

the alternator

^,

"

vectorially gives the field

is required to produce the

magnetic circuits for F, A and R

This latter assumption is very nearly correct in this
Vector

armature

component,

and

current

of the

account

have

reaction,

equal.

are

since

case,

non-salient

poles.
Approximationto an Alternator

an

diagram given in Fig. 46 and

the method
of calculating
the regulationof an alternator from
this diagram are
correct only when
appHed to alternators with
non-salient poles. For reasons
which were
ture
given under "ArmaReaction," page 64, it must be considered as an approximation
when
applied to other alternators;
but, in spiteof this,the
regulation of alternators with salient poles calculated from the
in Fig. 46 is often quitesatisfactory.
vector diagram shown
Calculation of the Regulation of an Alternator from its Vector
The
to illustrate the
following example will serve
Diagram.
"

vector

"

method

calculatingthe regulationof

of

diagram.

vector

For

the want

of

calculatingthe regulation will

be

an

alternator

better name,
referred to

as

from

its

this method

of

the

"general

method."

three-phase,F-connected, 5000-kv-a.,6600-volt

A
with

salient

has 30
min.
two

poles which

poles,each
The

with

armature

is intended

for

use

67.5 turns, and

has 360

slots and

with

alternator

water

operates at 240
a

turbine
rev.

per

full-pitch
winding with

in series per slot. The length of the embedded

tween
beis 21.5 in. At 25"C. the resistance of the armature

inductors

inductor
any

two

leakage flux
and

terminals

is 0.0836

ohm.

Assume

an

equivalent

of 6.5 lines per ampere

per inch of embedded
ratio of 1.65 between
the effective and ohmic

ductor
inture
arma-

resistances.
The

full-load

phase

current

and

phase voltage are, respectively,

88

PRINCIPLES

'

'

437

=
.-

240

OF

amp.

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

and

"

f-

The

3810

volts.

12

slots per

frequency is

15

"

60

-oK

cycles. There

are

pole and

per

pole

phase.

per

phase spread is,therefore,To

The

degrees or one-third

of the

180

60

pole pitch. Since the alternator is

F-connected, its effective resistance is -^"x

1.65

"

0.0690

ohm.

phase.

per

the proper values in equations(10)and (26),

pages
Substituting
59 and 78 respectively,
tion
reacA, the armature
gives,respectively.
per

0.707NIa

Xa, the armature

pole,and

leakage reactance

phase.

per

ampere-turns
0.707(^^^^)437
3708

per

pole.
Ofifi

Xa

2x60
2ir/Z*JeZ2slO-8=

21.5

2^ X

6.5 X

-3-IO-*0.253
=

ohm.

by which the armature reaction should be multiplied

to allow for the spread of the winding is found to be 0.958 from
reaction is,therefore,
Table I,page 41.
The corrected armature
The

3708

factor

The

0.958

3550

followingrelations

given in Fig.46.
and

are

ampere-turns

All vectors

referred to V

la
Ea
Consider

are

as

an

pole.

per

derived

from

expressedas

are

diagram
complex quantities

the vector

axis.

6
/"i(cos
j sin 9)
V + /a (cos e
j sin 8) {r^+ jxa)
"

full kildvolt-ampereload of 0.8 power

factor

lagging.

Then

Ea

3810

3900

The

flux

437(0.8

jO.6) (0.0690 + j 0.253)

+i 70.3
V (3900)2+ (70.3)2

3901

corresponding to this voltage is (Pr

The
the

maximum

value

of this flux may

volts.
on

the vector

be found

gram.
dia-

stituting
by sub-

voltage 3901 in equation (2),page 21. This would

be the impressed field if there were
reaction.
If
armature
no
the ampere-turns
required per pole to produce the flux ipR are

SYNCHRONOUS

calculated from
added

the dimensions

to
vectorially
per pole,the

turns

of the

the armature

magnetic circuit and

expressedin

reaction

will be

sum

89

GENERATORS

the

field

impressed

"

are

ampere-

i.e.,the

ampere-turns required per pole on the field. This divided by

the turns per pole will give the field current.
the
In calculating
turns

required for a given flux from the dimensions of

the magnetic circuit,
the coefficientof fieldleakagemust be taken
ampere

into account.

This

coefficient is

usuallybetween 1.15 and 1 25.

The no-load voltage,
E'a,is the voltagewhich would be generated
by the impressed field. To find this voltage,the flux corresponding
to the

When

impressedfield would

first have

determining the regulation of

justgiven,it is best to calculate

method

no-load

or

alternator.
curve

is

and

with

The

curve

either

saturation

curve

to be found.

alternator

an

teristic
characopen-circuit

an

from

by the
of the

the dimensions

characteristic or no-load saturation

open-circuit
plottedwith open-circuitvoltagesas ordinates
field ampere-turns, preferably
per pole,or field

already built,it Js
better to obtain this curve
by measuring the open-circuit
voltages
when the alternator is operated at rated frequency with different
current

characteristic of the alternator

open-circuit
calculations is plottedin Fig. 51, page 97, with the

in the

field currents

R,

is

alternator

The

field excitations.
used

If the

abscissse.

as

abscissae and

as

the

on

vector

with the terminal

nates.
voltagesas ordi-

diagram, is the number

from

of turns

per

the

open-circuit
pole multipliedby the field current
3901 \/3
characteristic correspondingto a voltage Ea\/d
root of 3
to multiply Ea by the square
It is necessary
6757.
since the open-circuit
the characteristic,
before using it on
voltages for ordinates.
characteristic is plotted with terminal
found

voltage of a F-connected
its phase voltage. R is equal to 67.5
The

alternator is

terminal

turns

From

per

161

\/3

times

10,870 ampere-

pole.
diagram,

the vector
F

S(

"

"

vectorially
sin q: + j cos a)

and

imaginary part of Eg
sin

cos

oi

^
Ea

real part of Ea
"

E,

"

A(cos

"

sin

e),

90

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

PRINCIPLES

values in these

Substitutingnumerical

equationsgives

70 3
sin

"

gg^

0.0180

^-^^^

3900
''^^

3901
F

10,870(

3033

jl.OO)

field current

3550(0.8

jO.6)

il3,000

13,360 ampere-turns

The

0.0180

per

pole.

corresponding to this is
13.360
^"-^
=

"j

On

open

198.0

amp.

will

circuit this field current

give a terminal voltage of

7350.

The

regulationis,therefore,
7350

6600
"

6600"

11-^ P""" ""''*"

Synchronous-impedance and the Magnetomotive-force

that the
Methods
for Determuiing Regulation. It is seldom
be determined
by actual
regulation of a large alternator can
of making such a test,
of the expense
account
on
measurement,
of obtaining sufficient
well as on account
of the impossibility
as
in ordinary shops to operate large generators under fullpower
The

"

load conditions.
load of sufficient

It would

also be difficult to obtain

an

artificial

magnitude.
alternator in order to
To avoid the necessityfor loading an
have
of approximate methods
determine its regulation,
a number
be
been developed which requireonly such measurements
as
can
with the alternator operating on open-circuitand on shortmade
circuit. Such tests require comparatively little power.
Two of the best-known
approximate methods for determining
the regulationof an alternator are the "synchronous-impedance"
These
method
and the "magnetomotive-force" method.
are
often called the "pessimistic"and the "optimistic"methods,
respectively,
since,when the data requiredfor them are obtained
from a short-circuit test,the regulationcalculated by the former
is always worse
and by the latter usuallybetter than the true
regulationfound from a load test. The magnetomotive-force
method
gives the better results under these conditions.

SYNCHRONOUS

Synchronous-impedanceMethod.
of the

assumed

are

This

"

magnetic circuit is constant.

forces of the

the

as

reaction

armature

alone,they may be
produce, if acting separately.

if each

acted

made, there will be nothing left on the

electromotive
forces.
The magnetomotive

is

but

diagram

forces of the

If the effects of the magnetomotive

voltagesthey would

If this substitution
vector

same

the reluctance

assumes

impressed field and of the

to be the

replacedby

91

GENERATORS

reaction

the armature

impressed field and

are

placed
re-

by equivalentelectromotive forces in Fig. 47.

two
magnetomotive forces which have been replaced are
the diagram clearer.
The voltage
dotted in order to make

The
shown

\^^V^^

Fig.

47.

will be 90
replaces "A
drop laXA which
It
of the current.
90 degrees ahead
or
phase with the voltage drop I^Xa which is
The voltage drop
drop in the armature.
as

due

to

laXa to form

with
known

as

the

leakage reactance
the

and

Lxa

and

reactance.

It

may

equivalentto a reactance
operation (Chapter VIII, page

ered
consid-

be combined
reactance

includes

fictitious reactance, xa,

reaction.

be

may

drop laX^. The

reactance

synchronous

effect of armature

is not
of

fictitious reactance, Xa,

"A
degrees behind
will,therefore,be in
the leakage reactance

which

both

a;,

is

the

replaces

fictitious reactance, a;^,

except under steady conditions
The

133).

92

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

synchronous

It varies with
and

the

also,except

of

reactance

with

The
the

in the

saturation

will

saturations.

The

part

Xa

constant.

magnetic

circuit

alternator

an

reaction

armature

of the

poles,

synchronous

ordinary alternators with

open

varies

and

constant

produce different

If

of

is not

sponding
proportionalto the flux correThe same
magnetomotive force

reaction.

reaction

definite amount

of the

is far from

since it is

to armature

different

alternator

of generators with non-salient

case

part Xa, however,

of armature

an

degree of saturation

with the power

factor of the load.
is nearly constant
reactance
for
slots.

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

of flux at

amounts

has
will

salient

poles, a

produce different

results at
at

zero

different power
factors.
Its maximum
effect will be
factor when
the axis of the magnetic circuit for
power

the armature

reaction

Its minimum

coincides with

the axis of the field

factor when

effect will be at

poles.

its axis

unity power
lies midway between
two
poles.
To give correct results,
the synchronous impedance should
obtained
which

under

the

of saturation

conditions

it is to be

This

and

power

be

factor

is

sequence,
impossible and, as a conthe synchronous-impedance method, at the best,
can
give only approximate results.
that the vector
sum
Referring to Fig. 47 it will be seen
of V, laTe and
laX^ is the open-circuitvoltage E'a- Use the
terminal voltage V as an axis of reference.
Then

at

E'a==V
and

the

used.

/.(cose

"

becomes

j sin 6) {r, + jx,)

(27)

regulationis
E'a

When

the
zero,

alternator
and

the

"

^-y
"

100

per

cent.

is

its terminal voltage

short-circuited,
vector
diagram given in Fig. 47 collapses

into that

given in Fig.48.
The synchronous impedance, z^, is the ratio of the voltage E'a
to the short-circuit phase current, where
E'a is the open-circuit
tion
voltage at normal frequency corresponding to the field excitarequiredto produce the current /" on short-circuit.
E'a
3,

^
"*-a

and
Xa

Vz/

"

r^'

94

PRINCIPLE'S

reaction

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

is

replacedby a fictitious reactance which is combined

with the armature
In the magnetomotiveleakage reactance.
force method, the leakage reactance
voltageis replacedby the
magnetomotive force which would be required to produce an
equal voltage. This magnetomotive force will be 90 degrees
behind the reactance
drop and consequentlyin phase with the
reaction with which it is combined, givinga fictitious
armature
reaction

armature

diagram
instead

for this method

of A'.

Fig. 49

the

are

method.
the

The

diagram

The
the
no

will be

which

vector

same

as

The

which

A'.

On

given in Fig. 49,

which

vectors

are

shown

as

the
"A'

vector

is used

full lines

on

belonging to the magnetomotive-force

dotted and are added merely to make

only ones
others

is

called

are

clearer.
for the

diagram
the true

magnetomotive-forcemethod

diagram of

vector

an

alternator

which

is
has

leakagereactance.

Fig.

E"a is equal to the vector

50.

of the terminal

sum

voltageand

the

resistance

drop. To produce this voltage a magnetomotive

force R" is requiredwhich is in quadrature with E"a and is equal
the generator
to the field required to produce this voltage when
is on open-circuit. The fictitious reaction,"A', is found from
made

measurements

the alternator

When
becomes
in

with the alternator short-circuited.

zero

and

is

the
short-circuited,

the vector

diagram reduces

terminal

to the form

voltage
shown

Fig. 50.
E"a

loTe is small.

Consequently, R", the magnetomotive

be neglected
E"a, is also small and may

corresponding to
in comparison with "A'.

force

A'

The

value

of A'

-ViPy

(R"Y
approximately.
-

for the vector

diagram given in Fig. 49 is,

therefore,equal to the impressed field required to produce the
armature
The
current,la,when the generator is short-circuited.

SYNCHRONOUS

impressed field,
F,
R"

and

"A'.

under

load

F,

of

sum

100

"

the

is the vector

open-circuitvoltage corresponding
regulationis

the

E'a

value

conditions

If E'a is the

to the excitation

The

95

GENERATORS

of "A'

used

per cent.

in the calculation

magnetomotive-force method

of the

is found

with

regulationby
the

generator

for low saturation

operatingshort-circuited and is,consequently,
well

as

for low

as

factor.

power

On

low

to

produce

magnetomotive

force

than

operatingsaturation.

at normal

of "A'

which

of normal

required

replaceslaXa will be

saturation.

the
short-circuit,
with

is

On

effect of armature

salient

poles will

be

given voltage

Consequently,that part
small

too

for the condition

of the low

account

maximum

factor

power

reaction in the
a

smaller

a
saturation,

case

and

on

of alternators

will be

siderably
con-

factor were
more
higher than it would be if the power
Due
to
nearly that met under ordinary operating conditions.
this latter cause, the value of "A'
will be largerthan it should
be.

In

the

case

effects will be

of alternators

present and

with

will tend

salient
to

poles both

neutrahze

each

these
other.

In

spite of this, however, the regulation of generators with

salient poles found
is
by the magnetomotive-force method
usually lower than the regulationobtained from measurements
made
actual
load
conditions.
The
under
effects produced,
in the synchronous-impedance method, by low saturation and
the synchronous reactance
both tend to
factor on
low power
too large. The
the value of the synchronous reactance
make
will,therefore,always give a
synchronous-impedance method

regulationthan

poorer

the actual.

Necessary for the Applicationof the SsmchronousIn order

impedance and the Magnetomotive-force Methods.
Data

"

to

apply

either

method, the following data

effective armature

(b) The

characteristic.
open-circuit

(c) The

short-circuit characteristic.

other information

Resistance.
Effective

"

phase.

is requiredexcept the
The

motive-force
magneto-

necessary:

are

resistance per

(a) The

No

the

synchronous-impedance or

the

name-plate rating.

effective resistance

of

an

alternator

96

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

by multiplyingits ohmic resistance by a suitable

which will depend upon
the type and the design of the
constant
be obtained by direct measurement
alternator,or it may
by one
of the approximate methods
for measuring the effective resistance
ance
resistwhich will be given later. The ohmic armature
the
as
per phase of a three-phasealternator is not the same
be found

may

ohmic

resistance

alternator
the

it is

)^, and

resistance
the

and

either

its terminals.

between
for

between

resistance

A-connected

the

terminals.
the

between

For

F-connected

alternator
The

terminals

it is

of

^,

phase resistance
are

the

for

same

two-phase alternator.
Open-circuitCharacteristic. The open-circuit characteristic
is a curve
voltages
plottedfor rated frequencywith open-circuit
abscissae.
ordinates and the corresponding field excitations as
as
Either terminal voltage or phase voltage may
be plotted. The
in ampere-turns.
excitation may
be expressed in amperes
or
the open-circuitvoltage of
Since with any
fixed excitation
the speed, it is possibleto apply a
a generator varies directlyas
correction to the measured
not
voltages in case the frequency canThe
acteristic
be maintained
exactly constant.
open-circuitcharshould always extend from zero
excitation up to the
maximum
excitation for which the alternator is designed.
single-phaseor

"

Short-circuit
shows
and

the

Characteristic.

relation between

and

one

further

the

This

the field excitation.

least

The

"

one-half times

short-circuit

characteristic

short-circuit armature

curve

should

current

always extend

the full-load current

and

as

to at

much

is possible
without

overheating the alternator.

The
of an
magnitude of the steady short-circuit current
alternator at normal
excitation depends upon
its design and its
as

size.

This

times

the

current

rated

will lie between

full-load current.
The

one

and

one-half

It is limited

and

by the

five
chronous
syn-

impedance.
takes
is limited by the
place at the instant of short-circuit,
resistance and by the leakage reactance
of the alternator.
This
rush may
be twenty or even
current
thirty times as large as
the normal full-load current
(Chapter VIII).
Measurements
made

at

rated

frequency will

for

instantaneous

short-circuit

rush of current, which

characteristic

should

be

frequency, but a considerable variation in the

produce a relativelysmall effect on the armature

Both

current.

the

97

GENERATORS

SYNCHRONOUS

in the

voltage induced

armature

and

the

frequency. Therefore, if
it were
which is always small
not for the armature
resistance,
quency
compared with the synchronous reactance, a change in the fresynchronous

reactance

would

have

littleor

the

as

vary

effect on

no

Eield Current

Fig.

Short-circuit characteristics
of saturation

range

Although

large armature

circuit armature
of alternators
7

Amperes.

51.

lines over
usuallystraight

are

through which

it is

possibleto

carry

the
them.

large,the resultant field,

is small on account
of
the degree of saturation,
reaction caused by the relatively
large short-

impressedfield

determines

which
the

the

in

the short-circuit current.

current.

with

salient

may

The

be

effect of the armature

poleswill,moreover,

be

reaction
maximum

98

on

PRINCIPLES

OF

of the

account

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

largeangle of lag between

the current

and

the

generated voltage.
The

data

for the open-

and

short-circuit characteristics of the

5000-kv-a., 60-cycle, 6600- volt, F-connected

The
on
page 87 are given in Table IV.
are
plotted in Fig. 51.

alternator
two

tioned
men-

characteristics

IV

Table

Regulation by the Synchronous

and the Magnetomotive-force Methods.
The regulationof the 5000-kv-a.,F-connected
generator will be
of this generator are
calculated by both methods.
The constants
given on page 87. Its open- and short-circuit characteristics are
plottedin Fig. 51.
It is first necessary
to find
Synchronous-impedance Method.
From
the synchronous reactance.
Fig. 51 take the shortcircuit current
and the open-circuit
voltage corresponding to the
largestfield excitation used on short-circuit. The current and
voltage,for an excitation of 160 amp., are 1085 amp. and 6720
volts respectively. The
Therefore,
generator is F-connected.
be divided by \/3 to get the phase voltage.
the line voltage must
is the phase current.
The line current
Examples

Calculation

of the

of the

"

"

1
6720

V3
z.

ohms.

3.58

1085

"*/"

~~

3.58

Zg

ohms

approximately.

regulation will be calculated

lagging. From
Fig. 47, page 91,
The

E'a

-^
V3

la (cos e
+

power

factor

j sin 6*)
(r,-|-jx,)

437(0.8

for

iO.6)(0.069 -1-j3.58)

of 0.8

SYNCHRONOUS

4773

V (4773)2 +

4931
4931

Regulation

99

GENERATORS

J1236

(1236)2

volts.
-

5^
^^^

^^"'* ^^^

"

6600

''""**

V3
The

field excitation

corresponding to
characteristic.

requiredfor

8541 on the open-circuit

voltage of 493 iVS
This is beyond the range of the curve.
a

Method.
Magnetomotive-force
an

this load is the field current

Refer

"

to

Fig.

49.

Use

as

axis of reference.

E"u

^^

3835

3835

la (cos e
+

j sin 0)re

437(0.8

j0.6)0.069

jl8

volts.

6642
corresponding to a voltageof 3835\/3
the open-circuitcharacteristic is 157 amp.
This is R" on the
on
vector
reaction,A', is the
diagram. The fictitious armature

The

field current

field current
on

as

correspondingto

an

the short-circuit characteristic.

The

angle 0

on

The

angle a

is

90

degrees.
F

the vector

so

small

armature

This field current

202

amp.

amp.

is 64 amp.

diagram is equal to

that it may

be

neglected and ^ taken

sin 6) + R"{cos fi +j
e +j
cos
A'{
0.8 + iO.6)+ 157(0 + jl)
64(
5I.2+.7I95
-

of 437

current

sin

/3)

100

PRINCIPLES

The

ALTERNATINO-CURRENT

OF

MACHINERY

voltage on the open-circuitcharacteristic corresponding to

this is 7450.
7450

-6600

,
^.
Regulation

Potier
known

Method.
the

The

"

,=

vector

12-9 per cent.

-^oKF.

Fig. 46 is
has already been

given

diagram

Potier

in

Diagram. Although, as
pointed out, this diagram is correct only for an alternator with
non-salient poles,it often is used in place of some
of the more
correct
diagrams as an approximat
for
diagram
rators
geneas

with
of the

One

is

correct

more

grams
dia-

given later.
method

Potier

The
__^

projectingpoles.

for

determining the regulationof

i^\l

makes

alternator

an

of

use

diagram shown in
ture,
Fig. 46. The important feahowever, of this method
is the manner
of separating
the vector

^\

the

armature

the

armature

alternator
from
Fig.

its

52.

at the

of the

change

leakage

terminal

The

and

reaction

under

actance.
re-

voltage of
load

an

differs

open-circuitvoltage

same

excitation

on

count
ac-

in the field caused

by the armature
reaction,
and also on account
of the drop in voltagethrough the armature
and the armature
produced by the leakage reactance
effective resistance.
The
upon

relative influence

the power

factor of the load.

of the
With

three
a

factors

reactive load

depends
at

zero

factor,the decrease in the terminal voltage is due almost

reaction and the armature
entirelyto the armature
leakage reactance.
power

Under

this

condition,the effective resistance drop is in

quadraturewith the terminal voltage and has little influence on
the change in the terminal voltage caused
by a change in load.
This will be made
clear by the vector diagram given in Fig. 52
which

is for

reactive load of

zero

power

factor.

102

PRINCIPLES

pointsas

two

saturation
will be

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATINO-CURRENT

and

F, which correspondto the same

degree of
consequently to the same
generated voltage,

and

displacedfrom

another

horizontally
by an amount
reaction and vertically
equal to the armature
by an amount
equal to the leakage-reactancedrop.
GF represents the armature
reaction in equivalentfield amperes,
one

provided the excitation is plotted in amperes,

represents the leakage-reactancedrop in volts.
Let
armature

the

CD

curve

for

be

reaction for any

an

armature

current

I'.

and

Then

GE

the

current, la,will be

the armature
and, since the plot is for a F-connected alternator,
voltage per phase for the current /" will be
leakage-reactance
T
laXa

J^

la^j,

EG
=

V3/'

Xa

leakagereactance

is the armature

per

phase.

curve
experimentallythat the open-circuit
CD
and the load characteristic at zero
factor,as curve
power
cide
is called,
are
sensiblythe same
shape and may be made to coin1
if superposed.
This would
be expected, since, at zero
reaction should be
factor,the effect of a fixed armature
power
and
independent of the degree of saturation of the armature
field as the axis along which it acts is fixed and coincides with
the axis of the field poles. The leakage reactance
of alternators
dependen
with open
slots,as are ordinarilyused, should be nearly inof the degree of saturation of the armature
teeth.
In order to make
of the Potier method, it is necessary
to
use
of locating two
find some
each curve,
means
on
points, one
corresponding to the same
generated voltage and the same
resultant field. There are two ways
by which this can be done.
First Method.
Make
characteristic
a tracingof the open-circuit
and the co-ordinate axes
and mark
some
point,such as E Fig.53,
which is well up on the bend of the characteristic,
both the
on
open-circuitcharacteristic and its tracing. Lay the tracing

It has been

shown

"

L'ficlairage
Electrique,Vol. XXIV,

p. 133.

SYNCHRONOUS

the

on

with

plot. Then, keeping the

the

axes

the

on

103

GENERATORS

axes

coincides with

the load characteristic CD.

point

to the load

on

right-angletriangleEGF
the
abscissae,
be

may

until the traced

plot,slide the tracingabout

curve

through

tracing parallel

the

on

its base

reaction

armature

By drawing the

characteristic.

with

and

parallelto

the

prickthe

Then

axis of

the

leakage-reactancedrop

determined.

The
on

complete load characteristic is not

this curve
are
sufficient,
provided one

on

the

bend

point C.

of the

This

short-circuit.

of

points

them, F, is well

up

point is preferablythe
point corresponds to the condition of
The

curve.

latter

Two

necessary.

other

The

before but the point E

as
tracing is made
is left off. The tracing is now
moved
to itself until it
parallel
touches
the two
points C and F. By transferringthe point F
the openthen superposing the tracing on
to the tracing and
the point E may
circuit curve,
be located.
Second
Method.
Since the two
Fig. 53, are parallel,
curves.
the small right-angletriangleEGF
will fit anywhere between
"

Let it be moved

them.

down

until its base lieson

the line OC.

It

position. A new triangleQIC is formed

This new
with the lower part of the open-circuitcharacteristic.
From
the pointF draw a line FJ
trianglehas a definite base OC.
and equal to OC.
Through J draw another line parallel
parallel
dotted

is shown

to

in this

characteristic.
part of the open-circuit

the lower

of this latter line with

The

section
inter-

will locate
open-circuitcurve
the point E of the desired triangle. It will be seen
that,unless
the point E is taken well up on the bending part of the curve,
to the open-circuit
characteristic
the line JE will be nearlyparallel
the intersection

and

Potier
reaction

but
in

at

and

and

the

acteristic
charopen-circuit

for

under
quantities

power

approximatelynormal

factor which

is very much
below
the value of the armature

this reason,
will be too large in the

practice. For

obtained

JE

the armature
determining experimentally
of an
alternator
armature
leakage reactance

method

these

determines

between

be at all definite.

will not
The

the

case

of alternators

tion
satura-

that met

with

reaction
salient

poles.
In

impossibleto
determining a point as

practiceit

factor for

is

obtain
F

on

load

the load

of

zero

power

characteristic.

104
but

OF

PRINCIPLES

low may
be obtained by using an
sufficiently
synchronous motor operated at no load.

under-excited
American

the
the

Institute Method.

of

Institute

the

regulation of

Rules

which

Rules

an

of Electrical

alternator.

revised

The

recommend

1914

Standardization

Institute of Electrical

adopted by the American

were

Engineers in

1907 Standardization

The

"

Engineers recommend
for calculating
magnetomotive-force method

American

use

MACHINERY

factors

power

of the

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

modification

of the

synchronous-

only essential difference between this

modified method
and the regularsynchronous-impedance method
is that the synchronous impedance used is obtained at normal

impedance

method.

The

saturation

instead

of at low

saturation.

It is found

from

one

zero-power-factorload characteristic and one

point on the open-circuitcharacteristic.
Let the point F, Fig. 53, be a point at normal
voltage on the
load characteristic for the armature
current at
zero-power-factor
which the regulationis desired.
vertical line
F draw
From
a
at K.
The
distance FK
intersectingthe open-circuitcurve
factor,
representsthe total change in voltage,at zero power
caused by armature
reaction and the armature
leakage-reactance
drop. It is the synchronous-reactancedrop. Since the curves
alternator and
shown
are
on
Fig. 53 are for a F-connected
lines,the synchronous
plotted in terms of the voltage between
reactance
per phase is

point

on

the

FK
,

"

^^".

where

I is the line current.

ohms

If the machine

had been

A-connected,
have been divided by \/3

I, would have had to

The distance FK
instead of the voltage FK.
be divided
may
into its two
components by drawing a horizontal line through
E intersecting
FK at N.
FN is then the leakage-reactance
drop.
NK
is the drop in voltage which replacesthe effect of the armature
reaction.
Having found x^, the regulationmay be calculated
the line current,

in the usual way.

The

American

Institute Method

of

ance
gettingsynchronous reactavoids the chief source
of error
in the value of synchronous
calculated
from
short-circuit data, namely, the
reactance
error

which

due
was

to low

saturation.

mentioned

The

error

due

in the discussion of the

to low

power

factor

regularsynchronous-

SYNCHRONOUS

impedance
salient

method

105

GENERATORS

is still present unless

the machine

has

non-

poles.

Example

of the Calculation

Institute Method."

Referringto
FK

E'a

1300

"

7g-

of A'

437(0.8

4282

4321

volts.

4321

Value

^,

V3l38=l-^^"^'^'-

V37
=

Regulation

Regulation by
Fig. 53,
,

"""=

the American

of the

i0.6)(0.069+ jl.71)

i580

'-^

100

13.4 per

aann

cent.

of the

for Normal
Magnetomotive-force Method
Saturation.
The fictitious magnetomotive force A' used in the
be obtained
ration
satuat normal
magnetomotive-force method
may
"

from
one

curve
points,one on the zero-power-factor
characteristic.
open-circuit

the

on

If the

voltage is to be kept

appliedto

load is

and

two

when

constant

generator, the field current

zero-power-factor
must

be increased

reaction and to
demagnetizing effect of armature
produce the increase in the generated voltagerequiredto balance
the leakage-reactancedrop. MF, Fig.53,represents this increase
the

balance

to

is the part of this increase requiredto

MG
is the part required
reaction.
the effect of armature
GF

in field excitation.

balance
to

generatedvoltage needed

the increase in

cause

to balance

the

leakage-reactancedrop, FN.
A'

When

method

When,

generator

on

method

becomes

poles.

The

the

is

an

short-circuit test, the motive-force

magnetomethod
since
it
gives a
optimistic
a

usually better than that found from a load

however, A' is found from a test made with the
a
highly inductive load, the magnetomotive-force

regulationwhich
test.

from

is obtained

is

method
pessimistic

if the generator has salient

on

Fig.

leakage-reactance drop is correct

since

saturation.

part MG
The

other

of MF

part

A'

GF,

which

is

53

which

replaces

it is for normal

the field

current

106

PRINCIPLES

OF

required to balance
has
reaction

has

poles,since with

its maximum

factor and

power

reaction is too

armature

salient

has

effect in

Method

volts is 96 amp.
F

A'{

96(

of the
the

0.8 +

of A'

zero

normal

large for

E"a

99,

157

from

Obtained

correspondingto
=

3835.

6) + R"icos fi +j

jO.6) +

at

motive-force
Regulation by the Magneto-

Value

page

sin

+j

A' is too

Fig. 53, A'

From

"

From

cos

modifying the field

sin

/3)

(0 + jl)

-76.8+i214.6

228

the

From

the generator

generator armature

result MF

Using

-power-factor Test.

6600

such

large,when

greater effect than it does at any

operatingpower factor. As
ordinarypower factors.
Example of the Calculation
Zero

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

amp.

open-circuitcurve

(Fig.53,

page

101), E'a

7700

volts.
7700
,
,.
Regulation
^

Blondel
of

an

Method

Two-reaction
Alternator.

-6600,^^
^^^

rmy\

"

The

for

armature

,^^
^

"''

P^'' c"^*'.

Determining the Regulation

reaction

of

an

alternator

poles shifts the axis of the field flux and modifies

In a
the field strength without
distortingit to any extent.
reaction
generator with salient poles, however, the armature
not
only modifies the field strength,but, except in the case of
factor with respect to the excitation voltage,it also
zero
power
distorts the field by crowding the flux toward
one
pole tip and
with non-salient

away

from

alternators
are

shown

the other.
with
in

effects of the armature

reaction

poles have

Figs. 33, 34, 37, 38

If the armature
excitation

salient

The

current

of

an

already been discussed

and 39, Chapter IV.
alternator

is in

phase

with

of
and

its

with the voltage which would be produced

voltage,i.e.,
reaction
on
by the impressed field,the armature
open-circuit
caused by that current merely distorts the fieldwithout modifying
its strength. On the other hand, if the power
with
factor is zero
reaction will
respect to the excitation voltage, the armature
modify the strength of the field without producing distortion.
It is,therefore,
convenient
to resolve the armature
reaction of

SYNCHRONOUS
alternator

an

with salient

polesinto

the
producing only distortion,

one

in the field
armature

strength. To take

reaction

of

two

other

alternators

with
*

effects of the

poles, Blondel
Since the magnetomotive
salient

theory.
phase with the armature
current,
is equivalent
components justmentioned

reaction is in

resolvingit into the two

to considering
the armature

to be resolved into two

current

If h

components.
into which

quadraturecomponents :
producing only a change
of the two

account

suggested the two-reaction

force of armature

107

GENERATORS

is the armature

it should

current, the two

be resolved

la sin

"p

la

"p

rature
quadponents
com-

are

and

where

"p

is the

cos

phase angle between

the current

la and the voltage

the excitation voltage.

corresponding to the field excitation,
i.e.,
The magnetomotive force of the first component, /" sin "p, acts
the same
on
magnetic circuit as the coils on the field polesand
its effect is the same
of ampereas
adding an equivalentnumber
the
turns
to the field winding. It merely strengthensor weakens
field according as the current leads or lags. The second component,
la cos "p, produces only distortion,and the axis of its
magnetomotive force lies midway between the poles. This magnetomotive
force acts on a magnetic circuit of high reluctance on
of the large air gap introducted by the interpolarspace.
account
If there

are

poleper phase,all concentrated

magnetomotive force in ampere-turns

Z inductors

the
singlepairof slots,
pole per phase due to
a

the maximum

la is the effective current

force is uniform

in

per

phase

of

current

phase in amperes.
the pairof slots
between
per

This

per

\/2 h is

motive
magneto-

considered

and

Fig. 54. The length of this

is, of course, equal to
rectangularmagnetomotive-forcewave
its

for
The
1

in

shape is rectangularas shown

winding
full-pitch

and

Fourier series which

Transactions

its

heightis \/2 h

representsthe

of the International

Congress

space

at St.

"

distribution

Louis, 1904, p. 635.

of

108
the

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

magnetomotive-force wave

MACHINERY

due to the Z inductors

considered

is

jV2L 2)jsin

To
will

in the
especially
the

case

The

sum

maximum
wave

Vs

In

case

was

of

case

sin 5y +

etc.

(28)

since in
three-phasealternator,

of the third harmonics

ordinate

of the

is zero

fundamental

for balanced
of the

load.

motive-force
magneto-

is
-

as

sin Zy +

all terms except the fundamental

simplifythe calculation,
be neglected. This probably will not introduce any great

error,

this

2/ +

V2Ia

(29)

0.9hZ

the

winding is distributed instead of being concentrated

be multipliedby a factor
assumed, equation (29) must
ki

take

to

distribution
Some

into
of

account

the

of these factors

the

winding.
are
given

in Table

age.
I, page 41, for voltThey are obviously the
for magnetomotive force.
same
action
reConsidering the armature
of any one
phase as an
Fig. 54.
ing
oscillating
vector, and resolvit into two
done in the previous
revolving vectors as was
discussion of armature
reaction,gives for the maximum
space
reaction of an alternator with m phases
ordinate of the armature

0A5hIaZm
If Z

is considered

in all

to be

phases instead

the total number

of the

number

per

of inductors

per

phase, this reduces

OAbkJaZ

pole
to

(30)

The

direct,or demagnetizing,and the distorting,or crossmagnetizing, components of this reaction are

respectively.
Ao

0A5kiJaZ

sin

OAbhIaZ

cos

ip

(31)

and

Ac

"p

(32)

110

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Ko is 0.45 times the factor by which the direct component of the

reaction must
the
be multipliedin order to take into account
ratio of the pole arc to the polepitch.
While the demagnetizing component of the armature
reaction
acts directlyon
the main field to increase or decrease the flux
leads or lagsbehind the
accordingas the current in the armature

Fig.

excitation

voltage, the

56.

cross-magnetizingor

ponent
distortingcom-

reaction neither increases

of the armature

nor

decreases

whole, "But increases the magnetomotive

force acting over
one-half of each pole face and decreases,by
an
equal amount, the magnetomotive force actingover the other
half of each
pole face. The
cross-magnetizingcomponent,
the field excitation

as

Fundamental

MagrnetomotlTe
Force

Ac

0A5ki,IaZ

of the

magnetomotive force of armature

reaction is plotted in Fig. 56.
The
shaded
portion of this
figureshows the part of the cross magnetomotive force which is
reallyeffective.
The actual shape of the flux produced by the cross
component
=

of armature

cos

reaction

"p,

is shown

in

Fig. 57.

The

cross

component

SYNCHRONOUS

of the

magnetomotive
flux which

through

the

The

gap.

local

passes

and

in the armature

local

or

ponent
com-

then
air gap,
the other half of the air
of the

across

This

armature.

will be constant

them

for any given armature

respect to the poles,and it will,

and

produce

electromotive

an

force

winding. This electromotive force will be used

diagram in place of the distorting
magnetomotive

vector

order

completed through the

with

force of the armature

In

produce

to

one-half

across

will be flxed with

revolve
therefore,

the

tends

pole shoe and back

flux
distorting

or

current

on

force

circuit is

111

GENERATORS

reaction.

voltage produced by the cross field,the

effective part of the cross
magnetomotive force of the armature
the shaded portion on Fig.56, will be resolved into a
reaction,i.e.,
Fourier

find the

to

series

all

and

the

above

terms

will be

fundamental

ponent
magnetomotive force of the distortingcomof the armature
reaction,the field produced by this and
its fundamental
component are shown in Fig. 57.

neglected.

The

amplitude of

The

the fundamental

the shaded

to
corresponding

portion of Fig. 56 is
2

M
For

the

between

\ f{x) sin X

the limits of

a;

0 and

TT

"

fix)is equal to

^2

and

"

fb2

^^^^ between

^^^

^'

iietween

ir.

=J^

the
air

and

='^

"

^'

108.

air

Ac is given by equation (32),page

zero.

sin

ax

air

limits of

(36)

dx

given in Fig. 56, f{x) is equal to ^c

form

wave

Ac\ I
I

n^
.

sin^
sin^ xdx
-|- I
X dx +
\ si

Jt

t/O

dx

62
air

IAc \hix-Vi
+

Since

this

a;

"

magnetomotive

i2

sin

2xJ

sin 2x

force does

not

alter the total field

112

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

it will be replacedon
strength,

diagram by the voltage

the vector

voltage is found from the open-circuit

value
to the mean
and is the voltagecorresi)onding
characteristic,
of the magnetomotive force given by equation (37).
its mean
value is
Since this magnetomotive force is sinusoidal,

it would

This

produce.

2
-

times

value

its maximxim
2

by it is 1.11.
air-gapflux on
must

for the

(38)

(b

IT

of the

voltageproduced
If the form factor of the voltage produced by the
circuit is different from this,equation (38)
open
well

as

factor

the form

as

be used

by this equation can

the

complete expressionfor

magnetomotive force given

characteristic.
open-circuit

the

on

k/ is the form factor

where

-r",

voltage,before
open-circuit

The

OTT
.

multiphed by the ratio

be

-Ac ^ \t

factor

eqiialto

,,

Its form

is

or

the

component

cross

of

this

reaction is
1.112

A'c

"

...,

OAokajZ

{kj^

cos

cos

i a

^-^

air]

I^

sm

I
(39)

^)Kc

where
1

1
.

irk/16

TT

ttTT

Kc is 0.45 times the factor by which

armattire
may

magnetomotive force

be used

on

the

the

cross

(40)
the

be

must

cross

component

multiphed

characteristic.
oi)en-circuit
of the reaction

flux due

to

affected

by the degree of saturation of the

component

Table

main

of the

in order that it

The
is

component

only shghtly
magnetic circuit.

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

The

lower part of the magnetization

curve,

used

in

The

findingthe

numerical

voltageproduced by

values

of the constants

113

should
therefore,

be

it.
and

Kd

Kc

given in
Table V for a number
of different ratios of pole arc to pole pitch.
The usual ratio of pole arc to pole
pitchis about 0.75. Kd corresponding
to this is 0.35 and

is used in connection

(see equation (34),page

109).

are

with ampereconductors

If Z in

equation (34)

is

changed to turns, the constant

be multipliedby 2
Kd must
it
0.70.
This is very nearlyequal to the constant
making
0.707

Fig.

which

used

was

in the

general method.
for the

calculation

It may
be one
reaction used

armature

58.

of the

regulation by the

why the

reason

in connection

0.707

constant

with

the

general

calculatingthe regulationof alternators with sahent

reaction
poles gives fairlysatisfactoryresults. The armature
method

for

obtained

from
of the

reaction method
The

vector

the

Potier

armature

triangleis
reaction

in

used

realitythe
in the

direct

Blondel

ponent
com-

double-

corresponds to A'd given by equation (34).

is given in
diagram of the two-reaction method
and

Fig.58.
The generated voltage,E^,

is found

in the usual

manner

adding the resistance and the leakage-reactancedrops

by

to the ter-

114

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERN

ATI

NO-CURRENT

minal

voltage V. In the two-reaction

electromotive force,Ea, is considered to
quadrature components:
the transverse

Ed,

induced

For

that the

the present, assume

Ea

of two

poles.

angles made
then

Ea may

known.

are

Blondel, the

by the flux produced by

and the other,
reaction,

the main

by the flux from

of

be the resultant

of the armature

component

with

method

^C; induced

one,

MACHINERY

by

these

be resolved

ponents
com-

into its

Having obtained Ej),the excitation,

F^c, required on the main poles to produce this voltage may be
characteristic by looking up the
found
from
the open-circuit
that curve
field magnetomotive force on
corresponding to the
voltage Ed- The real excitation under load must be greater
the direct
than
this (an inductive load assumed) to balance
reaction.
The
component, A'd (equation34), of the armature
reaction
cross
component, A'c (equation39), of the armature
fore,
merely distorts the field without alteringits strength. Therethe impressed field is
two

components

E^ and Ec-

Fe^ + A'o

F, Fed and A'd are considered in a purely algebraicsense.

If E'a is the voltage on the open-circuitcurve
corresponding to
the field F, the regulationis
where

100

"

The

per cent.

angle |3,which

into its two

it is necessary
to know
in order to divide Ea
components, Ed and Ec, may be found in the following

Find

the volts

generated per ampere turn on the lower

part of the open-circuitcharacteristic. Call this voltage v.
For reasons
Calculate
alreadygiven,v will be assumed constant.
A'c by equation (39). Then
manner.

Ec

vA'c
-

_,

2.22 fa

1
.

air)

vOAbkhlaZ

QIa

cos

(p

QIa

COS

(/?+ e')

(41)

vkiZKc
Ec

(42)

cos

(p-T

"

jr

sm

-?-['

where

Q
From

Fig. 58,
=

Ea sin (3

115

GENERATORS

SYNCHRONOUS

Cc/mbiningequations (41)and (42) gives

Ea sin /3

Qh

(/3+ 6')

cos

and

Q7"
*^"

e'

Therefore,^
and

load

be found

can

6'

(4^)

(Fig.58).

for any

power-factorangle

sin 9'

Qh

E. +
0 +

cos

given

armature

current, la,

6.

Regulation by the Tworeaction

Method."
The
regulation of the 5000-kv-a., 6600F-connected
volt,three-phase,
generator which has already been
of this
will be
used
calculated.
The
rating and constants
generator are given on page 87. The ratio of the pole arc to the
pole pitch is 0.768. A full kv-a. load at 0.8 (lagging)power
factor will be assumed.
Refer to Fig. 58.
The
found, in the calculation of the
generated voltage was
regulationby the generalmethod, to be

Example

of

Calculation

the

Ea

J70.3

3900

3901

volts

of

70 3

sin

cos

gg^

0.0180

1" 1'
0.8

36" 52'

and
d'
sin e'

e'

cos

e +

37" 53'

0.614

0.789

and

Kd

0.45

sin(o.768|)
^
=

0.768

Kc^
From

4-10.768

-irkfi

0.349

0.160
(0.7687r)l

sin

IT

equation (43)
Qlg
tan

cos

e'

"__ + Qi^ sin d'

vkiZKo

116

PRINCIPLES

the

From
the

data

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

part of the open-circuit curve

lower

for which

IV,

given in Table

are

of this generator,

"7=

"\/3 X
0.41

volt

ampere-turn

per

0.41

0.96

Q is then

pole.

per

24

0.160

100

equal

67.5

to

1.51

and

1.51X437X0.789
,
tan

R
p

=3gQ^

j3

Ed

open-circuit

Ea

97, is

page

160

sin

3901

3880

impressed

0.993

of this

to

voltage

which

generator,

is

3880

\/3

plotted

in

on

the

Fig. 51,

amp.

"p

A'd

The

0.614

13

cos

corresponding

curve

437

6" 53'

field excitation

The

""^^"^

"

1.51

0 +

-1- ;S

46'

44"

0.704

sin "f"KD

hIaZ

437

24

0.96

2474

ampere-turns

field,F,

in amperes

0.704

0.349

pole.

per

is

2474
160

The

67:5

open-circuit voltage corresponding

terminals.

The

,^^

three-phase
given

in

this

comparison.

between

6600
100

w^K7\
values

to this is 7360

regulation is,therefore,
7360

The

197

of

the

alternator

chapter

regulation

^_
11.5

of

calculated
are

brought

the

by

per

cent.

5000-kv-a.,
the

together

different
in

Table

6600-volt,
methods
VI

for

CHAPTER
Short-circuit

Method

VI

Zero-power-factor
Leakage

Leakage
Field

Method

Reactance;

Determining

Potier

Leakage

Resistance
Short-circuit
Short-circuit

Field

Method

for

the armature

impressed field

at

rated

for

Determination

Structure

of

made

Determination

Removed;
with

Method

Triangle

Measurements

from

ance;
React-

DETERMiNma

for

Reactance;

Reactance
Structure

Leakage

Determining

for

of

with

ive
Effect-

Removed

Determining Leakage Reactance.

and

the

measure

phase

frequency for about

current

"

and

full-load current.

diagram for a short-circuited alternator is shown in

Fig. 59. E'a is the voltage on open circuit which corresponds to
the impressed field F.
The

vector

R''

F^

-\-A^

/3

2FA

cos

(44)

|3

hre
sin

sin

E\
The

armature

reaction,A,

may
118

be

calculated

from

equation

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

119

(10),page

59, but it is better to calculate it from equation (34),

109, which gives the direct component
of the armature

page

reaction

used in the double-reaction

regulationof
the

and, in

alternator.

an

phase

On

and

current

to

determining the

tween
angleof lag bevoltageis very large

of

this,the distorting
ture
component of the armasmall and can be neglected. When
equation

consequence

pole arc

for

short-circuitthe

the excitation

reaction is very
(34),is appliedto a generator
of

method

having non-salient poles,the

ratio

in equation (34),is determined

polepitch,i.e.,
^

the arrangement

of the field

by

winding.

the numerical values of F, A and 13in equation

By substituting
(44)the resultant field R may be found.
The angle 0 is small and

usuallymay

be

neglected.
R

Let Ea be the
R.

voltage on

"

approximately.

the open-circuit curve

corresponding to

Then
^"

The

"/(zF

effective

be found by one
resistance,
r^, can
which will be given later.
The chief objectionsto the short-circuit method
the leakage reactance
the low degree of
are

the

low

power

objectionsare

factor for which

not

since the reactance

of

so

the reaction

great importance

as

of the methods

for determining
saturation

is obtained.

might

arid
The

at first seemi,

of

ordinary alternators with open slots is not

teeth.
greatlyaffected by the degree of saturation of the armature
for Determining Leakage Reactance.
Zero-power-factorMethod
alternator is operated on
reactive load at
When
a
an
zero
factor,the axis of the armature-reaction
motive
magnetopower
with
the
axis
coincides
of
the
force veiy nearly
impressed
"

fieldand the two

to

be subtracted

forces may

directly

give the resultant field. This has alreadybeen referred

the Potier
and
page
a

magnetomotive

method

for

armature

100, which

separatingthe

leakage

is the vector

diagram of

=F

be

an

alternator

that the

seen

tion
reac-

Referring to Fig. 52,

reactance.

highlyinductive load,it will

R

effects of armature

to in

supplying

relation
algebraic

120

OF

PRINCIPLES

is very

The

nearlycorrect.

of the short-circuit method

best found

from

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

reaction,A, as in the case

for determiningleakage reactance, is
armature

equation (34),page

109.

Ea is the voltagegenerated by the resultant field,

R, and is equal

voltage corresponding to an excitation,R, on the opencircuit characteristic.

Again referringto Fig. 52, it will be seen
that the followingalgebraicrelation is very
nearly correct:
to

the

Ea
from

laXa

which

Eg-V
Xa

highly inductive

load

required for the zero-power-factor

of determining the leakage reactance
be obtained
method
may
by using as a load for the alternator an under-excited synchronous
motor
operating without load.
of determining the leakage
The
zero-power-factor method
reactance
is not so simple to apply as the short-circuit method,
for about normal
but it has the advantage of giving the reactance
The

saturation.

The

effect of the low

reactance

is obtained

reactance

of alternators

would

power

will tend to make

with

salient

factor under
the measured

which

the

value of the

poles slightlylargerthan it

ordinary operating power factors.

be found
If the equivalent leakage flux is desired,
it can
by
making use of equation (26),page 78.
Potier
for Determining Leakage
ance.
ReactTriangle Method
This method
has already been given in Chapter V.
The
Determination
of Leakage Reactance
from
ments
MeasureMade
with the Field Structure
Removed.
An approximate
value of the leakage reactance
of the armature
of an
alternator may
be obtained by removing the field structure
and
measuring the voltage,V, requiredto send about full-load current
The ratio of this voltage to the current
through the armature.
will be approximately equal to the armature
leakage impedance.
be under

"

"

7
Za

_
"

"^a

Xa

If

Te

is

known,

Xa

may

VV

be found.

SYNCHRONOUS

The
of
a

method

justouthned

alternator

an

is in

place or

determining the leakage reactance

for
that the leakage flux of the armature

assumes

fixed armature

121

GENERATORS

for

is the

current

whether

same

the field structure

assumption is probably not far

from correct in many
cases, since the only part of the leakage
which would
be affected materially
by the removal of the field
is the tooth-tipleakage. In addition to the leakage flux, a
second flux is caused by armature
reaction which passes between
the poles produced on the armature
current.
by the armature
The voltage induced
in the armature
inductors by this second
flux is not a part of the leakage-reactancevoltageand should
in it. With
not be included
the field structure
in place,this
flux combines
with the flux caused by the impressedfield to produce
removed.

This

the resultant field and

nothing to do with the voltage

drop through the armature.
Although the voltage induced by
this flux is included in the value of Xa obtained by the method
introduced
by it in the measured
just described, the error
value of Xa is probably not large,since the armature-reaction
flux
will be small
the

the field structure

when

of its

high reluctance

With

it has

the field structure

is removed

magnetic circuit under

in

place,the

on

account

of

this condition.

effect of this flux would

be

large.

very

of the Effective Resistance

Determination

The

Removed.

Structure

is measured

when

with the Field

consumed
If the power
by the armature
is removed
and a current,
the field structure
"

la, passed through it,the effective resistance may be found by

dividing the power, P, per phase by the square of the phase
current, la,

P^
^e

_
"

J-a

This
the
that

assumes
core

the

another

entirelydue to the leakage flux. It also assumes

pendent
loss produced by a given change in flux is indecore
that flux acts alone or in conjunctionwith
of whether
is removed, the core
the field structure
flux. When

loss is

loss in the
the
core

so that
that the armature-reaction flux is negligible

teeth

is that

only flux which

loss in the

resistance.

Under

caused

exists.

by the leakage flux.

Under

this

condition,all

This

is

of the

increasingthe apparent
loss in the
operating conditions,the core

teeth

is effective in

122

OF

PRINCIPLES

teeth

is

caused

due
the

by

poles.

flux

contributes

The

increase

in

flux

can

leakage

flux

when

flrst

the

1.6

of

and

total
the

flux

losses

core

will

remains

an

the

as

core

loss
A

which

resistance
will

be

taken

loss

up

after

the

resistance.
of

by

loss

core

actually

varies

the
in

by

it

can

the

the

as

between

tooth
the

the

varies

of

the

flux

but

superposition
of

the

leakage

produced

the

method

second

to

from

superposition

change

produced

due

is

magnitude
A

flux

the

the

well.

the

teeth

the

effective

when
It

in

flux

the.

core

Moreover,

armature

alternator.

by

only

unaltered.

conditions

by

density.

flux

changes

the

which

the

as

alone

powers.

alter

loss

caused

same

acting
the

this

the

upon

caused

loss

distribution

effective

in

loss

the

only

not

flux

certain

the

its

changes

the

of

power

fluxes

two

to

of

superposed
of

part

be

leakage

the

that

MACHINERY

variation

flux

leakage

Only

field

resultant

the

to

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

distribution
the

though

even

for

determining

be

used

discussion

under
of

the

CHAPTER

Losses; Measurement

of

Measurement
Method
Losses.
friction

Determining

of

loss,an

The
groups,

losses in

namely

the

losses
open-circuit

of them

are

modified.

Motor;

Retardation

brush-

commutator

losses

same

as

direct-current

losses which

certain load

be divided

may

and

are

under

load losses

are

general

into two

the load losses.

present

are

load, but

The

machine.

those which

all also present under

are

the

open-circuitlosses

are

of

Losses; Efficiency

the

it has

alternator

an

Use

the

Resistance;

has the

direct-current

by

exception of

in addition

present in

not

the

alternator

generator, and

Losses

Effective

of

With

"

the

VII

at

load.

no

They

conditions

load

those which

are

The

some

caused

directlyor indirectlyby the armature current.

The open-circuitlosses may
be divided into :
(a) Bearing friction.

either

(Jb)Brush friction.
(c) Windage loss.
(d) Hysteresis and
resultant

{g) Local

be divided
loss due

copper

core

indirectlyby the

(a) Bearing

many

by

the

into two
to

the

groups

ohmic

resistance

of

winding.

the armature

power

caused

loss.

load losses may

(/) Armature

to the

losses

field.

(e) Excitation
The

eddy-current

eddy-current losses caused

and

armature

Friction.

"

directly or

current.

The

loss is proportional
bearing-friction

length and diameter of the bearing and to the three-halves

It depends upon
of the linear velocity of the shaft.
factors such as the condition of the bearings,lubrication,

if the generator is
etc., and it varies with the load, especially
The
loss caused
by the bearing friction is small
belt-driven.
to be constant.
it is usuallyassumed
and for this reason
123

124

PRINCIPLES

(") Brush
brushes

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Friction.

"

The

MACHINERY

brush-friction

for the field excitation.

On

loss is caused

account

by the

of the few brushes

requiredand the low rubbing velocityof the slipringsagainst

these brushes,this loss is very small.
(c) Windage Loss. The windage loss is not great except in
"

the

of turbo

case

the friction and

and

determined

data

obtained

It cannot

alternators.

windage losses

are

experimentallyor
from

All of

generally grouped together

estimated
from experimental
made

measurements

be calculated.

on

similar machines.

sultant
by the Re(d) Hysteresis and Eddy-current Losses Caused
Field.
The hysteresisand
eddy-current losses caused
by the resultant field include all eddy-current and hysteresis
"

losses which

directlyor indirectlydue to the armature

Besides
the ordinary eddy-current and
current.
hysteresis
losses in the armature, there are certain additional eddy-current
and hysteresis
losses,namely:
end platesand bolts
1. The eddy-currentlosses in the armature
and in the frame due to leakage flux which gets into these parts.
are

not

losses caused by the movement

of the armature
pole-face
slots by the pole faces. When
solid poles are used, as in
of some
case
largeturbo generators, these losses will increase
rapidlyas the ratio of the width of the slot opening to the

2. The

the
very

length of the air

gap

increases.

of the flux

the

pole face,at

case

of

across

alternator

an

with

Fig. 60 shows
one

the distribution

instant,in
particular

^g-ii^'^ir

g^P

^'^d armature

the

slots

1 in. wide.

conductors caused
eddy-current losses in the armature
flux entering a slot is not
but
constant
by the field. The
varies with the positionof the slot with respect to a pole. It
is a maximum
when
the slot is opposite the center of a pole
when
the slot lies midway between
and a minimum
two
poles.
flux
shows
the
direction
of
the
lines
in
the
Fig. 61
approximate
3. The

air gap of an alternator at no load.

The number
of
these lines per inch represents in a very crude way the intensity
slots and

of the field.
The

variation

in the

flux

currents

in the inductors.

currents

will be different

on

entering a slot will set up eddy

The voltagesproducing these eddy
the two sides of the slots,and will

be greater at the top of the slots than

at the bottom.

Therefore,

126

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

entering a slot never

penetrates to more
half the depth of the slot. The loss due

nearlyconstant
it is

and

independent of

usually included

laminate

in the

inductors

the armature

is largeas in the

case

core

of bar

the

than

to these

eddy

load,and

loss.

Even

to

one-

is

currents

for this

It is not

except when

windings.

one-third

reason

to

necessary

their cross-section
when

bar

windings
direction,

only in one
used, the inductors are laminated
namely, vertically.
(e) Excitation Loss. The excitation loss is the copper loss in
the field circuit and is equal to the field current multipliedby the
the field circuit. The loss in the field rheostat
voltage across
are

"

is included

in the

excitation

loss.

with the load and with the power

for inductive loads.
both

The

excitation

factor.

loss varies

It will be

(/) Armature

greatest

Resistance.
The
Copper Loss Due to Ohmic
armature
loss is the ordinary IJra loss and may
be computed
copper
easilyfrom the length,the cross-section and the specific
resistance of the armature

"

conductors.

Local Core Losses Caused

In addition
by Leakage Flux.
(fif)
the ordinary copper
loss in the armature
inductors,there are
"

to

eddy-current losses in these inductors and hysteresisand eddylosses in the pole faces and armature
teeth which
current
are
current.
produced by the leakage flux set up by the armature
inductors
To prevent the eddy-current losses in the armature
to laminate
the armature
due to the leakage flux,it is necessary
also causes
inductors horizontally. The armature
current
some
eddy-current losses in the end connections and any adjacent
metal.

hysteresislosses which are directly

due to the armature
current produce an effect which is equivalent
to an
and may
be
resistance,
apparent increase in the armature
taken into account
by using the so-called effective resistance in
loss.
place of the ohmic when findingthe armature
copper
of the
Losses
Measurement
by the Use of a Motor.
losses of an alternator,
The open-circuit
(a)to (d)inclusive,
may
be determined
the
alternator
circuit
on
by driving
by a
open
The
shunt
motor.
open-circuitlosses corresponding to any
excitation are equal to the input to the armature
of the motor
minus the belt loss,the armature
loss and the stray power
copper
All the

eddy-current and

"

SYNCHRONOUS

of the motor.

127

GENERATORS

The

input to the .alternatorwhen, its field circuit

is open
is its friction and windage loss. The difference between
the open-circuitlosses and the friction and windage losses is
known
the open-circuitcore
as
loss. It is customary to plotthis
loss either against voltage or field excitation expressed either in
in ampere
load losses may

amperes

The

drive

to

the

is the load

This

loss.

short-circuit

less the friction

loss is known
These

as

phases should be
and windage losses

the load loss and

the

the

stray load losses

or

losses

depend upon the armature

be plotted against that current.
should, therefore,

and

stray load losses include all losses due

small

losses under

than

the stray load losses determined

normal

The

current.

conditions
turbo

to the armature

loss due to the resultant field.

core

load

armature

required

power

All

difference between

loss.

core

flux and

two

by findingthe

short-circuit.

on

power

The

copper

short-circuit
current

be obtained

alternator

short-circuited.

The

turns.

or

operating conditions
on

upon

alternators

The

stray

usually less

are

short-circuit for the

difference between

depends

age
leak-

same

these losses under

the

it is greatest in highfactors;
speed
solid cylindrical
field structures.

many

with

short-circuit are
on
Although the stray load losses measured
the revised Standardization
greater than under operatingconditions,
Rules (1914)of the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers
the

recommends

use

of the stray losses measured

in that way

in

calculatingthe efficiencyof polyphase synchronous generators

and

motors.

of Effective

Measurement

produced by
same

fixed armature

short-circuit

on

resistance

of

an

as

under

alternator

may

Resistance.
current

"

are

If

the

local

assumed

to

losses
be

the

normal
be

the effective
conditions,
found by dividingthe total

when
the alternator
current
produced by the armature
of phases and the square
of the
is short-circuited by the number
The losses caused by the armature
armature
rent
curphase current.
loss corresponding to
be found by subtractingthe core
can
losses

the resultant
friction and
resistance
used

on

the total short-circuit losses exclusive

field from

windage.

is not

very

This method
reliable

of

determining the effective

since,with the low field intensity

the load losses

short-circuit,
It is, moreover,

of

subjectto

are

most

usuallygreatlyexaggerated.
of the

errors

of the

128

PRINCIPLES

method

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

for

measuring effective resistance with

(seepage 121).

removed

Retardation

It is often
Determining the Losses.
impossibleor impracticable,when dealing with largemachines, to
drive them
their losses. In the case
of
to determine
by motors
turbo

Method

the field structure

of

generators there

motor

be

may

retardation
which

of

kinetic energy

belted.

or

Under

determining the

of any

which

to

this condition

losses is the

the

only

one

rotatingbody is

W
where

projectingshaft

no

be used.

can

The

is often

attached

method

"

W,

and

| are,

angular velocity and

}-W$

(45)

respectively,the kinetic

the

of

moment

inertia

of

the

energy,

the

rotating

part.

Differentiating
equation (45) with

respect

to

gives

doi

dW
,

The

derivative

the rate

of

of energy

change

Replacing

of

-r-

with

respect

to

angular velocity,i.e.,
-rr,
by P,

power,

and

-37

time
is

by

is power,

and

tion.
angular accelera-

a,

i.e.,
by angular

acceleration,
givesequation (46).
P
The

(46)

l^a.

therefore,causing any
change in the angular
velocityof a rotatingbody is equal to the moment
of inertia of
the body multiphed by its angular velocityand by its angular
acceleration at the instant considered.
If the rotatingbody is
coming to rest, the acceleration will be negative and is called
power,

retardation.
The

formula
to

of its

determine

rotating part

by which
these

is

given.

the
more

Icoa may

be

applied to
the losses,provided the
can

be

found.

There

are

motor

moment

or

erator
gen-

of inertia

several

of inertia may
be determined.
than the others and
alone
satisfactory

moment

methods
One

of

will be

SYNCHRONOUS

129

GENERATORS

If any alternator is brought up above its synchronous speed

with armature
circuit open
and its field circuit closed and is
then allowed to come
to rest,the retardingpower
causingit to
slow down

is its friction and

excitation

used

windage and open-circuitcore loss.

If the angular retardation,
at the instant the
i.e.,
a, is measured
generator passes through synchronous speed,the friction and
windage loss plus the open-circuitcore loss corresponding to the
the moment
without

be calculated

may

of inertia is known.
field

from

formula

(46),provided

If the generator

excitation,the formula

will

to rest

comes

give the friction and

windage losses alone.

The

chief

method

lies in

order to find
curve

as

of

source

a,

the

the

error

in the

applicationof the retardation

determination

of

to take
it is necessary
generator slows down.

the

retardation

readings for

form

Some

In

a.

speed-time
of

direct-

will be necessary
for this. The
interval
reading tachometer
requiredbetween the successive readingsfor the speed-time curve
the size and speed of the generator being tested,
will depend upon
will vary

and

in the

minutes
time

curve

If

from

is

for very small machines

to as many
A speedof the largestturbo alternators.

5 seconds

case

plottedin Fig. 62.

line he is drawn

pointof

rated

tangent

to

the

speed, the retardation

at

curve

a, which

is the

will be

=^
a

ed

simplestand

The

most

satisfactorymethod

of inertia is first to

moment

measure

the

of

finding the

losses
open-circuit

can

definite field excitation.

frequency and with some
a synchronous
as
be done by operatingthe machine

and

adjustingthe

rated

Motors, page

at

This
motor

factor (Synchronous
excitation for unit power
under this
297). The power input to the armature

equal to the sum of the friction and windage losses,

loss correspondingto the excitation used and a very
the core
usuallybe neglectedif the
small armature
copper loss,which can
determined
the losses,
power factor is properlyadjusted. Having
condition

the

by

is

creasin
the generator is increased 10 or 15 per cent, by inthe frequency of the circuit from which it is operated or
The generatoris then allowed
other convenient
means.

speed of
any
9

130
to

PRINCIPLES

OF

to rest with

come

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

its field circuit stillclosed and

unaltered,and readingsare

for

taken

its excitation

speed-timecurve

the

as

generator slows down.

in
By substituting
core

losses

and

formula

measured

as

also at

at

(46) the

windage

friction and

and

synchronous speed and the values of

synchronousspeed,the

of inertia may

moment

be

found.
66a

500

g
m

laoo

200

too

20

10

40

50

70

80

90

100

Time

Fig.

Having

determined

windage losses may

time

curve

The

the

62.

inertia,the friction and

be found by taking measurements
for a speed-

while the generator

friction and

of

moment

comes

windage

to rest without

and

field excitation.

loss

corresponding to
be found by allowingthe generator
different field excitations may
to rest with different field excitations.
to come
Knowing the
the open-circuitcore
friction and windage losses,
losses corresponding
core

to these

field excitations may

be found.
It is also possibleto get the short-circuit losses

generatorcome

to rest with

its armature

by lettingthe

short-circuited and

with

SYNCHRONOUS

field excitation

which

GENERATORS

131

"

produce the desired short-circuit

armature
current
at synchronousspeed. The power
found under
this condition,minus
the friction and windage losses and the
a

will

I^r losses in the armature

circuit

due to its ohmic

is the
resistance,

short-

loss

corresponding to the current in the armature

when
the generator passed through synchronous speed. The
armature
current
will remain very nearly constant
over
a wide
of speed. The reason
for this has alreadybeen given under
range
core

the discussion of the short-circuit characteristic.

(46)will give the power in watts, providedthe second

member
of the formula is multipliedby 10""' and | is expressed
The
in c.g.s. units.
tardation,
angular velocity,co, and the angular reexpressed in radians per second and radians
a, are
As the method
lined
just outper second
per second, respectively.
is purelya substitution method, the units in which P, |, co
and a are expressed are of no consequence.
(See note on page
Formula

132.)
Efficiency. The

of
efficiency

"

to the ratio of its

output

to its

piece of apparatus is equal

any

output plusits losses.

output

Efficiency

.."

^^^^

output +

losses

given output are known, the

correspondingto that output can easilybe calculated by
efficiency
of equation (47). For a three-phasealternator operating
means
be written
under a balanced load,equation(47) may
If the losses

to
corresponding

any

V3FI(p./.)
Efficiency

where

^*^^

^^y^^^j-^

la
Pc
Te

If
Vf

Terminal

p^ +

gj^V. + P

,^

+!,",

the following significance:

the letters have

V

voltage.

Line current.

Phase

current.

core
Open-circuit

loss.

Effective resistance of the armature

Field current.

p./.
=

Pf+u,

factor.

Friction and

phase.

field including the field rheostat,

Voltage across
Power

per

windage loss.

132

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

field current

correspondingto
already described

of the methods

any

It is best
value

ALTERNATINO-CURRENT

to

the

use

load may

any

for

be found

determiningthe
method.

Institute

by
tion.
regulaThe

of
loss,Pc, is that value,on the curve
open-circuitcore loss,which corresponds to a voltage equal to
the phase terminal voltageplus the armature-resistance
and leakage-reacta
drops.
The American
Institute of Electrical Engineers recommends
that
the efficiency
of an alternator be calculated by dividingits output
core
by its output plusits losses where the losses are : open-circuit
the
the friction and windage losses,
loss,the copper loss in the field,
proper

ohmic

armature

is

of the

American

MACHINERY

core

generally accepted method

no

Since there

loss and the stray load losses.

copper

of

determining the

armature

that the core

loss be taken
leakagereactance, it is recommended
for a voltagecorrespondingto the terminal voltageplus the armature-resistance
that the efficiency
drop. It is further recommended
be referred to

temperature of 75"C.

nator
largehigh-speedmachine such as a turbo alterto rest,its angular velocitychanges very
is allowed to come
the followingmethod
is the most
slowly. With such a machine
of applying the retardation method
for determining
satisfactoryway
the losses. From
taken with
plotted speed-time curves
the machine
coming to rest under different conditions,read off
Note

When

the instants

of time

ti and

t2 when

the machine

through
synchronous

passes

angular velocities coi, which is a few per cent above

of per cent below that
speed, and on, which is an equal number
speed. Let Wi and W2 be the kinetic energies of the revolving
part at the instants of time ti and ti respectively. Then

In

this equation

"

"

;;

"

^r

and

"

are

approxi-

dW

mately equal to
retardation

speed.

"^,

-37

in

the

angular velocityw

equation (46),page

128,

and

at

the

angular

synchronous

134

PRINCIPLES

This

is

degree.
'

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

linear differential

equation of the first order and

Its solution for current

'^"

Vr^+l^'

is

^+

(a-e)e

MACHINERY

+
^,2+ ^^L^^m (wt

d)

a-

(496)
where

the

The
a

first term

in

equation (496) is

transient condition.

This term

short interval of time for

It is a maximum

when

radians

through its

{a

(a

6)

"

the

after

6)

"

condition.

The

having usual

is

It represents
in

values of

force

has

very

and L.

its final

passed

circuit is

there is

case

off with

if the

zero

this latter

In

"

the circuit is closed

electromotive
term

"'

sensiblyzero

^ov when

The

0.

tan

transient.

becomes

circuit

value.

zero

closed when

by the relation

6 is fixed

angle

sient
tran-

no

steady
value.
In other words it reaches its steady value instantly.
The decrease in the transient term in equation (496) is due to
current

the losses in the circuit.

by

"

the

the time

starts

The

rate at which

of the circuit.

constant

resistance,r, could

be

made

to

infinityand

is fixed

i.e.,if there

zero,

of
no

were

Jl

equal

this condition

unity. Under
would

be

"

remain

value it had

when

constant
t was

zero.

If the ratio of

"

the transient

would

would

be

equal

to

decrease,
value, that is,at the
Its effect would be to permanently
not

its initial

at

displacethe axis of symmetry

of time.

it decreases

If the effective value

losses, would

but

or

of the current

from

wave

is small,due to either

the axis

largeresistance

_rt
or

small

inductance,e

quicklybecome
L

is zero, e i
transient term

will decrease

sensiblyzero.
=

0 and
is to

there

If
is

no

"

time

rapidly with
=

0, as when

transient.

and

will

the inductance

The

effect of the

displacethe axis of symmetry of the current

which is equal to the value of the transient
wave
by an amount
at the instant considered.
The
of this displacement
amount
usually decreases rapidly and becomes
sensiblyzero after a

SYNCHRONOUS

brief interval

very

the circuit after

a

upon
at each

The

Ttie resultant

point on

and

of

when
existing
inductance,is

the

to

equal to

current

in

established,
superposed

been

have

decreasingmagnitude and equal

is

having constant
25-cyclecircuit,
closed at the point on the electromotive
a

corresponding to (a

wave

the electromotive

maximum,

same

magnitude

steady conditions

direct current

condition

force

The

in

is

current

instant to the transient.

resistance

of time.

alternatingcurrent, equal

an

135

GENERATORS

force

which

wave

plotted in Fig. 62a.

transient

and

sign and

add

0)

that is at the

"

the transient

makes

this

In

figure

0.0955.

"

of the current
of the
are
steady components
directlyduring the first negative loop of the
ImpreBsed
Voltage
Bhown
of
by Hue
round

dotts

^purrent BhowD
full
\
TranBlenc

of

"

Curves
at

0.0955.

the

point

maximum.

Frequency
the

ahow
on

the

of the transient

is

This

component.

For

-:.

cycles

wave

of

-p=15, Asgle
when

existiug
which

the

makes

Lag

circuib
the

86.2

ia closed

transient

(l~$-JL
62o.

the conditions

equal

to

assumed

the maximum

is its maximum

that the maximum

will

during the

occur

voltage

It is obvious
wave

dashes

couditioaa

Fig.

steady component.

current

by liDee'of

short

of

steady

and

'componeutB
bUlpwo

by/

line

first

the initialvalue

value

of the

steady

possiblevalue.
value of the resultant current

negative loop

of the

steady

less than twice the maximum

It will be somewhat
component.
value
obtaining after steady conditions have been reached.
value a,
that the greatest possiblemaximum
It is easily seen

135a

PRINCIPLES

current

and

OF

attain when

can

circuit would

the

have
which

wave

When

state.

attain

To

pointon

would

6)

(a

make

have

be

to

"

zero.

the

and

zero

impedance of the
the

the

the electromotive
the resistance

and

It will have

compared

nearly

very

ductanc
the in-

with

is large.

"

is determined

current

The

armature.

alternator

value

this value

alternator is short-circuited the load

an

whether

is closed is twice the maximum

steady

is,when

resistance

containingconstant

the resistance is small

when
that

MACHINERY

to be closed at the

of the circuit would

this value

circuit

inductance

constant

correspondingto
force

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

effect is

is short-circuited

impedance

comes
be-

by the apparent
the
practically

under

load

or

same

at

no

pedance
voltage is suddenly impressed on an imwhich
is the apparent impedance of the armature.
This apparent impedance or transient impedance is not constant.
Its final value is the synchronous impedance, but its initial
value is much
less than this and is more
nearly equal to the
armature
greater
leakage impedance. It is,however, somewhat
inductance
than the leakage impedance on account
of the mutual

load.

The

between

induced

the armature

and

field

windings during the

transient

period.
When

an

alternator is short-circuited,
the conditions

are

very

rapid increase in the armature

Due
to this armature
reaction.
be considered
reaction,which may
in the armature
as
produced by alternatingcurrents
in those windings,
direct currents
windings superposed upon
induction between
there is a complicated mutual
the armature
and field circuits which
duced
causes
an
alternatingcurrent to be inin the field winding. In spite of these complications,
be used to predict,
with a fair degree of
equation (496) may
the maximum
possiblevalue that can be reached by
accuracy,
the current in any phase during the transient periodof a shortcircuit. The conditions,which produce the maximum
possible
complicated

on

of the

account

value of the instantaneous

those

which

produce

short-circuit current, are the same

as
the maximum
transient term
in equation

(496).
Under
of

steady conditions

polyphase alternator

of
under

operation the
balanced

armature

load

is

reaction

sensibly con-

SYNCHRONOUS

1356

GENERATORS

stant in

magnitude and is fixed in direction with respectto the

field axis. During the transient
period of a short-circuit it is
neither

fixed in direction
in

constant

magnitude.

current
alternating

an

current.

Both

with

respect

the

to

be considered

It may

field

to be

poles nor

produced by

in each

phase superposed upon a direct

components in each phase decrease

of these

rapidly in magnitude, the

approaching the final value

alternatingcurrent

component

of the short-circuit current

as
limit while the direct-current component approacheszero.
In a F-connected alternator,
and probably in a A-connected
one

as

well,the

phases is

and

zero

is also
the

of the

sum

the

of the

sum

current
alternating

which

alternatingcomponents in the three

If the

zero.

three

alternator

direct-current

has

produce

components

non-salient
armature

an

ponents
com-

poles,
tion
reac-

is

nearly fixed in direction with respect to the poles

but which
decreases rapidly in magnitude. The three directcurrent components
of the armature
currents produce a reaction
which

is fixed with respect to the armature

and which therefore
by the poles at fundamental
frequency, producing in
sweeps
them
variation in flux also of fundamental
a
frequency. This
variation in field flux

alternatingcurrent of

an

The

produces an

fundamental

like

fore
alternatingvoltage and therefrequency in the field winding.

variation in field flux combined

of the armature

with

in each

respect

to

the field

tion
with the rotacauses

second

winding. Although each of

harmonic
alone would
currents
the second
produce a third
in the field flux which would react to produce a fourth
harmonic
harmonic
in the armature
voltage,the resultant reaction on the
harmonic

current

field of the second

is

The

currents.

statements

ings
wind-

polyphase alternator with

in the field fiux and the second harmonic

the fundamental
armature

currents in allthree armature

harmonic

reflection stops in

The

zero.

armature

in the

just made regardingthe

in a polyphase alternator

frequency of the transient reactions

are
only approximate. Actuallythe frequenciesproduced in the
field flux and
and
will

in the armature
twice

usuallybe

fundamental

found

currents

are

frequency.

not

during the transient period. The

in the field will be large.
fundamental
resistance and

second

in the short-circuitcurrents

alternators

The

mental
exactlyof funda-

reactance

of

harmonic

three-phase

firstharmonic

of the field winding of

an

or

alter-

135c

OF

PRINCIPLES

nator

direct-current

circuit which

therefore

the current
the

with

high compared

are

may

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

be

the resistance and

suppliesthe

of the

reactance

field current.

short-circuited

considered

far

so

field

The
as

concerns

reaction.
It acts like
by the armature
the
for which
secondary of a transformer
in it

induced

short-circuited

windings

armature

MACHINERY

act

The

primary.

as

alternatingcurrent

produced in the field windings by the direct-current components

of the armature
will tend to damp out the variation in
currents
not for this
the field flux produced by these currents.
If it were
damping effect of the field current the voltage induced in the
to
field winding would
be very high. Anything that is added
the field circuit to prevent

an

in it will

current
alternating

dangerously high voltage to be induced

during the transient period.

in the

cause

field circuit

short-circuit occurs, the sudden increase in the armature

reaction which is produced by the alternatingcomponents of the
When

armature

in

currents

field

the

causes

reaction.

armature

in the field flux and

had

the

at

effect the

instant

in the

rapid increase

induction.

by mutual

increase

force must

to balance

field

The

direct current

magnetomotive

demagnetizing effect of this

The effect is to tend to prevent any change
to hold the armature
voltage at the value it
the

short-circuit occurred.
reaction

armature

very

account

little influence

of this
the

on

alternator

during the first few cycles

of a
The
short-circuit.
is substantially
apparent reactance
of the armature
equal to the leakage reactance
during this
time.
During the first few cyclesof a short-circuit the effect in
if a voltage equal to that
as
phase is approximately the same
any
induced in the armature
just before short-circuit were
impressed
on
an
impedance equal to the leakage impedance of the armature,
i.e.,equal to \/re^+ Xa^, where Ve and Xa are respectivelythe
effective armature
resistance and the leakage reactance
of the
armature
per phase. Since Ve is usually small compared with Xa,
apparent

of

has

On

reactance

the maximum

value

an

of the short-circuit current

is limited almost

of the armature.
entirelyby the leakage reactance
Equation
the resistance is
(496) shows that the maximum
current, when
OCT

small

compared

with

the

reactance, is

nearly equal

to

"

-"

Xa

It would

have

very

nearly this value

in any

phase if the short-

SYNCHRONOUS

circuit occurred
that

at

phase which

135d

GENERATORS

point on

made

(a

the electromotive

6)

"

6 is the

where

k,

tangent is equal to the ratio of the armature

to

the armature
If the

synchronous

alternator

an

at the

point on

would

produce maximum

is 4 and

would

sustained
of the
load

be

2 X

would

value

only

current

short-circuit
value

maximum

two

of

2)'^times

2H

the

full-

of the transient

-\/2=28

the

value

root-mean-square
were

be 8 X

in that

current

of this transient
the

actance
leakage re-

phase which

one

current, the first maximum

short-circuit current

are

reactance

be short-circuited

of

wave

If the

current.

the

to

short-circuit

times

short-circuit

root-mean-square

force

value
4=

short-circuit

sustained

reactance

transient

root-mean-square

There

angle whose

leakage

the alternator

the electromotive

phase, the first maximum

current

for

wave

effective resistance.

ratio of the
of

force

times the

of the full-load current.

in which

ways

the transient

short-circuit

reduced, namely: by inserting

in series with each phase of the armature
reactance
winding,
in the field circuit. The firstis equivaland by puttingreactance
ent
current

of

alternator

an

be

may

while the second

increasingthe slot or leakage reactance,

equivalent to increasing the field reactance.
The
second
does not
the regulationpoorer.
but it cannot
safelybe used.
to

Putting

current

It is the

reaction.

armature

otherwise

that would

produced by

the

the

increase

reaction

tion
regula-

change in

by the transient

be caused

momentary

armature

first makes

affect the

in the field circuit decreases

reactance

the field current

The

is

in the

of the

field

alternating-

that
components of the short-circuit
would
reduce
the
tends to prevent the changes in fiux which
actance
Reinduced
voltages and diminish the short-circuit currents.
induced
in the field also reduces the alternatingcurrent
armature

current

in the

field

short-circuit

component
reduces

the

winding by

currents.

armature

in the

field

the variation

It is this

components

on

in the field flux of fundamental

currents, and

the

thus

direct-current

of the

alternating current

which, by its reaction

frequencies,produced by
armature

direct-current

currents

the

armature,
and

components

higher
of the
.

prevents

dangerously high

alter-

135e PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

induced

nating voltage being

transient
The

period of

transient

limited in

in the

MACHINERY

field

winding during

the

short-circuit.

practiceto

safe value

largealternators

of

short-circuit current

by the

Their

effect

CURVES

OSCILLOGRAPH

SHORT-CIRCUIT

TRANSIENT

now

of air-core reactors

use

placed in series with each phase of the alternator.

SHOWJWG

is

CONDITIONS

IN A

9376KV.TA,

60

CYCLE,

V^ITH

SHUNTED

FIELD

4-POLE,

S-PHASE,

MADE.ATVi

SHOHT-CIBCUIT

1"ITH

TURBO

7200-VOLT
RATED

AUTEBBATOB,

VOLTAGE
RESISTANCE,

NON-INDUCTIVE

Field. Cucrent

Fig.

is

63.

the leakagereactance.
equivalentto increasing

reactance

will reduce

alternator

but

the

transient

high armature
effect. If anything, high
the

transient

increasing the

mutual

short-circuit current

reaction
armature

short-circuit
induction

High leakage

will have
reaction

current

between

of

of

an

relativelylittle
will tend

an

the

to

alternator
armature

crease
in-

by
and

CHAPTER
Conditions

Methods

and

Alternators
Conditions

for

IX
Heating

Making

for

Applying

without

Making Heating

Tests.

"

Tests

of

Load

In order

to determine

the actual temperature rise in the different parts of an alternator,

it is necessary
the alternator under normal load conditions
to run
Such a test would
steady temperatures have been attained.
and would be very expensive.
of power
consume
a large amount
Moreover, there are few if any manufacturing companies which

until

have

sufficient power

available

to

run

at full load

generators

as

being built. To meet these conditions and to

obviate the necessityfor actuallyloading an alternator in order
normal
rated load,
its temperature rise under
to determine

large as

are

now

certain methods
run

may

be

have

carried

been
out

devised

without

of which
by means
large expenditureof

heat

power.

reproduce the conditions of actual load,

but some
closelythan others. The
reproduce them much more
chief methods
of making heating tests without actuallyapplying
None

load

of these methods

are:

(a) The zero-power-factormethod.

(6) Operating the generator short-circuited with 25 per cent,
and measuring the temperature, then refull-load current
over
peating
the test with
cent,

over

voltage.
and Punga method

on

open

circuit with

25

per

rated

(c) Hobart
and

the generator

using alternate periodsof

open

short-circuit.

(d) Goldsmith method using direct current in the armature.

(e) Mordey method and a modification of it.
Method.
The alternator,
for this method
(a) Zero-power-factor
"

making a heat run, is operated at no load as an over-excited

at rated
synchronous motor
voltage and frequency,with its
field excitation adjusted so as
full-load current
to cause
to
of

"

exist in its armature.

Under

these
136

the
conditions,

power

factor

SYNCHRONOUS

will be very

plant which

power

the

little actual power

will be required. It is
in order to carry
out this test, to have
a

and

however,

necessary,

to

low

137

GENERATORS

capacity at least equal

kilovolt-ampere
kilovolt-amperecapacity of the alternator being

rated

has

tested.
The

armature

loss will be

normal, but

loss will be

copper

considerablytoo high.

somewhat

too

for the

abnormal

high on

field temperature
field loss under

heating,it

rise obtained

normal

core

of the over-excitation.

account

field

The

the field copper

loss will also be

is customary

To

correct

multiply the

to

by the ratio of the

the field loss during the

the test

from

load conditions

to

test.

The

is the
of making a heat rim
zero-power-factormethod
method
usually selected when sufficient kilovolt-amperecapacity
is available.
The
test appears
to be the most
satisfactoryof
those

mentioned.

consists of
zero-power-factormethod
operating the alternator to be tested on alternate periodsof overand under-excitation.
By properlyadjustingthe relative lengths
A

modification

of the

field copper
loss can
be made
Under
these conditions the
full-load value.

periods,the

two

its normal

equal to
core

of the

average

loss will also be very nearly normal.

If two similar alternators are to be tested,both
the losses may
be obtained.
in turn
drives the other

and
and

properlyadjustingthe
the

frequency of the

normal
will be

two

full-load values.

larger,that

as

is

as

of both

The

be made

may

loss of

field copper
other

smaller,than

By

motor.

the

and

heating

generator

driven,the voltage,the

machines

of the

is driven

synchronous

field excitation

the first alternator

which

One

the

speed

current

equal to
one

at

and
their

alternator

under

normal

for the field heating caused

Correction
operating conditions.
The
be appliedby the method
already indicated.
,by this may
tor
requiredto drive the machine which operates as a generapower
is the
copper
sum

losses.

One-half

of the rotation

conditions

alternators,exclusive of the field

total losses of both

of normal

and

of this will be very

load losses of

Cent,

over

alternator

under

the

full load.

and
(b) Separate Open-circuit
25 Per

one

nearly equal to the

Voltageand

Short-circuit Tests at

25 Per

Cent,

over

Respectively

Full-load

Current.

138
The

PRINCIPLES

OF

alternator,for this method

on

of

circuit at 25

open

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

per

testing,is

run

cent,

its rated

over

until the temperatures of its parts become

allowed

to cool down.

alternator
to

give 25
The

to

over

25 per cent,

over

the armature

teeth

conditions.
field must

same

When

normal

load

of the iron

as

parts of the iron

the

of

embedded

condition,heat will
factors which

full-load

result the

pass

determine

operating
impressed

loss will be

core

of this,
In consequence
will be less than under

whole

in

and

the

from

will be

conductors

Moreover, in certain generators under

it should be.

load, some

as

the loss of heat

and

greater than

and

full-load conditions.

under

the temperature

parts

under

attempt

conductors

the
generator is short-circuited,

the

adjusted

crude

is a very

armature

be less than normal

smaller than

test is repeatedwith

heating in the
occurs

voltage

in its armature.

full-load current

as

quency
fre-

It is then

constant.

its field excitation

with

full-load current

per cent,

normal

and

short-circuited

produce the

cool,the

When

rated

at

be hotter

may

than

this

Under

conductors.

armature

adjacent

the

The

the iron to the conductors.

from

the temperature

of the armature

ductors
con-

altogethertoo complex
be approximated by merely operating the alternator
to even
short-circuited at 25 per cent, over
full-load current.
Twentythe
test
to get
five per cent, over
is
used
in
open-circuit
voltage
core
approximately the same
temperature as at full load, but the
and

conditions

complex
The

teeth

which

to be

an

alternator

determine

reproduced

only
would

(c) Hobart

as

are

temperature under

core

load

are

too

in this way.

temperatures obtained

short-circuit tests

which

of

the separate

from

and
open-circuit

sidered
unsatisfactoryat the best and can be conguides for estimating the probable temperatures
are

be reached
and

under

Punga

normal

Method.

"

full-load conditions.

In

the

Hobart

and

Punga

alternate periods
making a heat test of an alternator,
of open-circuit
and short-circuit are used.
The lengths of these
periodsas well as the voltage and current employed are adjusted
losses throughout a complete cycle,consisting
so that the average
of an open- and a short-circuit period,are equal to the losses under
method

normal
When

of

load conditions.
an

friction and

alternator is

windage,

operated on

armature

the
short-circuit,

copper

loss and

core

losses
loss.

are

On

SYNCHRONOUS

circuit,the losses

open

The
are

are:

windage losses need not

nearly independent of the armature
the

duration

circuit and

of this

of

full-load

periodduring which

armature

^",the

current

average

is

same

the field currents

be

In

far

as

so

loss

are

under

concerned, x

losses

on

loss

equal

over

open
to

the two

If /" and

7,

field loss will be

x)

want

of

have

I.eq

better name,
the equivalent
field current
which would produce
a

average

armature
may

core

and

periods of open-circuitand short-

It is the constant

the average

core

load conditions.

Io^{l

heating as the

cause

and

copper

average

called,for

field current.
same

excitation.

let Pc be the normal

short-circuit is "7=,

for the

I.^x +

the

and

adjusted to

as

the
circuit,respectively,

leg.may

and

they

the alternator is short-circuited.

current

on

armature

periods will be the

are

current

since

loss.

circuit the field current

"

be considered

windage.

complete cycle consistingof an openshort-circuit period be unity,and let x be the fraction

core

If the

friction and

Let / be the full-load armature

loss and

core

friction and

Let

139

GENERATORS

heatingcaused by /" and /".

the average
core
value,being limited only by

copper

any

loss and

excitation.
open-circuit
By givingx the proper
leq.depends upon the value chosen for x.
value, it should be possibleto make the equivalentfield current
If this is done,
equal to the field current under load conditions.

the safe limits of short-circuit current

the

average

losses will be the

same

and

as

the losses under

normal

possibleshort-circuit current
and open-circuit
voltage often make it impossibleto use a value
the equivalentfield excitation loss normal.
of X which will make
of making a heat run,
For this method
(d) Goldsmith Method.
the alternator is operated at normal full-load excitation in order

full-load conditions.

The

limits of

"

that

the field copper

loss
The armature
those occurringat full load.

the iron loss caused

shall be the
copper
armature

The
armature

same

as

by the field and

suppliedby sending a direct current through the

current.
equal to the full-load armature
the
to
for supplying the direct current
connections
to prevent the high
in such a way
as
be made
must

loss is

140

OF

PRINCIPLES

alternatingvoltage,which

reachingthe

armature,

This

taken.

is

alternator
may

If

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

will be induced
from

source

which

the direct current

be

accomplished in several
corner
three-phaseA-connected,one
can

phase of the

in each

If

ways.

of the

is
the

delta

opened and the direct current introduced at this point.

in delta
the alternator is F-connected, it may
be reconnected
be

and

then

like

treated

machine.

A-connected

nator
alter-

If the

be divided into
the armature
winding may
single-phase,
in opposition.
be connected
two
equal grotips of coils which may
be treated
Each of the two phases of a two-phase alternator may
like the one
machine.
phase of a single-phase
The objectionto the Goldsmith
method
of making a heat run
is that the ordinary load core
losses are not present, and in their
place there are other losses,produced mainly in the pole faces
by the magnetic poles of the armature, which are caused by the
direct current.
These
magnetic poles instead of being fixed
with respect to the field poles,as they are when produced by the
revolve at
reaction of a polyphasealternator,
ordinary armature
synchronous speed.
(e)Mordey Method and a Modificationof It. In the Mordey
of a polyphase
method, the armature
winding, or in the case
alternator each phase of the armature
winding, is divided into
is

"

two

unequal parts

electromotive
short-circuited
The

through

full-load

so

conditions.

each

that

at

their

that

winding is then
coil.

frequency with the field

loss is the

core

Full-load

The

so

adjustablereactance

its rated

the

in series

other.

suitable

is driven

adjusted

connected

are

forces oppose

alternator

excitation

which

in

current

same

the

under

as

armature

is

obtained

coil in series with the armature

by adjustingthe reactance
winding.
into two unequal parts, the
Instead of dividingthe armature
be similarly
divided and connected
field may
so that two
opposing
electromotive
forces
induced
in each phase of
but unequal
are
the armature.
of these

Neither

owing
from

their

Behrend's

methods

two

to the

severe

can

be

mechanical

applied to modern
vibration

which

ternato
al-

results

use.

modification

dividing the field into

two

of the

Mordey

equal parts and

method

consists

of

varying the excita-

tions

of

which

armature

Mordey

method

vibration

cases

these

and
to

modern

independently
is
does
makes

141

GENERATORS

SYNCHRONOUS

full-load

until

short-circuited.

away

it

to

possible

slow-speed

This

to

alternators.

apply

in
of

modification

considerable

exists

current

extent

the

method

the
the

with
in

the

many

CHAPTER

Calculation

Ohmic

of

Flux

Apparent

Flux

Dimensions

the

Leakage

of

Curve

Calculation
Length

Embedded

Field

Excitation
Power

0.8

Alternator.

Factor

The

"

by

will be

calculations

The

made

for

per

min.,

of this alternator

are

2400-

at

bottom

Width

of tooth

at

tip

Diameter

of armature

Mean

radial

radial

at

length

Armature

coils lie in slots

Armature

turns

Inductors

per

each

per

in.

J^

in.

in.
5

192

of two

bars

in

parallel,
0.27

Length

of end

inductor

armature

connections

coil

per

on

of armature
Number

of

Number

of turns

per

pole

to

poles

arc

measured

and

115.5

consists

Length

Friction

in.

slot

of embedded

pitch

1.04

1 and

phase

bar

of

in.

core

in.

1.125

of air gap

depth

inductor

air gap

of armature

2.6

by

0.85

of tooth

Pole

1000-kv-a.,

192

Width

Ratio

Method

E.

of slots

Effective

Kv-a.

Full-load

Size of slots

Each

ance
Resist-

alternator.

principal dimensions
Number

Unit

per

Regulation,

of

I. E.

225-rev.
three-phase, 60-cycle, 32-pole,"

volt, F-connected

Flux

for

A.

the

Factor;

Effective

and

Efficiency

and

of
from

Power

Calculation

Data;

from

Saturation

and

Leakage

Inductor

Test

FROM

Teeth

Zero

at

Equivalent

of

of

Curve

Current

Average

and

Reaction

Armature

Saturation

Pole,

Calculation

Alternator;
and

Full-load

for

Gap

actance,
Re-

per

Armature

the

in

an

Reactance

Open-circuit

AN

AT

Density

Air

the

in

Flux

Air-gap

Reaction,

Density

Leakage

Armature

Resistance,

Armature
Average

one

by

0.283

in.

93^

in.

16.6

in.

side

32

pole

65

pole pitch
on

armature

windage loss
142

0.72
bore

11.4

in.

10

kw.

(line)

144

specificresistance

The
cube

of

9890

2.54

0.153

0.0437(1 +

phase

-^

0.0445 ohm.

(seeplot,Fig. 64)

phase was

0.0463

"

"^'^^

at 25"C.

0.00385)

5 X

resistance per

measured

."_

0-0^^^

(2.54)^

resistance per
=

centimeter

10-"

1.72 X

Armature

per

20"C.

phase at

resistance per

The

20"C.

at

copper

10"* ohms.

is 1.72 X

Armature

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

PRINCIPLES

ohm

phase.

per

of Alternator."
Dimensions
from
Leakage Reactance
Referringto equations(16),(17),(20),(21) and (24),

Armature

)?

"j"

--"t
K-30

-"K"

30-"t"" ;

Fig.

"

t')+

(t +

\^

"

65.

0.73w

logio
w

^(4K3M|:13)(9)J2.54
[1.267
0.55

3.14(1.04)+0.85
0.73(0.85)logio

+
=

3080

2.24

6900

TTW" +

\n +

=
...

t' +

[2

O.ldw

308G[0.475 + 0.40 +0.424]

4010

"KW" +

\d

13

3080[0.317+

3510

X,

t' +

0.73W

logio

W\

logio

AwaZ^
C

0.85

0.424]

0.40 +

4010

j; 0.5)jlQ-'
(logio
[4MZ'
^ O.5)
27r/J4.6
(logic
}IQ-^
27rf

33.2

2.54

27r/(3450}l0-^

II.

SYNCHRONOUS

Since

the alternator has

mutual

induction of each

Consider
This

the coil of

has the back

the front side of

induction
behind

produced

phase

on

is in slots 3 and

coil in

of

degrees out

phase 3

phase.

7, Fig. 65.

with it in slot 3 and

phase 2 with it in slot 7. The mutual

phase 1 in slot 3 by phase 3 is 60 degrees

on

of

1 in slot 7

of

phase 1. The mutual induction

by phase 2 is 60 degrees ahead of

Therefore,if s is the number

of phase 1 is
phase,the leakage reactance

slots in series per

C +
27r/s(

60

are

1 which

self-induction

the self-induction

Xa

coil side

self- and

coil in

produced

the

three-phasewinding,the

phase

side of

145

GENERATORS

phase

of

1.

10-" + sxe
60"}
27r/s(3510
+ 6900-f(4010+4010)M}l0-'+27r/s{345

Armature
order

{D + B)

cos

ohm.

0.432

Reaction

in which

from

Dimensions

the inductors

in series does

voltage induced

not

of

armature

an

of

Alternator.

winding

are

The

"

nected
con-

influence the

in the

winding or the
armature
reaction it produces,provided
the direction of current
flow through
the inductors is not changed. The voltage
the terminals of any
across
phase
is

equal

to

the vector

it is

and

entirelyindependent of

in which

the order

taken

are

of the

in all the inductors

induced

phase

of the voltages

sum

the component

in

making

the

ages
voltvector

summation.

winding

actual

The

of the

generator

placed,
Fig. 65 may be refar as voltage and armature
so
reaction are
lent
concerned, by the equivaTo
in Fig. 67.
winding shown

is shown

which

in

confusion,the
phase are
only one
avoid

second

figure. The
from
are

the

connections

indicated

winding

of

in this
differs

Fig.

66.

only in the order in which the end connections

taining
The equivalentwinding is a full-pitch
winding con-

first

made.
two
10

end

groups

of coils which

are

sUpped by

each

other

by

146

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

120
60 electrical degrees,that
anglewhich is equalto 180
is,by an angleequal to the pitchdeficiency. Each group of coils
winding.
has a phase spread equalto the phase spreadof the original
In general,
winding may be replaced
any fractional-pitch
by two full-pitch
winding which have a phase spread equal to
the phase spread of the original
winding and which are slipped
by each other by an angle equal to the pitchdeficiency.The
voltagesinduced in the two windings are, consequently,out of
in
phase by an angle equal to the pitch deficiencymeasured
an

"

of calculation it is often convenient

to
degrees. For purposes
replace a fractional-pitch
winding by its equivalentfull-pitch
winding.
The

reaction

armature

calculated from

the

two

generator will be

1000-kv-a.

equivalentwinding shown

the reaction of each

then

of the

of the two

groups

of

ing
Fig. 67 by find-

in

coils and
full-pitch

adding these reactions vectorially. The reactions of the

of coils will,of course, be equal. Each group
of the
groups
-180^

Fig. 67.

coils
full-pitch
armature
A

will contain

one"-half the total number

of series

turns.

0.707

"

"

^ cos

" ampere-turns

"

per

pole

the total number

of
N, la,kt,p, and p are, respectively,
in series,
turns
the phase current, the breadth factor,
armature
the number
of polesand the coil pitch. The equivalentwinding
well as the originalwinding has two slots per pole in each
as
Table I, page 41, h is 0.966.
of coils. From
group
where

(^^^)(240.6)(0.966)
A

0.707

^
2 X 32
2X32

2560

ampere-turns

per

pole.

^^^

^^"

SYNCHRONOUS

147

GENERATORS

Air-gap Flux per Pole, Average Flux Density in the Air Gap
and Average Apparent Flux Density in the Armature
Teeth
at
No

Load

for

Terminal

of the Alternator.
be used.

The

Voltage of 2400 Volts,from Dimensions

The equivalent winding given in Fig. 67 will

"

harmonics
E

where

N
cos

in the

will be

neglected.

{2-/^"fc"2cos30"}l0

4.44

air-gapflux

is the total number

of turns

in series per

phase.

As before

30" is
180"

pitch

cos

ElO^

4:A4:{Nfhcos

ZO'

2400
10'

V3
4.44

area

of

60

0.966

3,240,000 lines

The

192

pole.

per

pole face measured

at

the surface of the

ture
arma-

is

9H
The

flux

average

'

teeth.

flux

0.72

yg-^

75.0 sq. in.

gap

is,therefore,

43,200 lines per square

density in the teeth will be found

All the flux which

to pass

through

enters

small,except

when

inch.

for the base of the

the armature

the teeth at their bases.

flux will pass into the armature

but the amount
enteringthe teeth,
be

density in the air

"

The

11.4

very

core

In

will be

reahty

sumed
as-

some

through the slots without

of flux enteringin this way
will

core

high tooth

densities

are

used.

As

rule,there is littleflux in the slots below half their depth measured

surface (seeFig. 61 and page 125).
from the armature
of teeth under a pole is equal to the pole
The average
number
"surface multipliedby
at the armature
pitch measured
of pole arc to pole pitch and divided by the width of a
its top

plus the width

of

slot.

the ratio
tooth

at

148

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

This is
11-4

0.72

^,
^
*^"*^4-^*
_

"

0.85=

1.04 +

The

apparent flux

average

per

746,000

72,300 lines

9H

the

tooth

per

at its base

square

inch.

Reaction
and
Armature
Leakage Reactance
Open-circuitSaturation Curve and a Saturation Curve

Calculation
from

1.13

density in

flux

apparent

average

at its base

'

4.34

The

tooth

of

for Full-load
saturation

Current

at

and

curve

Zero

Power

Factor.

the saturation

^The

"

open-circuit

for full-load current

curve

plottedin Fig. 64. The Potier triangle,

FGE, is constructed by taking the point F on the zero-powerfactor curve
corresponding to the rated terminal voltage of the
to CO.
alternator and laying off the Kne FJ equal to and parallel
The point E is located by drawing the line JE through the point
at

zero

factor

power

are

characteristic.
parallelto the lower part of the open-circuit
is
The armature
leakage reactance
J

EG

"

^
The

GF

is

(turnsper pole)

Equivalent Leakage
Embedded

Inductor.

leakage reactance

"

Flux

"pe

is the

of embedded
slot.

Since

33

2150

65

ampere-turns

pole.

per

is
=

2t/ZZV.s10-8

equivalentleakage flux

inductor
the

per

Ampere per Unit Length of

According to equation (26),page 78, the
Xa

where

ohm.

0-913

/^
\/3
X 240.5.

reaction

armature

^o^n

la

and

lOOO-kv-a.

per ampere

Z is the number

alternator

has

per unit

length

of series inductors
a

per

winding having

SYNCHRONOUS

149

GENERATORS

pitch of 120", the leakage fluxes produced by the two

in each slot are 60" out of phase. For this generator
Z

(Z
2"Pe+-2"Pe 60j
2(3.14)(60)(9M)(f)^.(l
3^)(64)10-"
\

slO-8

cos

0.913
"Pe

15.4 lines per inch of embedded

Effective Resistance
losses not

64,

from

Test

includingfriction

12.3 kw.

coil sides

and

Data.

The

"

windage

at full-load current.

The

are,

inductor.

total short-circuit
from

loss due

core

plot,Fig.

the

to

the

sultant
re-

field on
circuit

short-circuit is approximatelyequal to the openloss corresponding to a voltage GE

This
380.

core

loss is 1 kw.

core

The

1)(1000)
31^2405)^

(12.3

re

effective resistance

is,therefore,

^_"

P""" ^

that the temperature

during the short-circuit run was

effective resistance at 75"C. is equal to the effective
resistance at 40"C. minus
the ohmic
resistance at 40" plus the
ohmic
resistance at 76".
Therefore, the effective resistance at

Assuming
40"C., the

75"C.
0.0652

is
-

0.0463(1 -M5

Regulation,Field
Method

for Full

Current

Kv-a.

drop

reactance

Une

0.00385) +
0.0463 (1 + 50 X
X

and

Load
per

at

VS^"^
X.

If

Field

0.0714

by the A.

I. E. E.

The

Factor."

ohm.

chronous
syn-

is equal to the length of the

V3.
580
=

=
-

7"

Loss

0.8 Power

phase

FK, Fig.64, divided by the

0.00385)

1.40 ohms.

240V3

terminal
phase voltage,the open-circuit
E'a is the open-circuit

voltage is

"s/SE'a

V3(240.5)(0.8

2400

2774

-t-j448

2810

volts.
2810-

Regulation

2400,

jO.6)(0.0714 + jl.40)

,_,

""
""

2400

^^^

160

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

field

excitation

kv-a.

1000

0.8

at

MACHINERY

corresponding

characteristic

open-circuit
of

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

is the

and

2810

required

excitation

factor

power

voltage

the

to

volts.

2400

the

on

for

load

This

is

153

amp.

The

field

including

of this

the

loss

in

the

153

Efficiency by
(48),

is built

generator

the

field

A.

rheostat

110

E.

is, therefore,
watts.

Method.

According

"

\/3F/
n^mciency

Pc

and

Pf+w

cos

^^^

P,

the

respectively,

are,

37aVe

Pf+w

loss

core

loss

core

2400

and

the

should

correspond

V3(240.5)

(0.8

to

voltage

which

is

jO.6) (0.0714)

loss

core

from

Fig.

American
losses

due

to

in

combined
Efficiency

combined
the

input

with

the

the

calculating

armature

armature

losses.

copper

losses

copper

resistance.

stray

short-circuited

generator

and

effective

armature

They

the

give
will

be

so

efficiency.

the

1000
1000

to

the

taking

recommend

windage

and

volts.

2424

watts.

rules

the

to

friction

losses

These
loss

equal

the

minus

Institute

jlS

is

64

22,000
The

friction

2424

This

IfV,

loss.

windage

load

equation

to

^^yj

The

loss

-p-

and

field

131,

page

where

The

volts.

110

16,830

I. E.

for

1000

0.8

22,000

1000

0.8

3(240.5)'

100

0.0714

10,000
=

153
92.9

X
per

llO
cent.

152

PRINCIPLES

ties and

densities in the copper, the shell type of the two

loss. The
the largeriron loss and the smaller copper

universal

almost

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

current

will have

its small

with

OF

during the last few

use

iron loss for the

design favor the shell type of transformer

The

normal

majority

in the

of

shell type is the better for

the

between

conditions the stresses

successive

windings and between

Windings

Windings

low, but at
be
of short-circuit they may

of transformers

turns

times

very

great.

may

give from

full-load current
Fig.

the

are

windings

full load.

would

The

transformer

modern
25
on

times

50

to

its

short-circuit iffull

voltage is maintained

68.

Under

at

made

largetransformers as it permitsbetter
ments
bracing of the coils against displacecaused by short-circuits. Under

Core

those

has

of transformers

cores

cases.

of silicon steel

years

its

on

primary.

tween
such conditions the stresses be-

be from
stresses

(25)2
=

on

625

(50)^

to

short-circuit

are

2,500,

extremely

The
out
core
important in large transformers.
type works
best for very high voltages chieflyon account
of greater space
required for insulatingthe high- and low-tension coils of a shell-

type transformer

from

one

another.

The

space

factor with

the

is poor

for

It
windings

Windings

A^
Fig.

pan-cake type of coils used

on

69.

shell transformers

and

transformers is often not over

0.3,while for the
high-voltage
coils used on the core
be, under similar
type it may
cylindrical
transformer
conditions,as high as 0.4. Inherentlythe shell-type
very

has

higherreactance

of the

than the

type of coils used.

expensive to repair.

core

type of transformer

Of the two

on

account

types, the shell is the

more

STATIC

The

and

core-

simplest forms
Cores.

of transformer
shown
are
shell-types
Fig.68 and Fig. 69 respectively.

in

The

"

laminated

piecesof sheet steel

insulated from

are

153

TRANSFORMERS

of transformers

cores

stamped

from

another

one

thickness of the laminations

steel

by

in their

built up

are

of

plates. These stampings

thin coat

of varnish.

The

will

depend upon the kind of steel

used and upon
the periodicity
for which
the transformer
is
designed. With
ordinary transformer steel and 60 cycles the
thickness of the laminations
be, as low as 0.014 in. thick,
may
but with the newer
so-called alloyed steel,
silicon steel,on
i.e.,
of its high specific
it is not necessary
resistance,
laminations
which are thinner than 0.020 in.
account

The

thickness of the

platesis determined

core

eddy-current losses.

The

thickness

Fig.

tween

the

thickness

platesof

core

of the

to

employ

able
by the allow-

of the insulation

be-

70.

transformer

does not

plates. Consequently, the

depend
thinner

upon

the

the
core

the lower will be

plates,the lower will be the space factor,i.e.,
the ratio of the space occupied by iron to the gross space occupied
by the core.
Ordinary varnish insulation,such as is commonly
is usually about 0.001
used on the core
platesof transformers,
in. thick.
a

Table

laminated
is 0.001
No

account

core

givesthe percentage of the cross-section of

tion
which is given up to insulation when the insulaVII

in. thick.
is taken

in Table

of the insulation after the

This

diminution

may

core

amount

VII of the diminution

has been
to

or

compressed

2 per

cent.

in thickness
and

clamped.

154

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Table

Thickness

MACHINERY

VII

of bare

lamination in inclies
Thiciiness of insulation in inches

Percentage of

gross

cross-section

break
The

and

laminations

bolted
common
a

built up into a
the jointsof the successive

them

0.001

9.1

11.1

laminations

coils with

0.020

occupied

by insulation

The

0.016
0.001

are

the

make
are

then

reluctance

the finished

within

core

layers reversed
of the

core

so

as

to

minimum.

firmly

together. Fig. 70 shows

forms of stampings for

core-type transformer.
Some

manufacturers

use

butt

jointsin the magnetic circuit of

to facilitate
large transformers
building up the core and removing
coils in
When

such

case

of breakdown.

jointsare

used

it is

tW^fiSy^cyWi'

Fig.

customary
paper

about

to

71.

insulate

Fig.

each

joint with

layer

0.005 in. thick to prevent loss due to

72.

of thin

eddy

tough-

currents

at

tions
Fig. 71 will show that unless the laminaof the two parts of the jointsare exactly over
one
another,
a
path will be provided by which the eddy currents
can
pass
from one lamination to the next across
the jointas shown
by the
line on
the figure. This permits the eddy currents
to
wavy
at the jointmuch
flow in portionsof the core
if the
the same
as
It is claimed by some
not laminated.
that the loss
core
were
in butt jointswhich are without insulating
is no greater
paper

the

joints.

Reference

to

STATIC

TRANSFORMERS

155

than

in

these

points the planes of the paths of the eddy currents, therefore,

ordinary lap joints. With lap joints,the greater part

of the flux at the joints
lamination to the next
passes from one
nearly perpendicularlyto the plane of the laminations. At
will lie in the
will have

effect

no

laminations.
these

on

The

eddy

lamination

of the

core

currents.

Lap jointsare equivalent to

call for

increase

an

of about

core

Butt

small air gaps.

They will usually
in the magnetomotive force requiredfor the

35 ampere-turns

jointsmust

be

per

figured as

jointat ordinaryflux densities.

air gaps equal in length to the

thickness

of the paper insulation in them.

Windings. The windings of all transformers
"

size and
and

voltageare subdivided
diminish
the leakage of flux

to

the

primary and

made

of several

up

either

secondary. Each
or

of any appreciable
to increase the insulation
between

winding is

coils which

many

are

flat

pan-cake shaped, such as are commonly

used
on
shell-typetransformers, or

such
cylindrical,
transformers.
coils

as

These
illustrated

are

are

used

two

shapes

in

core-type

on

Figs.

types of

or

72

and

73

respectively.
The

coils

are

of cotton-covered

wire of either

rectangular cross-section and are machine

wound.
After being formed, the coils are
oughly
taped to hold them together and then thorimpregnated with insulatingcompound.
round

or

insulation

be

can

desirable since it
than

section
flat

The

or

primary

paper

secondary section
the

iron

minimize

the

Insuladon.
under

are

effective

same

sometimes

the successive

cross-

formed

varnished

is

of

paper,

turns.

sections,and one primary and one

placed on each of the two uprightsides of
winding is placed outside of the other to

in two
are

One

core.

for the

edgewisewith stripsof
between

proper

cross-section
rectangiilar

coils

The

Where

73.

formers
secondary windings of small core-type trans-

and

made

are

wire.

wound

mica

of

occupiesless space

round

stripcopper

cambric

provided,wire

Fig.

magnetic leakage.
"

The

windings,are

separate

turns

of the

stated
as has been
coils,

insulated with cotton, cambric

or

mica

paper.

156

To

PRINCIPLES

OF

prevent breakdown

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

successive

between

layersit is necessary-j

to provideextra insulation in the

coils,
especiallyin high-voltage

form

of fuller board

extended

between

When
be

the ends

of the

voltageof

this is

subdivided

into

winding

number

Specialinsulation

exceeds

to

prevent

singlecoil to

Fig.

voltage of

required,it is

windings

74.

the

them.

When

paper.

It is usual to limit the

Fig.

should

mica

beyond
slightly

creepage.

5000.

or

about

75.

this,the winding

of coils with

is requiredbetween

insulation
the

high-

formers,
low-voltage coils and the core.
Very high-voltagetransthat is,for 40,000 volts and over, require insulation of
the coils and core.
the greatest dielectric strength between
For

and

STATIC

157

TRANSFORMERS

this purpose
built-upmica and shields of press board are used.
The different sections of the windings are held apart by wooden
separators,and oil in the spaces left between the sections not

only cools

the coils but also

provides the

insulation.

necessary

In order to prevent breakdown

of the insulation due to surges,
the end turns of largehigh-voltage
transformers
are
given extra
insulation.
caused
the

The

by line

high- and

high potentialbetween
is due

surges

the end

to the distributed

which

turns

is

capacitybetween

low-tension

windings and the core and frame.

Fig. 74 shows a high-voltagecore type of transformer
out
withits case.
The low-voltagewindings are next the core.
The
high-voltagewindings are outside of the others and are sectionalized for better

insulation.

They

are

barriers
voltagewindings by cylindrical
in the

insulated
which

are

from

the low-

clearlyshown

figure.

Fig. 75

shows

without
Terminals.

small

former
moderate-voltage shell-typetrans-

its terminals

and

case.

insulation of the very high-voltageterminals,

i.e.,for 40,000 volts and over, is a difficult problem which has
been

solved

known
The

as

"

The

by the

of two

use

quite different types of terminals

the oil-insulated terminal

oil-insulated

terminal

and

the condenser

consists of segments

terminal.

of

porcelain or
other moulded
material built up about the conducting rod to
form an enclosure for oil. The oil space is subdivided
vertically
by insulatingcylindersto prevent liningup of particlesin the
down.
oil,thus concentrating the dielectric stress and causing breakThe porcelainsegments are shaped on the outside so as
to form

series of

petticoatsto

potentialtransformer

The

insulated

terminals.

The

shown

increase the creepage

distance.
in Fig. 112, page
226, has oil-

condenser

type of terminal

is built up
with shellac or

layers of tin-foil and paper treated

bakelite rolled hot onto the conducting rod.
The
of
purpose
tin-foil is to distribute the dielectric stress uniformly throughout
of alternate

the

insulation.

have

the

differ

order

to

accomplish this

lengths of the successive

by equal

terminal

In

to

amounts.

taper.

The

This
terminal

it is necessary
to
layers of tin-foil and paper

causes

is

the

two

flat disc of

the

completed by the addition

insulatingmaterial at the top and

insulatingtube extending the length of the terminal.
of

of

ends

an

external
The

space

158

PRINCIPLES

between

OF

the tube

or

case

compound
with
this

and

without

the

service and
For

moderate

moisture

cases

sulatin
is filledwith oil or in-

the terminal

and

prevent

corona.

is shown

in

with

From

Fig. 76.
its

case

for not

under

left to

enteringthe

over

case

for outdoor
are

used.

transformer

cases,

voltages porcelainbushings
water

terminal

condenser

terminal,the terminal with its

the terminal

and

of transformers

to
cases

figureshows

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

few thousand

projectingledges on

for indoor
service.
To

side

near

vent
pre-

the leads

volts leave the

each

right

taining
con-

the top,

high- and low-voltageleads being placed on opposite sides.

Cooling. Since the output of any piece of electrical apparatus
is limited by the rise in temperature caused by its losses,
of
one
the most important problems in design is to provide some
factory
satisof cooling. Since the losses in a transformer
means
vary
the

"

160

PRINCIPLES

about

as

OF

the volume

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

of heat that

while the amount

depends upon the surface exposed, it will

problem of coolinga transformer becomes more

be

can
seen

pated
be dissithat the

difficult as

its

oil contained

in

size is increased.
The

coils of most

cast-iron

or

coils and

core

to the

transformers

sheet-steel tanks.
are

so

top through ducts between

the

core.

the transformer
As

To

insure

effective

arranged that the heated oil may

Fig.

and

placed in

are

It will then

pass

the coils and

cooling,the
rise readily

between

the coils

80.

down

along

the

cooler walls of

case.

only about 1 watt can be radiated from each 150 sq. in. of
with smooth
sides for
dry surface of ordinary transformer cases
each degree Centigrade rise in temperature, specialmeans
for
coolinghave to be provided,except for the smallest transformers.
Sufficient radiatingsurface can
be obtained to keep transformers
kilowatts cool by corrugating the sides of
up to a few hundred
the cases.
Corrugatingor ribbingthe sides of the cases increases

STATIC

the amount
water

of heat radiated
is

transformers

the
available,

161

TRANSFORMERS

by about

most

common

cool is to circulate water

50 per

cent.

means

of

When

ing
cool-

keepinglarge

through coils of pipe placed

in the

tops of the transformer cases in the oil above the windings.

When
this is done corrugatedcontainingcases
not necessary.
are
Transformers for low voltage,i.e.,
not over
a few thousand,
may
be air-cooled. In this case
oil
is
but
air
is circulated
no
used,

through the
example,in
means

with

the

very

coils by

means

unattended

of

blower.

cooling. Under these

largeradiating surfaces are

be obtained
in surface may
at the top and bottom.
cases
11

cases,

it is not possibleto
substations,

of

large self-cooled

In many

transformers

conditions
used.

The

as, for

use

ficial
arti-

specialcases
crease
required in-

by welding vertical tubes

In later types of

radiatingfins through

cases

which

to

for
the

162
oil

PRINCIPLES

OF

circulate

can

attached

be made

may

of such

are

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

up

the

to

3000

to

MACHINERY

or

Self-cooled transformers

cases.

5000

even

kw.

by the

use

devices.

Typical transformer
and 80.

These

also has

the

cases

illustrated in

Figs. 77, 78, 79

with smooth sides,a case

are

show

a case
respectively
with corrugatedsides,
a tubular
case, and a radiator type of case.
A transformer
with a cooling coil for water
is shown
without
its case
in Fig. 81.
Oil." The oil in an oil-cooled transformer not only carries the
heat by convection from the windings and core to the transformer
and also to the coolingcoils,
case
provided they are used, but it

selection of

even

important function

more

suitable oil is of the greatest

of insulation.

The
former
Trans-

importance.

oil is obtained

by fractional distillation of petroleum.

It must
be free from alkalies,
Moisture
sulphur and moisture.
has a very marked
effect on the dielectric strengthof transformer
oil.

The

volume

presence

of

decreases

the

as

small

amount

an

as

part in 20,000 by

puncturing voltage to nearly one-third its

initial value.
Minute
particlesmechanically suspended in the
oil very
greatly decrease the puncturing voltage by localizing
the dielectric stresses in the oil.

removing moisture
handbooks
The
Table

from

oil may

The

methods

be found

for

in any

cleaningand

of the standard

for electrical engineers.*

for transformer
ordinary specifications

oil

are

in

VIII.
Table

VIII

Medium

point,degrees C
Burning point,degrees C
Freezing point,degrees C

Flash

below

zero

Color

Specificgravity at 13.5"C
Viscosityat 40"C. (Saybolt test)
Acid, alkali,sulphur, moisture
The

given

medium

water-cooled

oil is used
transformers

Light

180-190

130-140

205-215

140-150

10-15

15-20

White

White

0.865-0.870

0.845-0.850

100-110

40-50

None

None

for self-cooled transformers.

For

the

Ughter oil is employed. The

ilielectricstrength of transformer
between
brass
oil,measured
'

Standard

Handbook

for Electrical

Engineers,McGraw-Hill

Book

Co.

STATIC

spheres 0.5
be less than
Breathers.

in. in diameter

and

Since

"

by making

small

very

in. apart, should

0.15

not

of moisture

amount

causes

in the

puncturing voltage of transformer oil,

specialprecautionsto prevent moisture

it is necessary
to take
from entering transformer
done

placed

30,000 volts.

great decrease

very

163

TRANSFORMERS

In small

cases.

transformers

this is

by sealingin the leads where

air-tight
with some
they pass through the cases
compound such as asphaltight
airtum
and by making the jointsbetween
the covers
and cases
by clamping or bolting them down with gaskets of felt or
other

material

It is

the

cases

between

them

the

cases.

the

practicallyimpossibleto make
this reason,

air-tight.For
them

and

with

definite

openings

formers
large trans-

it is customary

vents

or

of

cases

through

to

which

provide

the

ence
differ-

in pressure inside and outside the cases, caused by changes in

ditions,
temperature of the transformer or by changes in atmosphericcon-

equalize.

may

When

provisionis

made

are

of the pressure, devices technicallyknown

used to prevent moisture entering the cases

In

its

baffle

for the
as

zation
equali-

"breathers"

through the

is merely a
simplest form a "breather"
to the top of the
plates in it,connected

vent.

chamber

with

transformer

by
effectively

pipe. The baffles are arranged to

snow
entering the transformer when it is used
or
prevent water
out of doors or in an exposed place.
is dry, a sudden
Unless the air in a transformer
drop in the
cool the air in the transformer
temperature of the surroundings may
the moisture to precipitate.
below the dew point and cause
is lightlyloaded
unless the transformer
This is not likelyto occur
of

means

small

prevent this precipitation,

exposed place. To
with
"breathers"
provision for drying the air which passes
through them are used on transformers which are placed out of
considerable
contain
"breathers"
a
Such
quantity of
doors.
which the air must
chloride over
calcium
pass before enteringthe
and

in

an

transformer.
The

size of transformers

"breathers"

general it

depends

is customary

of 500

kv-a.

or

above

which

it is desirable

the

conditions

to instaU

"breathers"

upon

over

and

above

of
on

to

service,but
outdoor

22,000 volts.

use

in

formers
trans-

XII

CHAPTER

Induced

Transformer

Voltage;

Reactance

Induced

Voltage.

merely
of

rate

the

change in
in

voltage

induced

in

of the

in the

of flux linked
between

field
is

the

are

with

the

ipm

be

by

variation

the

coil and

the

and

the axis of
axis of the

in the

how

only difference

in the

relative

by

constant

coil and

tity
quan-

movement

field,while

the axis of the

flux linked

with

the

coil

strength of the field.

value
this

the

produced

variation

by

change in the

maximum
assume

the

coil is caused

the

difference

are

coil,the

generator

transformer

coincident

produced
Let

of

and

expression for the

voltages

with

axis of the coil and

of

case

case

the

as

Both

linked

flux

winding
no

pends
de-

winding

any

expression for the voltage

same

generator.

It makes

The

is the

in

in the

of turns

produced.

transformer

being that

is

flux

variation

in the

number

change of the flux through it.

induced

the

the

upon

Circuit;

Coil

voltage induced

The

"

Open

on

flux

of the

flux

varies

according

through
to

former
trans-

sine

the

law.
(p

Then, if Ni
in the

is the

number

coil at any

(Pm sin

(lit

of turns
instant

on

the

by the

flux

coil,the voltage
ip

duced
in-

is

^f
AT-

Therefore, the maximum

Cm

The

effective

or

"

ci)Ni"Pmcos

at

voltage is

(0Ni"pm

2irfNi"p^

root-mean-square

4:.UfNi.p^l0r"
164

voltage in volts will be

(50)

STATIC

If the

voltageis not
El

Transformer

TRANSFORMERS

sine wave,

expression(50) becomes

4(form factor)/A^i.^"10-"

Open Circuit.

on

165

When

"

an

(51)

alternating
potential

is

impressed on an inductive circuit,

the current
will increase
voltagedrop around the circuit is zero.
Under
this
condition the total voltagedrop due to induction
plus,vectoriuntil the total

ally,the resistance drop in the circuit will

be

equal

to

the impressed

voltage.
V
V

and

-E

Ir

the impressed voltage and the total

respectively,
voltage induced in the circuit by the flux linking with it. The
diagram of connections for such a circuit
when

are,

it contains

iron and itsvector

diagram
shown
in Figs. 82 and 83 respectively.
are
The conditions shown
in these figurescorrespond
those
former
exactlyto
existingin a transwith the secondary circuit open.
Referring to Fig. 83, Ei is the voltage
induced
ing.
by the flux linking with the windTo
induce this voltage, a flux "p is
required which will be 90 degrees ahead of
the voltage. This flux will cause
hysteresis
losses
in
the
iron core
and
eddy-current
for this

and

the

reason

with

component

energy

current

FiQ.

7i producing it must

82.

have

an

the

voltage Ei. Ii may,

opposite in
components, one

respect to

therefore,be resolved into two

phase to Ei and one in phase with the flux "p. The component
7p which is in phase with the flux is the current which would be
and for this
requiredto produce the flux if there were no core loss,
it is called the magnetizing component
or
simply the
reason
The effect of the energy
component of /i^
magnetizing current.

Ih+e,is to balance,so far as the production of flux is

concerned, the demagnetizing effect of the hysteresisand the
that is of

eddy

currents

in the

7p and h+e, cannot

since
is

they are
sine

wave.

not

be
sine

These

core.

drawn
waves

In
as
even

currents

realitythe actual currents, /i,

vectors, as will be shown later,
though the impressed voltage
must, therefore,be considered

166

PRINCIPLES

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

MACHINERY

to be

The
replaced,in Fig. 83, by their equivalentsine waves.
the coil must
balance Ei and in
voltage F] impressed across
addition must
have a component equal to the resistance drop in
the circuit. It will be equal to "Ei
plus the resistance drop,
the
both taken in a vector sense.
The current Ih+edepends upon
the thickness of the laminations and
flux densityin the core, upon
The
the amount
and quality of the iron.
magnetizing
upon
tance
component
I^ of the current depends upon Ei and the relucof the

iron

The

core.

depend mainly upon

ordinarily
Since it is desirable to make

high, the reluctance

order

make

to

the

factor is

power

the ratio of

cos

h+e

to

Fig.

be

small.

made
The

former
trans-

low
flux

in
is

"p

83.

magnetizing force produced by the magnetizing

divided by the reluctance of the magnetic circuit or

equal to

will

7^.

factor of

the no-load power

should
of its core

magnetizing current

This

6.

the

rent
cur-

OAwNrl^
aV

"""

a'V"

"^

a"V"'

"^

the mean
I's,
a's,and ju'sare, respectively,
lengths,the
cross-sections and the permeabilitiesof the different portions
where

of the

the

core.

In

the

case

core

permeabilitythroughout,the
singleterm.

uniform
a

has

Reactance

Coil.
"

reactance

uniform

cross-section

denominator

coil consists

and

reduces

of
essentially

to

winding on a laminated iron core which is designed so that the

winding takes current at a low power factor. The magnetizing
be large. The conditions,
current should,therefore,
as far as the

168

PRINCIPLES

ceeded

OF

at times

of short-circuit

expensive, bulky
would
losses

be

the

iron

of current

at

usefulness.
of short-circuit
It wiU
maintained
is shown

may

reach

only for
in

Fig. 84.

of normal

the

of short-circuit

be

ten

this
a

few

as

of current
times

value

the

in

the
a

cycles.

coils

the

Moreover,

through

initial rush

MACHINERY

make

i.e.,hysteresis

of flux

times
The

times

at

core,

change

would

heavy.

and

appreciable

in the

retard

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

loss

operation.

and

eddy

during

core

to

fraction

of

the

the

core

Second,

the

would

so

initial rush

largely

reduce

generator

at

very

from

in

current,

sustained

prohibitively

short-circuit
a

cycle but

current-limiting

its

times
rent.
cur-

will

reactance

be

CHAPTER
Determination

TO

Flux

Loss

of

Curve;

Current

Induced

Determination
Current

Current

Voltage;

Determination

of

the

Given

Shape

to

shape of

voltageinduced

the

of

Curve

responds
Cor-

which

Curve;
Curve

from

Magnetizing

the

Supplying

Hysteresis

the

and

Curve

the

of

Rushes
of

the

Electromotive-force

Corresponds

Ctjkve

Flux

Electromotive-force

Hysteresis

the

from

the

Electromotive-force

the

the

and

of

Given

Determination
the

Shape

the

of

XIII

Curve

Flux

Curve.

"

If the

which
wave

by the flux linkingwith the winding

of a reactance
coil or with the primary winding of a transformer
is known, the shape of the flux curve
correspondingto this may
be found.

coil,it has alreadybeen shown that

the impressed voltageis very nearlyequal to the voltageinduced
former
by the flux. The impressed and induced voltages of a transof ordinary design are also very nearly equal, especially
load.
At no load, a transformer is exactlythe same
at no
as
a
coil which has a very good magnetic circuit. A good
reactance
the
since it is desirable to make
magnetic circuit is necessary
In the

case

of

reactance

magnetizing current

of

transformer

as

small

as

since
possible,

loss and lowers

increases both the primary copper
its presence
of
In determining the shape of the flux curve
the power
factor.
duced
that the inaccurate
to assume
suSiciently
and impressedvoltagesof the primary winding are equal
and oppositeat every instant.
is always equal to the
The voltage induced in a transformer
negativerate of change of flux through the winding multiplied
of turns contained in the winding. If e is the
by the number
a

transformer

it is

169

170

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

instantaneous value of the voltageand Ni and

the number

of turns

and

the flux

d(p

curve

integral
represents
between

the flux is

an

the flux is desired.

the maximum

the

When

value

area

drawn

(p is a

of

zero

when

of the flux,either

the electromotive

flux and

the

through the value of

maximum,

Fig.

occur

-57

it follows that ordinates drawn

of t at which

is zero.

Therefore,

positiveor negative,will

force is zero.

be added

value

t at which

85.

points of maximum

quantitiesof flux must

the electromotive-force

under

through the

ordinate

an

I edt

Nr^

ordinate

and

zero

dt

Tr~edi

"

^~

The

through the

Ni

respectively,
winding,

ip are,

Since between
flux

on

points
either side equal

and subtracted from

throughthe

the

winding,

pointsof the flux

must
divide the areas
enclosed by the positiveand the negacurve
tive
of
the
electromotive-force
into
curve
two equal parts.
loops
Let acfh,Fig.85, be the curve
of the voltageinduced in a transformer,
and

loop of this
be

one

let the ordinate

curve

of the

zero

into

two

dc divide the

equal parts.

points of the flux

curve.

zero

area

The

under

the

point

positive

d will then

STATIC

The
is

ordinate

eg of the flux

equal to -r^ times

between

curve

the

cross-hatched.

found

in

The

drawn

flux and

The

as

Fourier
the

given by
e

The

be

curve

will obviouslylie on

the

electromotive

zero

^\

will,therefore,be

curves

lag with

of flux.
of the electromotive

of the flux will

force and

the electromotive

force is sinusoidal.
electromotive

easilyby expressing the

very

series.

the induced

Let

El sin

cat

electromotive

force

-\-E3 sin Zoit -\-Ef, sin Scot -^-etc.

edt

"

-Tr

["^1cos

^4^3

oit +

Y^[Eism{wt + l)+
+

If the electromotive
the first in the

leaving both
of the terms

and

90

followingseries:

same

will

curve

force is

for
expressions

waves

3oit

cos

the

force.

correspondingto this will be

flux

"

is

area

may

electromotive-force

except when

same

be shown

can

the

curve

forms

be the

force

through d and e. This

The other pointson the flux curve
drawn

electromotive-force

the

to
wave

This

the electromotive-force

by

through the points of

degrees apart and

respect

point e is negativeand

ordinates

be

enclosed

similar way.
maximum
pointsof the flux

The

not

at the

curve

area

ordinates

shown

171

TRANSFORMERS

}iEi

HE3

}4E5

sin

cos

sin

beat +

(3a,i+

(5a""+

etc.]

|)

|)+

etc.]

all of the terms above

sinusoidal,
the voltageand the flux drop out

sinusoidal.

For

any

other

wave

Under

be present.
the first may
electromotive-force and flux waves
above

form,

any

this

dition,
con-

will contain

the

harmonics, but their relative amplitudeswill be different

ment.
be reversed in phase with respect to the fundasome
may
With
The two waves
therefore,be of different form.
will,

respect to the fundamental, the third harmonic in the flux wave

will be only one-third as great, the fifth only one-fifth as great,
the seventh only one-seventh as great, etc.,as the corresponding
harmonics
A

in the electromotive-force

peaked

electromotive-force

wave

wave.

contains

third harmonic

172

PRINCIPLES

which

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

has its maximum

maximum

value

of the fundamental

MACHINERY

approximately coincident with the

in

and

phase with

it

in

is shown

as

Fig. 86.
ampHtude of the third harmonic

If the

one-third

in the flux

great with

as

the fundamental

86 will be
In

the

third

flatter than

harmonic

tromotive
elec-

in

that

Fig.

wave.

flat electromotive-force

to

wave

peaked
shown

wave
Fundamental

respect

the flux

the

to

only

tromotive
it is in the elec-

as

wave,

corresponding

is

wave

wave

would

be

in

in
opposite phase to that shown
tion
Fig. 86. In this case the diminuFig.

of the

86.

flux
wave
a

less flat than

the

flat electromotive-force

is less flat

give rise

and, vice

to

flux

Fig.

Figs.87 and

versa,
wave

wave

third harmonic
would

electromotive-force
wave
a

will

give rise to

the

make

In

wave.
a

flux

is less

flux

general,
which

wave

peaked electromotive-force

which

in the

wave

will

peaked.

87,

flat and
motive-force
show, respectively,
peaked electroof approximately the same
waves
root-mean-square
value together with the corresponding flux waves.
Scale

of Flux.

88

"

The

flux is

equal to

-irf- times

the

area

enclosed

STATIC

by

173

TRANSFORMERS

the electromotive-force curve

between

the

which

ordinate

divides either

into two equal areas

and an ordinate
loop of the curve
drawn
through the point at which the flux is desired. To
get the numerical value of the flux,this area expressedin square
inches

be

must

multipliedby

-^tt-,

iV

motive
seconds

force in abvolts to

It is
flux

the

scale of the

electro-

inch,and

by

scale of time in

the

to the inch.

Determination
Flux

the

by

Curve.

"

of

The

the

Electromotive-force

electromotiveforce

induced

Curve
in

from

the

coil is

proportionalto the rate of change of flux. Therefore,if the

is plottedwith flux as ordinates and time as abscissae,
curve

Fig.

89.

to

the

point will
the electromotive force at that point.
be
The electromotive-force
curve
correspondingto any flux curve
in
be obtained
graphicallyby the construction shown
may
Fig. 89.
is def and ghi is a portionof the corresponding
The flux curve
motive-force
electromotive-force curve.
Any point such as g on the electroDraw
is obtained in the followingmanner:
a
curve
tangent ab at the pointk of the flux

curve.

the

slopeof a line
proportionalto

drawn

tangent

curve

at any

Select any

pointas,

174

PRINCIPLES

for

example,

line
0

at

mn

draw

OF

distance

line

intersects

the

at

rightof

draw

the tangent

fc on

the flux

point.

draw

vertical

the

From

ah,and from where

point

this line

The
section,
line gn.
point of intervertical dropped from fc will be the point

the electromotive-force

on

diagram and

horizontal

g, of gn with

the

to the left of this

oc

to
parallel

mn

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

which

curve

corresponds to the point

curve.

to the scale of flux and

second, en measured
It will always be
multipliedby Ni will be the voltagein abvolts.

If

oc

is to scale 1

the distance

to make

necessary

oc

less than

1 second.

In

case

it

second, en must be multipliedby 100.

and Current SupDetermination
of the Magnetizing Current
plying
the Hysteresis Curve
and the
the Hysteresis Loss from
Curve of Induced
Voltage. In order to determine the magnetiz-

should

be made

/-"lOO

of

"

FiG.

90.

and

hysteresiscurrents, it is first necessary to find the flux

of impressed voltageby the method
from the curve
curve
already
described.
It is then necessary
to obtain,by measurement,
the
hysteresis
loop for the iron core and to plot this with total fluxes

ing

ordinates

as

the flux

and

as

abscissae.

The

are

or

reactance

coil must

be the

same.

value

of

curve

of

These

two

plottedin Fig. 90.

the curves
of flux,
I, II, III and IV are, respectively,
combined
magnetizing and hysteresiscurrents, the magnetizing

Curves
the

maximum

density for the hysteresisloop and for the flux

the transformer
curves

currents

current

and

the

current.
hysteresis

176

PRINCIPLES

in time

phase with it,providedthe

currents

local fluxes set up

neglected as is done

be

can

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

on

by

eddy

the

201.

page

magnetomotive force which is due to the component

current
supplyingthe eddy-current loss is just balanced by the
equal and opposite magnetomotive force caused by the eddy
These two currents act like the primary and secondary
currents.
The

of

currents

The
the

transformer.

of the current

component

no-load

of

current

taken

by

coil

reactance

which

transformer

is in

or

of

quadrature

called the

magnetizing current.
rent
This,however, is not the real current causing the flux. The curcausing the flux is that shown by Curve II on Fig. 90 plus
the current
required to supply the eddy-current loss. The
is the
which
has been called the magnetizing current
current
current
which would be requiredto produce the flux if there were
neither
component
eddy-current losses. The
hysteresisnor
currents
h and le are requiredto supply the losses due to the
voltagehas been

with the induced

hysteresisand
transformer

which

is known

the

as

it is due

requiredto produce

coil leads the flux

reactance

or

and

by

angle of core-loss advance.

to those

the flux in

small

angle
(See Fig. 83,

166.)

page

It should

Fig. 90 that the

be clear from

producing the
be

in the core,

currents

that the current

components

two
a

eddy

different from

flux in

the

wave

reactance

form

form

wave

coil or in

of the flux.

of the

rent
cur-

will

transformer

If the flux follows

causing it will not be sinusoidal but will

which the third will be largeunless the
is nearly a straightline as it
of the core
The magnetic
contained
a large air gap.

sine curve, the current

contain harmonics
among

magnetization
would

curve

be if the

core

contains an air gap.

The
never
ordinary transformer
magnetizing current for such a magnetic circuit,
therefore,will
If the component
contain
currents
a
large third harmonic.
taken by a reactance
coil or by a transformer
at no load contain
harmonics, they cannot be combined
correctlyas vectors as was
done in Fig. 83.
Fig. 83 must, therefore,either be considered
as
an
approximation or, as was
previouslystated,the currents
this figuremust
be the equivalent sine values.
on
circuit of

Current
the

an

Rushes.
current

"

When

taken

transformer

by it will

not

is connected

immediately

to
assume

cuit,
cirits

STATIC

final
well

form

wave

wave

and

magnitude. The initial rush of current as

of cyclespassed through before the current
final form will depend upon
the part of the

the number

as

the

assumes

voltagewave

at which

the circuit is closed and

magnetism in the iron

instantaneous
certain
may

The

rush

becomes

If

zero.

the

at the instant the circuit is closed

current

the full-load current

is disconnected

the

"

ing
mains, the excitdrop
necessarily

is the value of

"pr

/""^N^

remanent

of the transformer

core

from

but the flux does not

zero

magnetism for
the hysteresiscycle on which
the

of the transformer.

reallydepends upon

transformer

current
to

and

core

the apparent instantaneous

of the circuit at the instant of switchingin.

reactance

When

value

several times

current

the residual

upon

its direction with respect to the

of the initial magnetomotive force. Under

the
conditions,

be

177

TRANSFORMERS

y^^

is

operating,the flux remaining

in the

core

when

the circuit is
Fig.

opened

may

between

the

have

any

value

and

"ipr

depending upon

"pr

loop
hysteresis

at which

unexcited,this
decrease and approach zero.
of

operation is ^mflux,the flux under

Startingat
such

the

conditions

under

core

point of
must

equal to 2"pm or from a to 6, Fig. 91, in a

develop the requiredinduced electromotive
flux reached

Suppose the
to the line at

is

only

transformer

steadyconditions

maximum

negative

change by an amount
half cycle in order to

force,but

the maximum

(pm.

has

no

residual flux and

point on the electromotive-force

the flux a, Fig.91, i.e.,
corresponding to

to

If the transformer

magnetism will gradually

remanent

flux in the

maximum

particularpoint of

the circuit is broken.

remains

Suppose the

the

91.

is connected

ing
correspond-

wave
a

flux

""pm

under

Neglectingthe effect of the resistance drop,

the flux must
stillchange by an amount
equal to 2"pm during the
next half cycleto generate the requiredelectromotive
force,but
the maximum
value reached during this half cycleis now
+2tpm
steady conditions.

since the flux started at

magnetism
been

in the

+ "?, instead
12

core

instead

of

""Pm-

at the instant

of

closingthe

zero

of zero, the maximum

If the

flux would

residual

circuit had

have

reached

178

OF

PRINCIPLES

value 2"pm "

maximum

The

Vr-

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

value of the current

taken

during the first half cycle will correspond

the transformer

by
to

be far above the saturation

density,2(pm + "Pt, which may
The current rush will be greatest when
point for the iron core.
the conditions assumed.
"pr is positiveunder

flux

transient condition

The

If the conditions

are

as

as

rule will exist for

assumed, the

only a

few

flux in the transformer

cycles.
may

reversal

during
entirelypositiveor
the firstcycleor even
duringseveral cycles. The excitingcurrent
corresponding to this condition is shown in Fig. 92.
and less than
will be a minimum
The initial excitingcurrent
normal when the circuit is closed at the point of the electromotiveforce wave
correspondingto zero flux under steady conditions and

negative without

be either

"

Fig.

with

the

residual

flux should

have

magnetism
during the

92.

opposite in sign to the sign the

next
quarter cycle under
steady

conditions.
The

current

rush

when

transformers

are

connected

in circuit

will be greater for

25-cycle transformers than for transformers

of the higher flux densities
designed for 60 cycles on account
which may
be used for a given core
loss at the lower frequency.
The total voltage,E-^,Fig. 83, page 166, which has to be induced
by the flux is limited by the resistance drop. If it was
not
for this drop, the excitingcurrent
on
former
connecting a transto a fine might reach,under the worst
several
conditions,
hundred
it may
current.

times its normal

value.

In

transformers
low-frequency

easilyreach in practiceseveral times the normal

full-load

CHAPTER

Concerned

Fluxes

No-load

in

of

Diagram; Ratio
Secondary
Current;

of

Relative

Values

Leakage

Diagram;
OF

Vector

Solution

Transformer

Reduction

Calculation

Diagram;
of

Vector

and

Transformation;

of

Factors;

Resistances; Relative

of

Reactances;
Load

No-load

Operation

the

Vector

Reaction

Fluxes

XIV

of

Leakage

Analysis

Diagram

Values

of

and

of

ance;
ReactVector
tion
Calcula-

Regulation

Concerned

in the

Operation

of

Transformer

and

Vector

of having
Diagram." Due to the impossibility
the primary and secondary windings of a transformer
occupy
exactly the same
position on the iron core, there will be a
certain
amount
of magnetic leakage between
them.
All of
the

flux

with

which

links

with

the

primary winding

will not

link

the

secondary winding and, vice versa, all of the flux

which
links with the secondary winding will not link with the
it is convenient, when
primary winding. For this reason
sidering
conunder load conditions,to divide the flux
a transformer
into three component
fluxes,namely, the mutual flux and the
primary and the secondary leakage fluxes.
The primary leakage flux is that part of the total primary flux
which does not link with the secondary winding and, similarly,
the secondary leakage flux is that part of the total secondary
flux which does not link with the primary winding. The mutual
flux is that part of the total primary or secondary flux which is
to or links with both windings. If the fluxes in the
common
primary and the secondary windings are to be divided into two
components,
be divided

the

voltagesinduced

into two

components

in the two

windings may
correspondingto the two

also
ponent
com-

fluxes.
The

leakagefluxes

transformer

are

very

primary and secondarywindingsof a

nearlyproportionalto the currents in the

of the

windings. Therefore,the component

179

voltagesproduced by these

180

PRINCIPLES

OF

proportionalto

fluxes will also be

produced by
currents
so

far

as

That

the two

Since

the currents.

leakage fluxes

tages
the vol-

proportionalto the

are

be replaced,
causing the fluxes,the leakagefluxes may
reactances.
their effects are concerned,by two constant
should be nearly prothe leakage flux of a transformer
portional
to the current

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

simple

where

case

type transformer

are

the
on

can

be

seen

from

follows: consider

what

secondary coils of
opposite sides o{ the iron core.

primary

and

core-

Refer

Fig. 93.

to

At

load the

no

Fig.

A and B produced
between
magnetic potential
to
by the primary coil is only that necessary
force the flux through the iron circuit ACB.
the secondary circuit is loaded, the
When

magnetic potentialbetween A and B produced

not
by the primary winding must
the reluctance of the iron
only overcome
path ACB, but it must in addition balance
the opposing magnetomotive force caused
by the current in the secondary winding.
Since the increase in the magnetomotive

93.

force between

and

is

proportionalto

the

secondary current, the leakage between A

be very
nearly proportionalto the load current

and

carried

should

by the

transformer.
In what

follows,the voltageswhich are induced in the primary

and secondary windings by the mutual
flux will be called the
induced
voltages and the voltagesinduced by the leakage fluxes
will be replacedby a primary and a secondary leakage-reactance
drop.
The leakage flux of an
ordinary transformer is small and is
also largelyin air. Its effect on
the apparent resistance will,
For this reason, the effective resistances of
therefore,be small.
be replacedby the ohmic
resistances without
a transformer
may
introducingany appreciableerror.
The followingnotation will be used:
Ni

Turns

in

Ni

Turns

in

Ratio

of transformation.

so

as

primary winding.
secondary winding.

to be

greater than

This

ratio wiU

unity,i.e.,10

not

be

expressed

0.1.

STATIC

Vi

Vi

El

E2

Ii

I2

7p

Ih+e

181

TRANSFORMERS

Primary impressedor terminal voltage.

Secondary terminal voltage.
Voltage induced in the primary by the mutual flux.
Voltage induced in the secondary by the mutual flux.
Total

primary

current.

Secondary current.
Magnetizing component
Component

of the

primary current.
of the primary current
supplying the

core

loss.

In
I'l

This
If,+ Ih+e (vectorially).

Load

Ti

rz

Xi

X2

of

excitingcurrent.

of the

the
primary current, i.e.,
caused by the load on the secondary.

component

166, is the

transformer

with

diagram of a
the secondary circuit
vector

Fig.

of

reactance

In

open.

coil
the

fi

case

ponent
com-

Primary resistance.
Secondary resistance.
Primary leakagereactance.
Secondary leakagereactance.

Fig. 83, page

or

is the

transformer

166, will be made

component

as

the

good

94.

is stated
as
magnetic circuit,
as

possiblein

of the current

small.

page

order to make
The

the netizing
magresistance and leakage

diagram given in
Fig. 83, "p is the total flux linkingwith the winding and Ei is the
voltage induced by this flux. In the case of the transformer,the
total flux linked with the primary winding is to be divided into
mutual
flux and a leakage flux and the effect of the leakage
a
This leakage flux will
flux is to be replaced by a reactance.
reactance

be

in

phase

will also be made

with

the total

small.

on

On

the

primary current, and

the reactance

voltage drop, which, in effect,replacesit,will lead the current

by 90 degrees.
Fig. 94 gives the vector diagram of a transformer with the

182

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

secondary circuit open and with the total primary flux replaced
by the mutual flux and a leakagereactance.
Referring to Fig.94, "p is the mutual flux and 7^ is the magnetizing
component of the primary current producingthis flux.
Ik+eis the component of the current supplyingthe core loss due
the mutual

to

flux.

7i at

primary current
the

7", the exciting current, is equal

to

the

Ei is the voltageinduced in
I\Xi and
IiVi are the leakage-

load.

no

primary winding by

(p.

90
IiXi is drawn
drops respectively.
degrees ahead of the current because it is the voltage required
to balance the voltageinduced
by the leakageflux. The vector
is marked
of "El
and I^xi corresponds to what
^lin
sum
the
Fig. 83 and is the voltage which must be impressed across
primary winding to balance the voltageinduced in that winding
flux plus the
by the total primary flux,i.e.,by the mutual
primary leakage flux.
former
the primary winding of a transThe voltageimpressed across

and

reactance

resistance

"

is

7i
In

-Ei

properlydesignedtransformer,the

reactance

are

small.

The

(53)

hin+jxi)

in

drop

resistance and

leakage

voltage in the

primary due
compared with

at no load,when
small,especially
and Fi will be very
the impressed voltage. Therefore, "Ei
than 1 or 2 per
nearlyequal. They will seldom differ by more
than
cent, at full load and at no load they will not differ by more
a small fraction of 1 per cent.
Therefore,as an approximation,
to these will be

Vi=

Ei

4.44/A/'i^,"10-8

(54)

equation (54) that the mutual flux in a

transformer is determined by the frequency,the number
of turns
in the winding and the impressedvoltage. The magnetizingcurrent
7^ is determined by the flux and the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit (equation52 page 166). In any given transformer
the voltageimpressed fixes the flux and the magnetizing current
must
a
adjustitselfto produce this flux. As a matter of practice,
It will be

modification

from

of the dimensions

core

of

transformer

be

Equation (54) shows

that for

fixed

frequency the voltage

El
turn, i.e.,
-jj-jis proportionalto the flux.
.

per

of the iron

accompanied by a change in the flux but by a change

magnetizingcurrent requiredto produce the flux.

will not
in the

seen

The

voltage per

184

PRINCIPLES

N2 secondary
to

I2N2

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

producing a magnetomotive
acting to modify the flux in the

turns

equation (53),page

182, the primary current

Vi +

is

force tional
proporFrom
core.

equal

to

Ei

If the total

magnetomotive

force is

altered,both

(p

and

Ei will

change. According to the law of the conservation of energy, the

increase in
an
change in Ei must be of such a nature as to cause
which is equal to the power
the primary power
developed by the
crease
secondary. Equilibrium will be established only when the inin the internal power
absorbed
by the primary winding is
justequal to the internal power developed by the secondary. Let
due
J'lbe the component which is added to the primary current
This will be called the load component of
to the secondary load.
will
the primary current.
This component of the primary current
the magforce NJ'i which will oppose
cause
a magnetomotive
netomotive
force NJi
produced by the secondary current.
the two
Equilibrium will be established when
magnetomotive
the mutual
forces are equal and opposite. Under
this condition,
of the
flux will stillbe produced by the magnetizingcomponent
from its noprimary current and will only be changed slightly
load value.
The smaller ri and Xi, the smaller will be the change
in "p and I^ for any
variation in
change in load. The maximum
the mutual
flux of transformers
of ordinary design will not as a
rule exceed 3 per cent.
For equilibrium
NJ\

Solving equation (56) for

the

I2

ratio of the two

Ni

currents

gives

load component of the primary current

and
in phase to the secondary current
The

(56)

N2I2

is,therefore,
opposite
equal to that current

multipHed by the inverse ratio of transformation.

Reduction

Factors.

When

calculations
making transformer
and when
drawing vector diagrams, it is convenient and often
to reduce
all currents, voltages,resistances and reactances
necessary
to the corresponding currents, voltages,resistances and
of an equivalent transformer
reactances
having a ratio of trans"

STATIC

formation

equal

185

TRANSFORMERS

is one
unity. An equivalenttransformer
which has the same
losses and the same
rating,the same
tion
regulathe transformer
as
it replaces. Usually one of the windings
of this equivalent transformer
is the same
the corresponding
as

winding

to

the actual transformer.

To

make

the

substitution,
it is only necessary
to replaceall currents, voltages,resistances
and reactances
of either of the windings of the actual transformer
by their equivalentvalues in terms of the other winding. This is
accomplished by multiplyingeach by its proper reduction factor.
Induced
voltagesare proportionalto the number of turns in the
Load
currents
windings of a transformer.
are
inversely proportional
to the number
of turns.
if
Therefore, an equivalent
is
be
substituted
for
of the actual windings of a
to
one
winding
transformer,the ratio of the voltage induced in the equivalent
winding to the voltage induced in the actual winding will be the
the ratio of turns in the two
same
as
windings. Since the
regulationas the actual
equivalentwinding must give the same
winding, all component voltages induced in it niust be in the
in the actual winding.
ratio to one
another as they were
same
Therefore,not only will the induced voltagesin the two windings
be in the ratio of turns, but all component voltageswill also be
this

in

on

ratio.

same

currents

component

or

If

turns.

transformer

having
turns

on

the

replaceswill
the

actual

similar

currents

is to be

all

reason,

must

replacedby

ratio of transformation

transformer.
reactances

from

It follows
to their

an

their

former
equivalenttrans-

of 1, the
on

the

must

winding it

transformation

equivalentvalues

of the ratio of transformation

ratio of the

this that

to

reduce

the inverse

primary winding is the high-voltagewinding, then

primary voltages,currents, resistances and reactances
equivalentin terms of the secondary,multiply
Primary voltagesby

Primary

currents

by

Primary resistances by (-)

Primary

reactances

of

be used.

If the
refer

corresponding

be in the inverse ratio of

equivalentwinding to the turns

be equal to the inverse ratio of

resistances and
square

For

by (-)

to
to

186

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

inverse of these reduction

The

from

reduce

Relative
under

secondary
Values

load

of

factors

will,of

be used

course,

to

primary.

to

Resistances.

conditions

MACHINERY

is

The

"

temperature reached

important item

an

in

determining

the

limitingoutput of any piece of electrical apparatus. For

best economy
of material,
all parts should reach their ultimate
safe temperatures at the
of load.
In the case
of

the

limitingcondition

of copper
transformer,the amounts
in the primary and secondary windings should be so proportioned
that each winding will reach its limitingtemperature at

used

the

time under

same

time

same

under

winding is stillcool when

temperature,
used in that

primary

transformer

conduction

one
sa

fe

has been

of heat from

the same,
the copper
loss
windings of a properly designed

and

are

secondary
should be equal at full load.

transformer
For

for the radiation and

If

its ultimate

of copper

unnecessarily
largeamount
winding.

windings of

in the

the other has reached

an

If the conditions
the two

load to be carried.

the maximum

this condition

h'rx

Since 7i and 7'i are

nearlyequal at

very

approximate relation

should

h'

somewhat

from

Relative

ri to rj

of

"

a^

r%

is a matter

this ratio for

Values

load,the following

n
=

I i^
actual ratio of

full

hold

T7~o

The

72V2

one

reason

of
or

It may

design.

differ

another.

the

Reactance
is
Leakage Reactances.
with a winding and
proportionalto the flux linkagesper ampere
hence is proportionalto the number
of turns in a winding multiplied
which links with those turns.
by the flux per ampere
Fig. 95 is a section through a core-type transformer having
a primary and
each leg of the core.
a secondary winding on
The

space

and the

core

between

the

"

windings and

is occupied by insulation.

between
The

the

secondary

primary and

ary
second-

coils carry currents which are nearly opposite in phase and

which produce magnetomotive forces which are nearlyequal and

STATIC

opposite.

The

Consider

two

Let these be wound

considered.

be

primary current

The

it will also pass

upward
the space
between
the two

will return
The

turns

of

outside

of

direction

of the

screw
easilydetermined
by the corkrule,but it must be remembered

applyingthis

coils and

windings

flux is

in

the two

through

upward through the

winding and
primary.

the

supply

secondary be right-handed at the instant

leakage flux of the secondary will then pass

to

the

were

in the

through the annular space left between

will return
through the iron core.
There
will also be some
leakageflux
which will pass through the secondary
The
turns.
primary current will be
left-handed
and the leakage flux due

also

which

windings on the left-hand leg of the core.

if looked at from the top, also
right-handedly

upward

and

equal if it

loss.

core

the

let the current

of the

components

the

187

forces would

magnetomotive

not for the small

the flux and

TRANSFORMERS

Fig. 95.

rule that the

secondary leakage flux which passes

between
the two windings is outside of the secondary coil.
The reluctance of the return
path for the leakage flux which
links with the primary may
be assumed
to be negligibly
smaU.
The return
path for the secondary leakage flux is the iron core
and its reluctance may
also be neglectedwhen
compared with
of that path l5ang between
the reluctance
the two
windings.
reluctance
of the leakage paths will be the reluctance of
The
the two windings.
that portionof the paths which lies between
The
It will, therefore,be
constant.
magnetomotive force

causing the primary leakage flux is proportionalto

and the primary turns, or
of the primary current

the

duct
pro-

to iVi/i.

age
Similarly,the magnetomotive force causing the secondary leakto 7V^2^2. The
due
flux is proportional
linkagesper ampere
be proportional
to these magnetomotive forces will,therefore,
to

iVi^ and

windings
were

each

the
other

If the

Nz'-

were

the

same,
as

the

of
lengths'
equal,and the

leakage

square

the
mean

reactances

of the

ondary
primary and the seclengthof their turns

would

be

related

ratio of transformation.

to

The

188

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

actual

leakage reactances

square

of the ratio of transformation.

is assumed
any

will be very

to exist between

assumption

Calculation

of

of

reactance

in

MACHINERY

regard

nearly in the ratio of the

This

is the relation which

when

it is necessary
to make
to their relative magnitudes.
them

the leakage
calculating
transformer
coil,the leakage flux is assumed
to be parallelto the axis of the coil
of its path is asand the reluctance
sumed

Leakage Reactance.

In

"

be

to

part of the
the ends
of the
96

path
path

represents

of the

is

lies between

The

reluctance

neglected. Fig.

section

of that

through

core-type transformer

leg of

one

which

of the coil.

return

coils of

reluctance

the

the

core.

coils

two

are

The

two

and

dimensions

indicated

on

the

figure by letters. The inside coil is

the secondary. Ni and
N^ will be
used

FiG.

for the

primary
tively.

96.

and

Consider

an

number

of turns

secondary
element

on

the

coils respec-

of the secondary

winding of thickness dy and radius {d^+ y). The reluctance

of this element

is

2ir(d4+ y)dy
The

magnetomotive

force per

c.g.s. unit

of current

is

N,y
4^

di
The

flux

through the element

per

unit current

is

8x^5^^i"^rf,
This flux links

-3"

turns; therefore,the linkagesfor the element

Oil
are

^NV{d^"y)y^

STATIC

The

TRANSFORMERS

189

self-induction which

the coil will be the

is due to the flux that passes through

of the preceding expressionbetweien
integral

the limits y
0 and y
6,2. The self-induction in henries is
this result multipUed by 10-". This is
equal to
=

+ y)y'dy.lO-^
"^'-^j^{d,

The

force

magnetomotive

acting along the space between the

produced by the primary and secondary windings in
paralleland is equal to
coils is

Per unit current

which

this is ^iirN^. The

reluctance of the

path

on

this aats is
L

2w{di + di + }4di)di
and

the flux

through this path

is

S^m^jdi + di-\- }4ds)ds

L

Since the return

paths for the leakage fluxes

are

of

negligible

to link with the

reluctance,half of this flux can be assumed
primary winding and half with the secondary. Therefore, the
part of the secondary self-inductance which is due to this is

Airm^'idi+ d2 + }4d3)di
^""

L
The

leakage

in ohms

reactance

of the whole

ing
secondary wind-

is

^^[(^
The
manner.

"

leakage reactance

t)+
of the

+ ^^
^^('^^

primary

may

J^^')^J
110-' (58)

be found

in

similar

It will be

+
,f87rWi'r(^4

^""A~L~L

d2 +

di)di
^

di"
,

12

M(c^4+ d2 +

)10-9 (59)
y2d,)d^

190

OF

PRINCIPLES

It will be

seen

from

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

equations(58) and (59)that

MACHINERY

the ratio of the

as the ratio
primary and secondary reactances would be the same
not for the first two
terms
of transformation
squared if it were
be
under the brackets involvingthe d's. These two terms
can
lengthof the turns
equal only when the thickness and the mean
As has already been stated,the
of each winding are the same.
will be nearly equal to the square of the
ratio of the reactances

ratio of transformation.
The

calculation

outlined takes

no

by the method
just
leakage reactance
the turns of the
of the leakage between

of the
account

Fig.

97.

assumed
to be parallelto
winding. All of the leakage flux was
the sides of the coils. In realitya considerable portion of the
flux will pass between
the turns as is indicated in Fig. 97.
On account
of the leakage between
culated
calturns, the reactance
by formula (59) ought to be multiplied by a constant
which is less than unity. The value of this constant
will depend
the size and shape of the windings.
upon
Load
Vector Diagram.
The
complete vector diagram of a
is shown
in Fig. 98.
transformer
The resistance and reactance
drops and the core-loss components of the primary current are
exaggerated in order to make the diagram clearer.
"

192

PRINCIPLES

OF

Power

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

ferred
transto

seccore

+
by
ondary
duction
magnetic in-

{zero}

loss

primary

EJ'i
where

df[

cos

be

now

P'i

expanded giving

ihr2)l2cos

"P'2

0 -|- {liX^Ii cos

Secondary

of the

Solution

Take

"

F2

zero

Vector

as

V2I2

1+

bJ^

^^"'""dary\

{
and

Diagram

cos

output

of

Calculation

lation.
Regu-

axis of reference.

an

F2 + jO

^2

V^

loss

copper

where

6lf;

cos

zero

P'2 is the total secondary power.

Ei may

Ei

Eih

loss

copper

li (cosdi

j sin ^2)

"

Vi -{-I2Z2

V2 +

I2 (cos02

V2 +

I2{r2cos

A+j"
A

and

j sin e2)ir2,+j^d
62 + X2 sin O2) + jl2{x2cos
"

B2

"

the real and imaginary

respectively,

are,

r2

sin

terms

^2)
(61)
of

equation (61).
E\

"

The

"

"

Let

In

(A + jB)a

I'l of the primary

load component

E2O'

"

Ih+e+ jif,be

-12

/2(cos02

"

j sin2 ^2)

the

exciting component of the primary

current
measured
at a voltage Ei
aE2
a{A + jB), and
be the core loss also measured
at the voltage E^.
"

"

let P

is

current

STATIC

193

TRANSFORMERS

Then

Ih+e

eT

and

/" referred to ^2

axis it is

an

as

In
Referred to V2

Ih+e+ jif

"

axis it is

an

as

Ih+e(cos a -\-j sin a) + jl^ (cosa + j sin a)

"

where
B
sin

cos

and
A
=

II

VA^

/'l +

In

B^

2(cosdi

j sin 62)

"

Ih+e(cosa -\-i sin a)

+ jl^(cosa + j sin a)
"

(
+

C and

COS

"

"

jM

sin ^2

the
respectively

are

A+e

02 +

cos

Ih+esin

"

sin aj
-\-I^

7" cos

(62)

imaginary parts

real and

of equation

(62).

At

no

7i(ri+ ja;i)
+ jx^)
a(A + jB) + (C + jZ))(ri

-E^

Vi=

F+jG

load Ei and

Ti

transformer

are

very

is small.

current

of

be from

2 to 6 per

cent, of the

in the

primary due

drop
than

0.1
13

or

0.2 per

cent,

nearly equal since the no-load

The

no-load

full-load current
to this current

of the rated

current

will

the

dance
impe-

and

will not

be

primary voltage.

more

Since

194

V2 at

secondary voltage is

load, the no-load

no

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

PRINCIPLES

E,

V,'

where

Ei is 7i

Take

7i

as

InZi,the substraction

"

axis and

the reference

vectorially.

being made

let e" be the no-load

power

factor

angle.
Refer to Fig. 98a, which representsthe no-load
the impedance drop much
exaggerated.

Fig.

El

7x(l -h jO)
Fi(l + jO)

/"(cos e"
i sin 9")(ri+ jxi)
6""+ 7"a;isin e") -|cos
[(7"r-i
-

j{InXicos

term

the

with

It will have

""

effect
negligible

Vi

the

The

(/"ricos

InTi sin e")]

"

quadrature
/"a;isin "").

is in

fl"+

magnitude of Ei.
dr,-\-I"Xi sin

Therefore

6n)

expression is
regulationis

where

the

on

{IvXi cos

"

9"

InTi sin ^n) is small and

"

Fi(l -|-jO) and

terms

V,'

with

98a.

j{IvXicos
The

condition

in

algebraicsense.

an

'

'100
"

In

the

between

E^ and

solution

F2 under

phase

of /" is

of the transformer
load conditions

may

diagram, the angle

be neglectedso far

concerned, and the magnitudes of 7" and P

load may
be taken for the terminal
at no
voltage instead of for
the voltage E^ without
producing any appreciable error.
as

the

actual

XV

CHAPTER

True

Equivalent

Circuit

Representation

of

Calculation

Equivalent
The
and

it may
The
as

Regulation

of

Graphical

Transformer;

cuit;
Cir-

Equivalent

Approximate

the

Approximate

the

from

Circuit
of

Equivalent Circuit

the

of

of

reactances

Transformer.

transformer

are

If the resistances

"

assumed

to be

constant,

in Fig. 99.
exactly represented by the circuit shown
secondary resistance,reactance, current and voltage as well
be

the resistance

and

equivalent values

of the load

reactance

of the

in terms

all reduced

are

their

to

primary winding.

a^

R
the

and

are,

load, and

susceptance
to the

respectively,the resistance and

?""are, respectively,the
Qn and
circuit

of the

of the

excitingcurrent

I^
The

takes

aV2

Vi

Ei

conductance
a

ciurent

of
and

equal

transformer.

equal to aE2

and

is,therefore,equal to

Ex

El

reactance

Eib"

cd is

potentialacross

cd, which

across

the

"

{aHi

ja'ajz)

Ix{ri+ jxi)
195

196

PRINCIPLES

Both

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

IiTi and IiXi are

MACHINERY

small

compared with Vi. Hence, since

of
In is also small,as a rule only a few per cent, of 7i,the error
using J" correspondingto the voltage Vi instead of to the voltage
the error
El will be negligible. For the same
reason
produced
in Vi

by neglecting!" and using Z'l in place of 7i will also be

placed
negligible.Therefore, the real equivalentdiagram may be reby the approximate form shown in Fig. 100.
By combining Xi with a^x^ and ri with ah2, the diagram may
be modified stillfurther givingthe one
in Fig. 101.
shown
the
respectively,
Xi + a^Xz
Xe and ri + aV2
Ve are
called,
=

equivalent reactance

Fi

and

of the trans-

equivalent resistance

the

Fig.

100.

WMIMAAAAAA
arX

Vi b,

aVi
a-R

J.
Fig.

101.

primary side of
the transformer
and must
be used with the primary current
or
with the secondary current
referred to the primary side.
If everythingon the diagrams shown
in Figs.99, 100 and 101
had been referred to the secondary side,
resistance
the equivalent
and the equivalent
reactance
would also have been referred to the

former.

In

Fig. 101, Xe and

secondary side.

Referred

re are

to the

referred to the

secondary, Xe and

Xi
_

x^

ra

r\
Te

re are

197

TRANSFORMERS

STATIC

The

ance
secondary current must be used with the equivalentreactand the equivalentresistance when
they are referred to
the secondarywinding.
Graphical Representation of the Approximate Equivalent
Circuit.
with the exciting
The vector diagram of a transformer
"

current

omitted

is shown

diagram is referred
Let the left-hand

degrees or until the

to the

102.

in

Fig.

"Ei

vector

resistance

102.

Everything

this

on

primary side.

side of this

of this rotation is shown

If the two

Fig.

in

diagram

be revolved

coincides with aEi.

through
The

180

result

Fig. 103.

drops and

the two

reactance

Fig.

drops

are

104.

replacedby the equivalentresistance drop and the equivalent

in Fig. 103 still further
reactance
drop, the diagram shown
simphfiesto that shown in Fig. 104.
The vector
diagram given in Fig. 104 representsthe conditions
existingin the approximate equivalentcircuit of a transformer
The
in Fig. 101.
excitingcurrent has been left off of
shown

198

PRINCIPLES

Figs.102, 103

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

104 since in the

and

approximate diagrams it does

not influence the secondary voltage.
Calculation of the Regulationfrom the ApproximateEquivalent
Circuit.
"

Vi

regulationin

and the

-^(cos 02

aVi +

3 sin

+ j^,)
02)(re

(63)

per cent, is

7i

aFj
100

aV^
If it is

convenient,all

more

In this

secondary side.
"

and

be

referred to the

100 isthe

"

j sin 02)(re+ jxe)

(64)

regulationper cent.^

In

equations (63) and (64) are not the

equation(64)both r^ and Xe are referred to the secondary

-^

times

values of

same.

may

case

72 + /2(cosdi

f7

The

vectors

are

r^

as

Xe in

and

largeas they

are

in

equation (63)where

they

both referred to the

primary.
In so far as voltageregulationis concerned, a transformer
may
be replacedby a series impedance coil having a resistance equal
are

to Te and

equalto

reactance

Xe.

of calculatingthe regulationof a
approximate method
transformer givesresults which are nearlyenough correct except
when appUed to transformers having excessive excitingcurrents
or
large resistance and leakage-reactancedrops. In the
very
should not be used for calculating
latter case, the approximate method
the regulationof a transformer.
The

Some

the values of the lation

reguthe correct and approximate

idea of the closeness with which

of

transformer

calculated

by

be obtained from Table

check may
the regulationcalculated by both methods
of a
methods

IX which

gives
1000-kv-a.,60-

cycletransformer.
'

Since the

Vi
circuit,
194.

excitingcurrent

should

not

be

is

corrected

neglected on

the

for the no-load

approximate equivalent
drop as is done on page

CHAPTER

Losses

in

All-day

Loss; Hysteresis

Eddy-current

Transformer;

Loss; Screening

The

XVI

Effect

Eddy

of

Efficiency;

Currents;

Efficiency.
in

Losses

Transformer."

losses in

The

transformer

are:

(a) Core loss.

(6) Primary copper loss,
(c) Secondary copper loss.
The

first of these

The

second

is

two

nearly

the

as

vary

The

in the

lead

iron

the
the

d"x

/-

iron

Each
I

section, taken

i
t

Let

t and
one

of the

t be

of the

nations
of the lamicore.

hysteresis.

to

different
105

the

laws.

represent

flux,through
the laminated

form

of the

perpendicular

to

plate and

be

side of

flux

the

which

eddy

elements

ah

be

is enclosed

current

form

compared
current

hne

be
or

its

and

its

these

width

circuit

to 2w.
200

equal

two

dx.

cdef

will

of which

of the

width, the length of the

to be

of these
be

ments,
ele-

middle

elements

two

thickness

paper.
two

the

the distance

in the

the

to

through

let their

If the

considered

equal

Let

flux,which

Consider

drawn

between

circulate

sides.

two

with

may

to

perpendicular

line ah

the

to

in centimeters.

expressed

each

on

elements

eddy

thickness

measured

assumed

are

from

an

small

the

plate parallel to its sides.

elements

the

Fig.

^Let

"

due

follows

plates which

105.

is

cause

Loss.

flux wave,

core.

width

The

the

\, "

Fig.

Both

losses

perpendicular to

thin

of the

of

quency,
fre-

separated into losses due

be
and

the

upon

weight of the

or

components

Eddy-current

iron

volume

currents

of these

one

value

losses may

eddy

to

depends

iron, the thickness

the

the

and
The

and

core

of the

by the variation

maximum

quality of

"dx

of

square

independent of the load.

their respective currents.

loss is caused

core

flux

and

constant

plate is

path for the

to twice

the

length

STATIC

Let

the flux

laminations

density,b, be

and

let it

201

TRANSFORMERS

be, at

assumed
any

flux

constant

If the

flux is

mean-square

if 6
function,i.e.,
the voltage e will be

of

mum
of the maxi-

circuit due to this flux

^ {2xwb)

sine

value

function

instant,a
time,t.

density,(B", and the

The voltageinduced in the elementary
densitywill be

throughout the

("m sin tct,the

root-

2ir
^

2xw"7=f(",n

V2
that the flux,produced by the eddy currents

Assume
that the

lag of

is so small

the

eddy currents behind the voltage producing

them
be neglected. Under
this assumption,the eddy current
may
in the element
be found by dividingthe voltage
cdef may
in this element
by its resistance.
Let the specificconductivity of the iron in c.g.s. units be K.
Then
the resistance of the elementary circuit cdefper unit length
measured
along the flux will be

i_

_2w
^

The

dx

loss in the elementary circuit per

length will be

\2

2ir

unit

(2-^M"|

E^

-^^

"

"

""

Kdx

"

^wxVp"JKdx

The

loss per

unit

is

expressedin

units the

loss,Pe, in

Awx'^TT^S^"m^Kdx
ergs per second.

w^

If K

will be

length of lamination

mhos
watts

fe

per

centimeter

per unit

instead

length of lamination
iU

cube

of c.g.s.
will be

202

PRINCIPLES

The

P'"

volume

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

to
corresponding

MACHINERY

this loss is wt.

per cubic centimeter divide Pe

by

To

find the

loss,

wt.

6
.

It should

be noticed

that

the

eddy-current loss varies

square

of the thickness of the lamination.

square

of the maximum

It also varies

as

the

as

the

flux

quency
for fixed fredensity*and, therefore,
of the induced voltage.

the square
In the precedingcalculation for P'e certain
as

assumptionswere

made, namely, that the magneticeffect of the eddy currents was

and that the flux was
uniformlydistriouted throughout
negligible
with the lines of force

the laminations

to
parallel

the sides of the

to be more
or less deviated
plate. These assumptionsare likely
from in practicecausing the measured
loss due to eddy currents
The
to be somewhat
smaller than that found by the formula.

value of K

for

of 10* mhos
one-third

steel is in the

ordinarytransformer

per

centimeter

For

cube.

neighborhood

silicon steel it is about

large.
for the eddy-currentloss,a sine
In deducing the expression
The eddy-currentloss depends upon
of flux was
assumed.
wave
the root-mean-square value of the eddy currents
produced by
value of the flux causing
the maximum
the flux and not upon
the eddy-currentlosses caused by fluxes having
them; therefore,
values and the same
the same
maximum
frequency but different
forms will be different. Assuming that the eddy currents
wave
as
produce no magnetization,their form factor will be the same
as

the form factor of the

voltageinduced

in the

windingsby the

flux.

of turns on the coil

Hysteresis Loss. ^Let N be the number
producing the flux and let the flux densityat any instant be equal
"

6.

to

is the cross-section of the iron

If A

to the

measured

core

pendicular
per-

flux,the electromotive force induced in the coil

will be
e

"NA

-j7

abvolts.

at

If i is the instantaneous
e,

the power

value of the current

correspondingto this
p

will be

ei

the voltage
eddy-current loss is proportional to /3^only when
the
For
sinusoidal.
is
wave
eddy-current
form,
windings
any
is proportionalto the effective voltage induced in the windings.

The

induced
loss

current

correspondingto

in the

STATIC

The

energy

time

dt is

in ergs

corresponding to this which

pdt
Assume

that

the reluctance

length is constant.

203

TRANSFORMERS

Then

is

expended

in

eidt

magnetic circuit per

of the

unit

the

magnetomotive force expended per

unit length of the magnetic circuit to produce this flux will also

be

The

constant.

intensityb

producing

the

flux

is
4.irNi

where

force

magnetomotive

h and

hi

I are,

the magnetizing force per unit

respectively,
of field,
and the length
or the intensity
length of magnetic circuit,
of the magnetic circuit in centimeters.

Solvingthe

last

expressionfor

gives

JL

"

_
~

47riV
If the values
energy

of

expended

and

substituted

are

in the time

The
volume

equationfor

the

dt,this equation becomes

pdt

where

in the

j-/idb

-7"h

db

V is the volume.

expenditure of

in ergs

energy

during

cycle

per

unit

will be

ij'
.hdb

If the iron is carried

loss per second

or

through / magnetic cyclesper second, the

the rate

fThe
of the

energy

is

expended will

be

h db-10-^ watts.

loop
represents the area enclosed by the hysteresis
integral
tensiti
core
plottedwith flux densities as ordinates and field inas

abscissae.

loss in iron
by Steinmetz that the hysteresis
be represented
by an empiricalequation of the form

It has been
can

at which

shown

watts.
vfV(""'10r''

vfV(S,^-10-'

-^

h dblOr^

(65)

204

PRINCIPLES

Both

ij

OF

and

coeflBcient.

constants.

are

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

17

that

has shown

Steinmetz

is known

the

as

hysteresis

the exponent

is about

experimentsby Steinmetz,as well as others carried

on
by Ewing, have shown that x need not be exactly 1.6,but 1.6
is approximatelycorrect for most
iron unless the densities are
much
higher than ordinarily used. At very high magnetic
1.6.

Later

densities the exponent

than 1.6.
The

loss depends
hysteresis

considerablysmaller

to become

appears

the maximum

upon

value

of the

is reached
independent of how this maximum
vided
prothe change of flvixbetween the limits of zero and maximum,
in other words,
and vice versa, is continuous and without reversal;
flux and

is

provided there

are

loopsin

small

no

curve.
hysteresis
and this is the largest
loss,

the

Since the

hysteresis
part of the core
value of the flux,the core losses
part, depends upon the maximum
correspondingto voltagesimpressedon the windings of an iron
will vary with the wave
form of the impressedvoltageeven
stant.
though the root-mean-square value of the voltage remains concore

A flat electromotive-force
which
wave

is less flat

Hence
wave

the

square

loss

core

will be

peaked

vice versa, a
which
flux wave

and,

gives rise to

givesrise to

wave

the

electromotive-force

core

wave

flat electromotive-force

loss

corresponding

having the

wave

flux

peaked electromotive-force
is less peaked (page 172).

corresponding to

greater than

to

root-mean-

same

value.

For any

iron

the

core

Pk+e
Table

exponent and
steel and

gives

equation for the

core

loss may

be written

+ fcJ2(B"2)10-7
F(fc,/(B"i-6

Steinmetz

the

exponent, the

coefiicient for
the hysteresis

(66)

eddy-current

ordinarytransformer

sihcon steel at

ordinary flux densities. Table XI gives

the losses per pound at 60 cyclesand 10,000 gausses.
The eddycurrent
losses are for platesof No. 29 gage.
X

Table

Silicon
steel

Ordinary annealed
steel

transformer

Steinmetz

exponent

from

1 58 to 1 62

from

1 82 to 2

from

0.001

Eddy-current exponent.
Hysteresis coefficient.
.

from

1.58

from

0.0006

to 1.62

02

to 0.0022

to 0.00095

STATIC

XI

Table

Watts

Pound

per

of Iron

at 60

Cycles and 10,000

Gage

steel

from

0.34

to 0.70

from

0.12

to 0.18

from

0.93

to 2.0

from

0.54

to 0.90

Silicon steels used

for No.

29

Silicon
steel

annealed

transformer

Gausses

Plates

Ordinary

Eddy-current loss.
Hysteresis loss.

205

TRANSFORMERS

for transformers

contain

from

3 to

per

cent, of silicon.

permeabilityof silicon steel is slightlylower at ordinary

densities than the permeabilityof ordinary transformer
steel.
This tends to make
the magnetizing ciirrent for silicon iron
largerthan for ordinary iron.
slightly
In deducing the expresScreening Effect of Eddy Currents.
sions
and
the
flux
for the eddy-current
hysteresis
losses,
density
The

"

assumed

was

to

uniform

be

throughout the laminations.

though
Al-

assumption is approximatelycorrect for very thin

laminations,it is far from true when thick laminations are used.
The effect of the eddy currents on the flux is like the effect of
the secondary current in a transformer.
They tend to demagnetize
this

the

demagnetizingaction
and is zero

of each lamination

center

eddy

This

core.

lamination

in any

currents

is greatest at

the

since all of the

at its surface,

flow in concentric

paths about

produce the greatesteffect at that point.

and, therefore,
Any pointin a lamination is subjectedto a demagnetizingaction
which is due to the eddy currents in that portionof the lamination
which lies without this point.

its center

of this action of the

On account

magnetomotive

in the resultant
surface

From

Table

be used for

of

currents

force in

lamination.

The

the

XII

it is obvious

25-cycletransformers

laminations

less than

0.5

mm.

tion
there is a diminu-

passingfrom

flux

of different thicknesses

perimeteris given in
iron,at 60 and 25 cycles.

densityat

transformer

With

the center

of laminations

center

the

to

eddy

Table

that thicker

the

density at the

in per cent, of
XII for ordinary
laminations

may

60-cycletransformers.
thick,the decrease in flux in

than

for

passing into any lamination is only a few per cent, for either 60
is seldom
cores
25 cycles. As the iron used for transformer
or

206

PRINCIPLES

0.014

over

OF

in.

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

(0.36mm.) thick,the

MACHINERY

densityin the

flux

be assumed
ordinary transformer may
error.
introducingany appreciable

Flux

Densities

the Center

at

Flux

of the Maximum

of Any

Density
2

Thickness

60
25

cycles.
cycles.

Table

is calculated

XII

silicon iron,such

as

is

now

variation in flux is much

to the

The
of each

at

in Terms

Lamination

its Surface

mm.

0.5

mm.

mm.

0.18

0.61

0.96

0.30

0.89

0.99

For
iron.
ordinary transformer
almost universallyused for cores, the
less than is indicated by the table,due

for

effect of the diminution

lamination
is

effect is the

in flux

is to increase the

requiredfor
far

so

same,

a
as

loss
hysteresis

The
given total flux in the core.
is conthe magnetizing current
cerned,

varies

the

as

1.6

density,this loss will be greater

densitywere

since for

densitytoward the center

impressed magnetomotive

decreasing the cross-section of the

as

the

without

constant

of such iron.
high resistivity

force which

the

be

an

XII'

Table

Maximum

to

of

core

uniform.

given total

surface

and

for

maximum

of the

given total

the
flux

flux than

if

eddy-current loss will be less,

the eddy currents will be the same
at
The

flux

center

power

Since

core.

of the

laminations

whether

the

flux

tions
densityis uniform or not, and at every other pointin the laminathey will be less. For these reasons, equation (66) will
loss
give an eddy-current loss which is greater and a hysteresis
is less than
which
actually exist. The difference,however,
the actual core loss and that calculated by the equation
between
is small for laminations of thicknesses ordinarilyused, especially
of neglectingthis difference is
for siUcon iron, and the error

negligible.
of a transformer
Efficiency. The efficiency
(67) where Pc is the core loss.
"

V2I2

Output
Input
"See

V2I2

cos

e2+Po

cos

Alternating Currents, Vol. I, Alexander

is

given by

tion
equa-

62

I\ri +

I\r2

Russell, p.

359.

(67)

208

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

is equal to the
expressed as complex quantities
of the real and

Applying this

imaginary parts of the current

to the results

given on

Efficiency
=

and

192 and

pages

products
voltage.
gives

193

Viihcose^) +0{l2sine2)

output

T,_.

of the

sum

^^^^

j^^

pC

+ GD

It is

convenient
and much
to
more
satisfactory
usually more
calculate the efficiency
by equation (68).
is the
The
hysteresispart of the core loss of a transformer
in transformers
having
largerof the two components, especially
mum
silicon iron cores.
of the maxithe 1.6 power
It depends upon
duced
of the flux.
Therefore,for the same
root-mean-square inloss
flux and consequentlythe core
voltage,the maximum
will vary considerably
for impressed voltages of different wave
form

this reason,
the difference between
the actual wave
and a sine wave
should be stated in giving the efficiencies

For

forms.

used

of transformers

of

when

is

accuracy

required.

The

ciency
effi-

operated on a peaked electromotive-force

will be appreciablyhigher than when
measured
flat
a
on

wave

transformer

electromotive-force
much

0.2 per

as

The

cent,

of
efficiency

increases with

load

for that

output

This may

at

difference

The

wave.

in

extreme

an

current

which

which

output

the

to

as

case.

transformer

the

amount

may

is,of

and

core

reaches

and

zero

course,
a

losses

copper

at

no

maximum
are

equal.

proved by making use of equation (68). The core

stant.
conloss,Pc, and the secondary voltage V2 will both be assumed
The maximum
will occur
for that value of the
efficiency
secondary current which makes the differential of the efficiency
with respect to the secondary current zero.
If 77 is the efficiency,
the

be

maximum

will
efficiency

when

occur

-jja

Diiferenti-

0.

12

tial
ating equation (68) with respect to I2 and equating the differento zero
gives

(yji

e2 + Pe + hh-e)Vi

cos

Pc
Transformers
should
average

be

which

are

62

COS
=

to be

VJz

COS

^2(78COS

02 +

2hr.)

/2^ re

operatedcontinuouslyvmder

designed to have equal core and

load at which they are to be used.

copper

Many

load

losses at the
transformers

STATIC

connected

are

load

or

permanently to

under

very

209

TRANSFORMERS

small loads

the mains

and

operate under

largepart of the time.

no

In such

it is

of iron
obviouslyimpossibleto reduce the amount
to make
the maximum
sufficiently
for the average
occur
efficiency
of the largeamount
load,both on account
of copper
required
and the poor voltageregulation
which would result. The fullcases

load copper

losses of such

greater than the

transformers

are

usually made

what
some-

losses.

core

All-day Efficiency.The

of a transformer
is
all-dayefficiency
the ratio of the total kilowatt-hovu* output during 24 hours to
the total kilowatt-hour
formers,
input dxu-ingthe same
period. Transare
as a rule permanently
except those in central stations,
mains on their primary sides and will conto power
connected
sume
corresponding to their core losses during 24 hours
power
ciency
The all-dayeffiof each day whether
they are loaded or not.
tion
of transformers will,
therefore,depend upon the distributhe load factor at which
of their losses and upon
they
"

operate.

watt-hour
is numerically equal to the total kiloall-dayefficiency
output for 24 hours divided by the kilowatt-hour
output for 24 hours,plus the core loss for 24 hours,plusthe copper
The

loss also for 24 hoiu-s.

In

algebraicform this is
J^tV^h
"LtViU

cos

densityin
the turns

the
are

core

the

windings of

the cross-section of the

be increased

in order to

the number

of turns
turns

on

former
trans-

loss but it will increase the flux

the copper
loss. Usually if
and consequentlythe core

decreased

decreasing the

(70)

Si/jV, -j-24Pc

of turns

Reducing the number

will decrease

02 +

62

cos

core

keep the flux density down.

windings of a transformer
while
all-dayefficiency,

to

Increasing

oppositeeffect. In general,
both the primary and the secondary
in the same
proportiondecreases the
increasingthe turns has the opposite

will have
in

will have

the

effect.

density used in
is in the neighborhood of
littlehigherflux densitymay
The

flux

14

the

design of 60-cycletransformers

inch.
A
kilolines per square
be used for lower frequencytrans-

70

210

OF

PRINCIPLES

with

in the

inch used

higherin large transformers

also be

densitymay
artificialcooling. The
The

formers.

MACHINERY

ALTERNATINO-CURRENT

flux densities in kilolines per square

transformers
design of oil-cooled single-phase

given in Table XIII.

are

XIII*

Table

formers
etc.,at which ten translosses,
regulation,
densities,
of standard design operate are given in Table XIV.

flux

The

XIV

Table

trans-

former

Type

Hating,
kw.

Rated
quency
voltages
Fre-

22,000
1

Core

25

60

Core

50

50

Core

50

Shell

100

Core

100

Core

500

Shell

600

Shell

500

25

Shell

1000

60

10

Shell

5000

50

\r,

Design

of Static

f'ion

X,

Regulation
1, p.f.=0.7
p.f.
=

50.0

0.32

1.51

4.09

68.2

0.31

1.43

3.96

97.8

0.63

1.74

3.10

5.0

0.38

1.04

2.53

23.9

0.48

1.03

2.16

4.78

0.22

0.72

2.59

5.52

0.38

0.97

2.36

31.1

0.11

1.37

6.57

10.0

0.15

0.87

3.98

0.10

0.69

4.13

440

22,500

From

trans-

440

30,000

of

Ratio

of

No.

230

11,000
2,200
11,000

60

460

11,000
2,300
12,700
2,300
13,200
425

66,000
6600

52,000
33,000

Transformers

equivalentresistance,

x,

1.58

by H.

M.

Hobart.

equivalentreactance.

STATIC

Table

The

distribution

suitable for

{Continued)

XIV

of the

in

important factor

211

TRANSFORMERS

losses in

is often

transformer

determiningthe type

of transformer

which

an

is

transformers
nected
congiven service. When
are
far as the
so
only when loaded, it makes Uttle difference,
tributed
disof operation is concerned, how
the losses are
efficiency
most

the iron and

between

copper,

provided the

total losses

remain
however, transformers
manently
perconnected
to the power
mains, as is usuallythe case
except in central stations or substations,the distribution of the

changed. When,

not

are

losses may
For

have

great influence

very

example, take as a
having a total full-load

is

which

core

loss.

Full

loss of 750

the transformer

Assume

followingconditions

the economy
of operation.
25-kv-a. transformer
case
a
specific
on

watts, two-fifths of
to operate under the

24 hours:

during

1 hour.

load

One-half

2 hours.

load

3 hours.

One-quarter load
No

18

load

hours.

for the specified

load
of this transformer
all-dayefficiency
If threeis,according to equation(70),page 209, 89.6 per cent.
The

fifths of the total loss had

would
all-dayefficiency
the

switchboard

this transformer
*

/"

no-load

at

been

loss instead of

the
two-fifths,

With power
been 85.9 per cent.
the operatingcost
kilowatt-hour,

have
c.

for 1 year
current,

core

/i

with
full-load

the

assumed

primary current.

load

would

at

of
be

212

PRINCIPLES

nearly
loss

$12

when

in

dollars
of

in

the

the

of

transformers

of

cost

of

piece

install,

operation

in

some

than
of

balance
the

more

by

their

the

the

efiicient

obtain

saving

more

may

In

use.

the

increase
the

in

apparatus.

the

in

increase
cost

In

of

in

most

the

power

feeders,

those

formers
trans-

will
offset

the

the

most

the

on

most

in

saving
efiicient

economical

effected

cost

conditions

give

efficiency

of
the

though

interest
in

its

certain

general,

station

thousands

even

than

core

large

several

Under

were

to

losses

which

always

not

cases

to

necessary

losses

is

apparatus
as

of

the
of

low.

very

losses

loss.

expenses,

is

the

total

connected

difference

operating

distribution

desirable
the

make

the

core

of

switchboard

cost

greater

were

distribution

annual

the

at

power

the

easily

may

of

transformers

distributing

change

MACHINERY

three-fifths
two-fifths

only

many

slight

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

when

more

than

having
a

OF

to

one

the

ment
invest-

more

may

by

the

use

CHAPTER
Measurement

Core

of

Hysteresis

AND

Resistance;

XVII

Loss; Separation
Losses; Measurement

Measurement

Short-circuit

of

Reactance,

Highly-inductive-load

Method

Testing

Transformers

of Core

Loss.

of

Measurement

op

The

"

of

Method;

power

Equivalent

Reactance,

Equivalent

Measurement

Method;

Eddy-ctjrbent

of

Equivalent
Opposition

input to

former
trans-

equal to its core loss plus a

loss in its primary winding which, under ordinary
very small copper
circumstances, is entirelynegligible.The value of the core
loss obtained in this way
correspondsto a voltagewhich is equal
in the transformer coils. At no load this
to the voltage induced
voltage does not differ appreciably from the voltage impressed
with

its

secondary

of the transformer.

the terminals

across

is

open

7, Table XIV, page 210, has about as largea

loss as any transformer
loss in comparison with its core
copper
in the table,and the no-load current of this transformer,expressed
in per cent, of full-load current, is a littlelargerthan the average
Transformer

no-load

no-load

in

copper

is 5.2 per
Therefore,if the neglect of the

copper

no

no-load

the full-load copper

the two
between
no-load

transformer,when

loss of this

loss,produces

generalthe

This current

of all the transformers.

of the full-load current.

cent,

core

current

No.

appreciableerror,
copper

loss in

loss

can

transformer

it is fair to
be

is divided about

rule,

equally

windings. If this assumption is made, the

loss of transformer

No.

7 is

or

^100

core

that

assume

neglected. As

6.3 watts.
^^(0.052)2

of the

determining its

0.19

loss of the transforhaer.

213

per

cent.

214

PRINCIPLES

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

MACHINERY

When

measuring the core losses of transformers,the copper

losses in the measuring instruments
must
not be overlooked.
Some
of these losses will always be included in the power
cated
indiIn the case
of small transformers,i.e.,
by the wattmeter.
correction for them may
5 to 15 kw., neglectingto make
proper
easilyintroduce an error of 5 to 10 per cent.
The
Separation of Eddy-current and Hysteresis Losses.
From
equation (66) page 204, the core loss for a core of fixed
"

dimensions

be written

may

Pn+e

KHf(Rj-' + KeP("J

If the values of the two

Kh and Ke

constants

(71)
be

can

determined,

separated into its two components.

These constants
be found for any given iron core
by solving
may
two
simultaneous
equations obtained by measuring the core loss,
the total

loss Ph+emay

core

either at

two

be

different maximum

flux densities and

the

same

maximum
frequency or at two different frequenciesand the same
method
flux density. Whichever
for obtainingthe two equations
form of the impressed electromotive
is adopted, the wave
force
must
be exactlythe same
during both determinations of the core
loss.
Since the

form

wave

the maximum

be the

must

in both

same

flux

determinations,
be replaced by

density in the equation may

its value in terms
of the frequency and the root-mean-square
voltageinduced in the winding by the flux.
E

For

any

fixed

(form factor)N"p",flO-^

form

wave

and

number

of turns

this may

be

written
E

fci(B"/

and
*""

Substitutingthis value
gives
Pn+e
It must
fixed

wave

and

different for different

fci/

of (Bm in the

be remembered
form

K'J-^-'E'-'+ K'eE^
that

forms

core

loss

(72)

equation (72) holds only for

definite iron
wave

equation for the

core.

and

The

constants

for different

cores.

will be

216

PRINCIPLES

OF

line.
straight

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

of this line on the axis of ordinates

intercept
will be KiSSim^-^-Kef(S,m^
is equal to the ordinate at a point on
the line for a frequency/ minus the intercept
oa.
Equation (73)
is plottedin Fig. 106.
quency
Referringto Fig. 106, oa and cd both multipliedby the frethe hysteresisand the eddy-current
/ are, respectively,
losses corresponding
to that frequency.
Measurement
of Eqmvalent Resistance.
The equivalent resistance
a

The

"

of

of its
better

to

transformer

be calculated from

the ohmic

primary and secondary windings, but

it

measure

losses

current

may

conductors

directlyin order

hysteresislosses which

or

in the iron

or

to include

by the

core

are

currents

ance
resist-

it is sometimes
all local

eddy-

produced in the
in the primary

Erequency

Fia.

and

the

secondary
these local

made
The
in

with
vector

the

106.

cluding
windings. The equivalent resistance,inbe obtained from measurements
losses,
may

transformer

diagram

of

short-circuited.
short-circuited transformer

is shown

Fig. 107.
The

flux

in

short-circuited

transformer

is

merely that required

to produce a voltage equal to the impedance drop in the
secondary (Fig. 107). The secondary impedance drop will be
approximately equal to one-half of the total impedance drop
in the transformer.
This total impedance drop is equal to the
impressed voltage and, as a rule,it will not be over 4 or 5 per
cent, of the rated voltage of the transformer
with fulleven
load current
in the short-circuited winding. The
secondary
induced
voltageis only half of this or from 2 to 2)4 per cent.
a

217

TRANSFORMERS

STATIC

of the rated

to the induced
voltage. Since the flux is proportional
voltage and since the core loss produced by a flux varies between
the 1.6 and 2 power
loss in a short-circuited
of the flux,the core
transformer
is entirelynegligible
in comparison with the copper
loss. The input to a short-circuited transformer
will,therefore,

be

equal

the

to

circuit current
short-circuit
and

the

loss correspondingto the

total copper
plus all local losses that are produced
If P

current.

short-circuit

transformer

to which

by the
the input
respectively,

I are,
both measured

and

current

short-

the power

is

the side of the

on

supplied,the equivalentre

P
sistance referred to that side is

y^-

Fig.

of

Meastirement
When

"

107.

Equivalent Reactance, Short-circuit Method.

transformer

is short-circuited

Fi

ala^i -H IiZi

IlZe

equivalentimpedance and is referred

since Ii is the primary current.

2e

is the

Se

to the

primary side

Ix

and

primary and the secondary leakage reactances Xi and

of the number
to the square
assumed
to be proportional
are
in the two
windings, the equivalentreactance
turns
may
If the

divided

into its two

Although
reactance

of
be

component parts.

the short-circuit method

of

Xi

transformer

saturation,the value of the

of

determining the leakage

necessitates
reactance

the

given by

low
of very
it will differ only

use

218

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OP

PRINCIPLES

to normal saturation since

corresponding
the reluctance of the path of the leakageflux in most transformers
is nearly independentof the saturation of the iron core.
of Equivalent Reactance, Highly InductiveMeasurement
vector diagram of a transformer
The simplified
load Method.
thing
deliveringa highlyinductive load is shown in Fig.108. Every-

from
slightly

the value

"

on

the

diagram is referred

to the

secondary winding.

ing
equivalentreactance may be calculated from the followequation which is approximatelytrue when appliedin an
carries a very
which
highly
to a transformer
algebraicsense
inductive load (Fig.108).
The

a
_

is that itgivesa value of reactance

The advantage of this method

which

correspondsto

saturation of the trans-

nearlynormal

very

is "e

*r.
Fig.

former

core.

The

108.

disadvantage is

that

it necessitates the sub-

Vi
traction of two
and

any

error

voltages,
"

and

V2, which

in the determination

are

very

nearlyequal,

of either will be very

much

exaggerated in their difference.

The limit of the
OppositionMethod of TestingTransformers.
output of a transformer is determined by the rise in temperature
of its parts and by its regulation.Of the two, the temperature
rise is by far the more
important in most cases.
The methods
for determining the regulationof a transformer
have already been given. In order to obtain the increase in
under
to
load, it is necessary
temperature of a transformer
"

'operate it under

conditions

which

produce

normal

full-load

STATIC

heating for

sufficient

parts to become

time

lengthof
This

constant.

for small transformers

219

TRANSFORMERS

for the

will

to 24 hours

temperature of its

requirefrom

longer for

2 to 3 hours

formers.
largetransWhen
merely the ultimate temperatures are desired,
the time requiredto make
be reduced considerably
a heat run
may
the heating during the first part of the test by
by accelerating
operating at overload.
Small transformers
be tested by applyingan actual load,
may
but when
largetransformers have to be tested,the cost of the

requiredfor loadingbecomes

power

the

or

oppositionmethod
available.

are

applied

to

prohibitive.In

used, provided two

be

may

very

modification

singletransformer

two

cases,

similar transformers

of this method

if it has

Fig.

such

primary

may

and

be
two

109.

is equally apopposition method

plicable
and
it
is
in
to
transformers
small
as
large
to
very general
to
the
and
core
supply
It requiresmerely enough power
use.
being tested.
losses of the two transformers
copper
the oppositionmethod, the primary windings of the
For

secondary windings. The

two

transformers

connected

in

to
parallel

frequency. The

the proper connections.

A' represent the
A and
of
respectively,

one

primary and
transformer;B and B'

windings of the other.

If the secondary windings
series

of the proper
then
windings are
mains

secondary
in series with their voltagesopposing. Fig. 109 gives

voltage and
connected

are

they
circuit,

are

are

virtuallyon

secondary windings,
the corresponding
are

opposed
open

with

circuit

respect to the
so

far

as

their

220

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

primariesare concerned, and no current will flow in them when

the primariesare
excited.
So far as the secondaries
are
cerned,
conthe primariesare
virtuallyshort-circuited with respect
to any

The

which

current

correctness

through the secondaries.

is sent

of these two

to Fig. 109.
referring

clear

will be made

by
The plus and minus
signs on this figure
windings at
polarityof the transformer

merely indicate the

some
particularinstant.

The

statements

the direction

show

arrows

of the

by inserting
an
alternatingelectromotive force anywhere in the secondary
at e.
as
By followingthrough the circuit in the direction
circuit,
current

which

of the

arrows,

circuited

so

concerned.

would

be

produced

it will be
far

The

as

that

seen

the

at

instant

some

the

electromotive

transformers
force

are

inserted

shortat

is

sidered
oppositionwhen conforce impressed on
with respect to the electromotive
the primaries Therefore,if the rated voltage is applied to the
will be operating under
primary windings, the transformers
normal
conditions so far as core
loss is concerned.
If, at the
same
time, the voltage inserted at e is adjusted so that full-load
current
exists in the secondaries,
full-load current
will also exist
by induction in the primary windings and the transformers will
be operating under
conditions of full load so far as the copper

secondary voltagesare

in

loss is concerned.
The

sary
only power
requiredunder these conditions is that necesto supply the core
loss,which is measured
by a wattmeter
placed in the primary circuit at Wi, and the power
required to
loss. This latter will be measured
supply the copper
by a
wattmeter
with its potential coil connected
at w^
about
the
of electromotive
force at e.
One-half
of the reading
source
of the wattmeter
divided by the square
at w^
of the current
measured
in series with it will be the equivalent
by an ammeter

resistance

of

the

of electromotive

source

one

transformer.

impedance drop

in

force at

voltmeter
e

connected

will record twice the

transformer.

about

lent
equiva-

The

reading of this
instrument
divided by twice the current in the circuit,
given by an
ammeter
placed at 02, will be the equivalentimpedance of one
An
transformer.
ammeter
placed at a^, in the primary circuit,
will record
The

twice

one

the no-load

temperature rise

may

current

of

be obtained

one

transformer.

both

by thermometers

STATIC

221

TRANSFORMERS
^

and

from

resistance

calculation

of

the

and

at

and

the
The

the

end

of

be

varied

auxiliary
If

the

obtain

to

suitable

at

by

and

Wi

the

the

from

or

run

voltage

resistance

required

at

that

point.

at

in

the

wattmeter

respectively.

02

transformer

of

from

beginning

the

at

readings

the

obtained

be

method

for

series

with

the

is

to

insert

The

primary

the

voltage
of

this

of

the

transformer.

core

transformers

losses
and

all

adjusting

the

resistances

either

may

suitable

any

placed

way

secondary
may

by

of

ammeter

best

rise

temperature

made

measurements

The

measurements.

for

the

necessity
load

put

are

voltage
for

conditions

in
at

the

on

is

obtained

handling
is

avoided.

side

low-voltage
from

high-voltage

third

circuits

former,
trans-

when

CHAPTER

Ctjrbent

Potential

Transformer;

Transformer;

current

XVIII

Transformer;

ConstantInduction

Auto-transformer;

Regulator
Transformer.

Ciirrent

"

Current

instruments
alternating-current
shunts

with

direct-current

transformers

and

the

serve

instruments.

used

are

purpose

same

When

with
as

current

used, its primary winding is placed in the line

and its secondary is shortcarrying the current to be measured
the current.
circuited through the instrument
which is to measure
of increasing
Current
transformers
the double
serve
purpose

transformer

is

the

range

current

of

an

instrument

and

insulatingit from

the

line.

secondary current in any transformer to the

and is fixed
is constant
load component
of the primary current
by the ratio of the turns on the primary and the secondary
are
windings. The two currents
exactly opposite in phase.
not
The
total primary current
and the secondary current
are
exactly oppositein phase, neither is their ratio exactly constant.
of
their phase relation and their ratio varies on
account
Both
The

the

ratio of the

magnetizing current

current

in the

in the

primary which

primary

is

and

required

to

the

component

supply the

core

losses.
When

the

secondary winding

is closed

through

very

low

coil of a wattmeter,
or the current
impedance, such as an ammeter
the secondary induced
voltage becomes very small and is equal
to the impedance drop in the instrument
plus the impedance
mutual
flux
The
drop in the secondary of the transformer.
spondingly
required to produce this small induced voltage will be corresmall and, since it is the mutual
mines
deterflux which
the magnetizing current
current
and
the component
supplyingthe core losses,these two components of the primary
current
will be small.
Under
normal
conditions,i.e.,with the
secondary winding short-circuited
instrument,
through an
222

224

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

designing such

transformers

densities.

windings must

The

leakage since
the mutual

low
operate at relatively

also be

increase in the

any

flux

to

MACHINERY

arranged for

minimum

will increase

leakage reactance

exciting

of the

both components
and, therefore,

flux

current.

From
should
be

to

what

precedes,it is obvious

be calibrated

used, as

the

at

as

current

with

the instruments

with

well

that

currents

to

transformers

which

they

measured.

be

are

For

essential,it is often
tween
to apply corrections for the phase displacement benecessary
ing
caused by the excitthe primary and secondary currents
where

measurements

power

is

accuracy

current.

Fig. 110

will

considered

are

instrument
Current
for

use

apply

to

with

class

the

reactance

the transformer

transformers
with

made

are

instruments, and
such

great accuracy

is of prime importance.
reliability
Current
transformers, in the case

stations,form
apparatus and

weight from

as

4000
a

resistance

r^

of the

is used.
classes of

oil switches.

For

the

or

high-voltagepower
an
extremely important part of the auxiliary
of space.
They range
requireno small amount
of

lb. for very low voltages to as much

lb. for 110,000 volts,and in height from 6 or 8 in. to 8 ft.

in

and

and

X2

work, namely :
for operating protective and

for two

automatic

as

and

if

transconstancy of formation
change in load is not required,but great

of service

ratio with

transformer

current

include

which

regulating devices
second

to

diameter

circuit is shown

40

to

50

of 3 ft.
in

current

Fig. 111.

transformer

for

66,000-volt

STATIC

Potential Transformer.
increase

of

the range
and

at

the

The

Potential

"

time

change by

more

and

from

an

to

meters
watt-

the

ordinarytransformers

voltagesof

than

used

are

voltmeters

insulate them

to

differ from

ratio of the terminal

does not

transformers

current
alternating

same

voltage. They do not

in detail of design.

i225

TRANSFORMERS

line

except

ordinary transformer

few per cent, from

no

load to full

Fig.

voltageswould

the

load and
resistance

phase
small.

and
The

transformers

the reactance

and

with

transformer

be in

low

not for the

drops. By designing a potential

and

resistance

reactance, the change in

magnitude of the terminal voltagesmay

phase relation is of importance only when

in

are

used

in connection

magnetizing current and

losses are important parts of
the

if it were
opposition

with

be made

potential

wattmeters.

supplying the

the

current

the

primary current,these

Since
core
com-

226

PRINCIPLES

OF

should

currents

ponent

resistance and

important

in

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

the
a

be

small.

kept

potentialtransformer

the

terminal

influence of the

The

of the

leakage reactance

windings is far

than

in

current

more

former,
trans-

the ratio of transformation

since these factors affect both

and

MACHINERY

the primary and

secondary
phase relation between
voltages directly. The excitingcurrent of a properly
should
transformer
designed potential

relativelylittle

have

either the

on

ratio of transformation

phase relation

the

influence

used

are

nal
the termi-

between

voltages. When

or

formers
potentialtrans-

for accurate

power

measurements, correction for the

phase

displacementbetween the primary and

sistances
secondary voltages caused by the reand leakage reactances
may
Potential
have to be applied.
formers
transwell

as

as

current

formers
trans-

always be calibrated.
The
age
required for high-voltspace
and their
potentialtransformiers,
weights are somewhat
greater than
the space
and
weights of current
line voltage.
transformers for the same
A 110,000-voltpotentialtransformer
in Fig. 112.
is shown
should

Constant-current
When
Fig.

street

and

and

or

incandescent

"

lamps

are

versally
operated in series,as is almost unidone when
they are used for
all have
the same
current
rating

112.

lighting,they must
must
be operated from

current

arc

Transformer.

which

varies its

circuit which

carries

voltage with the

constant

of

number

lamps
in use.
of the older central stations,where
Except in some
still be some
there may
Brush
arc-lightgenerators, constant"tub"
transformers
almost universallyemcurrent
or
are
now
ployed
for such circuits. Since all modern
arc
lamps are of
the luminous
for their

or

flame

the
operation,

type and

requireunidirectional

constant-current

transformer

current

would

be of

STATIC

littleuse

ifit were

current

transformer,however, with

suitable

not for the mercury

reactances

smooth

to

227

TRANSFORMERS

rectifier. The

arc
a

the

out

arc

mercury
current

constant-

rectifier and
forms

wave,

circuits
of power
for constant-current
source
satisfactory
used with rectifiers
arcs.
feedingmodern
They are extensively
and
form
an
important part of the auxiliaryapparatus of all
central stations supplyingpower
for street lighting.
very

If

transformer

of the

ordinary type is designed with

high leakage reactance, it will have

characteristic

and

it may

be

even

excessive current.

very

very

drooping voltage

short-circuited

without
which

A core-type transformer

ducing
pro-

has its

and

secondary windings on oppositesides of a core

is designed to give excessive leakage will have a characteristic

primary
which

of this kind.

transformer

which

is

designedin

this way,

Core

Primary
Winding

Secondary
Winding

Current

Fig.

113.

will give
drooping part of its characteristic,
current.
of voltage at sensiblyconstant
considerable
a
range
which has excessive magnetic
The characteristic of a transformer
if

the

operated on

in

leakage is shown
Between

voltage with
the leakage

and
a

on

the characteristic there is a

comparatively small

reactance

tends

current

Fig. 113.

to

be

can

variation

increased

current

in current.

automaticallyas

increase,the transformer

regulate for constant

largechange in

throughout any

may

be

desired

If
the

made

to

range

of

load.
The

necessary

in the
and
one

automatic

constant-current

increase in the reactance

transformer

secondary windings so that

in the
The
another.
inci;iease

the

is obtained

by arrangingthe primary
to
they may move
relatively
repulsionbetween the two

'

228

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

windings produced by
to

apart and

move

an

in the current, causes

increase

increase

the

cross-section

magnetic leakageand thus increase

The simplearrangement by which
is shown
in Fig. 114.
CCC

is the iron

MACHINERY

of the

them

path

for

the reactance.
this is usuallyaccomplished

long and should operate

at relatively
high density. A and B, respectively,are the
primary and secondary windings. The secondary winding, B,
is movable
A
and is supported from an
arm
pivoted at D.
weight W, which is hung from the sector S attached to the
core

which

should

Fig.

swinging

arm,

be

114.

partiallycounterbalances

the

weight of the

secondary winding.
Due

to the force of

repulsionbetween the two windings caused

by the primary and secondary currents, the winding B will
from A until this force of repulsionis justequal to
move
away
the unbalanced
weight of the arm and the coil. If the impedance
of the external circuit is diminished, the current
will increase
and the winding B will move
from
farther away
A increasing
and diminishingthe current.
the reactance
By properlyadjusting
the counter-weight,W, and the shape of the sectors
and
angle at which they are set, the transformer may be made to
current
over
regulatefor very nearly constant
any desired range
of load,provided the core
is long enough to allow the windings

STATIC

get far enough away

to

circuit
the

the

on

windings

The

from

secondary.

one

The

maximum

under

which

Fig.

load to

no

another

at

shortload,i.e.,

no

load is that at which

in contact.

come

conditions

operated

229'

TRANSFORMERS

constant-current

circuits

are

115.

seldom

requireconstant-current
regulationfrom full
transformers
load; consequentlymost constant-current

designed for a limited range of regulation. This range is

usually from full load to about one-half or one-quarter load.
Since the secondary current in a properlyadjusted constantare

FiG.

transformer

current

primary
variation
would
at

current

be constant.
a

constant

is constant, the

will also be

in the

116.

constant.

excitingcurrent,

the

load

component

If it
whole

were

not

primary

of the
for the
current

Therefore,the primary winding will operate

voltage and very nearly constant current,and

230

PRINCIPLES

the entire

primary

The

for constant

for

116.

variable

and

is determined

method

by a change in the
secondary winding will deliver

The

current

MACHINERY

caused

will be

input

factor.

power

factor which

and

in

change

at constant

power

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

voltage and

transformer

regulates
should be made
clear by inspecting
Figs.115
is for no load,i.e.,
short-circuit;
Fig. 116 is

by which
current

Fig. 115

constant-current

largeinductive load. The entire regulationis due

change in the leakage-reactancedrop with the change in
a

When

power

of the load.

the constants

by

at

to

the

load.

designed for more

than 50 lights,
ing
the middle
point of the secondary circuit feedthe lamps is sometimes
looped back to the transformer giving
in effect two
independent circuits. No change in the transtransformers

constant-current

FiG.

is

former
The

The
and

circmted

and

circuit
A

cut

II

are

Either

at E.

grounded

circuits

for the two

circuits I and

two

are

secondary circuit.
in Fig. 117.
shown
of

brought back

of these two

by the switches

out

Si

to the transformer

circuits may
be shorting
and Sa and the remain-

operated alone.

short-circuit

its

highest positionand

After

the

primary

switch

on

the

winding released and allowed

to the load

on

Constant-current

load

is

to take

circuit has

opened and
up

the

the

with

ary
secondthe

load

been

closed,the
the secondary

positioncorresponding

the transformer.
transformers

rectifiers to

current.

with

to

winding lifted
short-circuited.

is started

transformer

constant-current

mercury-arc

117.

this arrangement

requiredfor

connections

are

supply

are
arc

extensively used with

tional
lights requiring unidirec-

232 PRINCIPLES

would

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

independentsecondary winding having Na

effect equal to IbdNa
turns and would exert a demagnetizing
This demagnetizingaction would be balanced
turns.
ampere
by an increase in the primarycurrent which would also flow in an
independentprimary winding having Nac turns. The product
of the currents by the number
of turns in which they flow would
be equal in magnitude and oppositein phase. The resultant
effect of the currents in producingthe flux would be zero.
flow in

In the

an

of

case

the

auto-transformer

an

part of the primaryturns

those between b and
i.e.,
the above-mentioned

are

c,

combined.

secondary turns and a

These combined turns,

be considered to carry
components, but it is simpler

Fig.118,may

currents

as

and easier to consider the currents in the auto-transformer from

the

standpointof

Kirchhoff's laws.

used with a letter represubscripts

senting
the
in
which
indicate the direction
a current
or voltage
current
or
voltage is considered. Double subscriptswhen
attached to N, the number
of turns in a winding,or when used
the order of double

Let

with

resistance

which

reactance

or

the number

is considered.

Their

tween
merely indicate the limits be-

of turns,the resistance
has
order in this case

or
no

the reactance

significance

whatever.

Accordingto

Kirchhoff's laws

hd

(Referto Fig.118.)

(74)

Iai + Icb

of the component
output ltd is the vector sum
of
The
first
from the source
currents lab and Icbcomes
directly
while the
through the turns Nab without transformation,
power
The

current

second

comes

addition

transformation

whollyfrom

lab and

to the currents

in the turns Na-

In

I^ in the turns Nab and

Neb

allthe turns,in the case of the step-downtransf ormeirespectively,

in Fig. 118, carry an additional component current.In,
shown
which is the exciting
current for the transformer.
the magnetizingeffects of the
As in the ordinarytransformer,
currents

lab and Id,must

balance.

Hence

(75)

The

load currents

in the two

(76)

partsof an auto-transformer are,

in the ratio (a
mation
1),where a is the ratio of transfortherefore,
of the auto-transformer
the
as a whole, i.e..between
"

pointsac

and cb.

STATIC

233

TRANSFORMERS

Let

Eab,Eia and "'" be the voltagesinduced by the mutual

in the turns between
db, be and ac respectively.Then
Eab

Eac

flux

Eic

"

and

Eab

Therefore,the
the

same

between

if the turns

as

an

transformation

1.

In the

of

case

"

transformation,and
in the coils Nbc-

action

secondary
the

to

are

the

primary and
having a ratio of
going

current

to be made
up of two parts : one
the line through the coils Nab without

other

the

These

on

two

the

or

cmrrents

component

to

in

oppositionin

step

the

up

action

in the

action

will be in

phase

far

their

so

as

is concerned.

core

load side will be made

transformer

transformer

suppliedby

transformer

is used

auto-transformer
the

Nhc formed

ordinarytransformer

respect to the load and

magnetic

b and

between

be considered

supplieddirectlyfrom

with

b and

the
step-down auto-transformer,

the load may

to

and

iVoiiand

secondary windings of
of

Eic

"

voltages and the ratio of the load

ratio of the

in the turns

currents

Eac

If the

voltage,the voltage on
up

coils

of two

Nai,

and

parts :
the

due

one

other

the

the primary winding Nhc- These two

voltage impressed across
voltageswill be very nearly in conjunctionwith respect to the
load.

The

gain

in

of the

output

auto-transformer

ordinary transformer

is due

delivered
of the power
obtained
directlyfrom

by it is transformed.

If the

to

taken

the solution of the vector

a

transformation

fact that

by

portion
A portionis always
a

auto-transformer

an

is neglected,

diagram becomes

step-down auto-transformer

equal to

only

transformation.

the line without

excitingcurrent

Consider

the

the

over

simple.
having a ratio

of

Since the ratio of the load currents

a.

the ratio of the induced

and

Fig. 118, are

the

same

voltages in the coils Nab and Nhc,

former
they would be in an ordinary trans-

as

independentprimary and secondarywindingshaving

of transformation
equal to a
1, the voltage across
be found by consideringNab to be the primary
Nab may

with
a

ratio

the coil
and
for

"

Nbc the secondary of

a

ratio

an

ordinary transformer

of transformation.

The

having

"

voltage impressed across

*J34

the
Hoc,i.e.,

real

be the vector

sum

The

vector

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

PRINCIPLES

primary voltageof
of V^b and
of

diagram

auto-transformer,will

Fsc.

auto-transformer,neglectingthe

an

regulationis

The

Fig. 119.

in

excitingcurrent, is shown

the

Va
Vic

Eeb

Fig.

119.

Fig. 119, lid is the current going to the load. The current
in the winding Nbc must, of course, be used for findingthe
impedance drop in Nbc- This current is
In

Icb
since

or

Iba

Ibd +

Iba

"

a-

Ibd

I'tb

The

vector

"

diagram of the auto-transformer

by combining the resistances nc

resistance,and the reactances

and
Xbc

Tab

into

and

Xab

be

may
a

simplified

singleequivalent

into

an

equivalent

reactance.
Te

Tab

Ttcia

Xab

Xbcia

1)^

"

and
Xe

"

"

1)''

The

simplified
diagram of an auto-transformer with all vectors
referred to the winding Nab is given in Fig. 120.
Yac

Ybc +

FiK -1- (a

Fa6

aVbo +

-I-jaie)
l)F6c -h /ftaCre

+ja;e)
-^{r,

STATIC

The

resistance

the methods

the reactance

and

r^

235

TRANSFORMERS

be found

Xe may

by

of

any

used for

determiningthe equivalentresistance and

the equivalent reactance
of an ordinarytransformer,by merely
treatingNab and Nbc as the primary and the secondary windings,
of an
The
electrical conrespectively,
nection
ordinary transformer.
between
The

these two

core

voltage across

any

coils will not

loss may
be found
two terminals.

Fig.

Relative

Outputs of
Since

Transformer.
"

the

serve

windings, less

influence the

by applying the

proper

120.

and
Auto-transformer
portionof the turns of an
the

double

ments.
measure-

of

function

the

primary and

Regular

former
auto-trans-

secondary

required for an auto-transformer

of the ordinary type having the same
than for one
rating and
delivered on the secondary side of
efficiency.All of the power
an
Only
ordinarytransformer is obtained from transformation.
delivered by an auto-transformer
is the
a portion of the power
result

will be

copper

action.

of transformer

The

remaining portion comes

directlyfrom the line. Therefore,on the basis of the

of material

and

the

have

the greater output.

same

Consider
current

the

amount

the

step-down transformer

Im is mad"

up

of two

losses

auto-transformer

shown

parts: one,

same

will

in

Fig. 118. The

Icb,which is produced

from the
other,lah,which comes
hne without transformation through the portionof the winding
ab. The part of the current output obtained by transformer

by transformer

action,and

the

action is

Icb
In

the

case

of

an

Ibd
"

"

r
a

ordinary transformer

is the result of transformer

action.

all of the

power

livered
de-

236

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

output of the auto-transformer

output of the ordinary transformer

material

with

compared

as

with

the

the
of

amount

same

will be the ratio of the total output of the auto-transformer

to that

of transformer

portion of its output which

action.
Therefore,

is obtained

Output of auto-transformer
Output

of

ordinary transformer

If the auto-transformer

result

"

"

voltage,a similar

the

steps up

as

ing
reason-

result.
applied to the voltageswill give the same
All of the preceding discussion in regard to relative outputs of
the two types of transformers
the same
assumes
mean
length of
the expressionobtained will,
turn on all windings and, therefore,
in most
when
applied to
cases, only be approximately correct
transformers of standard design.
losses of the auto-transformer
and of the ordinary
The core
transformer
iron

cores

for the
the

voltage both types of transformers

same

number

same

of turns

windings. The

only

auto-transformer

serve

Merely rewinding
not

of the

will be the same,

provided the dimensions
and the flux densities are the same
for both.

affect its

core

for their

is that

difference

for both

the

transformer

for

secondary

of the turns

some

have

must

their

primary and

fore,
There-

on

the

primary and the secondary.

auto-transformer

an

should

loss.

loss,the output of the auto-transformer

will be the greater. Since its output is greater,its efficiency
will
also be greater. It follows that, for the same
efficiencyand
and less iron will be required for an autooutput, less copper
transformer
than
for an
The
autoordinary transformer.
transformer
will,therefore,be the cheaper of the two types.
For

the

same

copper

Since reactances
the

vary

as

the square

of the numbers

the ratio of the equivalentreactances

coils,

of transformers

of turns

of the two

types

will be

Xeior auto-transformer

N^a, +

N\c(ci

"

1)^

Xe

for

a^
N'ac + iV^;,,:

ordinary transformer

N\,{a

ly + Nhcja

NhcU^
la-

1\

i^y

+ Nhca^

on

ly

STATIC

This

ratio will not

TRANSFORMERS

hold
necessarily

regular to auto-transformer
windings.
The

increase

237
when

the

change from
by merely reconnectingthe

is made

in the

for the
output of the auto-transformer
total heatingis entirelydue to the decrease in the
same
copper
loss. The
equivalent resistance,therefore,of the auto- and

ordinary transformers
ratio of the square

consequently,be

must,

in the

of their respectiverelative outputs.

Te

auto-transformer

/a

1\

"

inverse

Therefore,

"

Te

ordinary transformer

Since the ratio of the

auto-transformers,and

equivalentresistances
also the

reactances, decreases

of the

ratio between

ordinaryand

the

equivalent

rapidlythan

the ratio of the outputs

more
the regulationof the auto-transformer
will be better
increases,
than

the

regulation of
of material

amount

The

relative

relative

same

amount

length of

turn

for the auto-

of

mean

XV.

This

material,the

for the two

to the

and

for the auto-

given in Table

with

the

same

length of turn.

outputs, resistances

impedance drops
are

same

and

ordinary transformer

an

reactances, and

and

the

formers
ordinarytrans-

table is based

losses and

same

the

the

types of transformers.

the

upon

same

mean

All ratios

are

ordinary transformer.
Table

XV

lower cost
are
Briefly,the advantages of the auto-transformer
and
better regulationand efficiencyfor the same
of
amount
Its disadvantage is that its low-potential
material.
winding is in

electrical connection

winding.

It will be

the auto-transformer

with
seen

and
from

decrease

forms
Table
very

part of the high-potential

XV

that the

rapidlyas

advantages of

the ratio of trans-

238

PRINCIPLES

formation

OF

is increased

for ratios above

One

ALTEBNATINO-CURRENT

and

for all

MACHINERY

practicalpurposes

5.

of the

of auto-transformers
uses
principal
reduced
voltage for startingpolyphase induction
have squirrel-cage
Auto-transformers
armatures.
in connection
the

disappear

with

single-phaselocomotives

is for

for

obtaining
which

motors

also used

are

stepping down

line

voltage to a value suitable for the motors.

connection,although the ratio of transformation
may

In

this

be

fairly
primary and secondary
secondary winding is

high,the electrical connection between the

since the
windings is not objectionable,
always grounded through the trucks of the locomotive.
is to step up
very important use of auto-transformers
of generators wound
The

for about

and
difficulty

expense

6600

of

it is often

cheaper and

generators for about

transmission

by

6600

in

the

voltage

volts in the ratio of 2 to 1.

providing

high-voltagegenerators increases rapidlyas

and

Another

insulation

proper

the

for

voltage is raised,

other respects better to wind

some

volts and

then

of transformers.

step up the voltage for

in most

cities,
the trunk lines for distribution are operated at about 13,200 volts,
is generallyused for stepping up the voltage
the auto-transformer
means

When,

as

of the generators to that

formers
Auto-transrequiredfor transmission.
well adapted for this purpose
the
are
as
particularly
ratio of transformation
requiredis 2 to 1, a ratio at which an
auto-transformer
of
gives a large output for a given amount
The

material.

togetherwith
less than

cost

of generators wound

6600

volts

voltage is often
directlyfor the requiredvoltage.

auto-transformers

generator wound

for about

to double

their

several circuits are fed from one

Regulator. When
it is often necessary
central station or from a singlealternator,
of regulatingthe voltages of the different
to have some
means
circuits independentlyof one
another.
The induction regulator
used for this purpose.
is commonly
The induction regulatoris essentially
a step-down transformer
in such a way
with one of its windings mounted
that it may
be
Induction

rotated
the

axes

into different
of the two

will be induced
the
may

"

in

with respect to the other.

When
positions
the maximum
windings are coincident,
voltage
the secondary. When
they are at rightangles

secondary voltage will be

be

obtained.

The

Any intermediate voltage

primary winding of the regulator is
zero.

240

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

circuited winding placed on

MACHINERY

right angles to the

single-phaseinduction regulator

the

stator

at

regular primary winding. A

is shown
in Fig. 122.
to the singleThe
polyphase regulatoris similar in principle
phase regulator. It is a polyphase induction motor which has
its armature
blocked
but capable of being placed in different

positionswith respect to its

induction regulatorrequiresno

Fig.

winding. The polyphase

compensating winding. The

field

122.

voltagesgiven by its secondary windings are constant, but their

phase relation with respect to the line voltage may be varied by
moving the secondary winding with respect to the primary.
either add or subtract directly
from
The secondary voltage may
with it at any intermediate
the line voltage or combine
phase.
action
of
induction
The
a polyphase
regulatordepends upon the
and
revolvingmagnetic field of a polyphase induction motor
will best be understood

after

takingup

that motor.

CHAPTER
Transformers

Independently

with

Parallel

Operation

Transformers

with

most

when

cases

XIX
Loaded

Single-phase

of

Secondaries;

Transformers

In
Secondaries.
Independently Loaded
is suppliedfor incandescent lighting,
it is
"

power

suppliedby the three-wire system. A three-wire system may be

obtained
by using two transformers with their primariesin
but a single
transformer
paralleland their secondaries in series,
will serve
the purpose
it will cost
equally well and, moreover,
less than
Most

smaller transformers

two

commercial

transformers

of the
have

same

two

total

capacity.
primary and two

secondary windings which are connected in series or in parallel

accordingto the voltage required. If the secondaries are connected
in series,
be
used to feed a three-wire circuit
they may
by connectingthe neutral of the circuit to the common
nection
conbetween
the two secondary windings.
If the circuit is unbalanced, the secondary windingswill carry
currents which are independentof each other.
They may be of
entirelydifferent magnitudes and power factors. The effect is
the

same

as

ifthere

windings and
transformer

the

were

no

electricalconnection

windings

is to feed

were

three-wire

between

the two

independentlyloaded. If the
system, the two windingsmust,

be for the same

have
necessarily,
voltage. A transformer may
of independent secondarywindingsall of which may
any number

independentlyloaded.

be

the

load current
the

of the

secondarywindings,or
load carried by them, the primary current must always contain
magneti
deload component which just balances the combined
a
This primary
action of all the secondary currents.

Whatever

be the arrangement

must, therefore,be equal to the vector

secondary

currents

of transformation

winding need

Fig.
16

123

not

shows

referred to the

between

the

be the

same.

the

vector

primary side.

secondaries

diagram
241

of

and

of all

sum

The

the

ratios

primary

transformer

with

242

PRINCIPLES

OF

secondaries

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

carryinga different load. All vectors are

referred to the primary winding. Single and double primes are
used where necessary
the currents,voltages,etc.,
to distinguish
of the two
secondary windings. On this diagram, the load
component of the primary current is 7i, and not I\ as on all
I\ represents the
preceding diagrams of the transformer.
component of the primary current which is due to the secondaryis
and
current
I\. 7o represents the total primary current
two

equal

each

to the vector

sum

of Ii and

/".

." s,"E"'-=E."

Fig.

The

solution of

only by

the;diagram

making

123.

is difficultand

usuallyis possible

series of

approximations. The
ciu-rent 7" will be neglected and the leakage reactances
assumed
to be constant.
This latter assumption may
from
vectors

to

will be

Let R and

secondary

if the

extent

some

referred to

exciting
will be
viated
be de-

unbalancing is great.

the induced

voltage E\

as

an

All
axis.

with the proper primes be the constants

of the two
loads and let 6'^ and 6"^ be the angles of lag of the
X

secondary currents

behind

a'E'i

a'E'2

a"E'\

their induced

a"E"2

Ei

a'I\[{r\+ R') + j{x\ + X')]

+ R") + j(x", + X")]
a"I",[{r"2
r'2 +

cos

B'2

voltages.

R'

V(r'2 + "')'+(a;'2-l-X')'

STATIC

243

TRANSFORMERS

r"i + R"
e"2

COS

Vir"2 + R"Y

+ {x"2 +
x\ + X'

sin d'i

V(r'2 + "')'+

+ X'Y
(a;'2
X"

X"2 +
sin e"2

V'(r"2+ R"y
I

[^{I'ieosd'i

X"Y

ix"i+ X")^

+ -^J
vectorially
[-^

^ {I"

jl^smd'^) +

cos

e"^

j/''^sin 8"

2)]

A+jB
Ei+{A+
jB) (ri+ jx,)
E'2
e'2 j sin e'2)(r'2+ jx'2)
Z'2(cos
i;"2
/"2(cosd"2
j sin e"2){r"2+ jx'^)
=

Vi=
V'2
V"2

Parallel

The conditions
Operation of Single-phaseTransformers.
which must
be fulfilledfor the satisfactory
parallel
operation
"

of transformers
1. The
on

secondary

are:

the system is zero.

2. The
secondary current

be

proportionalto

should

currents

carried

all

by

De

each

zero

when

the load

transformer

should

its rating.

secondary currents should be in phase with each other

consequently in phase with the current taken by the load

3. The

and

the system.

on

Whether
are

and

the

conditions

fulfilledwill

the constants

for the

depend

are

the

upon

of the transformers.

paralleledindiscriminatelyeven
formation

paralleloperationof

formers
trans-

the ratios of transformation

Transformers

cannot

though their ratios of

be

trans'

same.

formers
voltage is impressed on the primariesof all transall primary terminal
and, therefore,
operatingin parallel
voltages must be exactlyequal and exactlyin phase. Similarly,
ary
since all the secondaries are connected together,all of the secondbe equal and in phase. If the ratios
terminal voltagesmust

The

same

equal,the primary voltagesreferred to the

secondary side will be equal and in phase, and if the exciting
currents
are
neglected,the equivalentimpedance drops of all
will be equal and in phase since they must
form
transformers
which has for its other tw"
the closingside of a voltage triangle
of transformation

are

244

PRINCIPLES

sides the

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

impressed primary voltage referred

common

secondarywindings and the common

Transformershaving the Same
current

in which

between

the

Ratio

the

of Transformation.-The
"

in

parallelwith others

its equivalentimpedance and

resistance

to

secondary terminal voltage.

will deliver when

transformer

depends merely upon

way

MACHINERY

and

the

reactance

not

upon

the

is distributed

its

primary and secondary windings.

Unless the ratios of the primary to the secondary resistances
of all the transformers
are
equal and the ratios of the primary
to the secondary reactances
also equal,the induced
are
voltages
wiU neither be equal nor in phase. Fig. 124 shows the conditions
for two
when
these ratios are
not
transformers
equal. The
drops are exaggeratedto make the diagram clearer.

V,

"'a

Fig.

124.

equivalentimpedance

trianglesare ahc and ahd.

Each of these is made
parts, namely: the drop in the
up of two
secondary winding, and the drop in the primary winding referred
to the secondary.
aie and ajf are the two impedance triangles
for the secondaries
and ibh and jhg are similar trianglesfor the primaries referred
i and j, i.e.,
E'i and E''^,cannot
to the secondaries,
coincide
The

two

unless
r"x

r'l
~r

r'i

r'l and

IT

r"2

x"i

x'l
and

"r

x'i

"rr

x"2

the primary and

r'2 are, respectively,
of one transformer and r'\ and r''^are

the

sistances
secondary rethe corresponding

STATIC

resistances of the

E'i and

E"2

other.

The

equal and

are

245

TRANSFORMERS

a;'s are

the

reactances.

Unless

phase, there will be a

circuit consisting
of the

resultant

in

two
ondary
secvoltage actingin the series
windings. This resultant voltage,however, will not cause
since it is balanced
additional current
by the impedance
any
drops already existingin the two secondary windings. For a

similar reason,
the resultant voltage due to the difference
the two primary induced
voltages will be balanced

tween
be-

by
the impedance drops in the two
primary windings. Consider,
The two
for example, the secondaries.
secondary voltages,V'2
and V"i, which
must
be equal,are each respectively
equal to
E'2

and E"^
I\z'i

777/

Jl

7"2z"2

El//

"l

Til

_//

T, //

"ll

and
"rir

"r2

771//
-Ci
2

"

Jl "l
^2*2

"

-i

"

Therefore, the difference between the two secondary induced

ary
voltages which act in the circuit consistingof the two secondwindings in series is balanced by the impedance drops due to
the existing
secondary currents I' 2 and I" 2. If the load is zero
the two
l"2 wUl be equal. The difference between
I'2 and
It follows from
primary induced voltagesis similarlybalanced.
this that the current output of any transformer which is in parallel
with others

having the

same

is not affected

ratio of transformation

between
by the distribution of the resistance and the reactance
the primary and the secondary windings. It depends merely
the equivalentimpedance.
upon
of transformers
Let the secondary currents delivered by any number
which

are

connected

be
parallel

in

I' 2, 1"

2,

equivalent admittances
z'e,
all referred to the secondary windings be, respectively,
z"e,z"'e,etc., and y'e,y"e,y"'e,etc. Then since the impedance
drops must all be equal,
let the

and

equivalentimpedances

JVe

I"2Z"e

the

1'" 2, etc.,and

etC.
I"'2Z"'e,

and

I'i: I"

1'" 2, etc.

"-ztt

=-r
e

: ZTvr,
^

etc

y'e: y"e : y"\, etc.

246

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

delivered

by the transformers to the load are,

therefore,inverselyproportionalto their equivalentimpedances
The
or
directlyproportionalto their equivalent admittances.
total current, /(,,
delivered by the system will be equal to the
of the component
vector sum
currents delivered by the separate
currents

transformers.

lo
A

diagram for

vector

transformation

If the two

The

on

in

Fig.

diagram

the

Fig.

reactance

The

is the

reach

to

time.

This

does

not

will be

rating,since

rating may

this

for others.

types may

not

The

be the

current

is

fore,
There-

1.

125.

transformer

to

its

equivalent

transformers.
between

any

of transformers

number
causes

all the

their maximum

supplied by each
than

in the ratio of 2

operate in parallelis that which

which

same

each

division of load

proper

transformers

of

for both

same

no-load

of

were

can

equivalent resistance

having equal ratios

The

125.

are

etc.

equal, the currents would also be

be in phase only when the ratio of the

impedances
currents

I"2 + r\,
transformers

two

is shown

neglected.
The impedances

equal.

7'2 +

in

safe temperatures at the

that the current
necessarilymean

proportion

maximum
same.

be

more

safe

to

the

manufacturer's

conservative

temperature

for

some

of different

248

PRINCIPLES

If

only the

ye'sshould
It should

The
of

numerical

be

with

of the currents

are

desired,the

that the distribution

equal ratios

the system

of the load between

of transformation

is

independent

its power
factor.
and the equivalentsusceptance
equivalentconductance
on

may

voltage measured
the

MACHINERY

expressednumerically.

transformer

values

be noticed

transformers
of the load

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

or

the power,
current
short-circuited.
transformer

be obtained

with

the

from

input, the impressed voltage and

respectively,
P, V, and /. Then
power

the

current

and
Let

be,

I
y'

_p_

All three constants

to which

I and

will be referred to the side of the transformer

are

referred.

equivalentreactance are known,

equivalentsusceptance may be

equivalentresistance
equivalentconductance

If the

and

the

and

calculated

from

them.

Transformers having Different Ratios of Transformation.

nominal
of different design but having the same
Transformers
"

Fig.

ratios of transformation

may

have

127.

actual ratios of transformation

slightlyfrom each other. Differences of this kind

most
in transformers
formation
are
likelyto occur
having ratios of transwhich are not whole numbers, since in such eases it may
be impossible to make
the ratio of the primary to the secondary
the desired ratio of transformation.
turns
as
exactly the same
which

differ

STATIC

The

vector

249

TRANSFORMERS

relations which

exist when

different ratios of transformation

transformers

two

put in

are

parallelare

having
shown

in

Fig. 127.
Let a', a", a'", etc., be the ratios of transformation
number
of transformers
which are in parallel. Then,
^'^
T' ,'

^^

a'

ye

Jill

'-

y",

-V'~^'
'

"iii

of any

T/

(78)

Therefore, since the total current, h, delivered by the system is

delivered by
currents
of the component
equal to the vector sum
the separate

transformers,
Jo

-^2/e

SFaj/.

7iS|-y2j/"

(79)

Solving equation (79)for Vi gives

7i

^-^"1^

(80)

equation (80) in equation (78) gives

Substituting Fi from
J,

_y\

lo +

Viyo

y'eL
a

+,

y'eV:

't
-

o"

"'l

"""

250

OF

PRINCIPLES

last

This

not

are

will consist

transformer
the

ATI

expressionshows

of the transformers

upon

ALTERN

that if the ratios of transformation

of two

components:

of all the

dependent

one

If

is the

as

transformers

are

I;

equal,

(82)

y'e

expressionthat
having equal ratios

same

transformers

to

/'2

for

output of any

load, and the other nearly independent of the load.

equation (81)reduces

which

the current

the same,

ratios of transformation

the

MACHINERY

NO-CURRENT

the

has

alreadybeen

of transformation.

deduced
The

by transformer No. 1, in virtue of the unequal

ratios of transformation,will be the difference between
equations
carried

current

(81) and (82).

difference is

This

[yo

a'

^Ve
a

It should

be

which

noted
have

that

the

division

of load

between

dissimilar ratios of transformation

formers
trans-

depends

the load carried

by the system.
what
From
precedes,it should be clear that transformers which
to be operated in parallelshould have:
are
(a) Equal voltage ratings.
(6) Equal ratios of transformation.
(c) Equivalent impedances which are inverselyproportionalto
their current
ratings.
(d) Ratios of equivalent resistance to equivalent reactance
which are equal.
upon

These

four conditions

are

stated

in the

order

of their relative

importance.
That
needs
some

they

the

transformers

should

have

voltage rating

same

explanation. If their voltage ratingsare not the same,

will be operating on a higher voltage than that for which
no

are

designed,and

some

on

If the ratios of transformation

currents

when

the

in the

the load

currents

will

are

in
transformers,
on

the system

depend

upon

lower.
not

addition

is

zero.

the same,
to the

The

there will be

excitingcurrents,

magnitude of these

the differences between

the ratios o^

STATIC

transformation,

and

the
If

the

(the

produce

its

and

safe
total

If
not

by

them

of

will

the

if

all

the

last

unequal

by

inserting
on

transformers.

all

of

proportional
safe

designing
re-

will

the

the

to

current

rises

temperature
divide

not

overheated

while
is

system

resistance

the

in

currents

kilowatt

ratios
the
either

with

the

others

load

less

at

in

below

are

operated

of

proper

the

to

load

as

were

than

carrying

whole
in
of

resistance

the

not

or

other
will

in

reactance,
of
the

of

resistance,
secondary

the

than

greater

system

load
loads

As
all

in

In

phase.

to

amount

be

the

kilowatt

loads.

system
will

delivered

with

or

current

the

reactance

currents

be

i.e., impedances

primary

the
other

their

on

equivalent

each

will

output

faults,

two

to

transformers,

phase

given

system

the

safe

and

both,

for

in

of

maximum
The

become

transformers

loss
and

maximum

proportional

not

copper

the

equivalent

be

not

and

the

inversely

unless

for

same

are

without

capacity.

ratios

current

which

will

some

the

eliminated

transformers

temperatures,

the

are

the

rated

not

are

transformers,

their

be

cannot

transformers.

which

properly

be

they

impedances

outputs

251

TRANSFORMERS

be

the

it

or

formers
trans-

would
the

words,
diminished.

ratio

proper

be

may

result,

corrected

reactance

sides

or

of

the

CHAPTER
Connections

Transformer

Two

WITH

Vice

and

Transformation;
Transformation;

Two-

Three-

Versa;

Four-phase

Three-

Six-phase

to

Six-phase

to

mation
Transfor-

Twelve-phase

to

for

tion
Transformato

Four-phase

or

Three-

Connections

Transformer

Three-phase

Transformers;

Transformation

Circuits

Three-phase

for

Transformers;

Three

USING

XX

Circuits

using
Three
^A and Y Connections.
Transformers.
When
three singlecuits,
phase transformers are used in connection with three-phasecirthey may be grouped in any one of the followingways:

Three-phase

"

1. Primaries

"

2. Primaries

in A, secondaries in A.
in Y, secondaries in Y.

3. Primaries

in A, secondaries

4. Primaries

in

Any

of

one

in Y.

Y, secondaries in

these

A.

arrangements

is

symmetrical

and

therefore,
give balanced secondary voltageson balanced
provided the primary impressedvoltagesare balanced.
If the

transformers

are

connected

with

their

their secondaries

load may

Yin Y, any unbalanced

be appliedto the secondaries without

from

line.

and

will,
loads,

primaries in
or

A-connected

unbalancing the
be accounted
than would
for by the
secondary voltages more
differences in the small impedance drops in the transformers.
This is obvious since each primary may
receive power
directly
or

the

in

F-A,

any

an

When

the transformers

unbalanced

A-connected

serious

unbalancing of

unbalanced

the

are

load may

connected

in

Y-Y

be carried without

secondary voltages. Any

load, i.e.,a load without

three-phase A-connected
be resolved in to two balanced threea neutral connection,may
phase loads of opposite phase rotation. (See Principles of
AlternatingCurrents,page 337, R. R. Lawrence.) Each of these
balanced
loads alone will not
produce unbalanced
secondary
voltages,but togetherthey may cause
slightunbalancingof the
252

secondary voltagesdue
drops combine.
If a single-phase
load
a

which
small
be

to the

have
current

reduced

neutral

no

on

the line and

neutral of

in double

current

primary side, only a

impedance of the load
the

on

primary side

Load

No

EfV,

Sf=K

FiQ.

of the loaded
the

other

two

transformers

these transformers
sides

primary
that the

must

transformer

are

will be

on

128.

through the primariesof

come

which

open

are

can

on

open

all of
circuit,

exciting current.

only current that

and

their

if the

even

All of the

zero.

impedance

groups

connected

are

connection

be obtained

can

to

which

of

the two

way

is appliedbetween

of transformers

group

253

TRANSFORMERS

STATIC

be obtained

circuit.

the current

It
from

on

Since
their

follows,therefore,
the loaded

former
trans-

mation
equal,assimiinga ratio of transforof the excitingcurrents
of the
of 1, to the vector sum
If the impedance of the load be reduced
other two transformers.
the primary of the loaded
the only voltage across
to short-circuit,
is

current

which

is

254

PRINCIPLES

transformer

will be

transformer

their

for
As

current.

OF

the

MACHINERY

equivalentimpedance drop
which

current

is much

smaller

primary side will shift until it almost

other

in

that

full-load

than

result,the neutral point of the transformers

line to which
the

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

the loaded

coincides

is connected.

transformer

with
This

on

the

puts

line voltage or
nearly across
is very nearly -\/3times the voltage for
across
a voltage which
which
they are
designed. This, of course, will very much
increase their excitingcurrents,but even
increase
a considerable
in the exciting
currents will allow only a small percentage of fullload

transformers

two

current

to flow in the loaded

unbalancingof
of the
currents

their

very

of three transformers

primary and

their

Even

slight

ing
produce a bad unbalancphase voltages. If the normal exciting

F-connected

secondary

transformer.

load will

which

are

secondary sides

connected
are

in Y

on

both

ary
unequal, the second-

at no load as well as
voltagesto neutral will be unbalanced
If the secondaries are in delta,a small current will
under load.

circulate in the
current

The

closed

delta.

This

and

will act

will very nearly restore the balance

effect of a single-phaseload applied to

double- F-connected

magnetizing

of the
one

voltages.
secondary of

transformers,which have no
In order to
primary neutral connection,is shown in Fig. 128.
make
the diagram clearer,
voltagedrops are used on the primary
and the secondary sides. This makes
correspondingvectors for
currents
and voltages on the diagrams for the primary and the
secondary sides in phase. The subscripts1, 2 and 3 indicate the
a

group

of

as

Table

XVI

256

PRINCIPLES

If it is not,

secondaries

the two
end

one

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

the connections

reverse

When
connect

OF

of the

of either of the two

have

been

connected

remaining secondary

the

to

aries.
second-

properly,
common

The voltage between the free terminal

junctionof the other two.
of this last secondary and the free terminal of either of the other
should be \/3 times the voltageof one
two
the connections
secondary. If it is not, reverse
of the last secondary.
of testingfor the proper conThe method
nections
for putting the secondaries in A is
of testingfor putting
similar to the method
For the A connection,connect
them
in Y.
end of each of two secondaries together.
one
Fig. 129.
The
the free ends should
voltage across
be the same
as the voltage of one
secondary. If it is not, reverse
of the secondaries.
Then connect
end of the remaining
one
one
The voltage
secondary to one of the free ends of the other two.
the remaining gap will be either zero
twice the voltage
across
or
of one
winding.^ If it is double
^Vaa'
the
the connections.
voltage, reverse
When

it is zero, the
remaining gap may be closed and
the secondaries will be in A.
If
this gap

is closed when

secondary is

the last

connected

the transformers

reversed,
will be virtually

short-circuited.

Twice

of

age
the volt-

winding will act on

an
impedance which is equal to
three times
the impedance of
a
singlewinding. The current
under

one

this condition
were

will be

what

would

flow if

former
singletrans-

short-circuited.

Let

Fig. 129 represent the secondary windings and also a

vector
diagram of the secondary voltages.
If a and b are connected
the free
together,the voltage across
a'b' will be yo'a + Vhi,'. This voltage will be
ends or across
'

This

(see page

assumes

278).

there

are

no

third

harmonics

in the

secondary voltages

STATIC

257

TRANSFORMERS

equal to either V^'aor Vvt multipliedby \/3 and will lagbehind

the voltageVw
by 30 degrees. This is the correct connection
of the windings aa' and bb' for Y.
to a, the
If b' is connected
a'b will be Va'a + Vi^i.
the free ends or across
voltage across
This

will be

equal to either Vaa' or Vw, and will lead F^a' by

120 degrees. This is the correct connection for A.
The third

winding

should

have

is desired.
shown

in

c' connected
The

Fig. 130.

to b of the

diagram for

vector

The

connections

are

to

second

if A

nection
con-

is

connection

to c' and

b',b

to a'.

The

vector

act around

of the three

sum

voltagesVvb, Yc"cand Ya'a which

the closed A is zero.

voltage in

the

three

If c is connected

windings will be

to b the resultant

Fo'o)+ Fee'

(Fy;,+

2F"..
with

Transformation

Three-phase

Two

Transformers.

be obtained
Three-phase transformation
may
single-phasetransformers by connecting

with

only

"

two

them

either in open delta

of these connections

Both

or

or

in T.
"?

unsym-

are

will,therefore,
giveslightly
unbalanced
voltages under load. The
of this unbalancing is,however,
amount
small under ordinary conditions,
especimetrical

Connection.

Open-delta
or

connection

the delta connection

the

delta

will

be

The

"

is the

with

one

transformers

similar

when

to
proportional

same

per

connection

transformer

or

equal to

!!^^
^^

pjQ

transformer

are

their

^31

removed.

Therefore,
used, the voltages given by
the

line

same,

their outputs

and

currents.

output per transformer.

is \/3I.
line of the A connection

of the Y

c/""

as

current

maximum

j\
/ ,,'"^\
\

open-

are

connections

and

i^

allywith T connection.
delta

/ j\

and

Let

be

the

The

current

put
out-

The

current

put
out-

equal to the current output of one

/.
Therefore,the output of the open
is

58 per cent, of the

output of the delta.

The

delta will be "7=

or

actual transformer

the open delta is two-thirds of that

of the
be utiUzed on account
all of this cannot

V3

capacityof

of the

delta,but

power

factors at which the transformers

17

of the open

delta operate

258

PRINCIPLES

inductive

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

the power
factor of the load.
With
nona
balanced
load, each transformer of the delta system

compared

as

OF

with

carries one-third
the

of the total load at unit power

factor. Under
each transformer
of the open-delta system
conditions,

same

carries one-half

of the load

at

power

factor of

Multiplying0.866 by ^ gives0.58,which

isthe

delta

transformers

as

compared

with the delta.

The

equal whenever

the

in

output of

0.866.
open

of the open
the power
factor
loads

ever,
will,how-

three-phaseload is balanced.

Fig.

The

capacityof the

delta will not carry equal watt loads except when

of the three-phaseload is unity. The current
be

"^

system made

132.

up

of two

groups

of transformers

parallel,one
consistingof two transformers in open
group
in A,
delta or V, while the other consists of three transformers
is only SS^s per cent, greater than the output of the A-connected
alone and not 58 per cent, greater as might be expected
group
(seepage 286).
Fig. 132 is a vector diagram for two transformers connected
in open
delta or F.
The letteringon this diagram corresponds
the diagram of connections
shown
in Fig.
to the letteringon
131.
Equivalent resistances and equivalentreactances are used.
Single and double primes indicate,respectively,primary and
secondary values.

The

transformers

forming the

carries the

ca

Ita/. The

current

259

TRANSFORMERS

STATIC

delta

open

are

and be.

ca

laa'. Transformer

current

be carries the

part of the delta,i.e.,

the open

voltage across

former
Trans-

of Vac and Va.

If 9
ab, will be equal to the vector sum
is the angle of lag for the load, the current in the lines will lag
behind the Y voltage of the system by an angle 0. To simplify
the construction
of the vector diagram, let 0 be the angle of lag
across

of the

secondary

referred

the

to

balanced

with

with

current

respect

secondary, and

the

to

the

assume

primary voltage
load to be

current

respect to the primary voltage.

laa',Fig. 132, will lag behind V'ca by an angle

e
30 degrees. On Fig. 132, 6 is 30 degrees. Referringto Fig.
132, V'ca,V'db and V'bc are the three primary voltages referred
the three
to the secondary windings. V'ca, V"ab and V'u are
corresponding secondary voltages. F"o6 is the voltage across
of the voltages
the open
side of the delta and is the vector
sum
The

current

"

produced by the

two

transformers

V"ab
will be

It

exactly balanced
the diagram is

on

account

of the

V'ci

132

that

balanced

secondary voltages

the

ing
unbalanc-

much
^

in

drops.

dance

The

load.

practice
exaggeratedimpe-

will be found

greater than

for
very

be.

Vac

Fig.

be

cannot

on

from

seen

and

ca

Connection.

"

transformers

Two

\
\
\

ratings but
with different voltage ratingsare used.
the

with

current

same

is called the

transformer, which

One

/
\

'teaser,"is connected
the

of

other
Both

133.

primary

windings

are

either for the

serve

the middle
in

is indicated

as

the

to

and

the

connected

-^5

c^

Fig.

pj^

133

ondary
sec-

in the

same

diagram of connections

Fig. 133 will

way.

for the

or

vector

diagram of the voltages.

The
The

teaser transformer

second

transformer

is

representedby

is indicated

ad

on

the

diagram.

by the hne cb. The threethe terminals,a, b and c.

phase voltages are impressed across

secondaries .being similarlyconnected
The

will

supply

three-

260

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

voltage which, except for the impedance

drops,will be equal to the impressed voltage divided by the ratio

phase

power

at

of transformation.
the primary voltages
impressedvoltagesare balanced,,
Vab, Vto and Vca will be equal and each equal to 2Vcd- The
voltages Vda and Vdc and also Vda and Vdb will be in quadrature.
If the

The

angle acd is 60 degrees; therefore,

Z^

sin 60

0.866

ca

for a
transformer, therefore,should be wound
voltage which is 86.6 per cent, of the voltage of the Hne or of the
for
main transformer.
Usually the teaser transformer is wound
the same
voltage as the main transformer but is provided with
a tap for 86.6
per cent, of full voltage.
from the T connection
A neutral point may
be obtained
by
The

teaser

bringingout a tap from the teaser transformer

a
equal to two-thirds of the distance between
V

^
If n,

na

at
a

and

distance from
d.

%4,

/3

da

Fig. 133, is the neutral point of

three-phasesystem,

the

1_

Yna
_

\/3

Yea
y

V3
but

a/3
=

F""

0.866

=\-Yc.

therefore.
\

Yna =-^^7Vda

VS
The

2_

a/3'

T system is unsymmetrical

%Vda

cannot
and, therefore,
give perfectly
balanced secondary voltagesunder load conditions.
It is,
however, perfectlysatisfactoryand gives less unbalancing than

the open

delta.

STATIC

Two

exactly similar transformers

with

temporary

fair

work

the
similar,

are

turns

than

can

results,but this

or

in

an

it should

is used

for the T

be used

is not

advisable

If the two

emergency.

which

one

261

TRANSFORMERS

for the teaser

nection
con-

except for
transformers

will have

more

for the

voltage impressed upon it and the

impedance drop will be unnecessarily
large.
134
is a vector
The load
Fig.
diagram for the T connection.
is assumed
with respect to the primary voltage.
to be balanced
The angle of lag,d, is 30 degrees with respect to the primary
voltage. All vectors are referred to the primary.
The voltage V'da is in phase with the Y voltage of the system.
The
transformer
da carries line current.
Therefore,the power
-nyca'^'d+yda

"5'o"ir

Idc
f^ac

K,'^M*''dc

134.

Fig.

factor for the transformer

the

da is the

same

as

the power

factor of

three-phaseload.

The

two

halves

of the

secondary coil of

the main

transformer

phase. Therefore, in order to

the secondary, the transformer
he must
find the voltage across
with two secondary windings which
be treated like a transformer
By inspection of Fig. 134, it will
independently loaded.
iire
carry

be

currents

seen

which

are

out

of

fore,
symmetricaland cannot, theresecondaryvoltagesunder load.

that the T system is not

give exactly balanced

The capacityof the T system
somewhat

less than

the

sum

three-phasetransformation is
of the capacitiesof the two transformers
for

used.

Take, for example, the

case

of

load at unit power

factor and

262

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALT

EUN

AT

MACHINERY

I NO-CURRENT

that the teaser

transformer da, Fig. 133,

transformer,i.e.,
is wound
for the correct voltage. Let the Une current and hne
voltageof the three-phasesystem be I and V respectively.
assume

The

transformer

the power
The
the

da has

Its output is therefore

factor of the load.

halves

two

equal

factor

power

to

30"

cos

at

0.866 F7.

secondary of the other transformer

of the

7 at

current

0.866 F and works

voltageequal to

carry

Its

0.866.

output is,therefore,
VI

The

30"

cos

0.8667/

output of the system is

total

2(0.866F/)
The

total rated

capacity of
0.8667/

Comparing

the

the

7/

actual output

transformers

two

1.8667/

with

is

the rated

capacity gives

1.7327/
0.928

1.8667/
the fraction of the total transformer

as

for the

transformer

he but

voltage,86.6
utilized.

the

cent,

per

In this

da
has

cent,
case

connected

is wound

or

open

the output of the T

voltage

as

the

of the

system will be 86.6

rating,or will be the

same

two

same

transformers

as

when

delta.

Fotir-phaseTransfonnation
from three- to four-phase or

to

same

voltage tap for 86.6 per cent, of full

of the rating of this transformer
will be

of the total transformer

in 7

for the

three-phaseoutput

Three-

is available

three-phase output.

If the transformer

per

rating which

or

vice

Vice
versa

Versa.

"

formation
Trans-

is easilyaccomplished

of the Scott- or T-transformer

connections.
by means
that the voltages across
Referring to Fig. 133 it will be seen
the primary terminals of each of the two transformers
in
are
The secondary
quadrature and are in the ratio of 1 to 0.866.
ratio.
voltages will also be in quadrature and in this same
A symmetrical four-phasesystem may
be obtained on the secondary
side by connecting the secondary windings together at

264

PRINCIPLES

of like form

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

except when

MACHINERY

the

two-phase voltageis sinusoidal,

since the harmonics
in the resultant of the two voltageswhich are
in the
of phase are different in phase from the harmonics
out
or

components.
If power

is put in

the

on

of the

three-phaseside,one

two-phase

form as the threewave

voltages,i.e.,c'b',will be of the same
the impressed
phase voltages. The
other, however, except when
less peaked
or
voltage is sinusoidal,will be either more
it is more
less peaked
than the impressedvoltage. Whether
or
will depend upon
the harmonics
present and their phase relations.
the two-phase side of the ScottLet the voltage drops across
connected
transformers, Fig. 135, be
et/c'
evc'

ed'a'

+ as)
"i) + E3 sin (Stoi-(-I-Ei sin (5coi
+
+ 05)
a^) + E^, sin (Iwt + a?)
El L sin {(j)t
+ ai
+ Ei sin (Scoi+
90") -H
90")
{ut -f0:3 +
-r
"3
-r
;
sin
(^,.d
C|0"'"
sin
(7,.^t.
K.
R,
4444sin
sin
+ Ei
(5co"+ "6
+ 90"^
90") + E^,
(7w" + a? 490")

El sin {ut
{cat+

"

ou

".

These

voltages are
phase.

two

in

Assume

",

"
-

alike in

form

wave

ratio of transformation

of

but

differ

by

90

grees
de-

unity between the threethe

voltage drops across

phase and four-phase voltages. The

three-phase side of the transformers will then be
eab

0.866ea'd'+

0.5

e^v

Cca

0.866ed/a' +

0.5

Cc'v

Referred

Cic

to he

+
eab=

an

El sin {(at +

-1-Es sin
eca=

as

+
{beat

i/i sin (o^t+

Ei sin {5cat
+
El sin {cat +
Es sin {5cat
-f

It will be

axis,the three-phasevoltages are:

cii)-\-Ei sin
as) + E^ sin
120") +
ai
120") +
as,
240") +
ai
240") +
ae
-

{Scat+ as)
{7"at+ a?)
Ei sin {Beat+

as

Er sin {7cat
+

ay

Ei sin {Scat+

cxi

"7 sin {Icat-|-aj

(83)
240")
240")(84)
120")
120")(85)

from

equations (83),(84) and (85)that the wave

forms of the voltages Vab and Vca are
different fr,omthe wave
form of the voltage Vbc. All three of the three-phase voltages
contain

seen

third harmonics

Except when

which

differ

three-phase voltages

by

are

120

degrees in phase.

obtained

from

Scott-

STATIC

connected

they

transformers

The

forms

wave

Fig. 136 for the

per

cent,

third

case

or

where

harmonics.

some

the two-phase voltages contain

The

Fig.

to be 0" and

harmonics

180"

of each

other

unsymmetrical system,
third harmonics
(see page 47).
of the three-phasevoltages are
plotted in

contain

cannot

265

TRANSFORMERS

angles ai and

are

are

assumed

136.

respectively.The
wave

aa

30

shown

fundamentals

and

the third

dotted.

Double A and Double

Six-phase Transformation.
be derived from any three-phase
A six-phasesystem may
Y.
system by the use of three single-phasetransformers which are
each provided with two independent secondary windings. The
Three"

to

"

266

PRINCIPLES

OF

primariesshould
The

two

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

be connected

sets of secondaries

are

for

three-phasein

connected

to form

three-phase systems with the connections

reversed

Fig.

The

phase

with

of

two

A.

or

ent
independset of

one

ondaries
sec-

of the other.

respect to the connections

137.

voltages are shown

of secondaries
gives the

relations of the six secondary

by Fig. 137.
Reversing one
group
phase relations shown by Fig. 138.

1'

2'0

02_0

3'

flUl

Secondaries
In Double

either Y

,'-0

Fig.

The

two

groups

of secondaries

givingwhat is known
respectively.In case

as

II

ni

IV

yi

139.

may

the double-A
of either the

be connected
or

in A

or

in F

the double- F connection

double- F

or

the

double-A

STATIC

267

TRANSFORMERS

connection,one-half of the power delivered by the transformers

will be supplied by each group
of secondaries
at the threephase voltage. The connections with the secondaries in double
A and with the primariesin Y are
shown
in Fig.139.
The connections
shown
at the left of the figure.
are
diagranamatically
The actual connections are shown
at the right. Fig. 140 shows
the diagrammatic and the actual connections for the double Y.
The two deltas forming the double A have no electrical connection
therefore

and

six-phase system.
of

armature

motor

considered

be

cannot

When, however, they

or

form

connected

are

true

to

the

synchronous converter, the electrical

to

1'

02

2'

HI

IV

03

3'

Secondaries
Y

In Double
1

II

Yl

Ii'iG. 140.

connection
is the
The

same

two

between

th6 two

deltas is established

if

six-phasepower
Y's forming the double
as

was

being fed
may

and

the effect

to the machine.

be interconnected

at

a
points,n and n',and form, under this condition,
true star six-phase
system.
transformers with
Three single-phase
Diametrical Connection.
singlesecondaries may be used to supply six-phasepower to
as
by making use of what is known
or motor
a rotary converter

their neutral

"

the diametrical connection for the secondaries. The diametrical

used than either the double A or
connection is probably more
the

double

Y.

point is desired

The
for

double

grounding or

is

always used

when

neutral

for the neutral wire of

three-

268

PRINCIPLES

wire

direct-current

phase rotary

from

power

six-

converter.

to feed

transformers

receives

which

system

connection

for the diametrical

diagram of connections

The

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

six-phasepower

is shown

in

Fig. 141.

of
The

is to
which
represents the armature
hexagon at the bottom
receive six-phasepower.
If taps are brought out from the middle points of each of the
metrical
and these taps are
three secondaries
interconnected,the diaconnection

the double

becomes

Y.

Primaries
InY
1

Secondaries
Diametrical

Fig.

141.

Twoor
Six-phase Transformation.
be accomplished by
four-phase to six-phasetransformation
may
the secondary side of Scott
of double-T
connection
on
use
for this are
in Fig. 142.
transformers.
The connections
shown
The ratio between
the primary and secondary voltages should
Two-

or

be the

same

Four-phase

as

to

for the Scott transformers.

also connected

in

transform

three- to

The

from

chief
with

use

"

T, the Scott

If the

transformers

be

may

six-phase.
six-phasetransformation

of three- to

rotary converters

greater output for the

primariesare

same

which
copper

are

more

used

is in

efficient and

loss when

connected

to

nection
con-

give
for

STATIC

six-phase than
of

converters

when

three-phase. All rotary

few hundred
kilowatts capacityare
operatedthrough transformers from

connected

than

more

269

TRANSFORMERS

tapped for six-phaseand

are

for

three-phasemains.
A

connected

rotary converter

for twelve

larger output than

when

addition

certain other marked

it possesses
which
among

armature

copper

is the

loss.

much

for

uniform

more

Twelve-phase

distribution

converters

are

not

of
at

built,but it is quite possiblethat with the growing

for larger units they may
into use.
For this
come

present
demand

the

reason

connected

phases will give a

three phases,and in
advantages, the principal

transformer

connections

twelve-phase will be given. One of

chord connection,
is very simple.

to

for

changing from
these,namely, the

threedouble-

^y^

-^^'o^

vi.

Prim

Seoondaries

Vw

^
v".^Fig.

Three-

142.

There are 30 degrees

Twelve-phase Transtormation.
difference in phase between
corresponding Y and A voltagesof a
of transformers
three-phase system. Therefore, two
groups
to

"

six-phasetransformation wUl have their

correspondingsix-phasevoltages 30 degrees apart, provided the
primariesof one group are connected in A and the primariesof
connected

the other
the A- and
a

to

for three- to

are

connected

F-connected

in Y.

If the ratios of transformation

groups

of transformers

~~7^"the six-phasevoltagesof both

groups

are

of

in the ratio of
will be

equal in

magnitude and they may be interconnected to give either a star or

a mesh
twelve-phasesystem. The diagram of connections and the
phase relations of the primary voltages are shown in Fig. 143.
Fig. 144 gives the secondary connections and vectors of the
To
simplify the reference to
twelve-phase star connection.

270

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

to be in phase
secondary voltages are assumed
with the primary voltages instead of in oppositionto them.

Fig. 143,
The

the

connections

shown

in

Fig. 144 requiresix single-phase

CJonnections

Fig.

transformers

143.

three-phasetransformers with two different

ratios of transformation.
The complication of such connections
would as a rule offset any gain that might be derived from their
or

two

use.

The

equivalent of twelve phases may

connected
double-chord

twelve-phase system
connection

which

be obtained

by the

use

of

requires only

for any
a

very

three

mesh-

simple
single-

CHAPTER
Three-phase

Transformers;
Currents

AND

and

Operation

of

Groups

in

Three-phase
of

Transformers

Single-phase

Y-

of

ADVANTAGE
DIS-

AND

Parallel
or

Three-

V-

Transformers;

and

PARALLEL

IN

savingin material
of transformers requiredfor three-phase
by combining their magnetic circuits.

Three-phase Transformers.
and therefore in the cost

citing
Ex-

the

in

Voltages

Induced

the

TRANSFORMERS

A-CONNECTED

Harmonics

Third

TRANSFORMERS; ADVANTAGES
Three-phase
Transformers;

A-CONNECTED
OF

phase

XXI

"

A considerable

circuits may
be effected
Core Type. For example, consider
"

single-phasecore-type transformers

the

which

of three

case
are

to be

similar

used

on

Fig.

146.

Fig.

147.

three-phasecircuit. If both windings on each transformer

placedon one side of the core and the opposite sides of the
cores

are

butted

together as shown

fluxes in the three sides which

are

iron

in

Fig. 146, the component

placed together will be 120

degreesapart in time phase and their resultant will be

272

are

zero.

The

STATIC

273

TRANSFORMERS

be removed
portion of the iron core may, therefore,
without affecting
the operationof the transformers.
The core type of three-phase
built has
transformer as actually
the three parts of the core
which
carry the windings in one
common

plane

shown

in

Fig. 147. This arrangement is derived from

that shown
in Fig.146 by removing the parts of the cores
which
butt togetherand then contractingthe horizontal portionsof the
as

Fig.

core
cores

the

of

phase

one

of the

other

and
two

148.

bending the corresponding parts of the

phases until the three windings lie in

plane.
leg of the iron
Any one
same

resultant

core

of the fluxes in the

of the

will carry a flux which is the

other two; consequently,the reluctances

magnetic circuits for the fluxes of phases 1 and

greater than
3,,Fig. 147, will be slightly

magnetic circuit
18

for the flux of

phase 2.

the reluctance
The

of the

only effect of

this

274

PRINCIPLES

will be

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

slightunbalancing of

MACHINERY

This
magnetizingcurrents.
will have littleinfluence upon the operationof the transformer.
The yokes between
the portionsof the iron core
which
are
surrounded
by the windings form a Y coupling for the three
magnetic circuits of the three-phasetransformer shown in Fig.
147.
They, therefore, carry the same
flux, neglectingthe
a

leakage fluxes,and

portions of
yokes

the
be

may
to

should

iron

core

Shell

have

the

cross-section

same

surrounded

and

construct

is shown

Type.
"

in

When

type, the windings

the
are

requiresmore
is not

used.

as

space

and

is

more

possesses

The
whole
sum

groups
in the

no

three-phasecore-type
is of the shell

three-phasetransformer
in the

embedded

iron

core

instead

of

149.

surrounding the iron core as in the core type. The usual

of a shell-type,
three-phase transformer is shown
The three groups
Fig. 149, which gives two sectional views.
1-1,2-2 and

pensive
ex-

Fig. 148.

Fig.

coils are

the

by the windings. The

arranged in A, but this arrangement

advantage, and
particular
transformer

the

rangement
ar-

in
of

3-3.

resultant

magnetomotive force producing flux along the

length of the core, i.e.,
along the line a, b, c, is the vector
of the three magnetomotive forces due to the three
of
same

windings.

If the three

groups

of coils

are

connected

relative

the magnetomotive forces produced

direction,
will be 120 degrees apart and their vector sum
taken

by them
The flux passingbetween
the two pairs
along abc will be zero.
of adjacent windings 1 and 2 and 2 and 3 in the spaces
d and e
and / and g, respectively,
will be equal to one-half of the vector
difference, of two. fluxes which are equal but 120 degrees apart..

STATIC

275

TRANSFORMERS

The

fluxes in the spaces d and e and / and g, therefore,

are
to }4\/S
0.866 of the flux linkinga singlephase.

equal

The

magnetomotive

pair of

any

of the

in

are

phases of

instead
parallel

transformer

of the

of in series

in the

as

case

magnetic circuits of the

shell-typetransformer
are, therefore,much

independent of

more

acting to produce fluxes between

type of transformer.

core

three

coils

forces

The

another

one

type.

core

from

magnetic circuits of a
If the flux is prevented,in any
windings of any one phase of a
than

the

passing through the

shell type of transformer,there will stillbe magnetic circuits for
the fluxes of the other two phases and they may
be operatedin
delta.
Two
cannot
windings of a core-type transformer
open
be operated in open delta if the flux is prevented from passing
through the core of the third phase, since in this case both of
way,

the active

windings would

have

the

to carry

flux instead

same

of

fluxes 120

The action of a shelldegrees apart, as they should.

is of some
under
the preceding conditions
type transformer
importance since it permits such a transformer to be operated
If one
winding of a shell
temporarily with one winding out.
injuredin any way, the remaining two windings
type becomes
be operatedin open delta giving 58 per cent, of the normal
may
capacity of the transformer, provided the injured winding is
disconnected
and either its primary or its secondary winding, or
short-circuited.
If the injured phase
preferably both, are
is short-circuited,
any current
which

upon

to

As

current.

current

to

will be

and

back

all

magnetizing
pass through

to

only

circuit

very

small

duced
phase. The voltage inequal to the impedance drop
former
phase of a core-type trans-

current.

iron may

be

one

magnetic

saved

two

in the

connections

construction

If the connections

of the middle

by the portionof the

portionsd, e, f and g, will as

fluxes carried

core

operated

be in series.
of

of the

of the

be

cannot

circuits would

by reversing the connections

is,by reversingthe

Fig. 149.

If

be

the remaining
short-circuited,

transformer

the

forced

phase will merely

delta since their

in open
Some

by

result of

this small
is

that

will,therefore,be
this,
any flux which tends

no

will flow in the short-circuited

in this

due

flows in it will have

and

react

injured phase

the

which

shell-type
phase,

middle

windings of phase 2,
coil

are

between

before be

reversed,the
the coils,
i.e.,

equal to one-half

276

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

ings,
Unking two adjacent windthe fluxes threading two adjacentwindings
but in this case
60
are
degrees apart instead of 120 degrees. Their vector
difference will,therefore,be numericallyequal to either flux,
of the vector

and

difference of the fluxes

the parts

g of the

d, e, f and

equal to one-half of the

of this flux,as

the

was

core

through

flux

when

case

will carry fluxes which are

coil instead of 0.866
any one

the

windings of all phases were

the middle
phase is reversed the
similarly. When
former
cross-section of the magnetic circuit throughout the transconnected

should

be

the

It should

same.

Fig.

be

150.

portions of the magnetic circuit consist of

certain

two

parallel

coil reversed the cross-sections of a, b,c,

h+ i,d + e,f+ g, j -\-k,o+ l,p -{-m,and q + n should be equal.
all connected
If the phases are
similarly,the cross-sections of

paths.

d +

With

that

remembered

and

the middle

f +

g must

be

\/3

1.73

times

the cross-section

the other parts of the magnetic circuit.

of a three-phase
actual appearance
The
is shown
Third

in

former
shell-typetrans-

Fig. 150.
in the

Harmonics

Voltages of Y-

of

and

Exciting Currents

A-connected

and

Transformers.

in the Induced
"

Due

to

the

277

TRANSFORMERS

STATIC

permeability of the core of a transformer with

form of the
the wave
varying flux densityas well as to hysteresis,
magnetizing current of a transformer will be different from the
form of the impressed voltage. If the impressed voltage
wave
is sinusoidal,
the magnetizing current
will not be sinusoidal but
variation

in the

will contain

harmonics,the

which

prominent among

most

is the

third.
Consider

first three

single-phasetransformers

connected

for

three-phase. If sinusoidal electromotive forces are impressed

three single-phasetransformers
which
have
their primary
on
windings connected in Y with a neutral,there will be a third
harmonic
in the magnetizing current
of each phase. These
harmonic

component

wUl

currents

flow

the three lines and

over

neutral,where they will all be in conjunction and

in the neutral
current
will add directlygiving a third-harmonic
in each line.
current
equal to three times the third-harmonic
this condition the voltageinduced in each transformer will
Under
form as the impressed voltage,except as its
be of the same
wave
be very slightlymodified by the impedance drop in
shape may
the primary winding. If the neutral connection
^", broken,
in the magnetizing current and
be no
third harmonic
there can

return

the

on

the flux in each transformer

will then be

modified

so

that

third-

monic
voltage will be induced in each winding. This harVoltage cannot appear between any pairof lines,since the
in the two phases between
pair of lines will
third,harmonics
any
There will be
be in oppositionand will,therefore,neutralize.
third-harmonic
voltagesinduced in the secondary windings. If
tween
in Y this harmonic
these are connected
voltage will appear bebetween
the lines and neutral,but it cannot
any
appear
harmonic

pair of

lines.
secondaries

If the

in them

has

current

no

therefore,act
core

compared
can

be

no

with

in

third-harmonic

conjunctionin

current

to

electric circuit upon

third-harmonic
a
as

will suppress
third-harmonic

and

The

will be

third-harmonic

cause

in A, the

are

the rated

which

larger than

the

it

can

react.

magnetizing current

and

will
This

It

will,

for the

in the induced

voltage.
large
of the transformers,since it

in the closed A

current

closed A

circulate in the delta.

the third harmonic

current

the

duced
voltages in-

third-harmonic

will not

components

be

which

278

OF

PRINCIPLES

exist in the

would

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

excitingcurrents

of the transformers

if they

excited,on the side in which it occurs, from a single-phase

line. It may,
be equal to 30 or even
cases
however, in extreme
of the normal excitingcurrents.
50 per cent, of the fundamental
the magnetic density
Its magnitude will depend very largely
upon
were

at which

Increase

the

rapidlywith

If the A in which
a

of the transformers

cores

this third-harmonic

respect to

three transformers

are

operated. It

will

magnetic density.

the

large third-harmonic

Since,with

are

current

voltage will

flows is opened,
the

across

appear

another,the third harmonics

one

3 X

120

degrees apart in phase,

360

gap.

in the

voltage will be equal to three times the third-harmonic

voltage the third-harmonic current in the closed A produces in
this

each

transformer.
be

may

The

great

as

third-harmonic
as

40

or

even

each

voltagein

former
trans-

50 per cent, of the rated

are
voltagesof the transformers if the cores
operated at high
magnetic density,and will usuallybe as much as 25 per cent.
If the transforniers have
both primaries and secondaries Yconnected,the third-harmonic voltage will not appear between
the mains, but will appear
between
the mains
and neutral.
If it were
50 per cent, of the fundamental, the root-mean-square
value of the resultant voltageto neutral would be -s/(50)^
-\-(100)''

112 per cent, of the rated

ratio of

wave

would

be much

increase in the maximum

than 12 per cent.

effect of this increase in voltageis not only to give an abnormal

voltageof the

The

voltage.*The

more

but also to increase the insulation

transformation,

strain in the transformers.

An

increase of 10

or

12

per

cent.

in

voltage,with a much greater correspondingincrease in the

maximum
formers
voltage,is of importance in very high-voltagetranswhere the factor of safetyof the insulation may
not be
much

over

2.

If the

primariesare in A, each phase may be considered to

receive power independentlyof the others and the required
third
harmonic
in the magnetizing currents may
be considered to
in over
the lines. A littlethought,however, will show that
come
the third-harmonic

component

currents

which

come

in

over

any

line for the two

phases connected to that line will neutralize.

The result is,there will be merely a third-harmonic
current
in the closed A formed
circulating
by the primary windings.

one

'Suppressing the
flivxwave

and

third harmonic

therefore

peaks

the

in the

magnetizing
voltage wave.

current

flattens the

280

PRINCIPLES

OF

There

removed.

core

third-harmonic

the

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

will then
Let

flux.

magnetomotive forces of
the magnetizing currents

be

no

instantaneous

the

the three

phases

at any

fFs and

JFi,3^2 and

be

return

common

correspondinginstantaneous values
of the three magnetic circuits up to their

Let

ipi, ipi

and

instant

for

of the
due

to

let (Ri,(Rj and

reluctances

junctions.

common

values

be the instantaneous

"pz

values

of the

6I3 be the

path

of the fluxes.

Then
[Fl

"

(Ri^l

ffl

"

(Rl^'l
"

^1

Solving for

"pi

"

^2 +

(5l2'P2
=

^3 +

(^3^3

^2

=0

^^S

gives
(gl

(ffl J2)6l3+
-

^^

g3)(R2

+
(R2ffl3

+
(Rl(Jl2

expressionfor the
expressionshold for "p2 and
The

flux

v'l

is

(R3(5ll

perfectlygeneral. Similar

tpz.

monic
neutral, the third-harwhich
would
components in the magnetizing currents
to produce a sinusoidal
flux can
come
ordinarilybe necessary
of fact, no
such third-harmonic
As a matter
in over
the neutral.
If

the

components
and

will not

Assume
necessary

in

primaries are

ipi

are

with

for

necessary

core-type transformer

exist.
is sinusoidal

third

harmonics.

and

that

These

ffi,IF2 and
third

3^3 contain

harmonics

are

the

all in

equal since the reluctances of the three magnetic

circuits are
equal. They will,therefore,affect all three
magnetomotive forces alike and as the magnetomotive forces
the
enter in the expressionfor the flux as the difference of pairs,
third harmonics
be suppressed without
alteringthe flux
may
quired
(Equation for ^1). The third harmonics
are, therefore,not rein the magnetomotive forces of a core-type transformer
to
produce a sinusoidal flux variation in each phase. No third
harmonic
components will exist in the magnetizing currents or in
the primary neutral.
Opening the neutral will,therefore,not
alter the fluxes or induced
If the
voltages in the transformer.
secondaries are in A with the primariesin Y without
neutral,no
third-harmonic
magnetizing current will exist in them as existed
in
in the secondaries of a three-phaseshell-typetransformer
or
phase. They

are

the secondaries

281

TRANSFORMERS

STATIC

of three

similar

under

single-phasetransformers

conditions.
The

transformer

Fig. 146 has

is metrical
symof the ordinary

which

core

respect to the three phases. The

with

core

three-phasecore-type transformer is like that shown in Fig.

and is unsymmetrical. The reluctances for the three phases
not equal. As a result the magnetizing currents willbe somewhat

147
are

unbalanced
in the

neutral.
be

in

shown

there will be current

and

if the

neutral

If there is

There

shghtlyunbalanced.

F-connected

primariesare

quency
frewith

connection,the Y voltages will

neutral

no

of fundamental

also be small third-harmonic

may

magnetizing currents with the neutral closed. When the neutral

is opened there will be correspondingharmonics
in the induced
voltages.
If the generator
in its phase
Y

with

supplyingthe

be

connected

they

produce

the third harmonics

in

the neutral

magnetomotive

cannot

to the neutral

pronounced tllird-harmohic

the lines and

harmonic

has

third harmonic

voltage and the primariesof the transformers

their neutral

there may

transformer

any

are

forces for the three

mutual

flux.

concerned

are

The
the

same

in

of the generator,

currents

connection.

are

in the transformers,

Since the third-

phasesare
conditions
as

those

in

phase

so

far

as

existing

single-phase
core-type transformer with two equal sections
of the primary winding bucking and on oppositesides of the core.
The third harmonic
voltagesimpressed on each phase will be
a

short-circuited
reactarice

which

causes

through the resistance and third-harmonic

phase. The

of each

the third-harmonic

third-harmonic

leakage reactance

age
leak-

leakage flux
is not like the

which passes between

ordinaryleakage flux for the fundamental
the primary and secondary windings, but is a leakageflux which
links both primary and secondary windings and passes between the
It is a leakage flux for the core but not
upright legsof the core.
caused by this thirdfor the windings. The leakage reactance
harmonic
leakage flux is much higher than the ordinaryleakage
of the higherfrequency
account
on
for the fundamental
reactance
chiefly
and on account
of the much
of the third harmonic
larger
cross-section of the air
The

third-harmonic

path

for the third-harmonic

leakage flux links

windings and induces

third-harmonic

leakageflux.
both primaryand secondary
voltagesin each.

282

OF

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Advantages and Disadvantages of Three-phase Transformers.

Advantages. Three-phase transformers require less material

transformers
for a given output than the three single-phase
they
cost less,
requireless floor
replace. They therefore are lighter,
than three singletransformers
space and have a higher efficiency
"

of

"

equivalentcapacity.
The windings of a three-phasetransformer

for

or

of

number

inside

of the

containingtank,

high-tensionleads

which

have

be connected

may

reducing the
be brought out

thus
to

Only three high-potentialleads need to be

through the tank.
transformers
brought out, while in the case of three single-phase
and six for Y, except
six must
be brought out for A connection
transformers
when
minal
terone
high-potential
of their high-potential
windings is usually grounded onto
transformers
the tank.
As very high-potential
nected
are
always conin Y on
their high-potential
sides,and the neutral point
end of
than one
grounded, there is no objectin insulatingmore
in the

of very

case

the

high-potentialwinding from the tank.

Disadvantages. The three principaldisadvantages of threephase transformers or, in general,of polyphase transformers are
the greater cost of spare units,the greater cost of repairs,and the
greater derangement of service in case of breakdown.
In small distributing
of any
systems having few transformers
one
size,the relative cost of spares with single-and three-phase
is the relative cost of one
transformers
former
single-phase transas
When,
compared with one three-phasetransformer.
formers,
transhowever, a distributingsystem is largeand requiresmany
the number
of spares required compared with the total
"

of transformers

number
case

of

in service is much

smaller

than

in the

small system, and

the increase in the cost of the spares

the savingin the cost of the transformers

is small

compared with
required for the whole system. In such a case, the total cost of
ally
three-phase transformers with the necessary spares will be usuless than the cost of an equivalent capacityin single-phase
transformers
also includingspares.
and
The gain in efficiency
the decreased

cost of

due
transportation

to the decrease

in total

given capacity,and also the decrease in the cost of

installation on
account
of the simplification
of the wiring, are
important items favoring three-phasetransformers.

weight for

STATIC

The

greater damage in the

phase is not
used
severe

283

TRANSFORMERS

of

case

short-circuit

bad

on

one

important item except when transformers are

in exposed placeswhere they are liable to be subjectedto
strains from lightning
from other causes.
or
a

very

Parallel

Threeor
Operation of Three-phase Transformers
The
conditions
phase Groups of Single-phase Transformers.
which must
be fulfilled for the parallel
operation of single-phase
"

transformers

must

^3
Ooll

Voltages V

Une

Primaries

parallel
operationof

also be fulfilled for the

Secondaries
V'

Voltages

In
,

V^

V^

A
and

f^'.

In Y
Secondaries
In Y
Line
Voltages

Fjl.f^aJ.andFi'a

transformers
of

on

polyphasecircuits.

when

conditions

are

ratios

make
the voltages be'
voltages which
the three-phaselines equal,equivalentimpedances which,
referred to the same
voltage,are inverselyproportional

transformation

tween

These

and

rating of the transformers,and equal ratios of equivalent

resistance to equivalentreactance.
of three-phase transformers,
or
groups
Three-phase transformers
be paralwhich are fed from a common
source, cannot
to the

284

OF

PRINCIPLES

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

leled

when
the conditions as stated are
even
indiscriminately,
since there is a phase difference between
the correfulfilled,
sponding
secondaryvoltagesgivenby certain of the connections.
For example,if the primariesof two groups of transformers
are
in A

connected

and

secondariesof

the

of the other in A, there will be

one

are

group

in Y

and

phase difference of 30 degrees

between
correspondingsecondary voltages. This is shown in
Fig. 151 which givesvector diagrams of the voltagesobtained.
The secondaryline voltages
givenby the two connections may be
but they
made
equal by using proper ratios of transformation,
be brought into phase. The smallest difference in phase
cannot
a

tions
secondary line voltagesgiven by the two connecwith
be paralleled
is 30 degrees. A Y-A system cannot

between

the

Y-Y, A-A,

or

T-T

system, but

Fig.

with
and

a
a

A-A, Y-Y
A-Y

or

system

T-T.

will

A-A

system

may

be

paralleled

152.

The

secondary voltagesof a Y-A

be either in phase or 60 degreesout of

Two
phase depending upon the way the connections are made.
such systems may,
be paralleled.
therefore,
Any group of three-phasetransformers which are fed from
be paralleled
independent sources
their secondarysides
on
may
provided the magnitudes of the voltages are the same.
In
this case
the relative phase relation of the sources
is free to

accommodate

itselfto the conditions

imposed by

the transformer

connections.
In order

to show

produced

if two

the

source

the magnitude of the short-circuit current

groups

of

transformers supphed
three-phase

from

should be put in

when their connections

parallel
such that they cannot
are
consider a
properly be paralleled,
Let the primaries of both groups
particularcase.
of transformers
same

be connected

in A.

Let the secondaries

of

one

be in A

STATIC

the other in Y.

and

groups

wound

are

285

TRANSFORMERS

that the transformers

Assume

for the

primary voltageand

same

in the two
identical

are

which
in the ratio
are
except in their ratios of transformation
of 1 : \/3. Let the impedance voltage of the transformers
be
5

per

of their rated

cent,

connections
Let
be

the

ratio

of the

of transformation

unity. The

full-load current.

at

The

in Fig. 152.
diagrammatically

shown

are

voltage

ratio

of

transformation

A-connected
of

the

group

F-connected

\/3. If z is the impedance of the primaries,

the equivalent impedances, referred to the secondaries,of the
group

A-

and

will then

of the

Vaz + Mz

be

F-connected

groups

2z
respectively,

are,

and

%z.

According

to Kirchoff's laws

-2-2

Ehd +

Bda

Eab
1

^^

da

Ibd

Ibd

3S +

lab

~r

lab +

Ida

(86)

lab 2Z

ac

Icb

Since the system is symmetrical the currents

in the two

groups

the phase currents

in each
balanced,i.e.,
will be equal in magnitude and will differ by 120 degrees
group
in phase. There will be the usual phase displacement between
of transformers

the A and

will be

Therefore

currents.

Ida

V^Iai (cos30"
j sin 30")
\/3 7a6(0.866 j 0.500)
VS lab(cos30" + j sin 30")

Ibd

Vslab (0.866+

Substitutingthese

(Ebd+ Edu) +

Eai

of Ida and

values

{3VS

zlab

+
=

41

ab

"

0.500)

hd in

equation (86)gives

(0.866+ j 0.500)

IV3

(0.866

j 0.500)+

Eab in
voltage (Ebd+ Eda) is equal to the voltage
magnitude but will differ from it by 30, 90 or 150 degrees in
The

"

phase accordingto
secondaries
Consider
and

are

the

way

connected

the connection
therefore

the

the A- and

F-connected

groups

of

together.
which

gives the least phase displacement

least short-circuit current.

For

this

286

PRINCIPLES

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

MACHINERY

for a displacement
of
displacement,
i.e.,
{{Ebd+ Eda) + Bob] will be equal to
/180"
2

cos

30

degrees,the voltage

30"

E"i

Eab

0.518

For this condition

0.518 Eab

4/d,

0.518

lab

IA

(87)

Ea

where

is the short-circuit current in the A-connected

/as.,.,
group.
Since a 5 per cent, impedance drop at full-load current was

the full-load current,Itf.i.,

in each of the A-connected
transformers may
be found from

assumed

lAt.l.
(2^)

0.05 Eab

hf.,.=^Eab
Substitutingthe value
(87)gives

of Eab from

(87a)

equation(87a)in equation

Ias.c. 5.18a/.!.
=

or

5.18 times

the rated full-load current.

winding of each

transformer

The

current

in each

its rated full-load

will be 5.18 times

value.
If

A-F

group

short circuit current

as

in the

V-

case

had

would

assumed

between

the two

and

connected

A-

transformers

been

connected

or

paralleledwith

have been either about

zero

groups

accordingto the
of transformers

Transformers
in V

are

Fig.

A-connected
connected

transformers
in

F-A

of the

V, the combined

group,

twice

way

the

as

the

great

tions
connec-

made.

were

in Parallel.
"

If two

equal

with three
operated in parallel

153.

type and ratingas those

output of the system will be only
same

333^ per cent, greaterthan the capacityof the A-connected group,

although the total transformer capacityinvolved is 66% per

CHAPTER
Ratio

Secondary

AND

Reactance,

Core

Loss

Resistance

Secondary

Dimensions

the

Loss, Component
Loss, Magnetizing
Calculated

and

of

Current

DiTA; Calculated
Transformer."

Core
Core

and

Equivalent

Curves;
Reactance

Regulation

culated
Cal-

Current

Transformer

of

Equivalent

and

Supplying
No-load

and

Magnetization

and

Transformer;

Dimensions

from

Resistances

Current

No-load

of

Flux

and

Leakage

Primary

FROM

mary
Density; PriReactances, Equivalent

Flux

Transformation,

of

The

XXII

Test

from

Efficiency

and

11,000 to 2300-volt,60-cycle,

300-kv-a.

transformer with a silicon iron core, will be

core-type,single-phase
used.
The primary and secondary windings each consist of two
coils connected in series. The two windings are
centric,
concylindrical
coil of
the high-tensionwinding being outside.
One
each winding is placedon each of the two uprightlegsof the core.
WiNDING

LOW-VOLTAQB

Toti.1 turns

190

per coil
Measured
resistance

95

Turns

at 25"C.

including 9 ft.

of leads

Each

conductor
in

wires

0.0495

cross-section of each

Total

rectangular cotton-covered

consists of three

parallelwound

edge three

on

wire is 0.345

High-voltage

Winding

0.100

910

turns

of

455
1.31

(0.500

conductor

The

space

ohms.

0.045) in.

Core

Iron
core

The

in.

per coil
Measured
resistance at 25"C

The

wide.

conductors

Turns

Cross-section

ohm.

is built up of sheets of silicon steel 0.014

is 0.9.
factor of the core
288

in. thick.

STATIC

The

dimensions
The

Fig.154.

on

curve,

and

of the

core

windingsare given
tion
core, the magnetiza-

and of the two

loss for the iron of the

core

of

curves

289

TRANSFORMERS

impedance voltage and short-circuit loss

plotted in Fig. 155.

are

Subscripts1

and

used

2 when

au-

-s""i-

ill
I "L

with

letters

representingvolt-

-H

6W---"i

t.

DimensioDB

of

on

Windings
the

do

Section^-A
iiot indade

Insulation.

Si
ti-P----

"fT

;*:..;

^"JM;H3-

"""-

-7fll3
"

/n).S45

,^!M0.600

.l^OOS

0.500

"-," W"

sis

bi
SECT\OHB-B

-^
Fig.

154.

etc., refer
current, resistance,

age,

to

the

high- and

low-voltage

windings respectively.
Ratio
the

of Transformation.

ratio of the

is the

same

as

"

The

ratio of transformation

by the mutual

voltagesinduced

the ratio of turns

true

in the two

910
=

190

4.79

flux.

windings.

This
It is

is

ratio

290

PRINCIPLES

Flux.

OF

transformer

in

is

E2

4.44iV2Vm/10-8

Loss

Core
0

MACHINERY

164, the voltage induced

equation (50),page

From

"

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

as

0.7

0.6

in Watts
0.8

0.9

per Pounfl.
1.0
1.1 1.2 1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

14

15

16

17

IS

140

150

"

Short-Cirouit
0

20

iO

30

BO

40

Current
60
70

Fig.

10

80

90

100

110

Flux

2300

10"

4.44

190

Density.
"

Area

of the

(7^)=' X 4(4%

130

120

155.

Neglecting the primary impedance drop

voltage

"pm

Side.

Low-Voltage

on

13

12

11

60

and

1^6)

soidal
sinu-

4,540,000 lines.

upright legsof the

X

assuming

73.4

core

sq. in.

is

(Fig.154)

STATIC

of top

Area

bottom

or

(6M X 9M)
The

space

yoke is

(4^ + 7^)1^6

factor for the

4 540

Flux

density

000

68,700 lines

=
"

Primary and Secondary Leakage

(58) and (59),page 189.

2x/

^2=

[-g-+-^

^^

73.5 sq. in.

is 0.9.

core

'

"'

291

TRANSFORMERS

per

Reactances.

fj8jrWj^ridi+d2"d^di^,^..,

"

From

"

tions
equa-

}4ds)d3\
I10-"

}4 {di + di +

inch.

square

-1 1
^

^,

,_

Fig. 154.

From

di

5.765

in.

da

0.345

in.

ds

1.003

in.

di

0.500

in.

Li

L2

33^6
331K6

There
series

on

in.
in.
two

are

low-voltageand

the transformer.

high-voltagecoils

two

All dimensions

must

be

reduced

in
to

centimeters.

+
=

+ 0.345
(5.77

2 X

0.345

^(5.77
2.54J2.60?^|^
+

^) 1.003]
)
10-"

0.162 ohm.
+

..

1.003)0.500

^^(5.77^) I.OO3]
(0:gO)_^
)
+

0.345

10-

4.24 ohms.

Equivalent

Reactance.

to the low

Xe

"

The

equivalentleakage reactance

voltage side is
0.162

4.24

(~j

0.347 ohm.

ferred
re-

292

PRINCIPLES

Resistance
of

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

of

"

+ ^)
2:r(5.765
Cross-section

of copper

conductor

resistance of
specific
37.3
^^

190

4(1000)212

ohm.

0.0467
of

turn

2t

high-voltagewinding (Fig.154) is

0.500\
46.3
+"f")
(7.11
=

of copper

conductor

0.500

0.045

0.0225

sq. in.

ir
^

4(1000)212

0.0225
1.28 ohms.

leads

in.

46.3X910
'

The

calculated resistances do not include the resistances of the

or

the effect

the resistance of

on

forming the coils.

Core
Loss.
Allowing
"

volume

The

bending the

(6M

73.4) +

0.9
73.5)}

7780

density was found to be 68,700 lines per

The loss per pound at this densityis (Fig.155) 1.055
the

density of

core,

the

in it is

flux

The

when

copper

factor of 0.9 for the

space

of steel contained

2{(52K X

cubic

ohms.

is 10.42

0.1035

length of

Cross-section

at 25"C.

Mean

37.3in.

0.1035 sq. in.

copper

turn

3(0.345X 0.100)
The

length of

Mean

Low-voltage Winding.
the low-voltage winding (Fig.154) is

silicon

steel of the

core

cu.

in.
inch.

square

watts.

is 0.272

lb. per

inch.

Total

loss

core

Component
is the current

Assuming

7780

2232

watts.

of No-load

marked
sine

0.272

Current

/* +
of

wave

"

on

1.055.

Supplying Core

the transformer

voltage and

current

2232
^
Ih
+

This current

is

on

^_
^"^'
^"P^

e=

the

2300

low-voltageside.

Loss.

vector

"

This

diagrams.

STATIC

Magnetizing
found

293

TRANSFORMERS

Current.

The

"

magnetizing

current

can

be

from

equation (52),page 166, but it is simpler to get it

from a magnetization curve
plottedwith flux densities against
Such a curve
is given on
ampere-turns per unit length of core.

Fig.155.
The

maximum

densityin

flux

lines per square

inch.
From
inch of lengthof the iron core
6.35 is the maximum
The

core

found

was

to be

68,700

Fig. 155, 6.35 ampere-turns per

are
requiredat that density. The

value of the ampere-turns.

mean
length of the core is

approximate

2{(6M + 9)4) +
The

the

(35 -i-8^^)} 119K in.

=

root-mean-square ampere-turns for the iron of the

-^ 119K

6.35

core

are

535

v2

The
small

lap jointsat
air gaps.

equivalent to

the

Each
an

of the

corners

be

figuredas

joint of ordinary transformer

air gap

of about

assumption,the ampere-turns
equation (52),page

must

core

in.

0.002

for each

cores

According

jointmay

is

to this

be found

from

166.

OAttNI.,
*'"'=

Since

/i

N^
where
NI

this

for air is one,

=NI

(B" is the maximum

The

0.00044(B"

densityin lines per square inch and

ampere-turns required per joint.

(0.00044)68,700
=

30

ampere-turns.

total ampere-turns are, therefore

535

The

be written

flux

is the root-mean-square
NI

equation may

^^

'^X

J_

-f-4 X

magnetizingcurrent

30

measured

655
on

the

low-voltageside is

655
"._

/p

J9Q

3.45 amp.

largeincrease in magnetizingcurrent produced by

increase in the voltage impressed on a transformer

The

ate
modermay

be

294

PRINCIPLES

OF

to Fig.155.
by referring

seen

the flux

densityin

inch.

square

At

flux densitywould
per inch of

the

be

increase in the

core

impressedvoltage of 2300,

an

found

was

be

to

68,700

lines per

2300, the

greater than

cent,

per

85,900. The ampere-turns

correspondingto this densityare, by

68,700 X 1.25

lengthof

extrapolationon

At

voltage 25

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

core

plot,approximately23. This
magnetizing current for the iron of
the

calls for
the

core

an

of

23
1

"

^"oK

2.6

No-load

or

260

Current.

cent.

per

The

"

no-load

current

on

the

low-voltage

side is

7"

Equivalent Resistance

+ jlf,

jZA5

0.97 +

3.58 amp.

Test

From

Data.

"

The

short-circuit

loss at 130.4 amp.

from the plot.Fig. 155, is 2020 watts.
Te referred to the low-voltageside is

fore,
There-

2020
re

The

equivalent resistance

measured

ohm.

0.119

/^3Q^S2

degrees calculated

25

at

from

the

resistance is
r,

0.0495

This last value of

t^^

1.31

ohm.

eddy-current and
hysteresislosses which are caused by the leakage flux. For this
it should be slightly
smaller than the value calculated from
reason
r^

does not

0.107

include certain

the short-circuit data.

Equivalent Reactance
on

the

from

low-voltageside

Test

to 130.4

full-load current

,"^,

^^^-^ ^"'P-

^300"
the

The

"

is

300,000

From

Data.

plot.Fig. 155, the impedance voltage corresponding

is 53.5.

amp.

53.5
.

Ze

Xe

J3Q-J

V (0.41)2

This is referred to the

.^
0.41
ohm.

(0.119)2

low-voltageside.

0.39 ohm.

SYNCHRONOUS

MOTORS

CHAPTER
General
Construction;
V-Ctjrves; Methods
Operation

of

Construction.
salient

XXIII

Characteristics; Power
of
Starting; Explanation

Synchronous

Synchronous

"

their construction

of

the

Motor

motors

are

poles. In other respects there is

between

Factor;

no

always built with

essential difference

and the construction

of

synchronous

exist do' not involve principles

only differences which

of design, and are merely to better adapt the machines
the particularpurpose
for which they are to be used.
The

generator.
to

The

chief differences
and

in the relative amounts

are

of armature

reaction

in the

damping devices. Any synchronous generator will operate

vice
motor
as a synchronous motor
and,
versa, any synchronous
will operate as a synchronous generator,but,as a rule,asynchronous
will have a more
effective damping device to prevent
motor
for a synchronous generator and its
hunting than is necessary
armature
reaction will be largerthan is desirable for a generator.
General
A synchronous motor
will operate
Characteristics.
at only one
at synchronous speed. This speed depends
speed,i.e.,
of poles for which the motor
is built and
solelyupon the number
the frequency of the circuit from which it is operated. The
upon
speed is entirelyindependent of the load. A change in load is
accompanied by a change in phase and in the instantaneous speed,
but not by a change in the average
speed. If,due to excessive
load or any other cause, the average
speed differs from synchronous
and the
zero
speed, the average
torque developed becomes
"

motor

comes
no

to rest.

synchronous

motor

as

such

has

lutely
abso-

startingtorque.
factor

of

synchronous motor
mains is fixed by its field exfrom constant-potential
citation
operating'
a-nd by the load it carries. At any given load the powei
Power

factor may,

Factor.

"

The

be varied

over

power

wide limits
297

the
by altering

field excita-

298

PRINCIPLES

tion.
as

is said to be

motor

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

under-excited

or

over-

its excitation is greater or less than normal.

is that which produces unity power factor.

producescondensive
An

current.

small

The

depends

upon

loads,it increases

V-Curves.

motor

causes

at different power

to take

excitation
a

in

leading

will take

produces
general,except

normal
at very

with the load.

to operate
Since it is possible

"

Over

which

field current
the load and

tion
excita-

Normal

motor

synchronous

under-excited

lagging current.
excitation

action and

according

factors,curves

may

synchronousmotor
plottedshowing the

be

100

90

no

530

.^40
30

20

10

4000

3000

2000
Excitation

Fig.

relation between

the armature

for different constant

account
power

of their
factor

on

loads.

156.

or

line current

'Such

curves

shape. Lines drawn

the V-curves

are

are

and

the excitation

called V-curves

on

through pointsof equal

called

compounding

curves.

of
Fig. 156 shows three V-curves and three compounding curves
a synchronous motor.
Curves I, II and III are the V-curves for three different loads,
I is for the
and A, B and C are compounding curves.
Curve
III is for the smallest load.
B is the
largestload and curve

SYNCHRONOUS

compounding

for

curve

299

MOTORS

factor and

unity power

normal

givesthe

excitation for different loads.

Methods

of

Starting. Since
"

startingtorque,

synchronous

motors

have

no

be used to bring
auxiliarydevice must
them
be
to speed. Polyphase synchronous motors
up
may
action produced in
brought up to speed by the induction-motor
their damping windings and by the hysteresisand eddy currents
in the pole faces. The field winding is usuallyopen while the
is being started in this way, but in some
motor
it is shortcases
circuited.
The damping winding usuallyconsists of copper
bars
which pass through the polefaces near
their surface.
The ends
of these bars are connected
together by copper or brass straps.
If the synchronous motor
is provided with an exciter which is
its shaft,this exciter may
mounted
be used as a direct-current
on
duction
motor
to bring the synchronous motor
up to speed. A small inmounted
motor
directlyon the shaft of the synchronous
the induction
is occasionallyused for starting.In this case
motor
have fewer poles usuallytwo less than
motor
must
in order that it may
the synchronous motor
bring the synchronous
motor
up to synchronous speed.
Explanation of the Operation of a Synchronous Motor.
A single-phasemotor
sidered
having a concentrated winding will be conin order to simplifythe explanation. Let the rectangles
marked
N and S in Fig. 157 represent the pole faces,which are
Let the largerectanglerepresent
to point downward.
assumed
some

"

"

"

winding. The electromotive force induced in the

winding will be zero for the positionof the coil shown.

the armature
armature
Let

the direction of rotation

electromotive
Assume

ture
arma-

right relativelyto the poles. Call an

force positivewhen it acts in a clockwise direction.

from

moves

be such that the

of the motor

left to

to be driven

the armature

at

uniform

speed.

The

from
generated in the coil while it moves
in Fig. 157.
the reference line AB
left to right is plottedon
circuit be closed through a load of such
let the armature
Now
with the generated
constants that the current in the coil is in phase

electromotive

force

electromotive force.
from

the coil moves

will be south.
it and

the

There

pole a,

and

This

current

is marked

I.

While

b, the face of the coil towards the poles

is,therefore,a force of attraction between
to

force of

repulsionbetween

it and

the

300

OF

PRINCIPLES

pole b.

is,during the

That

torque which

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

the motion

opposes

from

movement

of the

coil.

to

b, there is

The

power

veloped
de-

taneous
product of the instanvalues
of the current
and
the voltage. Since the
to this product.
speed is constant, the torque is also proportional
at

While

the

any

coil

electromotive

instant

moves

is

from

force both

the

equal to

" to

the current
Their

reverse.

and

the induced

product is stillpositive

sign of the torque remains unchanged. The torque

is marked
T on
the figure. The
curve
torque is intermittent
but is always positiveand since it opposes
the motion of the coil,
it corresponds to generator action.
(The torque of a polyphase
of the torques developed by all
generator is the algebraicsum
and

the

Fig.

157.

phases and is constant if the currents

and the impressed voltagesand the
If the load

phase with

on

the

and

voltagesare

currents

the generator is such

are

sine

waves

balanced.)

that the current

is not

in

will have
generated voltage,the torque curve
positiveand negative loops. The average
torque will be proportional
to the difference between
the areas
enclosed by these
loops. It will be positivefor any angle of lag or lead which is
less than 90 degrees. A study of Fig. 157 will show this. This
in the case
of a
study will also show that a lagging current
generator will produce a demagnetizing action on the poles and
that a leading current will produce the opposite effect.
Suppose that while the generator is running with the current

SYNCHRONOUS

the

and
This

voltagein phase, the

condition

301

MOTORS

current

is represented in

is reversed

in

some

way.

Fig. 158.

Direptioa

Rotation

of

Fig.

The

and

158.

the

voltage are now

exactly 180 degrees apart
and their product, which is proportionalto the torque, is negative
and corresponds to motor
action.
current

Direption
of

Ro|atlon x^'e^^

in the coil while it passes from a to 6 is in

the
the face of the coil toward
direction and causes

The

be

current

north

pole. There

a
is,therefore,

wise
clock-

polesto

force of repulsion between

302

PRINCIPLES

the coil and

and

the

motion

OF

the

pole h.

pole a
The

of the coil and

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

and

force of attraction between

resultant

of these

produces

motor

two

the coil

forces

assists the

The

conditions

action.

leading current are shown in Fig. 159. The

torque in this case has positiveand negativeloops. For angles
and 90 degrees, the negative loops are
of lead between
zero
and there is a resultant motor
larger than the positiveones
in
shown
conditions
for a lagging current
are
torque. The
Fig. 160.
motor
The
effect produced on
a
by a lagging or a leading
current
is justthe oppositeto that produced by these currents
existingwith

on

generator.

The

effect of armature

Fig.

reaction

depends

upon

180.

the current
and
the generated
phase relation between
voltage. Therefore, since the current of a motor and the current
of a generator are nearly oppositein phase with respect to the
generated voltage,the effect produced on the field by a leading
is just opposite to the effect
in a motor
or
a
lagging current
produced by similar currents in a generator. A leading current
in a motor
demagnetizes and a lagging current magnetizes the
field. This can
easilybe seen by referringto Figs. 159 and 160.
Consider
the case
of the lagging current
shown
in Fig. 160.
When
the coil is over
the pole h it is still carrying a positive
or
This current, according to the cork-screw
clockwise
current.
the

rule,will

cause

the face of the

coil which

is toward

the

pole h

CHAPTER

XXIV

Diagram; Magnetomotive-force
impedance
Diagrams; Change
Change
of
with
Load; Effect

Vector

Field
Vector

Diagram.

component

in
of

SynchronousExcitation

Normal
Change

in

Load

and

Excitation

"

The

of the

will be

notation

same

adopted for the generator. For

be

and

used

as

generator action, there

armature

in

current

phase

with

was

must

the

be a component
action,there must
generated voltage. For motor
of this current oppositein phase to the armature
voltage.
The vector diagrams of a synchronous motor
and of a synchronous
generator are similar. They differ only in the relative positions
of the vectors of generated voltage and current and those vectors

"V

"

FiQ.

161.

which

the current.
The
vector
depend upon
diagram of a
synchronous motor is shown in Fig. 161.
Compare this diagram
with the vector diagram of a generator shown in Fig.46, page 86.
V is the rise in voltagethrough the motor.
To get the internal
or generatedvoltage,Ea, the resistance and
reactance
drops must
be added
to the voltage V.
This corresponds exactly to what
was

done

in the

case

of the generator.

leads the

The

resultant

field,R,

generated voltage,Ea, by 90 degrees. The vector sum

of R and the magnetomotive force, "A, which
is required to
balance the armature
reaction,is equal to the impressed field
304

SYNCHRONOUS

F.

the

305

MOTORS

the motor
voltage drop across
terminals. The cosine of the angle between
this voltagedrop
and the current, /",is the power factor of the motor.
"

Refer

on

diagram

all vectors

la

to V

(cos 9
j sin 0)
+ Ia {re+ jXa)
V "laicos 6
j sin 6) (re+ jXa)
C+jD

"

"

to the

axis.

an

"la

Ea=V

R is found

as

is the

from

voltageEa

the

characteristic and corresponds

open-circuit
that

on

curve.

sin A
C
A

cos

"A

(sinA + j cos A)
(cos 9
j sin d)
"

Fig.

impressed field

The

equal

is the

162.

resultant

of R

and

"

and

is

to
F

(sinA -\-j

cos

electromagnetic
power

The

to the current

A) + A (cos6

developed by

multipliedby the

energy

voltage taken with respect to the

laFa
^'0

COS

{9

A)

laVC^

"

j sin B)

the motor

D^

COS

equal

of the ated
generThis is equal to

component
current.

is

{9

A)

306

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATINO-CURBENT

is the total internal power

developed
electromagnetic
power
It is equal to the external load plus all rotational
by the motor.
losses. These latter include friction and windage and all eddylosses due to rotation.
current and hysteresis
The
Magnetomotive-force and the Sjmchronous-impedance
Diagrams. Either the magnetomotive-forceor the synchronousThese
two
be appliedto the motor.
impedance diagram may
diagrams are shown in Figs.162 and 163 respectively.
The internal power
developed by a motor is always equal to
the energy
component of the generatedvoltage,with respect to
The

"

It is immaterial
whether
multipliedby the current.
the voltage generated by the resultant field,
by the impressed
field or by R" on the magnetomotive-forcediagram is used, since

the current,

-V

Fig.

the energy

components

current

the

are

of these

with

respect to the

Excitation

with

Under
Change of Load.
Factor"
is
on
297, the statement
page
that the field current which
produces normal excitation
with

increases
should

of all three

same.

Change in Normal
the heading "Power
made

163.

decrease

the

load

with

"

except for small loads.

small loads may

be

seen

The
from

reason

it

the vector

diagram of the synchronous motor.

Fig. 164 is the vector
diagram of a synchronous motor for unit power
factor.
that
the
Assuming
and effective resynchronous reactance
sistance
remain
a

in

constant

constant, the line laZson

the

/angle with the vector, V, which

diagram will make

represents the rise

the motor
terminals.
At light loads EJ and
voltage across
As the load is increased,
V nearly coincide.
the power
factor

SYNCHRONOUS

307

MOTORS

remainingunity,the extremityof the vector Ea travels out along

the line ab and will decrease in lengthuntil it reaches the position
where

it is

perpendicular to ab.

this

Beyond

position it will
increase in length. Since EJ is the excitation voltage,i.e.,
the
voltage which the impressedfield would produce on open circuit,
the

The bottom
impressed field will vary in a similar manner.
of a synchronous motor
part of a compounding curve
fore,
wUl, therebe inclined slightly
toward
low excitation.
The point of
excitation at which it commences
to slope toward
tion
higherexcitawill be where

This

excitation

usually be
no

will

depend

well down

it may

cases

EJ- becomes

the vector

the ratio of

upon

the

on

be too far down

perpendicularto laZs-

compounding
to

show

at

to re.

Xs

all.

in

and

curve

It will
some

If the motor

reactance, the field excitation for unity power

had

factor would

/
Fig.

164.

load.
On the other hand,
continuouslywith increasing
had no resistance,
the field excitation under
motor
similar

decrease
if the

conditions

would

Effect of

increase

continuously.

Change in Load

and

Field Excitation.
V

taken

by

direct-current

is

motor

equal

The

"

current

Ea

"

to

/".

If

^a

load is

applied the

continue

to

decrease

to carry
sufficiently

be

motor

readilyshown

its

to be reached

The
when

in Ea will

If the field excitation is

in /".
"

by the
to slow

and

speed until the

the load.

this limit the decrease

slows down

more

down.

is

Ea.

has

current

It will

increased

theoretical limit of load

Ea

than

lafa

"

n^-

balance

can

Beyond

the increase

ing
increased,Ea increases,decreas-

Ea and consequentlythe current.

motor

decreases

The

power

developed

small to carry the load and it will start

until the effect on
It will continue to slow down
now

too

308

PRINCIPLES

OF

Ea of the decrease
the excitation.
its

The

in

the effect of the increase

will then

current

MACHINERY

ATINO-CURRENT

speed balances

in

original value.

change in load

ALTERN

have

direct-current

increased

nearly

to

adjusts itself

motor

to

in its excitation

by changing its speed.

at synchronous
A synchronous motor
must
run
speed. It
itself to a change
cannot
change its average speed to accommodate
in load or in excitation.
The
taken by a synchronous
current
motor

or

equal

is

to

_Ea'-V

la

For

relation with

respect

synchronous

motor

alter but
the

be

This

in

slow

is called

and

change in phase has

developingtoo

respect

will continue

again

may

will be

Hunting

developed will change.

The

motor

load

is

down

It will

over-run.

taken

up

If the field excitation is altered,

Ea

in detail.

does

to permit

slow

to

by
the

to

speed

the action will be

and

produced. If the motor

and
develop too much

been

and

up

phase

in load

change

Its average

over-run

may

littlepower

hunting.

its

speed changes long enough

phase to take place. If

down

properly damped, it
It will then speed

power.
now

to

starts

itself to

its terminals.

but

alter the current.

generated voltage with

its instantaneous

sufficient

is not

its

magnitude,

change and

accommodates

required change

applied,it

is fixed in

V may

to

changing the phase of

voltage impressed across

unto

EJ
given excitation,

any

not

"

will then

repeated.

later

what
some-

and

the power
immediately alter

phase until equilibriumhas been re-established.

increase in load on a synchronous motor
An
always produces
in
and
decrease
the
causes
generated voltage
speed
momentary

its

swing

change

in

produces
a

In

in the

direction

of

lag. In other words, it increases

the lag of the generated voltage with respect to the impressed
voltage. A decrease in load produces the opposite effect. A
to

change

the

momentary

in

phase

general,an

increase

in

field excitation

speed and

generated voltage.

synchronous

change in speed which

between

increase

of

the generated and

in the excitation
a

permanent

will

advance

is

motor

also

accompanied by

terminal
cause

in

voltages.

momentary

phase of the

CHAPTER
Maximum

and

Minimum

Motob

Fixed

Impressed

Power

and

Power

with

Motor

Excitation

with

Fixed

Resistance

and

Activity

Power

and
and

Refer

Impressed

Reactance;
Impressed

Minimum

Fixed

Motor
Possible

Voltage

Maximum

Voltage

Motor

Excitation
The

Impressed Voltage.
"

effective

all vectors

Maximum

x,; Maximum

r^ and

Motor

and

Motor
and

Fixed

Fixed

Motor

Resistance

and

and

Fixed

for

Voltage;

Fixed

Fixed

with

Excitation

E^',V,

Fixed

Reactan'cb
Maximum

XXV

to

resistance
as

will

axis.

an

be

Small

for

synchronous
assumed

actance
re-

constant.

letters will be

used

^.'
Fig.

165.

A prime on a small letter indicates

represent components.
which
is in quadrature with Y
the axis
that it is a component
The synchronous reactance
and effective resistance
of reference.
will be represented,
by x^ and r,. Pm will represent
respectively,
to

-.

the internal motor

The

power.

synchronous impedance

vector

diagram is shown in Fig. 165.

Referringto Fig. 165.
V

Ea'
L

v+jO

e-

=^

-i+
309

je'

ji'

(88)

310

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

resultant

drop

voltagecausing the

is

and

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

is equal to the

current

ance
imped-

equal to
Eo

Ea'

V*

je'

"

"

Rationalized,this becomes
(r^e

TeV

The

imaginary parts

of the current

e{ree

VeV

"

the

and

real

x^e

"

"

the

voltage.

e'jXsV

x^e')

"

r^)

equal to the product of the

voltage plus the product of

the

and

parts of the current

x,e

circuit is

in any

power

x,e')+ j {x^v

"

r^e')

v{ree+ x,e')

+ e'2)
Teifi^
"

v[r,e+ x,e')

r,E^"-

(90)

Te'^
+ Xa^
For

the condition

of fixed motor

of the

the numerator

power,

of equation
i.e.,the numerator
expressionfor the motor
power,
(90) must be constant.
of equation (90)by its value from
Replace e' in the numerator
equation (88).
e'

Putting this

in

v{r,e+ x.y/ E^'^

""
^

'e

Since

the

respect to

motor

power

will be

_l_

2reEa
dEa' f
o

The

The

77-

Xs

on

is in the

\^^l

is constant, the differential of Pm

with

zero.

"

dEa'
"

T-

de

VXsK'

voltage,V,

current

e")

"

^
"

"

e^

equation (90)gives
r,Ea'^

"*

yJEa'^

VTe

vXs "7"

"

=
-

VEa'^

the diagram is the

general direction of

de
,"

^
0

e^

x^

rise in
the

voltage through the

voltage drop, i.e.,
"

"

motor.
V.

312

PRINCIPLES

maximum

motor

be

must

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

For

power.

MACHINERY

maximum

motor

power

r^e

x,e'

maximum.

+ x,e')
^ (r-efi

Ea'^

e'2

e^ +

r,

x,-^

(94)

constant

Combining equations (94) and (95) gives

-T-

{r^e+

XsC')

Te

Xs",

"

1.

(96)

"

e'

Xs

That

and the motor

is,with the impressed voltage constant
voltage,Ea, as well as the resistance and the reactance
fixed,the
maximum
will occur
when
the angle of lag of Ea
motor
power
X

behind

is

tan"^

equal to

Putting the value

gives

"

"

of e' from

equation (96) in equation (90)

reEa"
maximum

Pm

y{r,e+^%
j

Zs^
But

V, therefore,
maximum

and

from

re

Pm

Ea!^

e^ +

(97)

e'2

equation (96)
Xg

"

Te

therefore,

Ea're
e

Substitutingthis

value

maximum

of

p
P^

in

equation (97) gives

Ea^
=

"

VEJ
,.",
(98)

SYNCHRONOUS

synchronous motor

greater than

313

MOTORS

operate with

cannot

excitation

an

voltage

the impressedvoltage unless it has reactance.

follows from

equation (98). If the

is zero,

reactance

This

equation

(98)becomes
EJ^

VEa'

"

P^

maximum

For

any

value

of Ea

greater than

will be

V-, P"

positiveand

will represent generator action.

Maximum

Voltage

Possible

and

the machine

Fixed
shall

limitingvalue

Motor

Excitation

Resistance
run

as

of Ea

and

Pm

will be that

P"

order

that

makes

P"

zero.

VEa'
"

Eg'he

Impressed

negative. The

which

"

Zs

In

"

be

must

value

EJ'^Te
Maximum

Fixed

Reactance.

motor

with

Zg

Ea'V
^

The

maximum

motor
possible

voltageis equalto the impressed

voltagemultipUed by the ratio of the impedance to the resistance.
Maximum
Motor
Activity with Fixed
Impressed Voltage
and

Fixed

and

Reactance

Resistance.

dP"
^

fE/Ve

Ea'V\
E^\

"

dE^

"

dEa'\

z,^

z,

2Ea're ^v^
Zs^
Zs
j^

The

maximum

^Vz,

^vzs

motor

occurs
therefore,

power,

when

the motor

possible value. This

voltage has one-half of its maximum
correspondsto Jacobi's law for a ditect-current motor operating
with

constant

field.

Substituting the value

gives

of Ea'

This

"

is the greatest possiblemotor

just found

"

power.

in

equation (98)

CHAPTER

Hunting;

Damping;

XXVI

Stability; Methods

Synchronous

Starting

of

Motors

in which
a
change in
synchronous machines
load is accompanied by a change in phase are subjectto hunting.
Consider the case
of a synchronous motor
operating under

Hunting.
"

excitation

constant
be

All

and

load.

Under

perfectlydefinite phase angle

this condition

between

the

there

will

impressed and

excitation

voltages. Suppose the load it carries is increased.

The motor
wiU now
be developing less power
than is demanded
by the load and, as a result,it will immediately start to slow
down.
It will continue
to slow down, thereby changing its
phase, until the phase displacement between its impressed and
excitation voltages correspondsto that required for the load.
This slowing down
last several cycles,but unless the load
may
exceeds

the

maximum

load

the

motor

can

carry,

the

change

than a moderate
speed will not last long enough to produce more
change in phase. This change in phase can never
equal 90
electrical degrees,unless the excitation is changed. If the change
in phase should exceed that which corresponds to the maximum
will carry, the motor
will "break
load the motor
down," i.e.,
fall out of synchronism and come
to rest.
While the motor
is
slowingdown, the increase in load is being suppliedby the change
in

in the kinetic energy

of the moving part of the motor.
At the
instant the motor
sponding
passes through the phase displacement correto the

load, the electromagneticpower

developed will
be equal to the entire load plus the rotational losses of the motor.
to the inertia of the rotor it cannot
Due
instantlytake up synchronous

speed at

this instant.

It will therefore

over-run.

It

than is required for the load

developing more
power
and the rotational losses,and it will start to speed up.
If it
it will be developingtoo little power
and it will
again over-runs
This action is called hunting.
immediately start to slow down.
It is equivalentto an oscillation in speed which is superposed on
will

now

be

314

SYNCHRONOUS

315

MOTORS

uniform

of hunting must
speed of rotation. A slightamount
always take place when the load on a synchronous motor
is
changed but, with a properly designed motor operating under
it should be small and not noticeable.
good conditions,
In the
of a poorly designed motor
case
or
a motor
operatingunder bad
conditions,hunting may become excessive.

The

effect of

hunting will be made clear by a vector

Fig. 166 is a vector diagram of a synchronous motor
the drop in voltage,
the terminals has been
V, across
The
resultant voltage, Eo
the
laZs,which causes
is equal to the vector
of
F
la, in the circuit,
sum
The
current, h, is equal to this voltage divided by

diagram.
to

added.

"

current,
and E^'.

"

FiG.

chronous
=

tan~^

stant

impedance
behind

"

if Xs and

the

r, were

of the

which

the

syn-

166.

and

motor

voltage Eo.

This

lags by

angle

an

angle, p, would

be

con-

constant.

If

hunting takes place, the extremity of the vector EJ will

oscillate on the arc of a circle about its mean
position. At the
time Eg and also /" will change in magnitude and in phase.
same
The effect of hunting on Fig. 166 is shown
in Fig. 167.
The
full lines on
this figurerepresent the stable condition and the
dotted

and

due

dot-and-dash

lines represent the two

ments
displace-

extreme

V
hunting. The positionof the vectors,
F, representing the impressed voltage, does not change.
The

to

vector

"

is assumed

Ea

voltageEo
every

instant

and

angle through which

when

The

will

Eo

Ea' is ahead

displacementfrom

oscillate from

oscillates from

changes its magnitude.

at

to

this

to d and

at

to

the

b.

The

and

sultant
re-

time

same

to Eo
current, h, is proportional

swing through
moves.

of its mean

The

an

angle equal

minimum

and
position

power

to

the

is developed

has its greatest

positionin the direction of lead.

This

316

OF

PRINCIPLES

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

equal to the projectionof the motor voltage,Oa, on the

The maximum
power
current, Og, multipliedby that current.
has its extreme
the motor
is developed when
displacement in
the direction of lag. This is equal to the product of the current.
Of, and the projectionof the motor voltage,Ob, on that current.
be a largevariation in the power
that there may
It will be seen
developed if hunting occurs.
is

power

rotatingpart of the motor acts like a torsional pendulum

where the change in the couple producing rotation corresponds
to the torsional couple in the fiber or supporting wire of the pendulum.
of the motor, the change in the couple is
In the case
The

caused

The

by the displacement of the

moment

its

mean

of inertia of the rotor

of inertia of the

where

from

rotor

of the

mass

corresponds to the
pendulum.

position.

moment

the time of an oscillation,

respectively,
of inertia of the rotor and the restoringcouple per
the moment
unit of angular displacement from the mean
position.
veloped
deFrom
equation (90),page 310, the electromagneticpower
is
by a motor
TeEg'^ vjree-^ x,e')
and

t, Zmd^

are

"

Replacing "; by F and e and e' by their values in terms of the

Ba and Y (Fig.165, page 309) gives,
angle, a, between
^"-^"^'' ^E"^{^o cos
~

P
"Tm

3^8 sin

a)
'100;

SYNCHRONOUS

317

MOTORS

make

equation (100) apply to a polyphase motor, it must

be multiplied
of phases, n.
by the number
If p and / are, respectively,
the number
of poleson the motor
and the frequency,the electromagnetic
torque developed by

To

polyphase

is

motor

\reE.""

T-r"-^P

VEa'(r, cos

"

x.

sin

a) 1

equation (99)is equal to the derivative of T with respect

a',where a' is the displacement in space radians of Ea

in

M
to

from

V.

The

angle

in

equation (101) is

Therefore, since
M

-T"
aa

^a'

in electrical radians.

('"eSin

X, cos

"

a)

OTjz,

M, is negative,since,accordingto the convention

is negative. Before substituting
adopted for motor power, motor
power
M in equation (99)its sign should be reversed in order
it positiveand avoid an imaginary value for the time
to make
The

moment,

t.
oscillation,
in equation (99) gives for the
M
Substitutingthis value of
period of hunting, in seconds,of a polyphase synchronous motor,

of

"

2.

JZZ^l^^:^
\npWEa
{x,
cos

V, E'a,z"

Xs

and

re

in

"

equation (102) are

(102)
re sin

a)

phase and are in

used in place of c.g.s.
per

units are to be
practical
expressionunder the square-root sign must

c.g.s units.

If

units,the
by lO-'^.

Equation (102)is only approximate as

it

be multiplied

neglectsthe effect of
hunting in the field

damping due to currents induced by the

winding, in the polefaces and in the damping bridgeswith which
all

synchronous
currents

motors

is to

are

provided.

diminish

the

One

apparent

effect of these
reactance

duced
in-

of the

motor.

If the free
coincides

or

period of the hunting, as given by equation (102),

nearly coincides with any periodicvariation in the

318

PRINCIPLES

load

or

OF

in the

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

frequency of

the power
and violent

effect will be cumulative

to the

suppUed

hunting will

motor, the

occur,

the motor
damped out, will probably cause
beyond the phase displacementcorresponding to the
to
and to drop out of synchronism and come
power
maximum
possiblephase displacement at which the

unless

to

which,
swing

maximum
rest.

The

motor

can
X

operate

has

already

to

when

occur

tan

angle for maximum

may
power
equation (100) with respect
by differentiating

equating the

differential to

"

"

5-

da

"

also be
to

and

zero.

VEa'

dP"
-5

This

(equation 96).
derived

shown

been

z,^

iXs
^

cos

X, COS

tan

Te

"

sin

"

a)

Te sin

Xs

tion
equation (102) that the period of oscillaabout its mean
angular position
synchronous motor

It will be
of

depends

"

from

seen

excitation

the

upon

voltage,EJ,

and

the

phase

placemen
dis-

voltage from the voltage impressed on the

motor.
Consequently,the period depends upon the excitation
of the motor
and the load it carries.
Therefore,if there is any
periodicvariation in the load, in the impressed voltage or in the
load or at some
excitation
at some
excitation,
hunting may occur
a,

and

not

of this

at others.

Damping.
diminished.

"

There
One

are

two

ways

by which

hunting

of these is to increase the moment

by increasingits

may

be

of inertia

by adding a flywheel. This

method
is applicableto either singleor polyphase motors.
The
other consists of using a short-circuited low-resistance winding,
amortisseur
or
an
damping winding or damper as it is called,
amortisseur
an
placed in the pole faces. When
winding is used
induced
on
a single-phasemotor, double-frequency currents
are
in it by the double-frequency flux variation produced by armature
reaction in the poles (see page
69, under
Synchronous
Generators). This double-frequency current increases the copper
loss in the damper and tends to damp out the flux variation
it. Its existence is not dependent upon
which
causes
hunting.
of the rotor

mass

320

PRINCIPLES

inactive

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

and

produces no effect whatsoever upon the operation

of the motor.
When, however, hunting starts, the armature
reaction is no longerconstant or fixed in space phase with respect
to the poles,but sweeps
back and forth across
them
with a
period equal to the period of oscillation of the rotor. This
the resultant flux to cut the damper and to induce currents
causes
in it. Eddy-current and
hysteresislosses will be produced
in the pole faces which will assist,
to a slight
extent, in damping
main damping action is due to the curout the hunting. The
rents
induced

in the

damper which are in such a direction as to

the change in the angular velocity of the rotor which
oppose
The reactance
of the damping winding for the
produces them.
period of the current induced in it by hunting is very small.
Assuming it to be zero, the damping action would be a maximum
when the rotor swings through its mean
position,and zero when
it has its extreme
displacement. The effect of damping produced
in this way
is much
the same
the
as
damping produced
The braking action
by a viscous fluid on a torsional pendulum.
pated
dissiproduced by a damper is only in part due to the energy
in copper
loss in the damping winding. On account
of
the reaction between
the currents
in the damper and the armature
winding, energy will be returned to the line while the rotor
is acceleratingand
taken
from
the line while the rotor
is
retarding.
Due to the reaction of the currents induced in the damper and
in the field windings on the armature
actance
winding,the apparent reof the armature
will be slightly
diminished when hunting
This reaction is simUar to the reaction existingbetween
starts.
the primary and secondary windings of a transformer
when
the
This decrease in the apparent reactance
secondary is loaded.
will slightly
of the motor
decrease the free period of oscillation
of the rotor, according to equation (102).
If an amortisseur winding or damper is used on a single-phase
synchronous motor, there will be currents induced in it even when
the motor
is entirelyfree from
hunting. These currents
are
caused by the armature
reaction which, in a single-phase
synchronous
is
neither
constant
in
in
nor
motor,
space phase
nitude.
magmain
effect of a short-circuited winding on
The
a
single-phasesynchronous machine is to damp out any harmonics

SYNCHRONOUS

there may
be in its wave
form.
will considerably
lower the
The

armature

into two
One

reaction

of these will be

it. The

The

copper

loss of such

efficiency.
motor
single-phase

of the

may

ing
wind-

be

solved
re-

revolvingvectors,rotatingin oppositedirections.

stationarywith respect to

the other will revolve

to

321

MOTORS

component

at twice

which

the rotor, while

synchronous speed with respect

is fixed with

respect to the rotor

will

produce no effect on the damper; the other,however, will

will
in it. These
currents
produce double-frequencycurrents
not be very
of
high reactance
largeon account of the relatively
the damper to the double-frequency
currents.
The width of the air gap and the magnitude of the leakage
reactance
have a large influence on the stiffness of coupling of
motor.
a
By stiffness of coupling is meant the tendency of a
motor
in the speed of the generators
to follow every irregularity
from which it is operated. The degree of stiffness of coupling
depends upon the change in power produced by a given change
in phase between
the impressed voltageand the voltage corresponding
is
This change in power
to the field excitation.
determined
mainly by the change in the armature current caused
by the change in phase.
Since
J

_V-E/
z,

this

by the synchronous impedance,

The magnitude of the part of the synchronous
z,, of the armature.
reactance
which
action
rereplaces the effect of armature
reaction
depends upon the effect produced by armature
the field strength. This is greatestwhen the air gap is small.
on
the synchronous reactance
A small air gap, therefore,makes
large and, conversely,a large air gap makes the synchronous
small.
reactance
Therefore,a large air gap and low leakage
will tend to
the motor
will give a stiffcoupling,
reactance
i.e.,
in the speed of the generator. A small
follow every
irregularity
will produce what is known
air gap and large leakagereactance
as

change in

soft

occur

strains
in the
21

is fixed

coupling,a motor will tend

generator too closelyand will be subjectedto shocks
of considerable magnitude whenever
irregularities
load, excitation or speed of the system. With too

coupling. With

to follow the

and

current

too stiffa

322

OF

PRINCIPLES

soft

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

and there will

coupling,there will not be sufficient stability
be danger of a motor
dropping out of step when any sudden
in the system.
A compromise between
the two
change occurs
a

extreme

is
be

An

that,under the condition of

in the

inspection of the

An

307, should

What

be made.

must

large variation

load.
page

conditions

has

objectionto a soft coupling

there
will
constant
excitation,

power

factor from

vector

diagram given in Fig. 164,

no

load

to full

this clear.

make

just been

said in

regard

to

stiffness of

coupling

neglectsthe effect of the damper and any damping action that

be produced by eddy-current or hysteresislosses in the pole
may
faces. The damping action of pole-facelosses and of a damping
winding increases as the width of the air gap is decreased since
the smaller the air gap the largeris the effect of armature
tion
reacinduced
and the greater is the magnitude of the current
by it in the damper and pole faces when there is a change in
the impressed and excitation voltages.
phase between
magnetic
electroStability. According to equation (98),the maximum
developed by a synchronous motor
operating
power
with fixed excitation and fixed impressed voltage may
be written
"

maximum

P"

"

=
"

To

when

find the value of

re, V

respect to

EJ

and

Xs

Xs

are

,/

^,

(Te^+ Xs'^Y
-2xsreE/^

zero.

Vr-e^-f-x.^

y^ Vr.^ + a;.^2x,VE,'
(r/ -I-x.'^Y
Vr/

x^^ x.VEa'

r.Ea'

^Te'Ea"'

2-

aATT^

V\r

x,2)

4"'"'2
re='(
_

If V and

Ea

are

^,

VEa'

x,2

2x,reEa'^

(103)

the power
a maximum
fixed,differentiate equation (103) with

I TeEa"

dXs[r^

"

will make

equate the derivative to

and

which

equal.

.V3

Y^

SYNCHRONOUS

maximum

for

in

phase

motor

between

323

MOTORS

This

power.

correspondsto

difference

impressed and excitation voltages of

tan"i
\/3 or 60 degrees (equation96, page 312). This is the
Since the
breakdown"
will occur.
phase displacementat which
field excitation of synchronous motors
is usuallyadjustedto make
them
factor or with a leading current
operate at unity power
at full load,Ea will generallybe at least equal to V.
Therefore,
in order to get the maximum
under
possible
output from a motor
the

"

such

-^

conditions,the ratio
A

greaterthan 1.73.

should

motor, of

be

equal
can

course,

to

somewhat

or

be used

never

at

an

since,under this condition,

hunting would be likelyto increase the phase displacement
any
between
the
V and EJ
beyond its limiting value and cause
output approaching its maximum,

motor

break

to

value

which

maximum

down.

Increasing the

gives the
output,

maximum
it

but

will at

the

displacementat which the maximum

the change
For maximum
stability,
be

words, "r^ should

for

with

for

maximum

be

motor

respect

to

in the
in

occurs.

developed

power

phase. In other

Differentiatingthe

maximum.

output

VEg'in sin

x, cos

"

a)

x.^

r.2 +

da

factor.
stability

called the

be

316,

gives
~

r^ might

pression
ex-

given by equation (100),page

power

dPm

"

the

increase

time

same

given change

the

beyond

"

output, will decrease

the

should

ratio

It will be

seen

'

from

da

equation (104) that

stabilityfactor is directlyproportional
voltage. An over-excited synchronous

this

Ea, the excitation

motor
is, therefore,more
to

excited.

The

maximum

stable

than

when

occurs

power

one

operating undertan

Sub-

~.
I e

stitutingthe values of sin

and

cos

correspondingto

dP

-j^

equation (104) makes

tan

greater than

power

"r^

"

Te

zero

as

it should.

becomes

For

any

positiveand,

this in

value

of

since motor

dot

is negativeaccording to the notation

adopted, it represents

324

PRINCIPLES

decrease

OF

in motor

will break

motor

The

relative

factor

magnitudes of

to

Xs

f VEg'iresin a
dxal
r^^ +

dx,[ da J

^^^

2x"' cos

Xs' cos
tan

"

exceeds

the

"

the

make

stability
of

by equating the derivative

Vl

a)

x, cos

"

Xa^
cos
a
(ve'+ a;,^)
{re'+ Xa'y

"

Te' cos

"

which

x,

zero.

and

r^

be found

can

da

fdPm1

down.

"7-^ with respect to

d

If,therefore,tan

power.

maximum

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

tan^

2reXs sin

"

2reX, sin

"

"

_
~

(105)

re

sign before

minus

The

since
significance,

Xs

1 +

in

equation (105) has

ratio of

negative. The

be

cannot

tan^

no

given

"

Te

by equation (105) for values of

tan

equal

to

or

greater than

is of

~j

importance since

no

ratio of

The

"

it represents

unstable

stabilityis unity for

for maximum

operation.
0, and

with

increases

increase

an

in

For

a.

30

degrees,

"

for

stabilityshould

maximum

be

1.7;for

45

should

degrees,
"

re

angles of breakdown
60 and 67 degrees.
respectively,
be

The

2.4.

corresponding to these

are,

is only approximate,
stability
the effect of the damping, and also the effect of the
as it neglects
torsional pendulum.
free period of oscillation of the motor
as
a
All that which

has

preceded on

The

usual

value

of the ratio of

"

for

synchronous

motor

is

re

much

greater than

maximum

output

the
and

values
maximum

of

the

ratio

deduced

stability.Moreover,

for
the

operation of a motor, which shows a tendency to

The
to its circuit.
hunt, is often improved by adding reactance
is to increase the time of the
effect of increasingthe reactance
it longer
free period of oscillation as a pendulum, and make
steadiness

of

SYNCHRONOUS

325

MOTORS

periodof the disturbance which is causingthe hunting.

It is usuallymore
importantto have the free periodquitedifferent
from the period of any
disturbance
which is likelyto produce
hunting. It is not particularly
important to have the natural
since this is
tendency to damp out oscillations a maximum
always supplemented by the strong damping action of the amorthan

the

tisseur
be

winding.

put

the

on

In

If the

is too great, severe

stability

when

motor

sudden

disturbances

strains will
in the

occur

words, the stiffness of coupling will be too

great (seepage 321).
Methods
of StartingSynchronous Motors.^
A synchronous
motor
be started by means
of an auxiliary
When
motor.
may
started in this way it is brought up to speed and synchronized
like an
alternating-current
a
generator. When
synchronous
motor
is provided with an exciter which is mounted
its shaft,
on
the exciter may
be used
as
a
starting motor.
Synchronous
system.

other

"

form

motors

which

other

unit is

unit of

one

direct-current

motor-generator set,where the

generator, are very often started
a

by using the direct-current generator

A

polyphasesynchronousmotor

motor

by making

phase

motors

may-

as

motor.

be started

of its amortisseur

as

an

induction

damper winding.
The eddy-currentand hysteresis
losses in the polefaces produced
reaction of a
by the revolving field set up by the armature
polyphase motor will produce a startingtorque which may cause
the motor
without the amortisseur winding. The
to start even
would
be
the amortisseur
starting torque produced without
small and might not be sufficient alone
the motor.
to start
be excessive.
required would
SingleMoreover, the current
reaction.

no

winding.

practicalimportance
very

If

and

Single-phase
seldom

are

motors

used

and

are

then

armature

of

means

of

little

only in

small sizes.
a

synchronous motor

induction
that

or

revolvingfield due to their

be started by
Consequently,they cannot
have

amortisseur

an

use

motor,

care

the reluctance

is to be

must

be

of the air

brought up to speed as an
taken to designit in such a way
under the polesis constant
gap

If
for any
positionof the poles with respect to the armature.
the reluctance of the air gap under the polesvaries With their
the
position,

motor

will tend

to lock in the

positionof minimum

326

PRINCIPLES

reluctance

when

required to
The

OF

excited,and a large torque will be

this locked position.

it from

move

whether

poles varies with

the

MACHINERY

the stator is

questionof

spacing of

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

the

positionof
slots.

armature

over

the

rotor, depends upon

the

the reluctance
the

Fig.

169

of the air gap

shows

The
air-gapreluctance is not constant.
of the figureshows a field pole in the positionwhich
reluctance a maximum.
The positionfor minimum
is shown
in the right-handhalf of the figure.
which

the

Fig.

The

reaction

armature

of

spacing for
left-hand
makes

the

reluctance

169.

polyphase synchronous

motor

and fixed in space

operating at synchronous speed is constant
phase with respect to the poles and produces no effect on the
the
there is hunting. When
damping winding, except when
is at rest or revolving at any
rotor
speed below synchronism,
the field produced by the armathere is relative motion between
ture
reaction and the poles,which causes
currents
to be induced
These currents
in the damper.
effect as the
produce the same
in the squirrel-cage
induced
currents
winding of an induction
the motor to speed up.
and will cause
motor
A synchronous motor
reach synchronous speed under
can
never
induced in its damper alone,but, if the
the action of the currents
reach a
damping winding is properly designed,the motor
may
speed which is near enough to synchronous speed to pullinto step
before the field is excited,provided the motor
has salient poles
do.
The lagging component
all synchronous motors
of the
as
startingcurrent will usuallyproduce sufiicient field excitation to
the motor

cause

When

to

the motor

pullinto step.
has

reached

tion
synchronous speed, the excita-

reaction.
If now
when
the
entirelydue to the armature
field is closed it happens to oppose
the polarityproduced by
armature
reaction,the motor will slip180 degrees and will only
is

328

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

The

high voltage induced in the field winding during starting

is caused by the armature
reaction flux sweeping across
the pole
faces.
This voltage is a maximum
at the instant of starting
and
when
To
zero
synchronous speed is reached.
keep this
the voltage for the field excitation
voltage as low as possible,
of a self-starting
synchronous motor should be low in order to
A switch may
be provided
permit a small number of field turns.
to sectionalize the field winding during starting though this
is seldom

done

account

on

of constructional

difficulties. The

voltage strain on the field insulation is then limited to that

generated in a single section instead of that generated in the
entire field winding. Extra insulation must
always be provided
the fields of self-starting
The presence
on
synchronous motors.
of the damping winding considerablyreduces the voltage which
would otherwise be induced
in the field winding by the reaction
induced
of the currents
in it. Short-circuiting
the field winding
will also reduce
the voltage induced in it during startingand at
the same
time slightly
increase the startingtorque. The increase
in the startingtorque produced in this way
is small on account
of the high reactance
of the field winding.
When
started as induction
are
synchronous motors
motors,
the voltageimpressed on them should be reduced in starting
and
while they are coming up to speed. This reduced voltage may
from taps on the
be obtained by using a startingcompensator
or
secondary windings of the transformers
supplying the motors,
in

case

transformers

are

used.

Transformers

are

seldom

used

synchronous motors unless the voltageof the line from which

that voltage,it is
they are operated exceeds 13,500. Above
with

more

economical

for full line

to

use

transformers

than

to

insulate

motor

voltage.

bring a synchronous motor, which has a damping winding,

short-circuited.
cases
up to speed, its field is opened or in some
one-half normal
About
voltage is then applied to its terminals.
signed
It should start slowly and if the damper has been properlydewith increasingacceleration.
it should speed up
The
time required to come
the fraction
up to speed will depend upon
of full voltage applied,the size of the motor, and its design. It
should not exceed a minute
and a half,for moderate
or
a minute
When
sized motors.
nearly the maximum
speed has been atTo

SYNCHRONOUS

tained

this

be

closed

voltage

applied
the

will

make

the

other

loads

If

the

should

the

When

synchronous

hysteresis
is

short

of
and

demanded.

is

it

the

taken

over-excited

motor

underthe

operate
load

average

make

operate

is

excitation,

the

its

measure

currents

fixed

make

to

in

which

one

with

at

is

is

motor

in

order

give

to

rise
of

selection

compromise

and

in
the

keep
to

the

by

or

losses

soft
best

depends

started

be

to

coils

damping

eddy-current

will

gap

The
motor

its

desirable
air

which

since

slightly

factor

power

and
of

to

Slight

factor.

current

operate

adjusted

be

under-excitation

than

initially

then

power

than

full

and

unless
other

some

desirable.

more

action

motor

gap

under

factor

power

desired

Moreover,

to

adjusted
unit

conditions

the

stable

is

should

resistance

should

components

more

motor

be

field

leading

line.

is

approximately

at

take

the

circuit

field

of

The

desirable

reactive

motor

excited.
field

the

on

synchronous

at

more

the

amount

motor.

motor

for

sound
"

operate
is

compensate

by

the

motor

the

by

moderate

to

over-excitation
it

told

through

make

to

be

can

"

329

MOTORS

the

the

by
torque

pole

starting

faces,

of

length
the

induction-

produced
a

air

by

short

air

small.

current

which

coupling

upon

the

may
gap

particular

be

for

A
desirable.
un-

any

service

CHAPTER
Circle

Diagram

Diagram;

of

XXVII

Construction

Conditions;

of

Some

Proof

Motor;

Synchronous

the

of

Diagram; Limiting

the

Uses

of

ating
Oper-

Diagram

Circle

the

the

Circle diagrams
Diagram of the Sjmchronous Motor.
first applied to synchronous machines
were
by Andr6 BlondeL'
Although such diagrams assist in determining the generaloperating
for
be used
characteristics of a motor, they cannot
termining
predeCircle

"

these

diagrams

are

characteristics

based

the

upon

with

since

accuracy,

assumption of

all circle
resistance

constant

Blondel's originalcircle
synchronous reactance.
diagram of the synchronous motor and generator was a diagram
of voltages. The circle diagram of currents, which is in reality
merely a modification of the voltagediagram, is,in some
respects,
convenient for the motor
than the diagram of voltages and
more
and

constant

alone will be

given.

Proof of the Diagram.

diagram of a
synchronous motor on which V, without the minus sign,will be
used to represent the drop in voltage through the motor.
This
tated
diagram is similar to the one
given in Fig. 166, page 315 rothrough 90 degrees. Let P, Pm and Eo
hzs represent
the power
respectively,
developed,
input, the internal power
and the resultant voltage forcing the current through the circuit.
Everything on the diagram, as on all previousdiagrams,
is per phase. Take
F as a fixed reference line. This will be
drawn
verticallyfor convenience.
"

^Let Fig. 170 be the vector

and

Eo
_

according to the assumptions

tan

made

in

regard to

x,

and

r^.

"

is constant.
'

Moteurs

L'Industrie

Synchrones k Courants
Alternatifs,by
filectrique,
February, 1895.
330

Andr^

Blondel, also

SYNCHRONOUS

If the

motor

and

constant

excitation

331

MOTORS

remains

constant, ab

will be

Ea

the

extremity of the vector Eo will swing on the

arc
a
is
circle,
bee,as the current varies. Since the current
proportional to and makes a constant angle with Eo, the extremity
of

of the current

will also

Oh

vector

the

swing on

of

arc

circle H7".

Fig.

If the motor

170.

excitation is decreased,
EJ

will decrease

and

the

approach the point V. It will coincide with V,

the excitation
which is the center of the voltage circle bee,when
time la will approach the center of
At the same
is zero.

point Eo

its

will

and
circle,
with

the

V.

angletan"^
impressedon

When
of the

diameter
"

with

will coincide

with OV
the motor

Eo

and

this center

coincide.Oh
OC

circle Hlaand

will be

divided

when

will lie

will therefore

equal to

the

cides
Eo coin-

make

along
an

voltage,OV,

by the synchronous impedance.

OV

00==^^

(106)

332

PRINCIPLES

will be

OF

the

excitation

the motor

of

center

different

to

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

excitations.

motor

circles

of concentric

system

circles

These

when

and

Eo coincides with

H, and will be equal

the

is,the radius of

=^'

point,such
impressedvoltage.

d, on

as

any

divided

the line OV

(dla)'

{OdY +

{OlaY

my

(dhy

2(0d){0h)

Zg

excitation

motor

any

Zg

correspondingexcitation voltage
impedance.

Take

with

la will coincide

OC-OH==^-^

of the

Zs

Zs

That

c,

arc

to

Zg

HC

are

circles of the circle

diagram.
If the excitation is constant, /" will travel along the

circle HIa

responding
cor-

circle is

equal

to

by the synchronous
represents the

which

2{0d){0Ia)

COS

and
-

If Od is made

cos

{OIX

equal to

and

(107)
where

and

Pm

output of the

respectively,the input

and

the

internal

motor.

If the motor
of

are,

P", is fixed, equation (107) is the

circle having a radius equal to dl^ and a center
at
power,

tion
equaa

dis-

tance, Od

tt-,

above

the

point 0.

extremity of the current

about the point d as a
circle drawn

power

the

the center
motor

of

powers.

system of power

Hence, for
vector
center.

any

Ola
The

fixed motor

must

be

on

point d will be
circles corresponding to different

SYNCHRONOUS

333

MOTORS

SubstitutingOd

in

h"

equation (107) gives

{!;)"-"-.)"=
t
Equation (108) gives the
of the

motor

Cd

of any

circle in terms

power

Pm, the impressed voltage, V, and

power,

resistance of the motor,

Od and

radius

the

re.

equal. This can be proved by showing that the

of the isosceles triangle,
having OC for a base and OV for
apex
the direction of one
side,coincides with the point d.
of Fig.170, the angle COV
is equal to
From
the construction
the angle A.
The length of the side of the isosceles triangleis,
are

therefore,
OC

^gcz.

cos

Te

OV

equation (106) OC

From

Substitutingthis

in the

of the side of the

triangle-^

"

precedingequation gives for

the

length

OV

This

is

the distance

to

radius of the circle of

The

Pm

equal

"

Od

the

on

power

zero

equation (108). Making

0 in

diagram.
be found

by putting
this substitution gives d/"
may

V
=

;^

as

the radius of the circle of

V
to 7^

points 0

dO and

dC

C.

and

are

The

through the center, C,

This

the

of

Construction
scale.

and

Everything will

equal,this circle passes through

circle of

be per

zero

Diagram.
used

phase.

Choose

"

for
Refer

the two

therefore,passes

power,

of the system of excitation

will be

scale

Since dO is equal

power.

zero

all lines

circles.

suitable
on

current

the

diagram.
Lay off the

to Fig. 171.

line OC

making

angle tan"'

an

"

with

the line Od.

Te

Power

Circles.

points 0 and

"

C,

The
and

OCD, of
circle,

zero

the direction of its

power

is fixed

diameter, Od.

by the
more

334

PRINCIPLES

method

accurate

OF

of

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

determiningthis

circle is to find the

position

of its center, d.
V
Od

2n
diameter

The

radii of
which

other

of the circle of maximum

circles

power

gives for the radius of

are

any

is

power

from

found

zero.

The

equation (108)

circle

power

m-mv-'w.{y-

4reP"

circles represent
usually convenient to have the power
definite electromagneticoutputs, as for example, 100, 200, 300,
Three power
circles are shown
on
Fig. 171.
400, etc.,kilowatts.
Circles. A series of concentric circles representing
Excitation
excitation voltages may
be drawn
with C as a
different motor
It is

"

center.

It is sometimes

represent different per

convenient
cents,

of the

to

draw

excitation

these

circles to

voltage which

336

PRINCIPLES

OF

Maximum

The

Possible Motor

circle of maximum
circle

power

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

motor

Power.
is

power

The

"

radius

The

zero.

of the

diameter

of any

according to equation (108) is

1

V72

"

If this

equation is to

be

4^^p^

equal to

V^ must

zero,

equal to ^TePm,

be

and

=^

V
excitation

The

corresponding

equal to one-half of the maximum

lying
Stability.All currents
"

unstable

conditions

will

motor

of

this is Cd

to

k-

which

is

possibleexcitation.
line CD

the

above

increase

operation. Any

it to start to slow

cause

represent

in load

down, that is,to

cause

on

the

voltage to increase. If the excitation is fixed,

this increase in lag will produce an
increase in the current
(Fig. 171). With fixed excitation,any increase in the current
the extremity of the
beyond the line CD (Fig.171) will cause
current
line to move
circle of largerradius and conseto a power
quently
lag of the

motor

of smaller

power.
the
Circle
of

Besides being of use for

Diagram.
determining the approximate operating characteristics of a synchronous
ing
motor, the circle diagram is very convenient in helpto explain simply certain peculiarities
in the characteristics
of such a motor.
For example: the possible range
of underSome

Uses

excitation

with

fixed motor

of over-excitation
let the

constant

excitation

is confined

circle,
Pm, between
includes

is much

power

for the
motor

"

same

power

to

excitation

and

/, but the

excitation

The

Pm.

range

circles which
range

circles which

the range

Referring to Fig. 171,

power.

be

less than

of under-

the power
of possibleover-excitation

cut

the

cut

powet

circle between

and g.
This shows why F-curves always extend further
the side corresponding to over-excitation than on the other
a

on

side.
The

complete F-curve of a synchronous motor calculated from

the circle diagram is plotted in Fig. 172.
The dotted part of
this curve
corresponds to the part of the circle diagram beyond
CD

and

represents unstable

conditions.

SYNCHRONOUS

That

the

compounding

at first bend

toward

easilybe

can

unity

excitations

power

the

as

the circle diagram.

for unity power

compounding curve
this way
was
explainedin Chap. XXIV.

in

circle

power

Fig. 171 correspondsto the

on

factor should

output is increased

the

Why
bend

from

seen

for

curve

lower

337

MOTORS

excitation is a minimum

for

the excitation circle for

unity power

power

factor should
middle

The

for which

the

factor.

For this power,

factor is tangent to the line

unitypower

200

180

160

140

^100
-"l

2000

im

3000

Sxcitatios.

Fig.

for

either greater or

Foi" powers

Od.

tan~^

"

minimum

For

most

output at which
factor

power

the

occurs

depends
motors

22

no

load

on

power

the

the ratio of
in the

is not

much

output
than, the electromagnetic
to

upon

bend

the motor.

this,the excitation

less than

factor is greater. The

unity power
is

172.

"

for which

angle COd.
is

so

compounding
above,
on

the

or

even

the

citation
ex-

This

is

large that the

curve

for

may

diagram which

unity

be

less

sponds
corre-

CHAPTER

Losses

XXVIII

Efficiency; Advantages

and

and

Disadvantages;

Uses

Efficiency.A synchronous motor does not differ

essentiallyfrom a synchronous alternator. Consequently, the
be deterlosses in the two machines
identical and they may
mined
are
Losses

and

"

be

The
same
manner.
exactly the same
employed for calculatingthe efficiencyof

methods

in

synchronous

synchronousgenerator. The losses and the method

discussed in
of a generator are
calculatingthe efficiency

motor

of

may

and

Chapter VII, page 123, under "Synchronous Generators."

Advantages and Disadvantages. The chief advantage of the
is its abilityto operate at different power
synchronous motor
"

factors and the

ease

with which

its power

factor may

be

adjusted.

comparative simplicityand
winding it
sity
economically for high voltages,thus doing away with the necesfor transformers,are
advantages, but these are also possessed
the
induction
invariable
under
Its
motor.
by
speed
ing
varyload is also an advantage under certain conditions.
Its main
disadvantagesare itstendency to hunt and its lack of any inherent
of polyphase motors, neither of
starting torque. In the case
these objectionsare
serious and they are of little consequence
when
motor
is provided with a properly designed damper
a
and operates under reasonably good conditions.
The
lack of
to
good starting torque limits the use of synchronous motors
placeswhere frequent startingis unnecessary.
They are seldom
built in small sizes,
that is under 100 or 200 kw.
less sensitive to variations in the
are
Synchronous motors
them
than induction motors.
This is
voltage impressed upon
it enables them
an
cases
as
advantage in some
to carry their
loads without
getting out of synchronism during periods of
reduced voltage caused by some
temporary trouble on the line
Its

or
same

the

in the

power

breakdown

house.

torque

A
as

possibilityof

synchronous
induction

an

338

motor
motor

which

has

the

will continue

SYNCHRONOUS

to

its full load

carry

than
The

that which
maximum

at

would

voltage which

the induction

cause

output of

induction

an

339

MOTORS

is

considerablylower
to break

motor

varies

down.

the square
output of a synchronous

motor

of the

as

impressed voltage,while the maximum

motor
stant
having usual constants
operating with conexcitation varies nearlyas the first power
of the impressed
duction
inand
an
voltage (equation 98). If a synchronous motor
each having a maximum
motor
output equal to twice
their rated

voltage, the synchronous

could still develop its full load without
motor
getting out of
induction
break
synchronism. The
motor,
however, would
down

outputs

at one-half

on

half

its rated output.

nection
synchronous motors are in conwith
motor
generators, includingfrequency changers,
and as synchronous condensers.
They are not very satisfactory
for ordinarypower
work mainly on account
of their lack of good

Uses.

The

put

were

"

startingcharacteristics.
with
their power

of

principaluses

The

chief
sets

motor-generator

for their

reason

is the

in

use

nection
con-

of varying
possibility

factor to control the wattless current

taken

from

the

By operatingthe synchronous motors

slightly
reactive
current
taken
transformers
the
or
over-excited,
by
by
be in part or wholly
inductive loads connected
to the system can
neutralized.
If the distributingsystem of a power
plant supplying
its
of
through synchronous motor-generators
a part
power
factor may
be maintained
is properly laid out, unity power
The
the station.
at
constant-speed feature of synchronous
them
makes
motors
adapted for use in frequency
particularly

supply system.

changers.

Synchronous

motors

frequentlyused without

are

load in

nection
con-

with transmission systems to control the power factor and

used in this way,
to better the voltage regulation. When
they
called

are

synchronous

motors, if over-excited,take
do

they

wattless

not

behave

current

like

taken

by

leadingcurrent

condenser

the

with

an

increase in

voltage and

A further increase in the

becomes

like

in other

condenser

voltage. The wattless current

operating with
synchronous motor
to

Although

condensers.

synchronous
condenser,

respects. The

is

directlyproportional
taken by an over-excited

fixed
zero

excitation
at

decreases

certain

impressedvoltagewill cause

voltage.

the wattless

340

PRINCIPLES

OF

of

component

the

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

current

to

and

reverse

become

lagging

component.
If

synchronous

control

to

line

if the

line
The

drop in the

leading
A

through
will

current

synchronous

there

provided
For

example,

is reactance

in

will

voltage, and

will

current

which

will

voltage
which
line

will
which

an

tend

does

phases
phases

and

current

the
with

with

tends

to

synchronous
high
low

voltage

voltage.

motor

and

motor

impressed
This

in

line

If

lagging

the

may

deliver

the

of

The

voltage.

dency
ten-

voltage

at

Normal

explanation.
on

balanced

If

the

current

reactance

constant

floated

ing
lead-

reactance

motor.

the

simplify the

restore

voltage.

power

of the

its initial excitation.

motor

to

the

the

maintain

to
upon

merely

in

change

the

motor

synchronous
load

voltage

unit

current.

at

it.
with

operating

reduced

will take

motor

offset

depend

not

chosen

was

unbalanced

balance,

to

voltage

in

drop

the

tends

supplying

excitation

leading

the

voltage.

its terminals

produces

voltage through

rises,the

synchronous

to

rise in

restore

motor

polyphase

regard

to

will

excitation

produce

its terminals

cause

lag.

or

across

were

The
for

take

of

means

rise in

mains

which

normal

will

ficially.
arti-

voltage

excitation

constant

voltage

excitation

than

motor

tend
the

at

of

the

with

voltage drops.

higher

be

now

as

motor

factor,

serves

will

synchronous

and

the

to

lead

power

excitation, i.e.,the

inserted-

reactance

the

normal

line

be

of the

opposite effect.

the

constant

it may

cause

denser
con-

contain

must

reactance

or

reactance

maintain

suppose

the

the

operating

line

natural

merely

motor

produce

motor

automatically

to

synchronous

voltage is due

of the

through

current

the

length

The

reactance.

current

lagging

control

as

line, the

be

may

is of sufficient

used

be
of

voltage

reactance

entire

the

making

the

This

reactance.

is to

motor

system

circuit

carrying

conditions
is

take

power

power

to

both

in

out

of

badly
from
the

phase

the
or

PARALLEL

OPERATION
CHAPTER

General

Statements;

Batteries

Synchronizing

Parallel

FOR

Two

Operation

Proportional
General

Alternators

Statements.

need

Since

"

operating in parallelare

Necessary

is

Generators

op

Inversely

be

not

Ratings

Their

to

Parallel;
Alternators;
in

Equal

Current; Inductance
Operation; Constants

Parallel

erators
Gen-

Direct-current

and

Action;

Synchronizing
for

XXIX

Parallel;

IN

ALTERNATORS

OF

the

terminals

busbars, the
terminal voltages of all generators so operating must
be equal
if measured
at the point at which
they are paralleled.The
load carried by the individual generator and the phase relation
and
its armature
current
between
generated voltage must
to maintain
equal terminal potentials.If
adjust themselves
bars
the generators and the busthe impedance in the cables between
to

common

is
point at which the generators are put in parallel
actual potentialsat the generator terminals will be

the

or

the

zero,

connected

of all generators

follows,unless otherwise stated, the words

the
terminal
applied to a generator will mean
voltage when
and
at the pointof paralleling
voltage of the generator measured

equal.

In all that

of the
of the generators will include the constants
leads up to this point. The terminal voltage at the point

the constants
line
of

or

will
paralleling

the

generator minus
of

equal to

voltage of the
it and the point

the actual terminal

drop in the cables between

paralleling.
In the

as

be

case

every

voltmeter
In

instant.

parallelmust
must

not only must

alternators,

by

measured

at

of

also be in

be

in

other

be

the terminal

equal,but they

voltages
be equal

must

operating in
terminal
voltages

words, alternators

synchronism

phase with respect to

and

their

the load and must

Fortunately,the natural reactions which result from

from synchronism are such as to re-establish it.
341

so
a

remain.

departure

342

PRINCIPLES

Unless

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

mechanicallycoupled, alternators

ordinarilybe

cannot

their natural stable condition being in parallel.

operated in series,
leads its proper
If one
of two alternators in parallel
phase with
load is automatically
thrown
it.
respect to the other,more
upon
At the

time the other generator, laggingits proper

same

of

relieved
is

which

of its load.

some

leading slows down

between
to

two

or

generators which

more

the

in

are

This

in

is equivalent
parallel
other.
Although it is
as

change
inter-

an

transfer of energy
takes
the system is zero or when the load

on

generator is less than

shift of load

actual

realityno

the load

generator

generator lagging speeds

of energy
from one
to the
convenient
to consider the shift of load

of energy,
placeexcept when
a

the

and

transfer

sometimes

on

result is that

phase relation is restored.

until the proper

up

The

phase,is

change in its load required to

the

synchronism.

restore

Batteries

and

Direct-current

Generators

in Parallel.

"

sider
Con-

of cells connected
in
battery consistingof a number
parallel.Let E, I and R with subscripts1, 2, 3, etc.,indicate,
the internal voltage,the current
and the resistance
respectively,
first a

of the

cells. Let

currents

make

delivered

all terminal

be

their

terminal

common

by the individual
voltagesequal.

cells must

voltage. The
be

such

and

The

total current

/"

suppliedby the batteries in parallelis

=

7i +

l2 +

etc.

4-^4
2I-7,
^R

S^~

as

to

344

OF

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

parallel. Let
the generated voltage,the terminal
E, V and z be, respectively,
voltage,and the impedance of the alternators. E will be either
the voltage corresponding to excitation or to the resultant field
according as z is the synchronous impedance or the armaturethe
leakage impedance. Subscripts will be used to distinguish
Consider

of alternators

number

which

in

are

such distinction is necessary.

that all of the expressionswhich follow

It must

different alternators when

be remembered
in

taken

vector

effect of harmonics
The

current

and

that sine

will be

considered

sense

delivered

by

and

"

(109)

by the load is
E

"

2^-2:^

But

since all the terminal

voltages,V,

are

equal and

in

phase,

where

The

later.

^^j^

I" taken

the total current

assumed.

to be

alternator is

any

are

waves

are

Y" is the resultant admittance

of the armatures

in

parallel.

Therefore,

S^

iZll

(110)

Hence,
E

7,

where

j/i is the

y,E,

admittance

lo
+

zi

:^
=

Y"zt

YoZi

+ hf^
^^i:(Ey)

corresponding to

Zi.

(111)

PARALLEL

If the

OPERATION

voltages,E,

all equal and

are

p
"*"

l^iEy)

345

ALTERNATORS

OF

phase, then

in

y^E,

and

7i

Hence

when

/"|-'

(112)

all

generated voltages are equal and in phase, the

currents
carried by the individual alternators are
directlyproportional
to their admittances
or
inverselyproportionalto their
impedances. The vector sum, but not the algebraic sum, of
these

is

currents

If,under

system.

equal

to

the

this condition

total current
=

"

"

X\

delivered

by

the

etc.,7o will be equal

X2

the

of yi, yi, 2/3, etc.,and the total current delivered

algebraicsum
the generators
by the system will be divided among
in direct proportion to their admittances.
All of the individual
will be in phase with the load curarmature
currents
rent
and their algebraicsum
will be equal to the total current
delivered
condition
of the
by the system. The
generated
voltages being equal and in phase corresponds to the condition
existingwhen transformers with equal ratios of transformation
and
are
negligibleexciting currents
stants
paralleled. If the connot in the relation indicated above, it is stillpossible
are
to have
the component
currents
in phase and inverselyproportional
other
to their impedances or in any
proportion but in
this case
Ei and E^ will neither be equal nor in phase.
Since the vector
of the first two terms
of equation (111)
sum
is the component
carried by the armature
of an alternator
current
due to its voltage being out of phase or not equal to the
generated voltages of the other alternators,the first two terms
be considered to be a current
of equation (111)may
interchange
alternator
and the others.
one
or
a
circulatorycurrent between
It may
This circulatorycurrent never
or
gets to the load.
may
terminal
with
the
wattless
to
be
not
voltage, depending
respect
to

upon
current

the

is not

conditions
a

which

It is

separate current.

into which
certain conditions.

the armature
Its presence

it.

cause

current
may

or

This

merely

one

interchange
of the

may

be resolved

may

not

ponents
com-

under

be desirable.

346

PRINCIPLES

Two

OF

Equal

Alternators.

with

alternators

alternators

two

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Consider

"

two

and
equal constants
equation(111)reduces

ViE,

^^{Em

equal alternators,i.e.,
the same
rating. For

to

"

E2y2) + L

(113)

If
V2

2/1

is

/"2
=

"

2/i-B:

Y^iiE,

/i

2/1^1

I {Ex +

E2\

carried by each

current

"

jE^
The

ri

and

E2) +

"?2)+
lo

(114)

alternator

the

armatures.

two

The

these

under

to one-half the load

equal, vectorially,
"

2/1

/of;

current

^-"2^) which

plus

circulates

"

conception of

conditions

com-

between

circulatorycurrent

except with two identical alternators.

The circulatory
Synchronizing Action, Two Equal Alternators.

is apt to mislead

"

current

is equal to j/i

(equation114).

"

Fig.

be caused

may

173.

things: by Ei and E2 being out of phase;

culatory
E^ differingin magnitude. The ejffiectof the cir-

by

by El and

This current

one

current

of two

will be different in the two

cases.

When

it is

difference in

phase, it produces synchronizing

When
action.
resultingfrom an inequalityin the voltages,it
merely equalizesthe terminal voltages,mainly by Its effect on

produced by

armature

reaction.

If two

equal alternators

which

have

equal

PARALLEL

excitations

and

OPERATION

equal

OF

there will be
parallel,
no
interchangecurrent between them unless they are displaced
in phase from exact synchronism. If they become
so
displaced,
an
apparent interchangeof energy will take placebetween them
which
will tend to restore synchronism. The natural tendency
of two alternators,
which are in parallel,
to remain in synchronism,
will be made
clear by the vector diagrams shown in Figs.173 and
174.
These
with
for equal alternators
diagrams are
equal
excitations and equal loads.
with
Both
diagrams are drawn

respect to the

carry

loads

347

ALTERNATORS

are

in

series circuit

consistingof the two armatures.

The terminal voltages which are equal and in phase when
sidered
conwith respect to the parallelcircuit are opposite in phase
when
considered with respect to their own
series circuit. Equa-

FiG.

(114)appliesto

tion

the

circuit.
parallel

the sign of E2
circuit,

the series

Fig. 173

174.

represents the

must

condition

To

make

it

apply

to

changed.

be

before

either

generator

displaced. Fig. 174 represents the condition when

the generators are
slightlyout of phase. 7, E and I are,
the terminal
voltage, the excitation voltage and
respectively,
has

become

the

load

1 and

component

2 refer to

of the

armature

current.

The

subscripts

generators 1 and 2, respectively.

Fig. 173 represents the condition of synchronism and

equal excitations,Ei and E2 are equal and oppositeand their
delivered
total load current
The
by the
is zero.
resultant
system is h minus h when referred to the voltage Vi. When
In Fig. 174, Ei
h.
referred to the voltage V2, it is h minus
Since

and

Ei

are

since the

still equal but

generators

are

they

assumed

are

to

not
be

exactly in opposition
slightlyout of phase.

348

PRINCIPLES

OF

Since Ei and Ei

(Fig.174) is
The
two

are

not

not in

their resultant Eo
opposition,

voltage Eo acts through the impedances of the

current
and produces a component

resultant

armatures

the

series circuit

component

2z

consisting of the
of

synchronous impedance
This

Ei-\- E2

zero.

^'

in

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

current

each

is

armature

circulatorycurrent,

or

The

armatures.

two

it is

as

-{"jx.

called,

lags behind

E^ by

an

angle tan~^

Since

-"

the

ratio of the

to the effective resistance of

synchronous
generator is usuallylarge,this angle is also generallylarge,
equal to at least 85 degrees.
which is in phase with Ei
The current, /,-,
has a component
and
a
component which is in oppositionto E2. It, therefore,
synchronous

reactance

produces generator
motor

with

power

respect to machine

with respect to machine

power

No.

The

2.

No.

output

power

its mean

1 and

Since the

speed.
engine or
depends upon
mean
speed of the alternators does not change when they are
they receive from their prime
displacedin phasCj the power
is not altered by a change in phase. The effect of the
movers
fore,
interchange of current due to the phase displacement is,thereof

turbine

an

slow machine

to

No.

2 which

No.

1 which

leads and

accelerate machine

In other

words, the circulatorycurrent tends

into
to bring the rotors of the generators into synchronism, i.e.,
the phase positionwhich puts Ei and E2 in opposition as shown
in Fig. 173.
As a result of the circulatory
current, J,,there is an apparent
transfer

lags.

of

apparent

energy

transfer

from
of

one

energy

generator
between

to
two

parallelis the synchronizingaction

paralleloperationof alternators possible.
are

in

The

of the load

armature

which

generators
which

This

makes

the

sum

of either alternator is
by the armature
of the circulatorycurrent
and the component

current

circulatorycurrent.
an

other.

carried

current

the vector

the

the alternator

would

carry

if there

were

Referring to Fig. 174, generator No.

which is equal to the vector sum
current, Jaj,

no

1 has

of /i

PARALLEL

and

li. The

armature

of I2 and li.

The

I2.

armature

This

is

to

currents

equal

due

to

with

7,-exist merely

armature

are

the vector

as

difference between

the

The

of the

"

respect to the generated voltages Ei and

and in part due to the

power

and

currents

change in the electrical output

generators when
they are displacedin phase is in part
the power
developed by the interchangecurrent, /;,

considered

7i and

only actual

h^^and h^-

SynchronizingCurrent.
of the

of generator No. 2 is the resultant

current

la^- h,

349

ALTERNATORS

components.
delivered by the system is stillthe difference between

current

/i and

OF

This is /a^. The

la^and

currents

OPERATION

change caused by 7; in

generated voltages with

the

respect

phase and
the

to

E^,
nitude
mag-

currents

h.

Referring to Figs. 173 and 174, the change in the

developed by generator No. 1 due to a phase displacement
such as is indicated in Fig. 174 is

EJai
Assuming
will not

that

the

a'l

cos

terminal

"

EJi

cos

ai

voltage,V,

does

not

change, 7i

change and

Eilai cos

a'l

EJi

"

cos

CKi

EJi

(cos/3i

"

cos

ai) + EJi

The

greater part of the synchronizing power

directlyand, for this reason, 7; is sometimes

cos

is caused

pi

by 7.-

called the

chronizing
syn-

current.

Inductance
the

is

part of the

Necessary

for Parallel

synchronizingaction

Operation. Considering
"

which

is due

to

7,
"

the

only part which can exist when there is no load on the system
it will be seen
by referringto Fig.174, that this part can be present
only when li lags behind Eo- If Ei and E2 are equal,as was
assumed, and li is in phase with Eo, it would have equal positive
Ei and Ei and would produce an equal generator
on
projections
this condition,it would
have
effect on each alternator.
Under
certain special
no
tendency to restore
synchronism. Under
be a slightsynchronizingaction due
there stillmay
conditions,
"

to

and
never

the

change in the phases of Ei and

but
li,respectively,
exist at

no

load and

paralleloperation of

this action
is

always

alternators

E2 with

does
too

not

respect to 7i

always exist,can

small alone to make

possible. The

the

synchronizing

350

OF

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

action of li is

dependent upon its lag behind B". Inductance is,

for the paralleloperation of
therefore,absolutelynecessary
alternators.
By puttingcapacitybetween two alternators which
connected in parallel,
the circulatory
are
current,li,can be made
this condition,
the action of li is to bring
Under
to lead Eo.
the voltages Ei and E2 into conjunctionon their series circuit
and to bring the generators into conjunctionon the series circuit.
be produced experimentally,
it is
Although this condition may
be built withof no importance practically.Generators
out
cannot
The
natural tendency is, therefore,for all
inductance.
the proper
generators which are connected
togetherto assume
phase relation for paralleloperation. Their stability will
depend

the amount

upon

circuits and

to

some

of inductive
extent

upon

in their

reactance

ture
arma-

of the load.

the constants

Operation need not

be
formers
transInversely Proportional to Their Ratings. When
are
operated in
having equal ratios of transformation
be equal and in
parallel,all of their primary voltages must
phase. All of their secondary voltages must also be equal and
in phase. The load they carry and the phase relations between
their constants.
the currents
they deliver depend solely upon
it is important that transformers
which
to
For this reason
are
versely
have
constants
approximately inoperate in parallelshould
cessful
proportionalto their ratings. The conditions for sucparalleloperation of alternators are not nearly so rigid
since the excitation voltages,corresponding to the primary voltages
of transformers,do not have to be equal or
in the case
in phase. If the constants
of the alternators are
not in the
inverse ratios of their ratingsit makes
littledifference since the
The

of Generators

Constants

for Parallel

"

load

divided

may

still be

and

their armature

between

alternators

in any
desired
into phase. This

brought
ceive
accomplished by properly adjusting the power
they remay
from their prime movers
and also varying their field excitations.
If two alternators having dissimilar constants
have
been
made
to share the load properly and their armature
rents
curhave been brought into phase, there will be a circulatory
current
A circulatory
according to equation (113),page 346.
way

currents

be

current
reason,

under
too

these

much

conditions

emphasis

is

should

highly desirable.
not

be

placed

on

For

this

the exist-

352

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

ing their field excitations the alternators may

reasonable
the load properly, provided any

be made

to divide

relation exists between

their constants.

although desirable,for alternators

to have constants
which are to operate in parallel
approximately
inverselyproportionalto their ratings,should be made clear by
That

it is not

Fig. 175.
respect to
currents.

necessary,

Fig. 175 is drawn for two alternators considered with

circuit. /"!and Zajare the two armature
their parallel
These are assumed
to have been brought into phase

by adjustingthe field excitations of the alternators and to have

been made
proportional to the ratings of the alternators by
of power
given to each alternator by its
adjustingthe amount

prime mover.
6

Fig.

Adding the drops due

175.

to the currents

/"!and la^to

the terminal

voltage gives the excitation voltages Ei and E2. Since Ei and

will have a circulatory
current
Ei are not equal, each machine
according to equation (115). If the excitations are adjusted
to give the voltagesEi and E^, the condition represented by the
vector
diagram shown in Fig. 175 will be fulfilled. With any
division

of load

the

armature

be

brought into
by properly adjustingthe field excitations.
is an
unbalanced
Ei,
voltageEi
currents

may

phase with the load current

Although there
acting in the series circuit consistingof the two armatures, this
in the armatures
currents
other
voltage will not cause
any
than those already existing,since the voltage E\
E^
Ed
is justbalanced by the impedance drops which are alreadypresent
in the armatures.
The rise in voltagerepresented by Ei
E2
Ech is justbalanced by the fall of voltage Eia plus the rise Eac.
"

"

"

"

CHAPTER

Synchronizing

Action

Effect

Transmission

Lines

AND

Synchronizing Action
the

of two

case

which

have

that

the

equal

of Two

of

mechanical

prime

sluggish and

do

angular velocity of the prime

be

influenced

prime

by

positionthe

other

order

will be considered
and

share

excitation

the

23

one

respond

to

which

movers

when

of the

the alternators
when

alternators

ing.
by huntit will not

only

phase

phase position.
case

which

equal excitations

have
is

mean

mean

hunting.
equal. Fig. 176 is

there

assumed

353

ternator
al-

changes in the

of its

the

equally

the

developed by either

power

discussion

load

drive

occurs,

its

is where

Assume

caused

are

hunting

in the

simplify the

alternators

176.

generator will be behind

to

Consider

"

constants.

generator is ahead

voltages will be

diagram

vector

changes

any

When

mover.

In

conditions

these

AcTION

two

which

movers

not

Relation

the

Alternators.

that is,of
alternators,

the

through

SYNCHRONIZING

Identical

Fig.

Under

Impedance;

MAXIMUM

electrical and

governors
are

High

Alternators;

Alternators

Two

op

FOR

identical

Identical

Two

of

Paralleling

of

between

XXX

drawn

no

with

The
the

respect to their

354

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

circuit and represents the conditions which exist at some

parallel
instant when
their excitation voltages have
been
displaced
in phase from each other by an angle,a.
I is the component of the armature
current of each generator
which is in phase with the load current.
Since the generators
are

to

7, according to equation (114),is equal

The excitation
one-half of the current
/",taken by the load.

equal,the

voltagesEl
hunting occurs

current

and

E2

and

equal

assumed

are

When

constant.

voltages remain unchanged in magnitude

but swing in opposite directions.
They are shown in Fig. 176
cide.
When
there is no hunting they coindisplacedby an angle a.
the circulatory
for generator No. 1, is equal
current
/,-,
rr

jp
to

(equation 114). The

"

erator

these

No.

latter is not

is

equal

shown

to

s,

Pi

hEi

under

currents

is

opposite to li.

The

Let Pi and P2 be the powers

1 and
No. 2, respectively,
when

angle

an

and

let 7i and

I2 be

this condition.

(^^^^^)ex

e^;

cos

gen-

diagram.

developed by generators No.

they are displacedin phase by
the armature

and

"

the

on

for

circulatorycurrent

cos

;;

ej'

(I + Ii)Ei COS

El sin
iii

-7".cos(,+
|)+-^B,cos(|-|-,)
,

7"?i cos

fl +

lEi

cos

cos

i/i^sin^

I jHlEi

"

"s

sin

sin

Ei^

"H

Sin

IEi

cos

"

cos

"

cos

"

cos

"

sm

"

cos

-^

Ei^ sin I

2r

Ei^ sin

sin
2

Ti

7^1 sin d sin

"

sin

i+

sin

^2

PARALLEL

lEi

COS

OPERATION

cos

-^

lEi sin

"

S sin

H
P2

/J5;2cos

cos

^+

IE2 sin 0 sin

li^r

sin

cos

|+

(.117)

7iV

cos

sm

-^

The

355

ALTERNATORS

OF

(118)

Z^V in equations (117) and (118) does not necessarily

loss caused
represent the copper
by the circulatorycurrent.
The copper
loss caused by this current is equal to
term

(7 + liYr
This

Pr.

is not

equal to li^rexcept when I and li are in quadrature.

Since Ei is the voltagecausingthe current (7 + It)in generator
No. 1 and M-^o
3'^(.Ei Ei) is the voltage absorbed in the
ference
impedance drop caused by the circulatory
current, li,the difbetween
Ei and M^Jo or Eoa must be the voltage causing
=

the current

"

If there

I.

were

hunting,IE

no

6 would

cos

be the

Ei
E2 according to
developed by each generator. E
conditions.
The
the assumed
change in the power
developed
by each generator which is caused by any change in their phase
displacement, a, may be found by subtractingEJ cos 6 and E2I
cos
d, from equations (117) and (118),respectively.Making
this subtraction givesequations (119) and (120) for the change in
the power
developed by generators No. 1 and No. 2, respectively.
In (119) and
(120) the subscriptshave been dropped
Ei
E2.
from the E's since,according to the assumed
conditions,
=

power

IE

cos

e(cos -^

1)

"

"

IE

sin 9 sin

li^'r

EH

.a.

.,

+
IE

cos

e(cos

1)

-^ IE

"^

sin 6 sin
2

sm

cos

,",

(119)

li^v

EH

a
.

^
The

firstterms

are

equal

moments

both

and
in

the third terms

magnitude

of inertia of the

and

sm

cos

(120)

expressions(119) and (120)

in sign. Therefore, if the

of

generators

are

equal, these

terms

356

PRINCIPLES

tend

to

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

produce equal retardingeffects

MACHINERY

the

on

angular velocityof

the generators

and, consequently, cannot influence the relative

phase displacement of the generators. Hence, they cannot cause

synchronizingaction.

any

effect of the first and

The

slightvariation

third terms

of

(119)and (120)is

to

in the

angular velocity of the entire

system. The period of this variation in the angular velocity
Due to this
as the periodof the hunting.
is,of course, the same
variation in the angular velocity of the system, the terminal
voltage of the system will swing in phase when hunting occurs.
This will not influence the hunting between
the alternators which
in parallel,
but it will tend to start hunting between
the
are
alternators and any synchronous apparatus they supply.
a

cause

third terms

Since the firstand

the

synchronizingaction

of

(119)and (120)do

not

affect

of the two

it follows that
alternators,
the second
and fourth terms
must
acting
represent the power
each alternator to hold it in synchronism with the other.
The
on
synchronizingpower, P,, acting on each of two equal alternators
is,therefore

P,

Pi
which

is

between

equal

j-f I
cos

the powers

Isin I

(121)

^2

to

I sin ^

one-half

i-e.,to

of

the difference

developed by the alternators when

they

are

displaced.
or

The

terms

/v

E'^-^^^^'o

/v

"^^

/v

^^^

^^

^^" ^ ^^"^

^^
9

equation

to the
(121) represent the synchronizingpower due, respectively,
circulatorycurrent and to the change in the phase angle between

/.

and

excitation voltage,
Equation (121) shows that with constant
and,
i.e.,with constant
excitation,the synchronizingpower
of two alternators which are in parallel
is
therefore,the stability
sin 6 is negative,that is,the stability
is greatest
greatest when
with

capacityloads.

constant

excitation

the terminal

but

Generators
with

do

constant

not

operate

as

rule with

terminal

voltage. When
the synchronizing power,

voltage is kept constant

Ps, correspondingto a given phase displacement,
a, is greatest for
inductive

loads.

PARALLEL

If R

and

OF

OPERATION

the
respectively,

are,

357

ALTERNATORS

resistance and

the reactance

of the load
Bi

cos

"

V{2R

(2X + xy

r)2+

and

(2X + a;)

sm

=
.

V(2ft
Substitutingthese
p
^'

U"

E^\x
T 1^^

would

be

equation (121) gives

2X

+ r)^+
(2ii;
should

-77

the

on

and
to

feeders

outside

to so
sufficiently

the

of

much

the generators to

cause

V, under

(122) by
When
E

._-,
^^^^^

"

reduce

to

would

synchronizing power

would

be

fall out

of step. A short-circuit
generatingstation may decrease R
reduce

drop

the

synchronizingpower

as

of step.

out

in terms

get the synchronizingpower

To

but

condition

z^]

generators, both

sm

iz^

^'"

the

at

''^^

a;)4

(2X +

X]

i^

the generators would

and

zero

a
.

"^"

synchronizingpower

E^{x
E^\x

this

xyl

occur

and the

zero

P,
Under

short-circuit

and X

-^

in

(2X + a:)
(2/2+ ry + (2Z +

pjj]^

_
~

If

values

(2X + x)2

r)2+

tage,
of the terminal vol-

replaceE in equation
steady operatingconditions,

V.

hunting
will be

occurs,

constant

V will vary in direction and magnitude

in magnitude. E will be equal to the

voltage, V, before hunting starts plus the impedance

drop due to the current, /, carried by either generator under

terminal

steady conditions.
E

=V

I{r^- jx)

Ii2R+

J2X)

lVi2R

ry +

'U /(2je ry

^jp_i. "^1

2IVr^

{2X + x^

(2x + xy

R^+X''

X"

358

PRINCIPLES

OF

Putting this value of

ALTERNATING-CURRENT
E

in

MACHINERY

equation (122) gives

a;

'i(2R + ry + (2X + xy]

8iR^ + X^) [z^
,

^2[4 {R' +

sin

(2Z + x)

X^) + (r^+ x^) + A(Rr + Xx)]

\ sin

-{2X+x)
=

i2(i2^+ X') x+(x'-r'^

4^2(jgr^j^2)
V^ J "' (x^

_
~

1zj

It should

r^)

{Ri + X^)

2^2

)sin

+ 2Rrx

firo;
"*"
z^ {R^ + X^)

that V in

be remembered

(123)

1
.

]^^^

'

"

equations(123) and (124)

voltage of the generators before hunting starts.

This is constant.
The actual terminal voltage,as has already
been pointed out, varies both in phase and magnitude when
first term
The
of equation (124) represents
hunting occurs.
The
due to the circulatorycurrent.
the synchronizing power
is the terminal

second

and

the

to

third terms

reactive

and

respectively. These
load

no

on

energy

last two

the system.

important. The
depends upon the power
most

when
It follows

due

represent the synchronizingpower

of the

components
terms

become

zero

load

current,

when

there is

equation (124) is the

relative importance of the second
two
The

first term

factor of the

of

load.

The

second

appears
dis-

the load is non-inductive.

from

equation (124) that for

any

fixed terminal

voltage, V, P, will be greater when X is positivethan when

negative, provided x is greater than r. Therefore, since the
synchronous reactance, x, of alternators is always greater than
their resistance,
two
stant
equal alternators when operated at constable on inductive loads than
terminal voltagewill be more
also holds when
the alternators
on
capacity loads. This statement
not equal.
are
crease
For any fixed ratio of r to x, the synchronizingpower
will debe shown
This may
with an increase in either r or z.
by
hr
fc
where
in
is
constant.
ing
Maka
equation (124)by
replacingx
this substitution gives
^"

1r

^
1/'
1) (i22+X2)
2(/b2-f

360

PRINCIPLES

OF

between

Relation

The

Action.

The

"

synchronizing

x^

X
~l
^

Zi

2^

is

to

a;

r,

power

factor

cent,

relation

of 80

and

much

the

larger

stiffness

pendulum
must

be

than

coupling

made

as

If

between

they would,

in

slightly out
large

of
even

effective

greater than

25.

ratio

could

be

made

be

started

phase.
for

alternators

The

or

when

reactance

is

of

to

they

circulatory

slight phase

as

r,

be

the

always greater

than

of

and

great

strains

synchronized

were

would

also

The

ratio

alternators
10

r,

the

stiffness

severe

displacements.
ordinary

are:

down

too

very

current

is

torsional

keep

which

as

r.

for best

resistance,

to

would

subjected

1.02

for

to

The

current.

small

For

since

period of oscillation

as

be

generators
x

a;

as

should

considerations

possible in order

two

of

other

as

consequence,

resistance

These

maximum

any

action.

becomes

Ps

to

and

(125),

importance

having

short-circuit

the

synchronous

(125)

small

hunting

whenever

the

the

loss in the

copper

call for

unity.

than

coupling, the

and

loss.

copper

very

of

is of little

a,

of

synchronizing

and

conditions

values

equation

to

load, equation

between

and

equation (125)

is zero,

reasonable

cent,

given phase displacement,

very

load

for maximum

per

to

respect

corresponding

action

If the

any

full

at

other

operation

to

with

term

according

x,

X^)

RrY I"^^"
+yl'+{B'+?'

^-Rr

For

r.

nearly equal

This

X^

zKR^

gives

zero

resistance, r.

with

per

synchronizing

armature

compared

of

to

Xr

maximum

the

reduces

the

when

Rrx
"I
vi
X''^

R^

[R^+

very

Synchronizing

maximum

X
D2

0"2
2z^

'

fixed

Maximun

will be

power

r^

"

derivative

the

equating

for

for

Differentiating this

maximum.

and

equation (124),

of

term

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

and

to
more

be
of

their
often

XXXI

CHAPTER

Period

Phase

op

Engine

OF

Its

Swinging

Effect

Torque

Revolution

Operation

Parallel

on

Each

during

larity
Irregu-

Damping;

Hunting;

or

and

Alternators;

of

Governors
Period

of

alternators
its

Phase

which

angular

between

will

machine
of

place with

for the

not

were

hunting in the pole faces and

are

used.

found

was
n

of

period

The

are,

for

hunting

synchronous

respectively,the
of

number

unit
mean

dividing by

of the

losses

in the

in

takes

indefinitely

continue

found

motor

which

produced

same

as

way

If p,

(page 317).

by

dampers

case

it

f and

poles, the frequency and

the

"

358, in equation (126)

equation (124),page

gives the synchronizing torque developed

angular displacement of the generators from

of space

per

their

position.

nFVfa;X

pT,

=^

nvp''

,,
-^
=

where

past

synchronizing

hunting

dampers

of

number

swing

phases, the synchronizing torque is

Substituting P, from
and

the

in the

be

can

the

to

pull the generators together

action

the

will

The

It would

damping

developed

be

however,

Due,

action.

as

motor.

changes

equation (124), page 358,

their proper
phase relation.
lags to speed up and the
generators

to

same

equal

to

down.

tend

is the

synchronous

of two

one

will

power

parts, the
and

reverse

action

This

again.

which

synchronizing

no

will then

power

to

slow

to

moving

of

them

machine

leads

their

according

restore

the

cause

position

if it

to

which

inertia
the

machines

two

If

"

operating in parallelmomentarily

are

will tend

This

Hunting.

or

velocity, synchronizing

the

which

Swinging

Z^

^2

-8^U^

x^
X-

"

r^
X
rJi.

Rrx
iira;

-2^

x^.
361

\ sin
i

sm

Z^+i^!^
,

a
"

(^n'^\

^^^^^

362

Since

PRINCIPLES

OF

for small

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

is

angles

MACHINERY

nearly equal

to

unity, equation

be written

(127) may

".29L'(i,'4ri'|
+ "^x!
The

of oscillation of the

time

torsional

pendulum

about

its

where

and

'LnuP

are

rotor

of

an

028)

alternator

as

angular positionis

mean

2,^^-

(129)

the synchronizing
respectively,
torque

per

of
angle of phase displacement,and the resultant moment
inertia of the rotor of the generator and
the prime mover.
Substituting the value of M from equation (128) in equation
(129) gives for the approximate time of oscillation
unit

(130)

to

Equation (130) shows that the period is inverselyproportional

the terminal voltage,V, of the system before hunting starts.

It is also

the

proportionalto

square

root

of the

of

moment

inertia of the

moving parts of the generator and its prime mover.

The time of oscillation will increase nearly as the square
root
of the synchronous reactance
of the generators. Putting reactance
in

series with

hunting. The

the

increases

their

period

of

by the load and its power

factor.
With
fixed terminal voltage,the period increases with
increase in the load.
When
the load is zero, equation (130)
an
reduces

periodis

generators
also affected

to

^^^.l/l^Z
Damping.

(131)

Synchronous generators which are to be operated

in parallel
of damping, but as a rule
require a certain amount
the damping does not need to be so great as for synchronous
which
motors.
Generators
driven by internal-combustion
are
engines are an exception to this rule. Such generators require
"

strong damping.

The

most

common

form

of

damping

device

PARALLEL

is

an

need

OPERATION

amortisseur.
be

not

as

An

OF

amortisseur

effective

as

for

363

ALTERNATORS

for

alternator

an

motor, since for

as

motor

rule,

it must

only for damping out hunting but also as a starting

device.
The
damping action of the hysteresislosses and the
eddy currents produced in the pole faces by hunting is often
sufficient for alternators.
If the ordinary pole-facelosses due
to the armature
slots are eliminated
or
largelydiminished by
gettingthe effect of closed slots by the use of magnetic wedges
for holding the armature
be
winding in place,solid poles may
used.
Under
these conditions,
if hunting occurs, large eddy
will be set up in the solid pole faces by the oscillating
currents
serve

not

armature-reaction
obtained

permit

field.

in this way.
It may,
its use for damping and

may

be

in

fact,be made largeenough to

for starting
synchronous motors

well.

as

of Engine Torque during

Irregularity
Its Effect

Parallel

on

moment

internal-combustion

or

definite

The

engine

any

is not

uniform

engine revolution.

the

type of engine and

torque

upon

curve

of

"

The

steam
reciprocating

cycle in each

cycledepends

Revolution

and

turning

177.

torque developedby

or

Each

Operation of Alternators.

Fig.

action

Very strong damping

but
The

engine

goes

through

form

of this

the load it carries.

double-acting single-cylinder
engine or

and two
zero
tandem-compound engine has two maximum
The
torque of a cross-compound
points in each revolution.
and
four
engine with 90-degree cranks has four maximum
falls to zero.
minimum
points in each revolution but it never
for large slow-speedengines with Corliss
Typical torque curves
Curve
/ is for a single-cylinder
in Fig. 177.
valves are shown
of

364

PRINCIPLES

or

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

tandem-compound
engine with

90

to be divided

assumed

engine. Curve III is for a cross-compound

For this curve
the power
degree cranks.

equallybetween

the two

by adding the ordinates of

III is obtained

is

cylinders. Curve
I to the ordinates

curve

is displacedfrom curve
similar curve, II, which
/, by 90
of a high-speedengine will have the
degrees. The torque curve
of

of maximum

number

same

of

curve

and

slow-speedengine.

minimum
Its

points as

shape will

of the greater effect of the inertia of the

the

torque

different

be

on

count
ac-

reciprocating
parts.

pound
frequency of the variation in the torque of a cross-comengine will be twice the frequency of the variation in the
a
tandem-compound
torque of a single-cylinderengine or
the
and
for
the
same
same
engine having
speed,
turning
average
the magnitude of the variation will, as a rule,be less
moment

The

than

one-half

as

great.

have three distinct frequencies

cross-compound engine may
of torque variation,namely:
(a) A frequency of one per revolution caused by one end of
than the other.
steam
one
cylinderreceivingmore
(6) A frequency of two per revolution caused by the work
the cylinders.
being unevenly divided between
(c) A frequency of four per revolution caused by the combined
of the two cylinders.
double-frequencytorque waves
The last of these three frequencies,i.e.,four per revolution,
is by far the most
important. In designing a flywheel for an
first be found
variation of the torque must
engine,the maximum
be so designed that its moment
of
and then the flywheel must
A

inertia when

combined

with

the moment

of inertia of the rotor

of the generator will limit the variation

during

revolution

to

some

definite

in the

angular velocity

prescribedvalue.

in the
permissible variation produced by irregularities
engine torque in the angular velocityof alternators which are
to operate in parallel
the frequency of the alternators
depends upon

The

and
Under
to

cause

the ratio of their short-circuit and

ordinary conditions,this variation

a

from

full-load currents.

should

not

be

allowed

nator
displacementin the excitation voltage of any alterits mean
than IJ^ electrical
positionof much more

degrees. This

corresponds to

space

degrees where

is

PARALLEL

the number

of

OF

OPERATION

poles. The

365

ALTERNATORS

permissiblevariation in the angular

velocityof multipolargenerators is very small.

drive multipolaralternators
engines which
flywheelaction.
The effect of a displacementcan
readily be

must

this reason,
have
large

seen

by referring

For

the ratio of
equation (124) page
their synchronous reactance
to their synchronous impedance
is very nearly unity. Making this assumption and neglecting
the effect of the load,equation (124) may
be written,for small
values of the angle,a, in the followingapproximate form,
to

For

358.

alternators

most

y2

^'

T."

Under

ordinary conditions

circuit current,

is

"

nearly equal

to

Isc,at full-load voltage. Making

the

short-

this assumption

gives
Ps

Suppose that
have

j^yiscOi,
approximately

similar

two

short-circuit currents

full-load currents, and

caused

happens that

the

by

'

alternators

that

the alternators

equal

are

also suppose
engines is

are

to

(132)

paralleledwhich
three times

their

that the maximum

l}/ielectrical

displacement
degrees. If it

synchronizedin such a way that

the engines produce maximum
tions
displacementsin opposite direcat the same
instant, will be 2 (134) 2.5 electricaldegrees.
According to these assumptions
are

2ir

P.
where

under

this condition

each

is the

}4V{3I) (2.5) 3gQ

generator.

full-load

The

is

The

current.

6}i

per

smaller

cent,

the

0.065F/

synchronizing

of the

rated

short-circuit

power

output

current,

of
the

variation in angularvelocity.
largerthe permissible
and consequently
The actual variation in the angular velocity,
the excitation
phase displacement produced between
depends not only
voltages of generators which are in parallel,
the magnitudes of the variation in the torques of the
upon
nators,
of inertias of the flywheelsand alterenginesand the moment
the synchronizing
but also upon
torque of the generators
and their damping. The synchronizingtorque of an alternator
in

the

366

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

is

nearly proportionalto its phase displacement and directly

the displacement. On the other hand, the damping
opposes
caused by any oscillation
action of eddy currents and hysteresis
of the rotor about its mean
ing
angularpositionas well as the dampis used, is nearly in
action of a damping winding if one
quadrature with the displacement,and, therefore,nearly in
quadrature with the variation in the enginetorque.
The curve
engine
representingthe torque of a reciprocating
during a revolution may be resolved into a straightline,which

f",=X'+fcsin 0)t

liyt

sin

^mr^

u"'=K'+fat dt
^K'"A.

Angular
Displacement

d'=f"A

Irom-Mean
fositioa

=B

Torque

represents the

mean

the variation

of

harmonics

sine

curve

may

actual

sin

2d'

{2B sin (flt)

(From_Equation 127)
-C

sin

curve

when

be made

engine torque

are

large,as,

for

into

from

this

fundamental

tat

cos

which

If the

mean.

and

shows

series of

neglected,the resultingapproximat

are

becomes
In

curve
irregular

an

torque

the latter

superposed.

the

combustion

the

then

torque
is

torque, and

is resolved

and

(lit

t^=D(a'="0

Damping
Torque

irregularcurve

u"t dt

cos

sin

ts=~C

Synchronizing

tjit

cos

straightline

upon

which

tion
good many
cases, this substitustudying the effect of the variation of
a

but when
operation,
parallel
example, when the prime movers
on

engines, the harmonics

must

be

the harmonics
are

internal-

considered.

Fig.

368

maximum
a

OF

PRINCIPLES

and

ALT

ERN

angularvelocityof

the minimum

revolution,the

mean

0)1

engine during

CO2

2
to the

speed referred

variation in

an

angular velocityis
"""

The

MACHINERY

I NO-CURRENT

AT

0)1

mean

speed is

0)2

"

of the enginespeed. The

cyclicirregularity
With
turbines is zero.
water
of steam
or
cyclic irregularity
of engine speed
the cycUc irregularity
too sensitive a governor,
and would cause
hunting.
would set up oscillations in the governor
be sufficiently
must
damped not
To avoid this action,governors
of speed.
to respond to the cyclic
irregularity
This

is called the

Load

179.

Fig.

of
Owing to the friction of the parts moved
by the governor
engine or turbine,there must always be a certain change in
any
the speed of an engine or turbine before its governor
will act.
If,with an enginerunning at a certain mean
speed,o)^, the greatest
and
least speeds the engine can
have
without
the governor
then
acting are, o)'iand o)'2,
respectively,
O)

is what
The

"

0)

the

coefficient
of governor insensitiveness.
u'2 and o)" are
plotted in Fig. 179 against
speeds oi'i,
is known

as

loads.
The
and

curves

marked

the minimum

o)'iand u"'i
the maximum
give,respectively,

speeds for different loads

at which

the

engine

PARALLEL

OPERATION

369

ALTERNATORS

OF

engine is a
equal to
by an amount
vary
speed. Therefore,in order

operate without action of its governor.

can

If the

reciprocating
engine,its speed will
above
and below
its mean
3^(7a)m
that its speed shall lie within the limits of maximum
mum
and minispeed fixed by the lines marked o'l and w'2,Fig. 179, its
speed during a revolution must always be less than the
average
speed represented by the line co'iand greater than the speed
tracting
Subrepresentedby the line w'2 by an amount
equalto '^itrcom.
from
y^ffoim

adding it
w"i and

to the ordinates

a)"2. These

minimum
the

the ordinates of the

last two

curve

marked
show

curves

w'2 givescurves

the maximum

and

speeds correspondingto different loads at which

acting. The more
operate without its governor

mean

engine

of the

w'l and

marked

curve

can

the closer will be the

sensitive the governor,

Their separationmust

always

be

w'l and

curves

u'i.

larity
greater than the cyclicirregu-

engine or the governor will act due to the variation

must
in speed during each revolution.
Governors
always be
their coefficient of insensitiveness
to make
damped sufficiently
greater than the cyclicvariation in the engine speed. If the
is a turbine instead of a reciprocating
engine,there
prime mover
will be practically
no
cyclicvariation in its speed and the curves
of the

w"i will coincide

w'l and
When

any

will also the

as

co'2and co"2.

curves

of similar alternators which

number

are

driven

by

sarily
they will not necesoperated in parallel,
share the load equally. Let the horizontal line,AB,
AB,
Fig. 179, represent the speed of the system. The portion,
the curves
a)"iand w"2 represents the
of this line lyingbetween
tion
possibleloads correspondingto the assumed speed. The por-

identical

engines are

of the line AB
decreases

as

the

the
in the
load

slopeof

the

between

alternators.

isundesirable

on

will be the

account

u'\ and

increases.
a

^"2

sequently,
Con-

given increase

distribution

of the

teristic
drooping speed characof the largechange in frequency
A speed regulationof about 3

very

produced by change in load.

results.
per cent, usuallygivessatisfactory

24

curves

speed-loadcurve
drop in speed for

uniform

more

the two

the

greater the

load, the

among

included

XXXII

CHAPTER
Power

Output
Method

THE

Effect

of

of

Effect
Spring
IS

in

Adjusting

Difference

Speed-load
Load

Operating

Alternators

of

in

Characteristics
Alternators

between
of
on

Changing
the

Parallel

Load
with

the

Carried

Load

the

Division

the

on

Operating
Tension
by

an

Engine

the

op

of

and

Them;

between

Slopes

the

Parallel

in

in

of

the

Parallel;
Governor

the

Alternator

which

Others

Output of Alternators
Operating in Parallel and
The power
between
Them.
of Adjusting the Load
the Method
which does not have a
output of any engine, turbine or motor
be changed without
cannot
perfectly flat speed-torque curve
alteringits speed. All alternators operating in parallelmust
have the same
frequency. Their relative speeds are fixed by
ternato
be varied so long as the alof poles and
cannot
the number
in synchronism. Since the relative outputs
remain
be changed without
of the prime movers
cannot
alteringtheir
relative speeds and since the relative speeds of the alternators
are
fixed,it follows that nothing can be done to the alternators
of power
which will alter the relative amounts
themselves
they
A change
receive from the enginesor turbines which drive them.
in the field excitation,
and, therefore,in the excitation voltage
of an
alternator,which is operating in parallelwith others,
it receives from its prime
of power
cannot
change the amount
unless the speed of the system is affected.
The
mover
only
affect the speed is a change in the load on
thing which can
be caused by the slightchange in
This may
the entire system.
the terminal voltage of the system which the circulatory
current
produces. Since the input to the alternator does not change,
its output cannot
change, except as it is influenced by.its copper
alternator
loss. Therefore, varying the field excitation of an
which is in parallelwith others will have little or no effect on
but it will cause
the load it carries,
which
a circulatory
current
Power

"

370

PARALLEL

is

nearly wattless

system.

OPERATION

with

ALTERNATORS

371

respect to the terminal

voltage of the

OF

If this

circulatorycurrent were
not nearly wattless
with respect to the terminal voltage,it would
cause
an
energy
interchange between
the alternators,
and, therefore,
a
change
in the distribution of the load between
them.
This has just
been shown
to be impossible. The sole effect of the circulatory
current
when
it is produced by an inequahty of the excitation
voltages,that is,by improper adjustment of the field excita-

4i

tions,is to equalizethe terminal voltages. Due to the armature

reactions and to the reactive drops caused by the circulatory
current, the induced voltages of the alternators with the higher
excitation voltages will be lowered and the induced
voltages of
the alternators with the lower excitation voltages will be raised.
which is caused by unequal excitations,
The circulatory
current
nators
must
lag behind the excitation voltages of the altertherefore,
which
tends

to

have

weaken

too

the

high excitation
field.

For

the

since such
same

reason

laggingcurrent
it must

lead

372

PRINCIPLES

the

excitation

excitation.

OF

voltagesof
should

It

is not

current

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

alternators

which

remembered

that

separate current, but merely

of the

be

the

MACHINERY

armature

If

current.

have
the

than

more

circulatory

convenient

low

too

ponent
com-

machines

two

in the alternators will

the circulatory
current
parallel,
usuallybe different.
of two
effect of changing the excitation of one
The
equal
is best explained by reference
in parallel
alternators which
are
for no load to simplifythe
This figureis drawn
to Fig. 180.
ditions
explanation. The upper diagram in Fig. 180 shows the conin

are

the excitation

existingwhen
and

machine

Each

opposite.

voltages,Ei and E2, are

is assumed

equal

receive

to

power

increased,there will be a resultant

Eo, acting in the series circuit. This will
If Ei is

equal to its losses.

voltage. El + E2
=

P
cause

li

circulatorycurrent
7, lags behind

diagram.

_J

"

^,

Eo by

an

",,

in the middle

shown

angle tan~^

It has

"

ponent
com-

phase with Ei and a component in oppositionwith E2.

No.
1
li, therefore,produces generator action on machine
in

and

action

motor

each

power

machine

alternator

changed, machine
than

on

it receives

from

receives
1 will

No.
from

No.

its

now

prime

Since

2.

the

its

prime mover
be developing more

mover

and

of

amount

will start

has

not

power
to

slow

will be

than it
developing less power
receives and
will start to speed up.
These
changes in speed
will last merely long enough to produce a change in phase between
the voltages Ei and E2.
Ei and E2 will swing to some
such
positionsas are shown in the lower diagram. They will,
in fact, swing until the projectionsof li on
both Ei and E2
are
sponding
positive and the two projectionsmultiplied by the correthis condition is reached,
voltages are equal. When
there will be no further action to cause
change in the phase
any
displacement of the voltagesand the system will be in equilibrium.
The whole system will have slowed down very slightly
as
a result
down.

Machine

No.

of the increase in the armature

should
When

phase

produce
the
which

an

almost

loss caused

imperceptiblechange

circulatorycurrent
is

copper

produced between

is caused

by

the excitation

by Jj.

in the
a

This

speed.

difference

in

voltagesby the

PARALLEL

turbines

engines which

or

wattless

with

condition

the

respect to

it will

corresponds

to-

OF

drive

produce

an

alternators to others.

some

As

OPERATION

of load

already been said, too

placed on current interchangeas
to

voltage. Under

much

the

among

this

alternators.

emphasis should

be

not

separate thing as this is apt

incorrect idea of the actual conditions

an

be

from
apparent transfer of energy
This apparent transfer of energy

has

to lead

373

generators, it will not

terminal

redistribution

the

ALTERNATORS

existingin

alternators operating in parallel.

If the
with

prime mover
driving an
given more
steam,

others is

will receive

more

alternator

which

the alternator

is.in

which

parallel

it drives

than

power

start
and, therefore,
-z/-\"--^::::
---'^""
to speed up.
If two
"
I'
equal Sa_^,---'"" \/:^
machines
are
again considered
-p
and No. 1 is given more
power,
the voltage Ex will swing so
to lead its former
as
position.
This condition is represented in Fig. 181.
The circulatory
current, 7,,produced by this change in phase
produces generator action with respect to ^i. E\ will continue

it delivers

"

to increase

",

its lead

until the power

representedby the product
of li with E\ is equal to the increase in power
given by the prime
If there is

mover.

No.

2 to be

driven

as

effect of li is to put
machine

only

with

deliver
down

When

motor.

load

more

on

the system is

machine

No.

machine

cause

loaded, the

1 and

to relieve

of its load.

some

more
or

of

method
for
in

the

load

carried

drooping speed-torque characteristics.

is to

torque
used

way

have

must

slow

the system li will

on

by an alternator in parallel
others can
it rebe increased is by increasingthe energy
ceives.
Turbines
engines driving alternators in parallel
or

The

to

2 of

No.

load

no

In

order

either
engine or the turbine must
be raised,if a larger
its speed-torque curve
must
be developed at the same
speed. The latter
the

power

increasingthe

torque

is the

which

one

must

since the relative speedsof alternators

alternators,
fixed and

are
parallel

of all must

also

since

they

all remain

generators which

are

speed of

in

is

one

change in exactlythe

speed

must

if the

same

be
ating
oper-

changed the
proportion

synchronism. Direct-current
paralleldo not have to run at any
in

374

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

definite relative

speeds. For this reason, the load carried by a

direct-current generator in parallel
with others may
be increased
by increasingits field excitation. Increasingthe field excitation
puts

load

more

until it

the

on

developsthe

by adjustingthe
or

to admit

The

of their

governors

at the

steam

more

is free to slow
loads- carried

must
operate in parallel

which

individual alternators

admit

which

prime mover
requiredpower.

if the
less,

by
be

prime movers,

so

speed, if their load is

same

down
the
trolled
conas

to

creased
to be in-

load is to be decreased.

At the

time, the fields of the alternators should be adjustedin

order to compensate for the changes in the impedance drops in
This change in the field excitations will have
their armatures.
same

effect

no

on

the division of the load.

Effect of Differences
Characteristics

the

on

Slopes of the Engine Speed-load

in the

Operating in Parallel.

Division

Load
the

show

To

"

of

between

effect of

Alternators
the

slopesof

Ijoad

Fig.

the

engine characteristics

two

alternators

on

182.

the

distribution

of load

between

in

the slightvariation in the

parallel,
distribution of the load which is caused by the lack of sensitiveness
will be neglected. The speed-load curve
of the governors
or

of any

by
w"

more

prime mover

singleline which
in Fig. 179, page
shows

dissimilar.

number

of

frequency.

these

be represented
conditions,

speed line marked

mean

368.

two

engine speed-load characteristics which

Assume

poles or

under

correspondsto the

Fig. 182
are

can,

that

that
the

the

alternators

speeds

are

have

plotted in

the

same

terms

of

376

OF

PRINCIPLES

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

slopes of the characteristics shown in Figs. 183 and 184 is

the same
but the actual slopes of the characteristics shown
in
Fig. 184 are greater.
the

The

the characteristics shown

slopesof
in order

in

Fig. 184

are

the effect of the

gerated
exag-

clearer.

droop
emphasize
the droop in
It will be seen
to Fig. 183 that when
by referring
the
speed-load characteristics is small, a slight difference
their slopesmakes
between
a largedifference in the distribution
of the load
on

is

carried

by the generators with different total loads

From
Fig. 184, it is clear that when the droop

the system.

large,the
has

movers

difference between

same

less marked

much

load between
another

to

the two

the

effect

generators.

slopesof

the

teristics
charac-

the distribution of the

on

already been stated in

As has

speed-load characteristics of prime

drive alternators to be operated in parallel
should have drops of about 3

connection, the
that

to

are

in

cent,

per

speed

from

no

load to full load.

Effect
Tension

Spring
by

Changing

of

the

the

on

ParaUel
method

with
of

carried

by

the

Governor

Load

Alternator

an

is in

of

Carried

which

Others,"

is in
The

adjusting the load

an

alternator which

with
parallel

others has

already been given on page

370, but justwhat actuallytakes place may be made clearer by
referringto Fig. 185, which gives the speed-load characteristics
for two
The

prime movers.
characteristics

/ and

II.

At

the

speed, s, the loads

carried by generators No.
1 and
No. 2 are, respectively,Li
and Li.
If it is desired to make
No. 2 increase its load,the tension
are

of its governor
spring is increased. This will raise the
speed-load characteristic nearly parallelto itself to some
new

positionsuch
stillrun
load.

as

at the

In the

generator.

is shown
same

case

As the engine must

by the dotted hne.
must
speed generator No. 2 now
more
carry
it
will
load as the other
shown,
carry the same

XXXIII

CHAPTER
Effect

Form

Wave

of

Parallel

on

Operatiok

of

Alternators
Effect
If two

of Wave
or

Form

unbalanced
between

the

will be

harmonics
the

dissimilar

electromotive

an

which

alternators.

useful purpose.
in the armatures.
no

have

alternators,which

more

there
paralleled,

are

Operation of Alternators.

Parallel

on

forms

wave

force

"

due

the

to

circulatorycurrent
circulatorycurrent will serve

will

This

cause

only effect is to increase the copper loss

Suppose two three-phasealternators having
followingphase electromotive forces are paralleled.
Its

Ca

3900

sin cot +

195

ei

3900

sin oot +

19.5

The

harmonics

third

If, for the

effect.

series

loads

will be

force will have

117

to

are

+j singj
(cos^
"

assumed

voltages.
to

have

will be without
the

adjusted so that
equal and oppositeon
are

value

10(

not

electromotive
This

the fifth harmonics.

maximum

^)

(dcot^)

line

unbalanced

an

sin

10

the

in

are

excitations

and

to the fundamentals

circuit,there

^)+

appear

alternators

acting in this circuit due

E",

Uo^t+

sin

117

interconnected,the third harmonics

If the

voltagesdue

Uwt

sin

cannot

present, the

their neutrals

sin 3co" +

the
force

motive
electro-

of

coSg

"

j sin

112.3

fifth-harmonic
current
to circulate
a
voltage will cause
Since the phase order of the
in each phase of the armature.
circuit is opposite to
in a three-phase balanced
fifth harmonics
reaction
caused
by the
that of the fundamentals, the armature
This

fifth-harmonic
of the
with

field

respect

currents

poles.

revolves

The

to the armature

in

direction

speed of this
is five times
377

opposite

armature-reaction
as

to

that
field

great as synchronous

378

PRINCIPLES

This

speed.
six times

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

field will therefore

armature-reaction

synchronous speed with respect

seventh
in

OF

harmonics

present, since

were

three-phase balanced

fundamentals, the
revolve

at

and

armature

reaction

armature

times

seven

circuit have

the

to the

the

field

seventh

field due

to

with

harmonics

them

as

the

would

respect to the

synchronous speed with respect

at six times

at

poles. If

phase order

same

synchronous speed

revolve

to the

in the armature
each cause
poles. Fifth and seventh harmonics
This harmonic
in the pole flux.
in the pole flux
a sixth harmonic
is more
less damped out by the effect of a damping winding, if
or
is used, and by the effect of eddy-current losses and hysteresis
one

Since the
poles caused by the flux variation.
in the armature
current
reaction produced by harmonics
armature
be no such thing
is not fixed with respect to the poles,there can
for harmonics.
armature
The
tion
reacas
synchronous reactances
due to harmonics
and its effect are complicated and difficult
losses in the field

handle.

to

nearly as the frequency. With

Leakage reactances
very
vary
to synchronous reactance
the ordinary ratios of leakage reactance
for the fundamentals
of modern
alternators,it is probable that
the

leakage

harmonics

of alternators

reactances

and

for harmonics

of

for the

higher order

fifth and
are

in

seventh

general at

for the fundamental.

synchronous reactance
the circulatorycurrents
caused
For this reason
in alternators in
form
not
are
likely to be of
parallelby differences in wave

least

as

great

as

the

importance.

form
parallelwhich have the same
wave
become
displaced in phase, the resultant voltages acting to
will be exaggerated for the harmonics
produce circulatory currents
placemen
as
compared with the fundamental, since a phase disof a electrical degrees for the fundamentals
of the
is equivalent to a phase displacement of 5a electrical
machines
and 7a electrical degrees for the
degrees for the fifth harmonics
Harmonic
seventh harmonics.
circulatorycurrents
produced in
not
this way
are
likely to be serious except in Y-connected
If alternators

alternators

in

which

phase voltages and

neutrals.

have

pronounced

which

are

third

harmonics

operated with

in

their

interconnected

PARALLEL

If

the

alternators
the

effect of any

be in the

coil

condition

under

alternators
If

neutrals

their

be overlooked.

This

which

alternators

with

their neutrals

neutral

like

except that

which

only

form

wave

forms

wave

may

is the

current

no

be

may

of

put in

are

grounded, there will be

connections

connected,
inter-

voltage there

third-harmonic

voltages cannot

F-wound

in the

and

ordinary differences in
is likely
trouble.
to cause
parallel

in

paralleland

F-wound

are

379

ALTERNATORS

OF

OPERATION

caused

load on
the system, provided,that is,the
by an unbalanced
phase voltagesof the alternators are equal and in phase. If
the phase voltages are not equal or become
displacedin phase,
there will be
lines and

resultant

neutral.

phases
the

case

armature

in

are

of

which

voltage acting between

in
current
triple-frequency
each
in
current
phase. This triple-frequency
is, of course,
addition to the circulatory
current
produced by the fundamental
and harmonics
of other frequenciesthan the third.
The triplefrequency currents will all be in phase and will add directly
in the

neutral

third-harmonic
will

will

be

non-salient

in the three

currents

reaction

armature

alternator with

winding

the third-harmonic

Since

phase, the

an

cause

produced by them

polesand

approximately

distributed
It

zero.

in

may

be

of three equal space

vectors
represented as the sum
differing
by 120 degrees in phase. If the generators have salient poles,
will produce some
armature
the
triple-frequency currents
reaction, but it will be relativelysmall. Consequently, the
currents
is nearly equal to the
reactance
for the triple-frequency
for the third harmonics.
The ratio of synchronous
slot reactance
varies
reactance
of ordinary alternators to their leakage reactance
between
about two and six roughly. Suppose two equal three-

phase F-wound
have

alternators

interconnected

degrees. There

phase which

is

which

neutrals

will then

be

are

become
a

paralleland which
displaced in phase by a
in

triple-frequencycurrent

in each

equal to
2E's sin -^

2\Ah^
where

Is and

synchronous

E'z
to

are

root-mean-square

slot, reactance

values.

If the ratio of

for the fundamental

is assumed

380

PRINCIPLES

be

to

Zz

a,

OF

will be

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

approximately

ylr^+

"

This

is ap-

3zi

proximately equal

to

Let

"

voltage to the fundamental

the ratio of the third harmonic

voltage be h.

Then

a{bE'i)sm-^E'l
but

is the

"

short-circuit

current, Isc

for the

fundamental

Zi

voltage and is

nearly equal

very

to

short-circuit current

the

of

Therefore

the alternator.

sin
ahls.c.
-^

and
equal to 4 and 0.10, respectively,
the generators should become
displacedby 20 degrees,the triplefrequency current would be
If

and

h should

73

be

^'^ ^'-'^

f-^^^^

If the short-circuit current

of this machine

full-load current, the third-harmonic

to
per

would, of

be three times

were

current

phase displacement of

of the full-load current.

cent,

0.067

The

20

three times the

in each

phase

degrees would

current

in the

responding
cor-

be 20
neutral

phase. With a
and
larger ratio of synchronous reactance to leakage reactance
with a largershort-circuit current, Ig might easilybecome
equal
The
trouble caused
to
the full-load current.
by this tripleto the increase in the
frequency current is due, not so much
loss it causes
cuit
armature
to the tripping out of the ciras
copper
when
the machines
breakers
become
displaced in phase.
be produced by hunting, by a sudden
This displacementmay
change in load, or by careless synchronizing.
trouble which
The
is caused
circulatory
by the triple-frequency
course,

currents

neutrals

are

when

the current

L...

F-connected

paralleled
may

be

per

generators with

avoided

in two

ways:

grounded
first,
by

grounding each generator through a low resistance or reactance;

and second, by grounding only one
of a group
of generators

PARALLEL

which
in

in

are

the

ground

of
there

is

their

by

neutral

under

the

any
can

the

line

supply

and

resistances

in

only

which

neutral,
it

of

by

will

is

at

affect

is

delivered,

Umited

only

to

the

count
ac-

which

grounded

ful
harmdoes
in

given

oil

that

on

time

currents

protection
be

can

of

production

triple-frequency
full

as

the

connections

ground

generator

one

well

as

the

of

account

on

the

reactances

or

reactances

reactance

time,

same

and

of

or

caused

current,

ALTERNATORS

conditions

some

trouble
at

The

between

With

38]

OF

objectionable

resistances

Grounding

and

system.

the

is

expense.

danger

with

use

connections

oscillations.

away

The

parallel.

occupied

space

OPERATION

to

the
the

short-circuit

one

machine.

erator
gen-

CHAPTER

Resum^

of

XXXIV

Conditions

the

Alternators;

Difference

Generators;

Form

Special

Connections
for
Transformer;
Connections
phase
Generators;
Generators

Three-phase

Lincoln
A

of the

Resume

Under

"

be in
and

phase when

each

Using

Single-

of

Synchronizing

Synchronizing
for

Three-

Synchronizing
formers;
Trans-

Synchronizing

Synchronizer

Conditions

currents

considered

alternator should

nators.
Operation of Alternators,
operation of alterparallel

for Parallel

ideal conditions

the armature

nators
Alter-

Synchronizing

for

op

ing
Synchroniz-

Generators;

Devices; Connections
phase

Paralleling

between

Direct-current

AND

Operation

Parallel

for

for

by the alternators should

with respect to the parallel
circuit,
carried

which

is

proportional
free from hunting and have
to its rating. If the alternators are
like wave
has already
as
form, these conditions can be fulfilled,
been explained,by properlyadjustingthe power
outputs of the
and the excitations of the alternators.
prime movers
Alternators which are to be operated in parallelshould have:
1. The

same

1. The

same

carry

current

voltagerating.
2. The same
frequency.
3. Approximately the same
form.
wave
It is desirable,
but not at all necessary, that they should have
synchronous impedances and effective resistances which are
approximatelyinverselyproportionalto their current ratings.
which drive the alternators should have:
The prime movers

speed-loadcharacteristics.

Drooping speed-loadcharacteristics.
3. Constant
angular velocityduring each cycle.
of
In addition,the free period of oscillation of the governors
the prime movers
and the mechanical
period of oscillation of
2.

the system
variation

must

in the

be different from

the

engine torques, the

.382

frequency of

governors

must

any

not

periodic
be too

384

PRINCIPLES

OF

Synchronizing Devices.
consists of

an

as

"

The

simplest form

of

synchronizer

incandescent

lamp connected between the terminals

be synchronized and the busbars in such a

of the generator to
way

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

to indicate

by

its brilliancy
when

the generator is running

of
synchronism with other generators. Except in the case
must, of course, be used
low-voltage generators, transformers
in

with the

lamps.

Fig.

shows

186

Synchronizing Single-phase Generators.

for

Connections

the

connections

for

synchronizinga

"

low-volt-

tTTTTT

"

L@y
Fig.

age

186.

generator without

Fig.

187

shows

the

Fig.

the

use

connections

of

187.

synchronizing transformers.

when

such

transformers

are

necessary.

synchronized without transformers,

voltage
using the connections shown in Fig. 186, the maximum
the synchronizing lamp is equal to twice the
impressed across
the lamp will
voltage of the generators. The voltage across
the generator which is being synchronized
have this value when
is exactly 180 degrees out of phase with the busbar
voltage.
this generator is in phase with the
The lamp will be dark when
busbar voltage. If the generator which is being synchronized is
running a little fast or a little slow, the lamp will flicker with
difference between
the frequenciesof
a frequency equal to the
of the incoming generator.
and
the voltages of the busbars
let
Let Bi
and
Em sin wt be the voltage of the busbars
When

the generators

are

PARALLEL

Cg

OPERATION

E'm sin (oj+

is being

OF

Aoj)ibe the voltage of the generator which

then
synchronized,
Bl

Em sin

voltage across
Ci

since sin

-{-eg

Bb

will be the

"^

2Em

sin "

It will be

seen

from

cot

lamp.

(Aw)f

mean

E'm,

A")\
(""t")

(133)

J^ (a' 6) sin }4 (.a+ b)

cos

"

the sine term

lamp has

the

If Em

sin

"

Fig.

the

+ E'm sin (to" Acc)t

the

cos

voltage impressed on

to

385

ALTERNATORS

equation (133) that the

of
a

is

frequencywhich

equal

188.

frequency of the

voltage of the busbars

and

of

It will also be

that the maximum

value

of

the generator.

seen

is different from that immediately

voltage wave
like that
precedingit. Equation (133) if plotted,gives a curve

each

successive

shown

in the lower

shows

the

half of

The

Fig. 188.

upper

of the generator and

in
shown
envelopeof the lower curve

The

voltage waves

half of

Fig.188

the busbars.

Fig. 188 has for its

equation
+

2Em

Therefore,if the
the generator
2.5

are

wave

Aa)
t

COS

forms

of the

voltagesof

the busbars

the successive maximum

sinusoidal,

and

values

of

38G

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

the

the lamp will vary accordingto the cosine law

voltageacross
in each half of the cosine
and, since the lamp will be brightonce
the lamp will flicker at the rate of A/ times per second
wave,
where / is the frequencyof the busbar voltage. If the frequency
of the busbar voltage is 60 cycles,
and that of the generator is
0.3

60.3,A will be

In this case, the

0.005.

-^

in every
3}^iseconds.
in making this time interval

is,in general, no

There

once

or

lamp will be bright

seconds

10

or

trouble
much

even

greater.
If the connections
are

the
essentially

lamp
to

the

The

be

may

same

either

the

way

with

transformers

used, the

are

conditions

without

as

bright

secondaries

or

transformers,except that the

dark for synchronism according

of the

transformers

connected.

are

maximum

the lamp will

voltage which is impressed across
be equal to twice the secondary voltage of the transformers.
When
transformers
are
used, it is usually better to connect
them
the lamp bright at synchronism, for it is
to make
as
so
easier to judge the instant of maximum
brightness of the lamp
than

To
Bus

estimate

the

middle

point of its period of darkness.

If the lamp is replaced by a
voltmeter, the sensitiveness of

To

Bars

to

Generator

the

device

synchronizing

is

greatly increased.

o
PiQ

Special Form

nizing

139

Transformer.

transformers
may

be

replaced by

singletransformer

shown

in

of

shown
with

SynchroThe

"

in

three

two

Fig. 187
separate

windings arranged as
Fig.
The branch, B, of the transformer
a return
path
core, forms
If
for the fluxes produced by the excitingwindings A and C.
these windings are
the voltages impressed on
in conjunction,
that is,such as to cause
fluxes in A and
upward or downward
C at the same
instant,the fluxes caused by them will add directly
B of the core, and the voltage induced in the windin the branch
ing
B, which is connected to the voltmeter or lamp, will be a
maximum.
If the voltages impressed on the two excitingwindings
in opposition,
the fluxes produced by these
A and C are
189.

PARALLEL

windings will

be

OF

OPERATION

in

oppositionin

will neutralize in that branch.

the

across

lamp

Connections
The

or

are

of low

387

the branch

Under
will be

B of the core, and

this condition,
the voltage

zero.

Synchronizing Three-phase Generators.

for synchronizingtwo three-phase generators
enough voltage not to requiretransformers for

for

connections

which

voltmeter

ALTERNATORS

"

the

synchronizinglamps are shown in Fig. 190.

Closingthe synchronizingswitch,/S" for the generator to be
it to the synchronizingbusbars.
When
synchronized connects

Fig.

190.

all three lamps will be dark.

generators are in conjunction,
If the voltage of the generators is too high to be taken directly
formers
be replacedby suitable transby the lamps, the lamps may
their secondaries.
with the lamps across
the

synchronizing three-phase generators for the first

phases.
to synchronizefor at least two
time, it is necessary
the other two phases
If a singlephase alone is synchronized,
be 120 degrees out of phase. After the connections have
may
been made and have been found to be correct,synchronizing
once
When

phase is sufficient. In spiteof this,it is customary

lamps for all three phases.
providesynchronizing
on

one

to

388

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

Fig. 190, they will all be

dark for synchronism. A better arrangement of lamps, known
changing
be obtained by inter" Halske arrangement, may
as the Siemens
With

lamps

connected

as

the connections
either the

main

busbars

in

shown

of the leads from

of two
or

at

the

the

lamps

synchronizingbusbars,

example, by interchangingthe connections

at

and

c,

at

for

Fig. 190.

synchronizinglamps,the lamp Li
will be dark at synchronism and the lamps L2 and L3 will be
equally bright but below the maximum
candlepower. If the
generator which is being synchronized is running fast or slow, the
La
^^'
lamps will glow in rotation and
With

this arrangement

of the

will indicate

by the

this rotation

whether

direction
the

of

ator
gener-

is

running fast or slow.

It is highly desirable to know
whether a generator which is being
Lt,
Fig. 191.
synchronized is running fast or
slow, not only on account of the
time which may
often be saved by this knowledge, but also on
of the desirabiUtyof having a generator which is being
account
synchronizedrunning fast rather than slow when it is paralleled.
If the incoming generator is running slightly
fast when
put in
the synchronizing action which pullsit into step will put
circuit,
-X-

load

on

it and

generators of

at the

same

time this action will relieve the other

incoming generator is
to pullit
put in circuit running slow, it will take motor
power
some

of their load.

If the

into step.

interchanging the connections of two of the

synchronizinglamps may be seen by referringto Fig. 191.
For simplifyingthe explanation of this arrangement of the
in Y with
to be connected
lamps, the generator will be assumed
interconnected
neutrals.
In Fig. 191, the vectors, 1, 2 and 3,
and 1',2' and 3' represent the voltagesof the generators. When
the two generators are in phase,as they are shown
in Fig. 191,
0.
The voltages
lamp La is subjectedto a voltage Foi + F ro
impressed across the lamps, Lo and Li are, respectively,
The

effect of

F02 +
A

is

Vs'o

and
-\/3^o2

F03 +

V^'o

running fast,the voltage across

s/SVo^-

If generator

lamp Lt,will decrease until

PARALLEL

generator A
Vov and

has

OPERATION

gained

V03 will be

120

OF

389

ALTERNATORS

degrees in phase when

the

voltages

in

phase. At this instant lamp Lj will

have a voltage F03
0 impressed on it and will be dark.
F02'
The
other lamps will be equally bright. When
the generator
has gained another
120 degrees,lamp Lc will be dark.
In other
If generator A is
words, the lamps will be dark in succession.
dark
running slower than B, the order in which the lamps become
The lamps may
be convenientlyplaced on the corners
reverses.
of an equilateral
triangle,showing by the rotation of brilliancy,
whether
the generator which
is being synchronized is running
fast or slow.
The
time to put the incoming generator
proper
the line is when
on
lamp La, Fig. 191, is dark, and the other two
lamps, Lc and Lt, are equally bright. The maximum
voltage
to which
lamp will be subjectedis twice the Y voltage of
any
the generators. The neutral connection
in Fig. 191 is not
shown
used in practice.
Connections
for Synchronizing Three-phase Generators
Using
If
transformers
are
required for
Synchronizing Transformers.
synchronizingthe generators as is almost universallythe case,
it is customary
to provide one
set for each generator and
one
busbars.
the synchronizingbusbars
to the main
set to connect
In this way
the synchronizingbusbars as well as all synchronizing
switches and other synchronizingdevices are kept at low voltage.
in V to reduce
connected
The
are
synchronizing transformers
for operating
connections
the number
required. The proper
in Fig. 192.
three-phase generators in parallelare shown
left-hand
of the two
The
connections
synchronizing lamps
"

"

are

reversed

from

their natural

order.

This

reversed

order

has

With this arrangement lamp b,

already been shown in Fig. 191.
of the
Fig. 192, will be dark at synchronism. If the sequence
phases of the generators is a, b, c, a right-handed rotation of the

brilliancyof the lamps will indicate that the generator which

that the
is being synchronized is running fast. This assumes
D Fig. 192,
direction of rotation of the generator is righthanded.
is some
form of synchronizingdevice,which will indicate the point
of synchronism more
closelythan the lamps.
The necessityfor determining the point of synchronism more
lamps has
exactly than is possibleby the use of incandescent

390

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

led to the

development of several forms of synchronizingdevices

the Lincoln synchronizer
is typical.

of which

Synchronizer. The

Lincoln
field

Lincoln

"

synchronizerindicatingby

graduated dial the

of the

exact

generator which
The

busbars.
whether

the

synchronizeris

pointerthat

generator

phase between
is being synchronized and
is

running

a small
synchronizeris in reality

fast

motor

or

slow.
a

over

the

voltage

that

of the

pointeralso

having

rotary-

moves

difference in

direction of rotation of the

The

indicates
Lincoln

laminated

field

Bu
Bu

1
h0^

wm^

Fig.

excited

by

the busbars

through

192.

largenon-inductive resistance.
The armature
has two
windings in space quadrature, excited
from
the generator to be synchronized;one
through a noninductive resistance,
the other,through a reactance.
Fig. 193
shows
The

the essential features of this device.

armature

will take

up

positionwith

the

axis of the

field

produced by its windings coincident with the axis of the

field produced by the polesBB, when the latter field is a maximum.
The winding X on the armature
is in series with a large
reactance

and

carries

current

which

is practically
in

quadrature

SYNCHRONOUS

CONVERTERS

CHAPTER
Means

Converting

of

XXXV

Altebnating

Cxjkbent

Direct

into

Current
Means

of

Converting AlternatingCurrent into Direct Current.

Alternatingcurrent may be converted into direct current by

"

the

use

of

(a) Mechanical
(6) Mercury

rectifiers.
rectifiers.

arc

(c) Motor generators.

(d) Rotary converters.
Mechanical
rectifiers

Rectifiers.On

of

account

"

sparking,mechanical

be used

and low voltages,

only for small currents
and are, therefore,of little practicalimportance. To operate
with minimum
be reversed
while
must
sparking,the current
The point of zero
will
current
passing through its zero value.
not occur
at the point of zero
voltage,however, except wheii the
can

circuit is non-inductive.

In

short-circuit the commutator

between
necessary

its two

To

parts.

insulated

provide an

to

adjacentlive

general,therefore,the brushes will

when
there is considerable voltage
it is
prevent this short-circuiting,

commutator

segment

between

.each

two

segments.

Mercury-arc Rectifiers.Mercury-arc rectifiers with glassbulbs

"

or

containers

The
and

can

be

built in

sizes

up

about

to

50

kilowatts.

glass-bulbrectifiers in generaluse are much smaller than this

are
chieflyfor charging storage batteries and for rectifying

current

obtained

used

operate series

to

from

transformers

constant-current
arc

lamps requiringunidirectional

arc-lamps, they operate up to 5000

for series arc-lamps. For
usual currents
For

they
voltages up

are

built for currents

to about

300

which

volts.
393

up

to

or

6000

are

current.

volts with

the

teries,
charging storage batabout

50 amperes

and

394

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

Mercury-arc rectifierswith steel containers are built (1928) in

large capacitiesto operate from polyphase circuits. These
very
seals for the terminals and are
rectifiers have specialair-tight
the high vacuums
to maintain
(0.005 to
operated with pumps
0.0001 mm.
for power
tion.
rectificaof mercury) which are necessary
Such rectifiers are obtainable with continuous
ratingsup
8500 kilowatts and operate six-phasefrom three-phase
to about
circuits

with

Rectifiers

through transformers.

total

capacityof

half

over

steel containers

in

million kilowatts

in service.

are

Many of these are used for supplying 600-volt direct current for
railways. In spite of the recent developments in mercury-arc
is very small
rectified by them
of power
the amount
rectifiers,
compared with that converted from alternatingcurrent to direct
of synchronous converters.
current
by means
Motor
Generators.
Motor
generators usually consist of an
tion
alternating-current
motor, of either the synchronous or inducto a direct-current generator. The
type, coupled directly
chief advantage of motor
generators is that their alternating"

current

and

relative merits
be considered

induced

of motor

are

independent.
entirely

generators and

The
will

rotary converters

later.

Converters.

Rotary

sides

direct-current

voltages

In

"

direct-current

any

alternating,the

are

the

generator

being rectified
brought out to slip

current

If taps are
of the commutator.
by means
ringsfrom equidistantpointsin the armature

winding of

two-

any

current
be taken
pole direct-current generator, alternating
may
from the sliprings. The number
of phases will depend upon the
number
of taps and except for singlephase will be equal to the

of

sliprings. If

multipolar generator is used, there

will be as many
taps per slipring as there are pairsof poles,
armature
winding, such as would ordinarily
assuming a parallel
A machine
be used for a rotary converter.
tapped in this way
number

wUl

operate either

as

direct-current motor

synchronous
alternating-current
converter

to

convert

direct into

motor

into
alternating

alternatingcurrent.

or

or

generator,

generator, as

direct current
In most

cases,

or

as

an

rotary
to

rotary

vert
converters
con-

called upon
to convert
from alternating
to direct
are
used for effectingthe opposite kind of transWhen
current.
formation,
from
i.e.,

direct to

alternating
current, they

are

said

be

to

run

inverted

as

inverted,they must

395

CONVERTERS

SYNCHRONOUS

When

converters.

converters
form

are

run

of

speed-hmiting
device. When
is used to transform
a
converter
alternating
It is,however,
to direct current,it is called a direct converter.
customary to drop the word "direct" and to speak of it merely as
be

protectedby

some

converter,a rotary converter,or a rotary transformer.

Although any direct-current generator providedwith suitable
be capableof operating
taps and sliprings should theoretically
and designwould make
its proportions
as a converter,in general,
if not quiteimpossible.
its operationas a converter
unsatisfactory
With
relation to the external circuits,
a
rotary converter
a

side has the characteristics of

alternating-current

its

on

and

motor
current

is

its direct-current side those of

on

In

generator.

different
radically

regard to
from

its internal

either

delivered

to

it
characteristics,

the difference between

converter

the
result,

armature

or

may

be

the direct current

received

current
generator and the alternating

as

As

motor.

carry

of

chronous
syn-

direct-

synchronousmotor

direct-current generator.
From
one
pointof view the armature
considered

reaction and armature

as

copper

synchronous motor nor those of a

of a single-phase
direct-current generator. Except in the case

loss

neither those of

are

the average
to either the

converter

due

be

It

alone.

copper loss is less than would

current or the direct current
alternating
armature

follows,therefore,that the output of

converter,

is greater than the output of the

the single-phase
type excepted,
machine
operated as generator. This accounts in a
same
for the

largemeasure
found

on

abnormallylargecommutators
apparently

rotary converters.

voltageof a direct-current generatordepends upon

of inductors between
adjacentbrushes,the total
the number
nator
flux per pole and the speed. The induced voltageof an alterThe induced

depends upon the number of inductors between adjacent

tion
taps, the flux per poleand the speedand also upon the distribuTherefore,since the alternating
of the flux in the air gap.
and
are

direct-current induced
induced

by the

same

electromotive

magneticfieldand

forces of
in the

same

induced

converter
armature

of a
voltages
converter isfixed for any givenflux distribution. Under ordinary
flux does
the distributionof the air-gap
conditions of operation,
a
is,therefore,
inherently
not change. The rotary converter

winding,it follows that the ratio of the

machine

of fixed

voltageratio.

two

CHAPTER
Voltage

Ratio

of

XXXVI
Current

Converter;

w-Phase

an

Relations

Voltage

of

Converter.

n-Phase

an

The

two-pole converter.

assumed

Ratio

to

be in the neutral

^Let

"

Fig. 194
brushes

direct-current

plane,that is,at

and

resent
rep-

b.

are

is

the direction of the resultant field.

Assume

sine

induced

in any

where

singleinductor.

reference to the resultant

cos

R, is A.
field,

produce

force

of the
The

force
at g, is

is the maximum

positionangle

The

Em

of

tive
electromo-

inductor,as

electromotive

the
a

Em

to

electromotive

The

194.

as

of induced

wave

force.

Fig.

distribution

air-gapflux is such

the
a

the

that

value
induced

inductor

of
in

g with

direct-current

age
volt-

will be
+

'dc
=

Em

COS

Em

"

COS

AdA

"w

"

Em

"w

where
The

Z is the number

maximum

winding

the armature
when

value

the inductor

are

of the
between

at the

center

in series between

brushes.

voltage induced in the portion of

two adjacent taps will occur
any
of that

portionof

the armature

the field axis.

winding lies on
If there

of inductors

sliprings,the angle between

396

any

two

taps for

SYNCHRONOUS

397

CONVERTERS

TT

phase will be

any

electricalradians.

If there

are

more

than

poles,n

two

The

is the number

maximum

pair of poles.
alternating-current
voltagebetween these
of taps per

two

taps will be

r+Kv)
2E"

sin

^
n

TT

Since

sine

wave

of electromotive

root-mean-square

or

force is assumed, the effective

alternating-current
voltagewill be
2E^

sm

V2
The

ratio of the

voltageson

sides of the converter

the two

will,

be
therefore,

2E^

sin

TT

V2

Eac
^''

2^E"
IT

sin

(134)

voltageson the two sides of a converter may

also be obtained by taking the ratio of the alternating-current
calculated by the usual formulae
and the direct-current voltages
The

ratio of the

and direct-current generators.

voltagesof alternating-current
The
voltage for a sinusoidal
alternating-current
distribution of the air-gapflux may be found from equation (2),

for the

page
turns

21, where N must be the effectivenumber of series armature

of series armature
turns
the actual number
per phase, i.e.,

by breadth factor and pitchfactor. The

phase multiplied
pitchof a converter will be either full pitchor so nearlyfull pitch
be assumed
to be unitywithout sensible
that the pitchfactor may
number
of
large
On account of the comparatively
error.
slots per poleper phaseused on converters,the limiting
armature
be
value of the breadth factor for a fixed phase spread may
the alternating-current
voltage,that is,the
used in calculating
value that the breadth factor for a fixed phasespreadapproaches
per

397a

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

the number

of slots per pole per phase increases to infinity.

Referring to the equation for the breadth factor on page 41, it
will be seen
that for fixed phase spread as n, the number
of slots
as

the breadth
phase, increases,

per

factor

approachesthe

value

/3

"

sm^
2
as

limit where

|Sis the phase spread expressed in radians.

to the table at the

referring
that increasingthe number

bottom

of page
of slots in a

41, it will be

By
seen

given phase spread

beyond three or four has little effect on the breadth factor.

in radians is always 2t divided
The phase spread of a converter
of taps per pair of poles. For the formula
for
by the number
the voltageof a direct-current generator, see page 79, Principles
of Direct Current Machinery by A. S. Langsdorf.
Let: N
p

number

Total

Number
Number

of turns

Flux

Number

per

current

Then

for

the armature.

of

poles.
of parallelpaths through the

winding between
tpm

on

direct-current

armature

brushes.

pole.
of taps per
side.

pair of poles on

sinusoidal distribution

of

the

air-gapflux

alternating-

398

PRINCIPLES

current
converter

OF

voltage and the direct-current voltage of

are
equal, a sine wave
being assumed.

single-phase

XVII

Table

voltage to the
alternating-current

ratio of the maximum

The

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

voltage for an n-phase converter with a uniformlydistributed winding is equal to the ratio of the chord to the
where the angle subtended
diameter of a circle,
by the chord is
equalto the angle in electrical degreessubtended by two adjacent
direct-current

taps

the

on

force

motive
of electro-

wave

being assumed.
in

circle shown

the

Let

converter, sine

of the

armature

two-pole n-phase

Fig.

The

converter.

of

represent the armature

195

dots

the circle represent

on

inductors.

The

electromotive
alternating-current

and

h is

equal

the vector

to

inductor,as

c, is

all the

equal.

If

and

Fig. 195 in such

cut

armature

forces induced

polygon is inscribed

electromotive

The

h.

cos

the

on

electromotive

the maximum
are

inductors

forces

equal to

Em
Since

generated between

of the electromotive

sum

generated in the inductors between

force in any

force

that its sides

the

flux,

same

in all the inductors

in the

circle shown

in

perpendicular to the
the projectionon the diameter,ab,
radii joiningthe inductors,
of any
side,such as fh, is equal to E^ cos A, that is,to the
electromotive

shown,

way

force induced

provided

the

in the

scale

that the sides of the

chosen
value

of the electromotive

maximum
the

value

of

inductor,c,

the

polygon

are

force induced

d and

will

at the

electromotive

of the electromotive

inductors,c,

are

equal

force

to the

is

when

so

maximum

in the inductors.

force in

occur

position

The

ing
phase containthe

middle

in-

SYNCHRONOUS

ductor,d, is

the axis of the resultant

on

of the three

sum

is the

maximum

projections,
fh, hi
value

399

CONVERTERS

and

field R.

ig

electromotive

of the

the

phase containing the three inductors

equal to the chord fg. The direct-current
the

of the electromotive

sum

is,therefore,
equal

to the

Therefore, the

the

diameter, ab,

force

generated in

on

and

c, d

e.

This

is

voltage is equal

to

adjacentbrushes and
the diameter,
on
projections

forces between
of the

sum

which
the brushes
ab, of all the sides of the polygon between
of
is equal to jk. As the number
and
b. This
at a
are
is increased, jk and fg will approach, respectively,
inductors
of the circle and the chord subtended
the diameter
by adjacent
slip rings. Therefore, for
taps for the alternating-current
winding, the
a
rotary with a uniformly distributed armature
subtended
ratio of the chord
by adjacent alternating-current
circle is

of the

diameter

the

to

taps

equal to

alternating-currentvoltage

maximum

to

the

the

ratio of the

direct-current

voltage.
For

i.e.,two-ring, converter,
single-phase,

electromotive

force

is the

diameter

ab.

the

maximum

Therefore, the ratio

n-ring
converter
to the maximum
voltage
is equal to
of a two-ring converter
voltage of

of the maximum

length of the chord

by two adjacent taps to

ratio of the

the

subtended

length of the

the

circle.

the

ratio
IS

the

Since

of the

diameter

value

maximum

single-phasevoltage

of the
to

an

direct-current

of the

chord

the

ratio

also

to

is

equal

voltage, the
the

of the

diameter
maximum

alternating-current voltage of

Fig.
an

to its direct-current
n-ring converter
The length of the chord subtended

adjacent taps

of

an

ri-phaseconverter
E'ac

195.

voltage.
by the angle between
is

2r sin

(ab)sin

two

400

PRINCIPLES

where
and

E'ac and

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

the
respectively,

are,

the radius of the circle shown

The

direct-current

MACHINERY

in

maximum

phase voltage

Fig. 195.

voltageis equal to

the

diameter,ab, of this
circle. Therefore, the ratio of the maximum
same
alternatingcurrent voltage to the direct-current voltageis
E'ac

T
.

sm

"

"^

"

and
=

^rEdc

is the

ratio of the

direct-current

sm

(135)

v2

effective

alternating-current
voltage

to

the

voltage. This is the relation previouslyfound.

Relations.

Current

~~7^

"

Let
n

I'ac

Vac

Idc
Vdc
V

of

sliprings.

Coil

current.
alternating
Phase alternating-current
terminal

Power

factor.

Number

of

p./.
p

Number

voltage

poles.

Total

Direct-current

Ratio of armature

direct current.
terminal

voltage.

d.c. power

to armature

a.c.

power.

must
be equal
Then, since the input multipliedby the efficiency
the
hold between
to the output, the following relation must
input and the power output of a two-pole converter.
power

iv) nVad'ac
(p.f.)

(136)

VdJdc

is

multipolar,there usually will be as many

for each phase as there are
parallelpaths through the armature
pairs of poles. For such a converter
equation (136) becomes
If the

converter

Iip.f.)iv)nVaJ'ac
and

P
2

'J, ""

lie
A

converter

of

must

converter

be mesh
is

VdJdc

Vdr

n{p.f.)(n)yI
connected

(^^^)

since the armature

dirpct-currentwinding which

ing
windhas

taps

401

CONVERTERS

SYNCHRONOUS

All ordinarydirect-current
current.
alternating
windings are closed-circuit windings. A Y connection for the
would
necessitate an open-circuit
armature
converter
winding.
Let the vectors
and
I'l,I\, I'z,
Z'",Fig. 196,

broughtout

for

represent the
with

of

coil currents

1 and

phase

phase 2, for
Z"ac

pair of poles,from

27'i sin

junctionof

the

conditions,will be

balanced

general the total line

In

verter
con-

]) poles.

line current, T'ac,

per

The

n-phase mesh-connected

an

21',

current

is

sm

equal to

the coil current

TT

multipliedby

2 sin

and

by the

of

number

pairsof poles.

lb

/;

Replacing the

equation (137)by the total line

in

coil current

current, /", gives

lac

"

Vdc

"![_

_
"

I do

Vac

T^
y

is very

and

we

nearly equal

to

Vac
n(p.f.)(17)

the ratio of the

induced

voltages

dc

may

"

write

2 sin

an

as

i-\

approximation
2v^

(138)

nip.f.)iv)

"v/2

-^
n

inversely
of slipringsor inversely
to the number
proportional
proportional
Table
for
XVIII
of phases except
singlephase.
to the number
gives the ratio of the currents on the two sides of converters
This

shows

26

that

the

line currents

in converters

are

402

PRINCIPLES

with

OF

different

numbers

and

efficiency

unity

of

power

factor

are

will

having
per

cent,

be

an

seen

from

efficiency
power

factor

of
has

cent,

per

assumed.

XVIII

XVIII

Table

hundred

One

phases.

Table

It

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

94.3

equal

that
cent,

per
a.c.

and

three-phase
and

d.c.

operating
currents.

converter

at

100

CoppEB

Losses

of

Inductor

XXXVII

Rotary

Converter;

Heating

Uniformly

op

of

Generator;

Heating;

Converter

Armature

Converter

Inductor

n-PHASE

an

Distributed

Outputs
as

CHAPTER

with

Relative

Winding;

Operated

as

Converter

and

Efficiency

The
Copper Losses of a Rotary Converter.
output of all
is limited by commutation
and by the
commutating machines
heating produced by the losses. A large part of the difficulties
"

of commutation
the

to

in direct-current

field distortion

rotary
distortion.

Since

carried

currents

almost

are

and

motor

considered

when

produced by

converters

with

will be the difference between

current

The

components.

resultant

of

are

rotary

converter

and directalternating-current
loss produced by the
copper

average

either component

phase
Poly-

this field

opposite
the generated voltage, the

carried by the inductors

current

produced by

currents

inductors

the

reaction.

armature

generator

armature

generators is due

entirelyfree from

respect to

by the

and

motors

is less than

alone, except for

would

be

single-phase

converter.

The

average

of

inductors

the inductors
the

upon

with

the number
the

decreases

power
as

the

in all the armature

same

rotary converter, but varies with

respect to the taps.

loss in the

copper

upon

loss is not

copper

of

hottest

coldest

and

phasesfor which

factor

the number

The

the

difference between
inductor

the converter

at

which

of

phases is increased

positionof

it operates. This
and

depends

is tapped and

as

difference
the power

factor is raised.
Inductor

Heating.
"

two-pole rotary
dd.

fi and

between
The

Fig. 197 represent the

converter.

f2 are, two

the two

^Let

direct-current

h and

force induced
403

brushes

i" is the inductor

tap inductors.

tap inductors

electromotive

The

of

armature

are

midway

ij.

in the

phase between

ti and

404

PRINCIPLES

ti is

OF

when

maximum

tended
angle sub-

the axis of the field bisects the

by the tap inductors

lies on

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

and

This

h.

when

occurs

t"

the field axis.

ti and h
alternating current in all inductors between
revolves.
is the same
at any instant,but it varies as the armature
The
phase of the voltage generated in the winding between
the phase of the voltage genas
inductors h and h is the same
erated
the two taps
in the inductor to,which is midway between
factor with respect to the
fi and t^. Therefore,for unity power
voltage generatedin the winding between h and h, the current
when to lies on the axis,R, of the field. The
will be a maximum
The

when

the current

occur

when

The

to is under

direct current
in

same

in "" is

under
it passes
a
factor,the direct and
reverse

the

direct-current

on

Fig.

198.

the

armature

brush.

alternatingcurrents

same

opposite in phase since

instant.
one

factor this will

power

in direction in each

reverses

zero

brush.

in all inductors

magnitude, but

at

unity

direct-current

as

will

At

zero.

t^ will be

ii and

between

in all inductors

alternatingcurrent

The

represents

At

inductor

currents

motor

inductor

unity power

in the

two

is the

action

to

must

be

and

the

other generator action.

Neglecting the effect of the coils shortcircuited by the direct-current brushes, the direct-current wave
must
be rectangular. The
dotted lines in Fig. 198 show
the
direct and alternatingcurrents carried by the inductor "" when
the power
factor with respect to the generated voltage is unity.
The

full line shows

The
a

direct current

direct-current

unity

power

the resultant current.

in inductor

fi reverses

when

t\ passes

under

brush, but the alternatingcurrent, assuming

until "" passes under
the
factor,does not reverse

406

Inductor
Distributed
and

"2

the

two

of

Heating

Winding.

taps.

is

Co

taps h and

where

"2.

to

When

between

is

phase spread and

is the

2a

midway

the armature

point on

Referring

"

Uniformly
Fig. 200, "i

with

Converter

n-Phase

an

Armature

are

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

PRINCIPLES

there

equal to
than

is the number

of taps.

is the number

of taps per pair of poles.

in any
current
resultant
The
such as ci will be

are

more

two

poles,n

V^I'ac sin (A

/3

e)

ductor
in-

(139)

nating
I'acis the coil value of the alter-

where

current, I'dcthe direct

per brush

angle of
the alternatingcurrent
lag between
and the generated voltage in the coil
Each
pair of
path between
any
Co.
delivered

Fig.

200.

9 the

of the

carries-

brushes

and

current

total

direct

P
current

one-half

or

of

the number

The

average

to
proportional

72,

1
=

of the current

poles.
heating in

the

the mean-square

delivered

inductor

{A

being

cycle is

to

or

e)

fi-

brush,

during

Ci

current

TV2/'a.
sin

per

^I'dA (140)

of I'dc from
equation
Replacing I'ac by its value in terms
(137),page 400, remembering that the current I'acper brush is
of
equal to the total d.c. current, Idc,divided by the number
pairsof polesgives

v'2

1
I

"

ac

n
(p./.)
(tj)

T
sm

Idc

4 sin

(A

|8

6)

47r

Ji
=

T
idc

in)n
(p.f.)

sin

^
16

dA

cos

(;8-I- Q)

(P-/-)'('!)'"'sin2'!:
{ri)Tnsm(p.f.)
n

(141)

SYNCHRONOUS

Since

the first term

407

CONVERTERS

equation (141) is constant, the copper

loss in any
inductor,such as Ci, Fig. 200, will be a maximum
when
the last term has either its minimum
mum
positiveor its maxiIt will be negative whenever
negative value.
;8 + S is
that under
greater than either + 90 degrees. It is obvious
loss will always occur
ordinary conditions the maximum
copper
at

in

of the tap inductors

one

At unit power
will be the same.

copper

this

condition,the
between

minimum

these

converters, and

loss will

copper
in

Except

taps.

used

never

are

factor

phase.

loss in all tap inductors

the

midway

of each

the
in

in inductors

occur

of

case

Under

single-phase
last term

the
practice,

of

equation (141) is not Ukely to be negative under commercial

are
never
operating conditions since converters
operated at low
factor.

power

conditions

The

is seldom

allowed

three-, four-,six-

in

factor and

power

and

for

and

are

will be much
in Table

XIX

on

the inductors

to

the end
The
of

copper

converter

given

load

0.9.

inductor

heating
for unity

converters

factor,for both lagging

in Table

XIX.

hundred

One

is assumed.
XIX

coldest inductors

losses given
the ratio of the copper
of the tendency for the temperature of

less than

become
and

through

equalized by heat conduction

across

loss in inductors
is

as

temperatures of the hottest and

account

connections

low

power

under

converter

the minimum

cent,

of conversion
efficiency

ratio of the

as

twelve-phase

Table

The

get

to

90 per

leading current,
cent,

per

to

ratio of the maximum

The

of

factor

power

the armature
at different

plottedin Fig. 201.

teeth.

pointson

All four

curves

the armature
are

for the

408

PRINCIPLES

The

on

20

10

the

at

fixed. total armature

loss.

copper

shown

relative outputs for the conditions

efficiencies and

given

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

operated

converter

same

are

OF

plots.

30

10

50

60

70

70

120

130

UO

160

160

170

180

120

130

110

150

IGO

170

180

DegrreeB.

100

90

80

HO

100

90

80
Electrical

110

Electrical Degreee.

Pig. 201.

Relative
as

of

an

when

Outputs of

Generator.

"

Converter

Operated

the two

under

output.

This ratio is

Note.

"

The

current

generator

current

mean-square

inductor

Converter

and

ratio of the copper

loss in the armature
to the copper
loss in the same
machine

The

n-phase converter
operated as a direct-current

ratio of average

as

conditions

carried

for the

same

is

by

given by the
an

armature

direct-current

given by the followingexpression.

per

inductor

is

Idc

I'dc
_

of the

direct-current

erator
gen-

SYNCHRONOUS

CONVERTERS

409

j-'^

.16

cos

"+1-

(;3+ 9)

IT

sin^iv-f-Yyi^n^

{p.f.)wn sin-

d/3 (142)

(p./.)Vw='sin2;

+ .)+sin"-.)]
[sine
sin{jp.f.)r]ir^
8
-

!--"

(143)

(p.f.yriV sin2
The

ratio of the outputs for the same

loss in the
copper
is the reciprocalof the square
root of the ratio of

losses for the

output.

same

same

outputs of
machine

as

a
a

copper

Therefore,

Output of n-phase rotary

Output of a direct-current generator
The

ture
arma-

1
~

-^/H

'

compared with the output of the

direct-current generator are given by Table
converter

XX.
Table

XX

of phases decreases
gain in output by increasingthe number
rapidly as the power factor decreases.
If converters
were
operated at low power factors,littlewould
of phases. It is seldom,
be gained by increasingthe number
The

however, that
operationwill
The

the
be

decrease

as

in

power
low as

factor

of

converter

in commercial

0.9.

output with

power

factor for three- and

six-

410

PRINCIPLES

phase

OF

converters

of the converters

is shown
as

92

Fig.

given in Table

in which

generators is taken

direct-current

Power

results

XXI

by Table

91

The

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

90

88

80

the

output

as

unity.

8t

Factor

202.

XXI

plottedin Fig. 202.

The outputs at different power
factors expressed in per cent, of
the output at unity power
factor are plotted in Fig. 203.
From
Fig. 203 it will be seen that,for a fixed armature
copper
the
decrease
in
loss,
percentage
output produced by a decrease
in power
factor increases slightlyas the number
of phases is
are

shown

increased.
The

difference

between

the coldest inductors

be

less than

the

the

temperature

in the armature

of

difference between

the

of the

hottest

rotary converter
copper

and
will

losses in these

SYNCHRONOUS

inductors
conduction
In

of the

account

on

through

inductors

will have
for

to be

under

Since

with

increasingnumber
given ratings which are

and

armature

when

determining the

determined

by their

proper

the actual

gain in output by increasingthe number

phases is increased.

indicated

in

Table

For

It is

XX.

rating

decreases

safelybe
inductor

average

the number

that

siderable
con-

difference

This

heatingas

greater than

core.

will stillbe

the difference in temperature

of phases,converters
can
more
of

by

the temperature of the hottest and

operatingconditions.

considered

converter.

connections

there
equalization,

to

difference between
coldest

equalizationof temperature

end

the

spite of this tendency

411

CONVERTERS

this
of

reason

phases is

possibleto

t
o
100

98

96

01

92

90

Fig.

88

86

81

82

Factor

Power

203.

tional-pi
degree the slot heating by making use of fracdiffer much
from
full
windings. Pitches which
of commutation
pitch cannot, however, be used on account
difficulties. By the choice of a proper
pitch,it is possibleto
at unit power
the slot heating of a twelve-phaseconverter
make

equalizein

some

uniform.

factor almost

Efficiency. Since the output of

"

polyphaserotary

converter

machine
is greater than the output of the same
given losses,
of a polyphase
operatedas a generator,it follows that the efficiency
than
is
when
machine when operatedas a converter
greater

for

generator.
XXII
gives the

operatedas
Table

armature

efficienciesand

outputs at

412

PRINCIPLES

unity

OF

factor of

power

different numbers
These

of

increased.
the

This

decrease

faces.

No

The

The

as

direct-current

generator.

losses

core

is taken

the number

of

100

as

of the

some

effect

of the armature

the

on

outputs of the

loss.

copper

and

92 per

Table

XXII

per cent,

cent.,

be

not

great

so

of the

increase

the

as

generator

respectively.

increase in the efficiencies of converters

output would

phases is

slightextent offset by
and pole
losses in the armature

will be to

in the local

as

for the direct-current

output and the efficiency

taken

are

increase

distribution

uneven

phases and

commutator

account

operated with

rotary converter, when

outputs neglectthe increase in commutator

eflBLciencies
and

friction losses and

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

same

shown

by

rated
Table

XXII.

For

Example.

converter

with

converter

would

about

250

250-kw.

have

about

the

of
efficiency

output

an

as

generator would

95.2

cent.

be

converter,when

efficiencyof

90.5

per

The

about

same

generator of

600-kw.
per

six-phase
speed. The

500-kw.

generator of the

generator should

that the 500-kw.

armature

500-kw.

kw.

of
efficiency

Compare

"

have

armature

90.5

per

operating

as

cent., its

-r-^

an

500

of

or

armature

of a
efficiency
cent.
Assuming

generator, has

armature

losses

as

an
a

9 5
converter
as
as

would

r-^
=

4.9 per

cent.

Its armature

efficiency

be 95.1 per cent, or substantially

the same
efficiencyof the 500-kw.
generator. Although the

converter

the

be

of
efficiency

would

converter

generator of the

may

not be greater than

the

of
efficiency

rating,the efficiencyof the converter

will be greater than the overall efficiency
of the generator and
motor
required to drive it.
a

same

CHAPTER
Armature

Armature

of

Reaction.

reaction

of

Starting

For

"

Poles;

Commutating

Reaction;
Methods

divided

XXXVIII

Converters

convenience

in

consideringthe

rotary converter, let the

into four components,

(a) The

direct current.

(b) The

component,

Hunting;

ture
arma-

be

current

armature

namely:

7j, of the alternatingcurrent, which is

in quadrature with the generated voltage.
which
is
(c) The component, Ii, of the alternatingcurrent
opposite in phase to the generated voltage and which
suppliesthe rotational losses.
This is
(d) The remainder, 7e, of the alternating current.
opposite in phase to the generated voltage and is the
component

which

carry

in

producing the

le is the alternatingcurrent

output.
would

is effective

at

unity power

factor if the

rent
direct-cur-

the

converter

were
efficiency

100

cent.

per
Assume

converter

with

The

armature

turns.

I'dc,per

conductor, will be

turns

poles and N uniformly distributed

pole and the direct current
per
N

ampere-turns

per

Id

respectively,

and

"

pole per elementary angle d"p on

""

-.

The

the armature

are

Idc

N_ dtp

PPT

These

be

may

resolved

axis of the resultant

axis.
over

The
any

all have

sum

into

field,and

of the

two

the other

components

along the
right angles to this

components,
at

along the

one

field axis taken

The other components

will
pair of poles will be zero.
the same
add directly. If "/"is
sign and will,therefore,
414

SYNCHRONOUS

415

CONVERTERS

the

displacementof any armature

of these components
204),the sum
Idc N
~~

"
I

~~

coil from

the field axis

(Fig.

is

ipdtp

cos

(145)
p

is the

This

direct-current

reaction

armature

per

pole.

right angles to the resultant field provided the brushes

at

the neutral
The

are

in

plane.

armature

current

It is

reaction

components

per

pole of

one

any

of the

alternating-

is

MOZ^

(146).

where

of the coil current

7 is the component

considered.

tion
Equa-

(146) gives the reaction for a concentrated winding and

apply it to the distributed winding of the converter it must

Let
per

be the

pole and

phase spread

let each

turn

let the

and

carry

phase

current

/'.

contain

to

be

iV' turns

If all the turns

concentrated, the reaction per pole per phase would be

that if the
0.707iV7'.
Referring to Fig. 205, it will be seen
the reaction becomes
turns are distributed,
were

OL

smg

0.707N'r

Jff
2

cos

vd-P

0.707N'r

416

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

a
.

Sing
correction

The

factor is,therefore,
a

Applying this correction

equation(146)gives

to

IT

^^"

0.707iV7

n\

(147)
P

IT

of any component such

ratio of the total direct current

for the reaction

The

in

current
cent,

and

I, of

as

the

to

the coil current.

coil

converter, assuming the efficiencyto

factor

the power

alternating
be

100

per

unity is
2V2

Foe
^

Idc

sin

pn

"

See

I'ac is the coil alternatingcurrent.

where

equations (134)

(137),pages 397 and 400.

Substitutingthis current in equation (147),gives the reaction

and

due to the component

(d)as
0.707iVn

^2/^0

"tt
.

sin
.

pir

pn

sin

"

"

?^

(148)

TT

This

is the

same

as

the

direct-current

resultant field by 90 degrees.

of

the

components

(a) and

It leads

reaction.

Therefore,the
(d) neutralize

armature

and

there

the

reactions
are

left

only the reaction of the component of the alternatingcurrent

supplying the rotational losses and the reaction of the quadrature
component of the alternatingcurrent.
The reaction of the component, Ii,supplying the rotational
loss,leads the resultant field by 90 degrees and will produce
field distortion.
This distortion will be small and will be nearly
since the rotational losses do not vary
constant
greatly under
ordinary operating conditions.
The reaction of the remaining component,
of the quadrai.e.,

SYNCHRONOUS

417

CONVERTERS

will either

current, /" will lie along the field axis and

ture

strengthen or weaken the field according as it lags or leads the

voltagerequired to balance the generatedvoltage.
The

reaction of

single-phase
synchronousmotor or
generator is pulsating.Therefore,that part of the armature
reaction of a single-phase
ternati
is due to the alwhich
converter
is not
current
constant.
Although the resultant
armature

of reactions
reaction

(a) and

the average
be zero, the actual
limits of
double frequency between

(d) will

will fluctuate with

plus and minus

maximum

on

the direct-current

reaction.

This

is due

to the

being equal to twice Idc and oppositeto it.

Due to the presence
of this fluctuating
the commutation
cross
fleld,
of a single-phase
converter
be made
cannot
nearlyas good
the commutation
of a polyphase converter.
as
Due

value of le

to the neutralization

the direct current

by

current,
of

converters

armature

safely be
a

may

reactions

the load component

be designed with a

of the

ampere-turns

employed

to

direct-current

much

field ampere-turns

for direct-current

limit the output of

does not
of

and

of the armature

produced

alternating
largerratio
than

could

generators. Field
converter

as

tortion
dis-

it does that

generator.

those for
Many converters,especially
Commutating Poles.
designed with interpoles. These
60-cycle circuits,are now
interpolesmateriallyimprove the operation. Since there is no
the interpoles
field distortion under steady operating conditions,
need merely produce a field which is sufficient
converter
on
a
reversal of the current in the coils during commutation.
to cause
the interpolesrequired for a converter
For this reason
are
only about 10 or 15 per cent, as strong as those requiredon a
direct-current generator. Converters
provided with interpoles
the direct-current brushes
device for lifting
should have some
This
while being brought up to speed by alternatingcurrent.
of startingconverters.
will be discussed under methods
run
inverted,
Hunting. Rotary converters, except when
their
far as
reaction on
so
are
essentiallysynchronous motors
The
conditions
is concerned.
the
alternating-currenthne
"

"

which

govern

govern

the

hunting and
27

operation are the same

operationof synchronous motors.
their

the

remedy

are

the

same

as

those

as

for

The
a

which

cause

of

synchronous

418

PRINCIPLES

The

motor.

when

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

difficultiesdue

rotaries

MACHINERY

hunting have

to

been

found

mainly

operated from generators with an angular

when
uniform
not sufficiently
or
they were
velocitywhich was
operated at the end of a transmission line having considerable
were

Hunting, however, is.much

resistance.
than

in

synchronous

at the direct-current

this reason,

For

brushes

motor

it

as

serious in

more

is liable to

and

rotary converters

vicious

causes

verter
con-

sparking

"flash over."

cause

always provided with a

quired
complete than would be reare

winding which is more

for a synchronous motor
of similar dimensions.

damping

Fig.

A
an

portion of

amortisseur
What

has

condition

or

been

the

field of

206.

converter

damper is shown

in

said of armature

with

interpolesand

Fig. 206.

reaction

assumes

steady

of

operation,free from hunting. If hunting occurs,

the rotor of the synchronous converter
will be alternatelyahead
and behind
its mean
the
taken
on
position and the power
side will alternately
be less and greater than
alternating-current
the power
requiredfor the load and losses. Correspondingto this
variation

no

in power,
there will be a variation in the energy
ponent
comof the alternating current
which
variation will have

equivalent on
This

variation

the direct-current
in current

side.

will be

entirelyused

in

keeping

SYNCHRONOUS

the converter
and

in step and

retardation

the direct-current
reaction

which

backward

acceleration

produce alternatelyan
Since

armature.

in the

the variation

is not balanced

by a correspondingchange in
armature
output, it will produce a fluctuating

will

resultant field and

will

of the

current
alternating

419

CONVERTERS

produce

field distortion and

also the neutral

commutating

or

the

both

cause

to sweep

zone

through their normal

positions.The
of the angular displacement will depend upon the violence
amount
of the hunting. If the commutating
the
is narrow
zone
or

hunting

and

is

forward

violent,vicious sparking will

commutation

is much

if the brushes

were

the

as

same

result.

that which

The

would

effect

be

on

produced

mechanicallyoscillated backward and forward

about their normal
ing
position. The sparking caused by bad huntwill be much
as
exaggerated by the presence of interpoles
ing
they will offer a path of low magnetic reluctance for the fluctuatdistortingcomponent of the armature
caused by hunting in the component
the

axis

reaction

of the
of the

ation
vari-

of the field flux

poles will be largelydamped

currents
produced in the amortisseur
field

along
by the

out

in the

and

field

winding.
A rotary
Methods
of Starting Converters.
be started by any of the followingmethods:

shunt

The

reaction.

"

converter

may

(o) From its direct-current side as a shunt motor.

its shaft.
mounted
of an auxiliary
motor
on
(6) By means
side as an induction motor.
(c) From its alternating-current
This last assumes
a polyphase converter.
As

Shunt

Motor.

"

When

sufiicient direct-current

power

is

be run
converter
a
available,
up to speed as a shunt motor
may
side like any
its alternating-current
and then synchronized on
is to be started in this
If a compound converter
alternator.
be short-circuited to
field must
its compound
prevent
way,
reversal of the field flux due to the starting
weakening or even
while
in the compound winding which acts differentially
current
the rotary is operatingas a direct-current motor.
is usually
switching on the alternatingside of a converter
done
the high-tension side of its step-down transformers.
on
Under this condition the secondary windings of the transformers
All

are
or

permanently
less complete

connected
short

the

to

circuit

on

shp-ringsand

the

armature

form

when

the

more
con-

420

PRINCIPLES

OF

is started

verter

increases

the

as

connections
which

the

and

certain

of

used

short circuit

make

may

startingas
Certain

conditions.

notably bad in
secondary windings are

By Means

MACHINERY

This

motor.

are

electrical diameter

always

shunt

startingcurrent

difficult under

motor

is

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

greatly
shunt

transformer

this respect,

namely, those
directlyacross

connected

in
an

of the armature.

Auxiliary Motor.

an

"

small

In order

for this purpose.

to

induction

get the

motor

converter

synchronous speed,the induction motor must have fewer

The
converter
is
poles than the converter, usually two fewer.
It is then
motor.
brought up to speed by the induction
synchronizedand connected to the line on its alternating-current
to

up

side.

The

by
As

instant

proper

form

some

one-third

"

to one-half normal

sliprings.

current

field is closed and

must

be determined

synchroscope.

Motor.

Induction

an

of

to close the line switch

When

The

field is

shunt

opened and from

voltage is appliedto the alternatingthe converter

is up

to

speed, its shunt

The
voltage is appliedto the armature.
major part of the startingtorque is produced by the inductionaction in the damping bridges.^
motor
To

full

prevent puncture

induced

of the

shunt

field

winding by

the

high

in it

field
voltage produced
by the armature-reaction
the shunt
field winding
sweeping by the poles during starting,
should be opened in several placesby means
of a sectionalizing
switch until speed has been reached.
In some
cases, the field
is short-circuited

instead of sectionalized.

series field which

is

If the converter

has

shunted, the series field with its shunt forms

the poles. To prevent danger to the series
a closed circuit about
field winding or its shunt by the transformer
current
which would
be produced in them
during starting,either the series field or its
be opened until the converter
is up to speed.
shunt must
The
which
is brought up to speed
polarityof a converter
as

an

induction

motor

cannot

be

predetermined.

It is fixed

reaction with respect to the

by the direction of the armature
poles at the instant of closing the field circuit. To obviate
this difficulty,
the field may
be polarizedby separatelyexciting
from
"

See

some

page

source

325

under

of

direct-current

power

"Synchronous Motors."

of

fixed

polarity.

421a

PRINCIPLES

Flash-over.

OF

"

abnormal

under

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

converter

is much

liable to flash

more

operatingconditions than a
normal operatingconditions

Under

reaction due to the direct current

armature

of the

direct-current erator.
genthe components of

and

the active" component

current nearlyneutralize and

alternating

littlefield distortion. When

relatively
largepart of the energy suppliedto the

over

there is

short-circuit occurs,
short-circuit will momentarily
a

of the rotatingarmature.
the kinetic energy
these conditions the distorting
components of the armature
from

come

Under

longerneutralize and bad field distortion will

result. The distortion is momentarily very much
than
worse
would be produced in a direct-current generator under similar
of the relatively
small air-gapof a conaccount
verter.
on
conditions,
current

will

no

Due

to the presence

longermet

strong distorting
component

reaction,the conditions for commutation

of the armature
no

of

when

short-circuit

and

occurs

arcingmay

are

start

voltage produced in the

coils in the commutating zone, by the badly distorted
armature
is sufficiently
high, the arcs formed at the brushes will
field,
bars as the bars leave the brushes
persistbetween commutator
at the direct-current brushes.

and will be carried around

polarity.If the
space

between

the time
form
bad

arcs

If the

thus started

not

cycle,flash-over wfll occur.

breaker can
quick enough
open

of half

short-circuit before flash-over

opposite

before the
interrupted
bridged,that is,in less than

are

the brushes has been

of circuit

to brushes of

the commutator

can

occur.

The

No
to

ordinary
remove

presence

of

crease
interpoleswill increase the danger of flash-over since they dethe reluctance of the path of the distorting
flux. Special
circuit breakers and insulatingbarriers
types of quick-opening
between

brushes

are

sometimes

used

on

largeconverters

to prevent

flash-over.
A

synchronous converter which is operatedfrom a circuit with

unbalanced
when the
voltages will tend to spark badly even
The simplest
appliedvoltagesare onlymoderatelyunbalanced.
the cause
of this sparkingis to resolve the actual
to show
way
ages
appliedunbalanced voltagesinto two systems of balanced voltof opposite phase order. The first of these systems of
voltages will consist of balanced voltagesof the same
phase
order as the appliedvoltages. These are called the positiveor
The
other system of
direct-phasecomponents.
sequence
of the oppocomponent voltageswill consist of balanced voltages

site

phase order.

These

42l!)

CONVERTERS

SYNCHRONOUS

called the

are

or
negative-sequence

used in
components. This resolution is much
reverse-phase
with unbalanced circuits. That such
handlingproblemsdealing
will be understood by referring
to Chapa resolution is possible
ter
XII of the author's Principles
of AlternatingCurrents.
The positive-sequence
will giverise to balanced component
voltages
cmrents

in the armature

of the converter.

currents

producethe ordinaryconverter

These

ponent
com-

action and the

reaction due to them is

distorting
component of the armature
balanced by the component of the armature reaction
substantially
caused by the direct current. The positive
ponents
sequence-comwill

no

trouble.

components of the appliedvoltages

negative-sequence

The
will

cause

cause

balanced

armature

of the

phase order oppositeto that of the applied

component currents will be
voltages. These negative-sequence
largeeven when the negative-sequence
relatively
components in
the appliedvoltagesare small since the apparent impedance to
them is low in any machine which has a short-circuitedwinding
like the squirrel-cage
the
or
winding of an induction motor
The
negative-sequencecomponent
damper of a converter.
converter

currents

which

with

component currents in the

in the armature
rotates

the

producea component
same

direction

as

the

armature
armature

reaction
and

at

synchronous speed with respectto it but at double synchronous

speed with respect to the field polesand the interpoles.This
reaction will cause
a double-frequency
component of the armature
variation in the flux in the fieldpolesand also in the flux in the
interpoles.The double-frequencycomponent flux in the field
coils which are
poles will link the short-circuited armature
doubleand will induce in them
undergoing commutation
frequency currents by transformer action. A double-frequency
current

will also be

producedin

the fieldwinding. The double-

flux will also induce doublefrequencyvariation in the interpole

frequency currents in the short-circuited armature coils due to
Both of the
of these coils by the interpoles.
the movement
component double-frequencycurrents in the short-circuited
rupted
coils will be additive. They will have to be interarmature
when

the coils move

out

from

under

the direct-current

sparkingand may produceflashFor this reason, synchronousconverters should not be

over.
operatedfrom circuits which are likelyto have their voltages

brushes

and

become

much

will

cause

bad

unbalanced.

Transformer

CHAPTER

XXXIX

Connections;

Methods

Transformer

Connections.

converters

connected, transformers
of the

Any
than

others.

With

the

primaries

of the

transformers

grounded,

secondaries
distorted
the

by

of

voltage

the

to

exclude

Either

delta

the

is the
connection

connection, the
of the

point
the

on

the

from

neutral

provided they
The
for

simple

by

are

and

generators

nected
star-con-

has

badly

short-circuiting

of
in

for

the

This

six-phase

the

wave

side for
of the

connected

converter

three-wire

must

the

system

secondaries

in

are

follows, therefore, that

their

at

converter

of the

be

nection
con-

double

the

becomes

side

three-phase

diametrical

interconnected

of either

point

It

the

Y-

six-phase

used

be

rotary

points.
mid-

electrical
neutral

the

neutral
be

may

point
taken

transformers,

in star.

connection

three-phase
produced

of

point

are

or

sufficientlydistorted

may

used.

often

neutral

direct-current

primaries,

which

six-phase converter,

sides

other.

the

harmonics

have

connection

secondaries

two

as

so

preceding connections.

most

if the

with

connecting
far

the

of

common

of
in

on

six-phase split-pole converter

likelyto

two

the

one

the

Since

is

or

For

converter.

The

more

are

account

on

third

the

converter.

only type which

is the
form

of

is

operate

XX

Chap.

method

converter

This

transformers

the

used

be

supply

form.

wave

of these

neutrals

the

cannot

to

in

Delta-connected

with

primaries

to

are

voltages.

is immaterial

transformers

concerned.

are

connected

exceptions,

two

in order

given

used, but certain

be

may

of standard

they

which

for

necessary

connections

transformer

Transformers

converters

always

lines

from

converters

rotary

of taps

number

are

voltage ratios of rotary

the

Since

"

by the

fixed

are

Converter

Split-pole

Voltage;

Controlling

of

cannot
on

direct

be used

account
current
422

to

of the
in

the

supply

the

magnetic
secondaries

neutral

ing
unbalancof

the

SYNCHRONOUS

transformers.
is to be put

If

on

the secondaries
and

connected

of the

in such

the

manner

About

15 per

than

for the

neutral

point.

The

load

to have

in the
cent,

the

magnetic actions

secondaries

two
more

is

copper

simple Y

direct current

equally between

of unbalanced

cent,

per

as

neutralize

423

three-phaseconverter,
supplyingit should be double

of the transformers

direct current

divide about

few

the direct-current side of

for this arrangement

The unbalanced

at

than

more

transformer.

same

CONVERTERS

on

the

required

connection.

returning by the neutral will

the secondaries

connected

together

direction of these currents

is shown

in

Fig. 207. The left-hand diagram is the simple Y. The righthand

diagram shows double secondaries connected to avoid the

change

in the

direct current

the

From

which

1',carry
which

magnetic density
with the

simple Y

of the

on

the

direct currents

will neutralize

so

produced by the

connection.

right-hand figureit will be

are

core

that the two

seen

aries
second-

transformer,as for example, 1 and

which
flow in opposite directions and
far as the magnetic condition of the core

same

is concerned.

Any diametrical connection of secondaries with the middle

points of all secondaries interconnected will avoid this magnetic
unbalancing. The four-phase star connection and the six-phase
double- F

or

Methods

double- T connection
of

come

under

ControllingVoltage. The
"

this class.

voltage ratio of

any

fixed and
type, is sensibly
rotary converter, except the split-pole
is only slightly
affected by load and excitation.
Any variation
in the terminal
to
externally

If

voltage that

may

be

requiredmust

be

produced

the converter.

converter

methods

is to be used
are

available

lowing
to deliver direct current, the folfor

controllingthe direct-current

424

PRINCIPLES

voltage.

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

All of these

change the voltage on

side by alteringthe voltageimpressed on
current
sliprings.
of a synchronous booster.
1. By means
2.
3.

By
By

m:eans

be

induction

an

direct-current

prohibitive.Either

method

alternating-

impedance drop in

the

series

factor of the converter.

be used

might

booster

the

rent
direct-cur-

regulator.

varying the effect of

the power
by altering

reactance

of

the

or

but

2 may

its expense
would
be used to control

side of an inverted converter.

voltageon the alternating-current
The
1. Synchronous Booster.
synchronous booster is a lowvoltage synchronous generator of the revolvingarmature
type
with its armature
keyed to the shaft of the rotary converter.
the

"

The

booster

the

converter

should

be

be

must

and

keyed

to

wound

for the

have

must

the

same
same

the shaft in such

number
number

of
of

phases as
poles. It

positionthat its induced

oppositionto the induced

voltage is either in phase with or in

Its voltage will either add to or subtract
voltage of the converter.
the converter
from
the voltage impressed on
according
The
for the
to the direction of excitation.
exciting current
booster field is often passed through an auxiliarywinding on the
If this auxiliarywinding is properly adjusted,
field of the converter.
the
the changes in excitation produced by it, when
booster
voltage is varied,will maintain the power factor of the
ary
auxiliIf the converter
has interpoles,
unit nearly constant.
an
winding on these connected in series with the booster field
may

be

made

to

neutralize

the

distortingarmature

reaction

The
by the booster.
and is driven by or drives
booster acts as a generator or motor
the converter
according as it raises or lowers the voltage.
The chief advantage of the synchronous booster is its flexibility.
By its use, the control of voltage and power factor are made
more
expensive than an induction
independent. It is somewhat
expensive than the series
regulator and considerably more
reactance
requiredin the third method of controllingvoltage.
induction
scribed
de2. Induction
Regulator. The
regulator was
"Transformers."
on
tors
Polyphase regulapage 238 under
with
The
used
converters.
are
regulator is usually placed
caused

by the load put

on

the converter

"

between

the

converter

and

its transformers

and

in this

position

SYNCHRONOUS

it must

be

wound

for

425

CONVERTERS

the

of

number

same

phases

as

the

converter.
3. Series Reactance.

the

Controlling the voltage of

"

of series reactance

use

was

mentioned

on

page

line

339

by

under

When
is used, it is usually
reactance
"Synchronous Motors."
placed in each line between the transformers and the converter.
The
factor of the
voltage is controlled by varying the power
For this reason
converter.
this method
of voltage control is
not practicalexcept for small changes in voltage. Any attempt
to

get

greater change than

about

10 per

cent,

above

or

below

normal

voltage will materiallylower the output of a converter

account
of the large decrease in output caused by a decrease
on
in power
pounding
factor,see Table XXI, page 410.
By properly comthe converter, the voltage regulation may
be made
The chief advantage of the series-reactance
nearly automatic.
method
of controlling
is its simplicity
the voltage of the converter
and moderate
cost.
Its disadvantage is its lack of flexibility
and
its limited range.
Neither the power
factor nor the voltage can
be controlled independently. The one
is fixed by the other.
The
the
direct-current
Split-poleConverter.
voltage on
side of a rotary converter
depends upon the total flux cut by the
inductors between
brushes of oppositepolarityand is
armature
tributed
in which
this flux is disentirelyindependent of the manner
the flux
provided the distribution is such as not to cause
The voltage on the alternatingto enter the commutating zone.
the amount
of
current
side,however, depends not only upon
"

also upon
the way
the same
total flux,the

flux cut

With

but

of the

value

root-mean-square

the distribution

this flux is distributed.

in which
wave

form

consequently the
ing
be varied by alter-

and

voltage may

of the flux in the air gap.

voltage ratio of a converter

be changed: first,
of phases may
with a fixed number
by altering
the flux distribution;
second, by changing the positionof the
There

are

two

by which

ways

direct-current

brushes

latter method

when

brushes
which

is not
results.

with

the

respect to the neutral plane. This

accompUshed by an
practicableon account
The

same

effect may

be

of the

by shiftingthe field with

brushes by electrical

means.

may

serious

sparking

obtained, so far

voltage is concerned

This

of the

actual movement

be

done

as

the

respect to the
without

pro-

426

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

ducing sparking provided the

It is not
the

plane

properly designed.

brushes

should

be in

for

ever,
sparklesscommutation
provided, howthe brush position
is of the proper value and
The sign of the flux on
opposite sides

that the flux at

sign for

is

converter

that the direct-current

necessary

neutral

MACHINERY

commutation.

of any brush may

be the same
provided the distribution of the
flux is such that the field at the brush positionis of the correct

sign and magnitude for commutation.

The
of regulating-poleconverter
first form
built had
the
field poles divided into three parts, each provided with a main
winding and a regulatingwinding. The three coils of the main
connected
in series in such a way
as
winding on each pole were
direction and to
to magnetize all three sections in the same
the three parts of each

make

the

regulating winding

as

unit.

in

all connected

were

The

coils of

but
series,

the

magnetize in opposite
direction to the middle
section.
By varying the excitation
of the regulatingwinding, it was
possibleto vary the distribution
of the air-gapflux without alteringthe axis of the field or without
two

sections

pole act

outer

arranged

were

to

materiallychanging the total fiux.

The
has
at
as
spht-pole converter
present manufactured
of these acts as a
each pole divided into two
sections.
One
main
pole and the other, considerably smaller, is used as a
regulatingpole. By varying or reversing the excitation of
the regulatingor auxiliarypole,the field axis may
be shifted.
For normal
voltage only the main section of the pole is excited.
The

direct-current

maximum

sections

of each

minimum

when

for

of the

brushes

commutation

without
in order

in the

forward
interpoles
requirea slight
to produce the voltage required

coils under

the

converter
regulatingpole of a split-pole
also its sign,it is necessary
to have the
rotate

order that

both

when

occur

pole are excited in the same

direction,the
they are excited in opposite directions.

Ordinary converters
lead

voltage will

from

forward

commutation

the main

to

be

varies its
armature

poles towards

lead of the brushes

a

brushes.

the

will cause

field of fixed

Since

the

strength and

of such

verter
con-

auxiliarypoles in
the coils undergoing

polarityand

of the

must
rotate in the opposite
right sign. An inverted converter
the main
direction,
i.e.,from the auxiliarypoles towards
poles.

428

OF

PRINCIPLES

by using

connections

of reactance

amount

The

transformer

proper

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

together with

in series with

the

erate
mod-

converter.

is the third.
As has
important of the harmonics
already been stated,this cannot be present between the terminals
of a three-phase converter, but it may
be present between
jacent
ador
opposite, but not alternate,terminals of a six-phase
connections
for
transformer
converter.
By choosing proper
the six-phaseconverter, the effect of the third harmonic
or
any
in
this
its
terminal
be
of
harmonic
multiple
voltage may
pressed
supmost

in

far

so

concerned.
with

its effects

as

transformer

The

the

on

connections

converter
six-phase split-pole

converter

the

or

which

are:

if

,,

Primaries
neutral
,

grounded

to

the

{ double

of

one

other

are:

current

and

either

or

in double

Y's.

moderate

is

with

series reactance

is not

and

used
of the

in the

converter

than

other

the

third.

to

be

in either double

properly adjusting the field excitation

The
far

as

concerned, since
as

connections

the

between

to

two

the

harmonic
6

per

cent,

provided for by
used with split-pole

reactance.

objectionable so

the reactance

is best

This
are

Any

double

diminish
A

to

currents

between

to

The

used.

converter.

inserted

in order

which

is

be

secondaries

of reactance

intercon-

permit

except

interconnection

large inherent

factor of the system

the converter

with

generally sufficient.

designing the transformers

converters

or

is desirable

higher orders

be

Some

without

amount

the converter
of

with

will

not

feeding the

may

permit similar

mains

points connected.

delta

power

or

...

,
neutrals.

nected

must

reason

addition

connection

primariesin

reactance

for this

diametrical

,,

just mentioned
multiples to exist

its

generator and

the

neutral

currents

or

will in

transformer

line and

connections

connection

exist in

with

the

transformers

second

neutrals.

.,

third-harmonic
and

or

intercon-

with

Secondaries

generator

Any

diametrical

double

[ nected
"

are

be used

cannot

f Secondaries
Primaries

line

unit

may

its effect
the power

be

of

presence
on

the

factor of

kept unity by

of the converter.

CHAPTER
Inverted

Converter;

Cyclb

Versus
Versus

Inverted
that

25-Cyole

Converter.

when

Converters;

When

"

converter

transform

to

certain

60-

Motor

tors
Genera-

is used

inverted,

from

direct

difficulties arise

is used

converter

Generator;

Converters

it is used

alternatingcurrent,
present

Double-current

Rotary

is, when

XL

to

make

which

the

to

current
are

not

formation.
oppositetrans-

In the latter case, the speed is fixed and any change

in the excitation merely alters the power
factor.
If,however,
the converter

is

operating in parallelwith others,a change in

its field excitation may
also change its load.
See page 436.
The
conditions
existing in an inverted converter
are
very
from
different
those which exist in a converter
deliveringdirect
An

current.

inverted

converter

operates

either

as

compound

motor

and

its

dependent

upon

the

strength of its field. An

will weaken

the field and

shunt

or

frequency is chiefly
alternating-current
cause

an

inverted

inductive

converter

load

to increase

ance
frequency increases the reactwhich
of the load and this increases the lag of the current
tends to stillfurther increase the speed. The action iscumulative.

its

If

This

frequency.

very

which

all converters
form

load

large inductive

there will be

is thrown

marked

on

tendency

operate inverted

speed-limitdevice.

of

in

increase

inverted

an

to

converter,

this reason,
be providedwith some
For

race.

must

which

converter

is not

run

verted
in-

with others or with a storage

operatesin parallel
under certain conditions,become
inverted,as for

but which

battery

may,

line.
alternating-current
generallycustomary to supply speed-limit

short-circuit

example, if a

the

On

occurs

it is
this reason,
devices with all rotary converters.

For

Certain
of

an

electrical devices may

inverted

applied.

For

shaft of the

converter

to

speed up

when

example, a separate shunt

converter

will check
429

to check

be used

this

an

the

tendency

inductive

exciter mounted

load is
on

the

tendency, provided this

430

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

exciter operates with

low

saturation

MACHINERY

under

normal

conditions

voltage will be very sensitive to increase in speed.

Any tendency on the part of the converter to race will produce a
rapid increase in the exciter voltage which will increase the
that

so

its

excitation of the converter

in

and

check

measure

the

change in

speed.
of a converter
heating,output and efficiency
voltageratio,
whether
it is operated direct or
substantiallythe same

The
are

inverted.

difficulties which

The

converters

are

due to

arise in the

operationof

of speed
instability

under

verted
in-

inductive

loads.
Generator.

Double-current

mechanically,it

is

If

"

a.

rotary

converter

capable of deliveringeither

is driven

direct current,
When
equally

deliver both.
alternating current, or it may
loaded on its two sides,its output as determined
by the average
is slightly
greater than its output as a
copper loss in the armature
direct-current generator except when
connected
single phase.
The gain in output is only about 6.6 per cent, at unity power
factor even
for the six-phaseconnection.
If the voltages on the two sides of a double-current
generator
device external to the
to be controlled independently,some
are
induction
be used for
regulator,must
generator, such as an
direct-current
varying the alternating-currentvoltage. The
voltage will be changed by the field excitation. This will also
affect the voltage on the alternating-current
side.
Almost
all of the differences
60-Cycle Versus 25-Cycle Converters.^
between the operationof 60- and 25-cycleconverters
are
"

due

to the difference between

the ratio of electrical to mechanical

degreesfor these frequencies. The early60-cycleconverters

For this reason
slow-speed machines.
relatively
they were
Low
1.

speed and high frequency requires:

Many poles and as a result few commutator

brushes.

Few

bars

commutator

between

brushes

were
successful.
un-

bars between
necessitates

tions,
bars.
Under
such condicommutator
high voltage between
ing,
disturbance,such as a sudden change in load or huntany
is liable to
2.

cause

steep field form

Fig.208.

flash
with

over.
a

narrow

zone

for

commutation,

SYNCHRONOUS

Increasing the
ing

zone

space

requiresa

since the number

decreases

431

CONVERTERS

between

poles to give a wider commutatbars

commutator
greater voltage between

of active armature

the ratio of

coils is diminished.

It also

pole pitch and diminishes the

output. With
slow-speed design, the critical voltage between
commutator
bars is approached and as a result,a, converter
designed for low speed is very sensitive to any disturbance,such
as
hunting, which influences its commutation.
The
difficulties of the early 60-cycle converters
avoided
are
in later designs by using higher commutator
and
peripheral
speeds. The higher speeds now
possibleare due in part to
to a better understanding of
better mechanical
design,but more
commutation
and to better brushes and brush holders.
Higher
speeds permit the use of fewer poles. This gives space for a

Fig.

pole

to

arc

Fig.

208.

209.

results in lower

voltage
Fewer
bars.
between
poles permits of a wider commutating
Fewer polesalso diminishes the magnetic leakage between
zone.
polesby increasingthe spacing at their bases and also permits
This decreases the leakage and
of larger pole shoes.
the use
tween
Why
greater spacing beimproves the commutating zone.
by referringto Fig. 209.
be used will be seen
poles can
become
more
nearly
When
poles are used, the cores
many
greater number

of commutator

bars which

parallel.
The specific
remedy for hunting is the use of damping bridges.
Narrow
polessuch as must be used on slow-speedhigh-frequency
converters

bars which
The

do not
can

damping

Fig.210.

give much

be used
bars

on

are

wide

for

room

not

and

damping bars and those

effective

so
on

narrow

as

with

wider

pole are

poles.

shown

in

432

PRINCIPLES

The

avoided

only

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

difficulties from

mica

which

of the brushes

high
jumping

causes

by undercutting the mica.

when

low

At

OF

the commutator

commutator

and

Undercut

mica, the

space

is

ments,
seg-

sparking, are

mica

peripheralspeed

speeds,with undercut
bars will become

between

be used

can

relatively
high.

between

filledwith dust and dirt.

the

The

mutator
com-

addition

of

It is difficultto find
commutating polesassists commutation.
for such poles on low-speed60-cycleconverters.
room
The speed of the latest type of 60-cycleconverters
is nearly
double the speed of the earlydesigns. The latest types have from
to 48

42

bars between

commutator

speed varies from

514

rev.

brushes

per min.

at 600

at 1500- kw.

to

volts.
1200

Their

rev.

per

speed is alone mainly responsible

for the satisfactory
operation of 60-cycleconverters.
min. at 500 kw.

The

increase in

Fig.

210.

In making a
Rotary Converters.
comparison of the relative merits possessedby motor-generator
sets and rotary converters, only motor-generator sets with synchronous-m
Motor

Generators

Versus

drives

"

will be

considered.

Motor

generators

large startingtorque, therefore,

is not required. Since large starting torque is not required,
are
usually preferableto induction motors
synchronous motors
be
of the high power
factor at which
account
on
they may
operated. They also permit of power-factorcontrol. A directbe provided for the excitation of
connected or belted exciter can
not

are

started under

load and

the

synchronous motor.
The constancy of speed of

slightadvantage when
in

parallelon

the

synchronous-motor drive is

motor-generator sets

their direct-current

sides,as

are

to be

operated

it eliminates

one

SYNCHRONOUS

which

factor

determines

difference in the

433

CONVERTERS

the

division

of

speed characteristics of the

load, namely, the

motors.

The

of a rotary converter
is not quite so good as
reliabihty
of either the motor or the generator going to make
reUability

the

motor-generator set,but when

up

of
instead of
is not

motor-generator

one

in the

as

of

case

great deal to choose

except in the

of

case

depends

set

upon

that the

liabihty
re-

machines

two

rotary converter,there

probably

the two

in this respect,
In this latter case, the motor

between

60-cyclesets.

generator is probably somewhat

The

it is considered

reliable.

more

factor of

safetyin regard to insulation is in favor of the

The
converter, which is of necessitya low-voltage machine.
motor
of a motor-generator
set would
for
probably be wound
full line voltage up to about 13,500 volts. The factor of safety
of the transformers

high

too

Flash

over

much

used

are

with

is much

than

with

motor

apt

more

generators.

great trouble experiencedfrom

no

rotary converter

is

influence.

at the commutator

converters

rotary
be

to have

which

this under

to

occur

There

with
should

ditions
ordinary con-

at 60 cycles,provided the converters

even
operation,
are
properlydesigned.
One
important advantage of the motor-generator set is the
independence of the two sides of the system. The alternating-

of

and

current

voltages are

direct-current

entirelyindependent.

factor will have no effect on the directof the power

voltage. A change in the frequency will alter the speed

A variation
current

drivingmotor

of the

generator.

such

No

change the voltageof the direct-current

change of voltage takes place when the

and

frequency impressedon
with

converter
as

the

series

The

varies.

converter

synchronousbooster

and
alternating-

are

two

sides of

nearlyas

direct-current sides of

pendent
indemotor

generator.
alone is considerably
efficiencyof a rotary converter
of a motor-generator of corresponding
greater than the efficiency
The

speed

and

the two
and
or

the

it is necessary

that

no

28

to include

and

series reactances

induction

regulatorin

transformers

comparing

when

capacity,but

case

are

the

efficiencies of

the losses in the transformers

also in the

synchronous booster

either of these is used.

used

in

connection

with

Assuming
a

motor

434

PRINCIPLES

to

60-cycle

losses

copper

with

the

of

decreasing

MACHINERY

25-cycle

than

its

with

apparatus

of

less

cent,

per

converter

rotary

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

efficiency

the

generator,
from

OF

power

difference

factor

is

from
do

as

of

do

the

3
not

copper

In
to

be

corresponding

accessories.

necessary

will

generator

efficiency

the

motor-generator

motor

the

The

cent.

per

increase

rapidly

so

losses

of

case

in

rotary

converter.

60-cycle
devices

auxiliary
than

from

25

converter

rotary
will

without

motor-generator
to

30

per

usually

cent.

less.

with

require

its

and

transformers

somewhat

transformers

less
and

will

floor
cost

other
space

from

436

PRINCIPLES

and

parallel

This

will

rise

of

impressed

(c)

induction

When

excitation
The

in

be

the

between

current

parallel

of

voltage
with

inverted

load

to

increase

the

will

raise

produce

the

voltage

output

of

means

the

these

with

the

regulators.

synchronous
by

converters

inverted

only

changing

the

lead

inverted

an

inverted

run

the

in

of

the

by

the

changing

which

converter,
converters,

will
field

will

faster.

This

will

cause

direction

of

converter.

lead

and

the

operating
its

increase

the

of

alternatingis

Weakening

tion
rela-

phase

voltages
induced

the

of

operating

converters

alternating-current

induced

other

swing

of

varying

by

provided

between

controlled

converter

voltage

and

of

boosters.

output.
an

by

voltages

Increasing

converters.

This

provided,

are

are

the

the
of

can

the

reactance

converter,

excitation

current.

converters

converters

of

division

parallel

the

varying

by

series

regulators
on

the

boosters,
the

the

each

with

converter.

impressed

voltages

leading

voltages.

ways:

series

Increasing

take

through
the

on

When

(6)

it

make

voltage

in

reactance

sides

direct-current

three

following

in

alternating-current

their

excitations.

their

varying

the

is

there

their

on

operating

converters

changing

by
in

done

MACHINERY

between

power

only

When

converter

load

receiving

be

may

(a)

of

varied

be

by

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

distribution

The

can

OF

tend
the
will

to

in

nating-current
altermake

induced
therefore

CHAPTER

Excitation

Field

XLII

Efficiency

and

Resistance, Winding
Open-circuit

AND

Machine."

will be used.

Calculated

data

relatingto

(d.c.) converter

this converter

Rating
voltage

volts

600

Alternating-current
voltage (diametrical)

are:

kw.

1000

Direct-current

Loss

Curves

1000-kw., 60-cycle, 600-volt

The

Core

Data, Open-circuit

Saturation

ture
Arma-

from

volts

424

Direct-current

1667

output

of phases

Number

Frequency.

60

Poles

12

Speed
of armature

slots

per

slot

Armature

resistance at 25"C.
d.c. terminals

Between

a.c.

per

Series turns

per

diametrical

Resistance
Resistance

at

Friction

and

25"C.

field

As

0.00589

ohm.

39.7

of series

winding

8.1

and

curve

ohms.

0.000610

windage loss
the

ohm.

kw.

curve

of

core

The

"

output and

direct-current

of

armature

the

result,the voltagedrops in the

input.
alternating-current

armature

are

small
relatively

the field excitation

neglectedwhen calculating
without introducing any serious error.
efficiencj"'
and

be

may

The

distortingcomponents

neutralize

loss

rotary converter carries

equal to the difference between the components due

Field Excitation.

the

ohm.

of shunt

open-circuitsaturation
plotted in Fig. 211.

to

0.00589

864

The

current

terminals

pole
pole

at 25"C.

min.

per

Between

turns

rev.

180

Inductors

Shunt

cycles

600

Number

are

amp.

and

the armature

need

not

reaction

of the

be considered.

which

must
437

armature

reaction

The

only component

be taken

into account

and

nearly
of

is that

438
due

PRINCIPLES

OF

to the reactive

either

component

Loss

Core
5

10

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

of the

component

strengthensor
in
15

alternatingcurrent.

weakens

This

the

field without

16

18

Kilowatts,
20

25

30

750

700

650

"

800

550

500

450

350

W300

-P
a

250

J50

100

50

10

producing

distortion.

add
it, therefore,

12

Field

Amperes,

Fig.

211.

The

directly to

14

ampere-turns
or

subtract

20

corresponding

directlyfrom

to

the

SYNCHRONOUS

excitation

of the shunt

439

CONVERTERS

and

series fields.

In

the

case

of

verter
con-

deliveringdirect current, a reactive lagging component

alternatingcurrent strengthens the field. The reactive

of the

of

component
The

resultant

terminal
to the

net

or

voltageunder
ampere-turns

when

the converter

The

weakens

leading current

load

conditions
to

is driven
a

of

ampere-turns

necessary

efficiencyof

the field.

at

no

excitation

for

any

approximately equal
produce the required voltage
are

load

as

generator.

operating at

rotary converter

power

factor in the

neighborhood of unity is always high at full load.

For a large converter
it is usually 95 per cent, or better.
On
account
of this high operatingefficiency,
it is usuallyclose enough
the efficiencyto be 95 per cent, when
to assume
calculating
reaction caused by the reactive component of the
the armature
alternatingcurrent.
The

field excitation
for

with

for the

1000-kw.

load and

full direct-current

leading current.
coil alternatingcurrent, I'ac,
may

The

(137),page

The

400.

same

culated
cal-

factor of 0.95

power

be found

is the

coil current

will be

converter

from
as

equation

the inductor

current.

1000
^
Idc

Assuming
I'-

1000

_"_

gQQ

and
efficiency

the

1667

amp.

factor each to be 0.95

power

"^

1667

12X6X0.95X0.95

sin

'^'

""^P"

The

reactive

7.
The
found

145\/l

(0.95)2
=

45.3

is
amp.

reaction, A^, per pole for this current

equation (10), page 59, provided the

be

armature

may

from

breadth

factor is added

to the

equation
A^

where

of this current

component

h is the breadth

0.707hNh

factor,

440

PRINCIPLES

OP

phase spread of

The

of the

one-third

poles,or

Table

I, page

phase it

would

be about

A,

These

180 slots and

has

or

12

phase belt.

0.957.

0.707

1380

0.957

y^^

45.3

ampere-turns per pole.

demagnetizing ampere-turns since

are

leading current

assumed.

was

The

ampere-turns

is driven

at

load

no

circuit saturation

as

3334

volts when

600

direct-current

are

the

converter

generator is 9.25 (open-

Fig. 211).

curve,

corresponds to

This

9.25

The

864

ampere-turns per pole.

7990

full-load conditions
required under
each of 0.95 and with a leading
efficiency

excitation

shunt

factor and

power

requiredfor

field current

The

to the series field

pole due

per

1667

at

converter

degrees

41, the breadth factor for a spread of

For five slots per
degrees and four slots per phase is 0.958.

From
60

The

5 slots per

is 60

six-phase converter

polepitch.

"

^"

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

is

current

7990
This

1380

corresponds to

3330

6040

ampere-turns.

shunt-field current

of

6040
_

gg^

__

6.99

amp.

Efficiency. -The efficiencyis

"

IdcVdc
''

lioVic +

Hla^^u.

hnJi.

-I-/cV, +

F, -f (F -f-Tf )

where

Idc
Vdc
Tic

Direct

Direct-current

Armature

current.

voltage.

resistance

terminals.

I,h.

Shunt-field

current.

between

direct-curr

SYNCHRONOUS

Ic

Compound-field

Resistance of compound

Pc

Core

Friction

7"o

F +
The

armature

armature

winding.

loss.
and

windage loss.

copper

by the ratio of the

current

to its copper

converter

current.

loss may
be found by multiplyingthe
loss corresponding to the direct-current component of the

copper

as

441

CONVERTERS

current

This

generator.

(143),page

loss at the

ratio,H,

be found

may

'-

output

same

assumed

an

resistance

armature

armature

Idc^ XraX

(1 +

the

same

75"C.

between

direct-current

(1667)"

resistance

resistance
inductors

in

of

in

0.00702

ohm.

for all inductors.

0.385

error

carry

armature

watts.

copper

by using

great. Since

the

differently
shaped current

effective resistance
It would

7510

introduced

effective is not

converter
to

finding the

the

and

place of
a

0.00702

is used

ratio of ohmic

the

0.00385)

loss is

loss is small

This

waves,

50

copper

0.385

ohmic

armature

at

is
0.00589

ohmic

(3.142)2(0.95)

0.385

loss.

0.95

16

(0.95)2(0.95)
2(6)==(0.5)=

The

equation

The

from

direct-

of
efficiency

8
^

terminals

1-^

factor of 0.95 and

power

"

The

as

409,
H

For

loss of the converter

copper

also

would

change with

not

be

power

factor.

including the loss in the field rheostat is

equal to the shunt-field current multipliedby the voltage
This voltage is equal to the
the direct-current brushes.
across
terminal
voltage plus the drop in the series field. The drop
shunt-field loss is,
in the series rfield will be neglected. The
The

shunt-field

loss

therefore,
6.99

600

4194

watts.

442

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

resistance

of

0.000610

The

the

(1

series-field

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

whole

loss

core

voltage
The

of

loss

from
is

600

efficiency

series

field

0.00385)

75"C.

at

is

ohm.

0.000728

is

(1667)2

The

50

MACHINERY

0.000728

Fig.

14,700

211

2025

watts.

corresponding

to

direct-current

watts.

1000
"^

^^'^

^
~

1000

-t- 7.5

4.2

2.0

-|- 14.7

-t- 8.1

P"^

*^""*-

444

PRINCIPLES

and

to
ability

OF

stand

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

abuse

it

make

particularlydesirable type

of industrial motor.
Induction
Pol3rphase
the synchronous motor

Motor.

"

The induction

in that the current

differsfrom

motor

in its armature, which

usually the revolving part, is produced by electromagnetic

induction while in the synchronous motor
it is produced by conduction.
is

The
to

polyphase induction

static transformer

with

on

motor

non-inductive

is

exactlyequivalent

load.

It is

former
trans-

secondary which is capable of rotatingwith respect

to the primary. Although the secondary is usually the rotating
will operate equallywell if the secondary is fixed
part, the motor
and the primary revolves.
In what follows,
the primary will be
assumed
stationary and will be referred to as the primary,the
will rotate,
stator or the field. The secondary,which in this case
will be called the secondary, the rotor, or the armature.
The
terms
primary and secondary are perfectlydefinite,meaning
directlyfrom the
respectivelythe part which receives power
mains
is produced by electromagnetic
and the part in which the current
a

induction.

The

terms

stator

and

rotor

are

not

so

since their significance

is not determined
definite,
by the electrical
connections,but merely by the particularpart which is stationary.
Motor.
The stator
Operation of the Polyphase Induction
winding of a polyphaseinduction motor is similar to the armature
winding of a polyphase alternator. This winding produces a
tion
reacrotatingmagnetic field which corresponds to the armature
"

of the

alternator.

As

with

the

armatiu^e

reaction

of

an

of this field revolves at synchronous

the fundamental
alternator,
With
speed with respect to the stator.
respect to the rotor it
revolves at a speed which is the difference between
the synchronous
This difference is known
as
speed and the speed of the rotor.
the slip. A portion of the stator of an induction motor
with a
few coils in placeis shown in Fig. 212.
The rotor winding will have as many
poles as the stator and
will have currents
induced in it by the revolving magnetic field.
These

currents

will

cause

the rotor to revolve

in the

same

tion
direc-

If it were
not for
magnetic field set up by the stator.
rotational losses,synchronous speed would
be reached
at no
load.
Under
load conditions,the difference between
the speeds
of the magnetic field and of the rotor will be just sufficient tv
as

the

POLYPHASE

INDUCTION

to be induced
enough current
the torque required for the load and

445

MOTORS

in the

cause

to

to

rotor

produce

the rotational

overcome

losses.
The

speed of the revolvingmagnetic field depends upon the

frequency and the number of polesfor which the motor is wound.
It is entirelyindependent of the number
of phases. The only
condition

which

must

be

fulfilled in

regard

to

number

the

of

k.WN'i
Fig.

phases is,that the space relations

phases in electrical degrees must
relations

between

the

currents

212.

of the
be the

they

windingsfor
same

carry.

as

the different

the

Thus

time-phase

for

three-

phase winding, they must be 120 electrical degrees apart. For a

four-phasewinding, they must be 90 electrical degrees apart.
the impressed frequency
Slip. If /i and p are, respectively,
of poles,the speed of the revolvingmagnetic
and the number
"

446

PRINCIPLES

also the

field and
per

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

synchronous speed

of the motor

in revolutions

is

minute

^
ni

(149)

60

The

actual

speed of

will be less than

the rotor
nj

ni(l

this and

is

(150)

s)

slipexpressedas a fraction of synchronous speed.

the rotor to be on open
Assume
Revolving Magnetic Field.
former
circuit. This corresponds to the condition in a static transThe only magnetomotive
when
the secondary is open.
the magnetomotive forces produced
forces acting in this case
are
where

is the

"

by the primary windings.

The primary winding of

an

induction

is distributed

motor

and

winding of an alternator having the

of phases and poles.
number
same
distribution of the flux caused by
At any instant,the space
one
by the distribution of the
phase will be determined
any
is uniform
and,
winding. The air gap of an induction motor
tributio
of the slots,does not affect the flux disexcept for the presence

is similar to the armature

The
stator

per

will be

distribution

space

nearly sinusoidal

more

phase is increased.

method

indicated

of the

on

page

This

as

distribution

84 in the section

flux

the
may
on

set

up

number

by

the

of slots

by the
erators.
Synchronous Genbe found

air-gap flux due to any one

the wave
not be sinusoidal depending upon
or
phase may
may
distribution of the
form of the impressed voltage. If the space
the fundamentals
flux produced by each stator phase is sinusoidal,
of the time variation of the air-gapflux for all phases combined
will produce a revolvingmagnetic field revolving at synchronous
speed, constant in value and sinusoidal in its space distribution.
former,
The flux due to any one
phase is oscillatory.As in the transpressed
it induces a voltage which is equal to the voltage imthe phase less the impedance drop due to the resistance
on
and leakage reactance
of the primary winding. Except as this
induced voltageis influenced by the impedance drop, it will be of
the same
form as the impressed voltage and the magnetizing
wave
current
must
this condition.
If the imadjust itself to meet
voltage is sinusoidal the induced voltage will be very
i;)ressed
The

time

variation

of the

POLYPHASE

INDUCTION

447

MOTORS

nearly sinusoidal,since the impedance drop is small. If the

impressed voltage contains harmonics, the induced voltage will
contain

the

harmonics

same

Fig. 213 shows

The

motor.

the

phases

the

for the

same

developedstator

of

and

dots represent inductors

to which

reason.

three-phaseinduction
indicate

the numbers

belong.

the inductors

line,the dotted line and the dot-and-dash line show,

of the space distribution of the
respectively,the fundamentals
fluxes produced in the air gap by phases 1, 2 and 3 at the instant
the current in each phase has its maximum
when
positivevalue.
Consider
a
point b, situated a electrical degrees from the
beginning of phase 1. The flux density,("h,at this point is
The

full

("b

(Bi sin

("2 sin

{a

Fig.

where

time

of the

(Sm

{sin

sin

sin wt +

^(S"m

cos

(a

phases

If

considered.

(a

%(R^

sin

("" +

240) }

any

^^^^)

")

that the flux

sinusoidal with respect

given time, i.e.,for

120) sin (cot 120)

sin {a
240) sin {o)t
-

cit)

Equation (152)shows

the

of

only the
of the flux is considered,

variation

b is

240) (151)

be written

equation (151),may
(S"b

"

213.

at the instant
3, respectively,

fundamental

(a

the flux densities at the centers

(Bi,(B2 and (B3 are

1, 2 and

(Bs sin

120) +

to

time.

fixed value

air-gapflux is also sinusoidal.

densityat

point such

any

that at any
distribution of

It also shows
of t, the space

as

448

PRINCIPLES

If

a,

OF

equation (152),equals cat

("b

the

or

magnetic

speed and
If
in

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

has

("m

T2

sin

field travels about

the air gap

is the thickness of the stator

at
respectively,

Vi

sin

is the

pole pitch

through phases 1,2

and

3,

IT

I sin {o)t
+7^

"

3w(B""

"P3

time, t, are:

C^

Mw(S,"

and

core

and

(pi, (P2

instant of

any

synchronous

value.

constant

centimeters,the fluxes

at

"

a) da
(153)

a)"

TT

=^M'"""

^2

120"

/^T
f:^

+
sin(coi
sin

a) da

"

;;

17120"

3u)(B"

(154)

120")

sin (coi

TT
,

^3

%w"S"m

"

/"ir + 240"

sin

(coi+

"

") da

t/240"

sin

3i"ffi"

(155)

240")

(co"
-

equations (153),(154) and (155) that the

phase is sinusoidal with respect to time
and that the total fluxes linkingthe phasesdiffer in time phase by
120 degrees.
The fundamental
of the flux due to each phase
Rotor Blocked.
be seen
from
It may
total flux through each

"

induces

sinusoidal

rotor

circuits

them

of the

the rotor

are
same

force

electromotive

closed,polyphase

frequency as

is blocked.

In this

short-circuited transformer.

case

The

the

in the

will be

currents

primary

If the

induced

currents

the conditions
currents

rotor.

are

in the rotor

in

provided
those of
have

the

frequency as the primary or stator currents and react on

the stator in exactly the same
the secondary current of a
as
way
static transformer reacts on the primary. They cause
an
lent
equivaload-component current in the stator windings. This loadare
opposite in
component current and the secondary current
phase and their ratio is equal to the ratio of the effective turns
same

POLYPHASE

per

the

INDUCTION

phase in the rotor windings to

stator windings.

If Ni
and

and

rotor

N2

and

phase

per

phase in

in the stator

the load

ponent
com-

current, respectively,

rotor

Ni

The

per

and 7'i and h

windings,respectively,

of the stator

where

the effective turns

the effective turns

are

449

MOTORS

is the ratio of transformation.

rotor

will

current

lag behind

E2, the induced

voltage in
r-2

the

rotor

where

r^

winding, by
and

X2

the

are

reactance, per phase,

for

polyphase
the

same

at

as

air gap

The

reactances,
between

rotor

Xi

stator

with

motor

of the stator
and x^,
and

current

The

rotor

current, considered

with

vector

leakage
diagram

blocked

is

actly
ex-

transformer.

The

and

and

largerfor the
windings.

are

the rotor

rotor

short-circuited

equals

and

frequency.

stator

that for

cosine

resistance

rotor

induction

magnetizingcomponent
the rotor

angle whose

an

respect

the stator

motor

to

the

due to the

revolving

in the direction of

magnetic field,
produces a torque which acts
rotation of the magnetic field. If the rotor is free to revolve,it
will speed up.
Free.
Rotor
When
the rotor is blocked, the speed of the
field with respect to the rotor inductors is proportionalto
stator
the rotor revolves,the speed of
the primary frequency. When
the stator field with respect to the rotor inductors is equal to the
the speed of the field in space and the rotor
difference between
speed. This relative speed is
"

n,

where

ni

and

n^

are

the

wi

rii

"

speeds of the

stator

field and

the rotor,

respectively.

Replacingrii and
(150),page 446,

ni

by their values from

^
n,

equations (149) and

60s

The
n,

frequencyof

the rotor currents

is

/.

/is

correspondingto the speed

450

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

rotor currents

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

at

frequency fis produce

force in the rotor.

n,

This revolves

at

rotatingmagnetomotive
speed

a
a

60s

"

with respect to the rotor.

Since this

tion
direcmagnetomotive force is revolvingin the same
the rotor, its speed with respect to the stator is equal to
as
its speed with respect to the rotor plus the speed of the rotor
to
or
itself,
+

n.

ni

60s

"

60

"

(1

s)

^60

Its
the

speed with respect

to the stator

field in space.

stator

is the

same

frequency of

The

the

as

the

speed of

rotor

current

"Vff,
Fia.

considered

with

214.

the stator

is the

impressed
acts
frequency, /i, of the circuit. The rotor current, therefore,rethe stator current at this frequency whatever
the speed
on
respect

to

current

of the rotor.
The

resultant

equal to the
and

rotor

magnetomotive force causing the air-gapflux

vector

sum

currents.

transformer.

of the

The

magnetomotive

condition

Fig. 214 shows

magnetomotive forces.
The letters on Fig. 214 have

is the

the relation

the

7i

Stator

li

Rotor

Ni

Number

of effective turns

Ni

Number

of effective turns

forces of the stator

same

as

in

existingbetween

static
these

followingsignificance:

current.
current.
per
per

is

phase on the stator.

phase on the rotor.

452

equation (156),page

Replacing Ei by its value from

/I

p.

Since

is

numeric,

?-2(

s\

(158)

] may

depends

upon

be

considered

the

slipor

as

upon

the

load and

Pa
The

451,

/.v.(VO

fictitious resistance,
R, which
mechanical

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

PRINCIPLES

internal

non-inductive

load

load

of

an

(159)

h^R

induction

transformer.

on

is

motor

I2R

equivalentto

V2 corresponds to

secondary terminal voltage of the equivalenttransformer.

The
Motor.
Transformer
Diagram of a Pol3rphaseInduction
transformer
diagram of a polyphaseinduction motor is shown in
the

"

"-~-i!;"-^0

Fig. 215.
to

Everything

this

on

diagram

is per

phase

is referred

and

the stator.

positionsof the vectors on the secondary side of

the diagram may
be changed to correspond to their usual positions
the ordinary transformer
on
diagram as indicated in Fig. 216.
liR correspondsto the potential
difference,
V2, at the secondary
The

relative

terminals

of

transformer.

The conditions
Polyphase Induction Motor.
of the vector diagram are exactlythose of the circuit shown
in Fig.217.
This diagram shows what is known
as the equivalent
circuit of the induction
This circuit is in realitythe
motor.

Equivalent Circuit

of

"

POLYPHASE

equivalentcircuit of a
non-inductive
load,B.

transformer

the actual

squared where
and

the

rotor

such

are

g"

the ratio of transformation

The

blocked.

susceptance and

EiiQn

ordinary transformer,little error

calculations based on the equivalent circuit
circuit represented by 6" and
g" be
the impressed
placed directlyacross
this change is made
in
voltage. When
the equivalentdiagram of an induction

if the

into

portion of the
"En

excitingcurrent, 7",
is large cominduction
motor
pared
with
the load component,
Z'l, of the

an

6"

"

is much

introduced

error

is introduced

greater, since the

of

conductance

jbn)

the

motor, the

is obtained

that

In
With

which

suppliespower to a
Everything in the equivalentcircuit is
the primary or stator.
For example,r^ on Fig. 217 is
formation
secondary resistance multipliedby the ratio of trans-

referred to

with

453

MOTORS

INDUCTION

Fig.

216.

stator

current.

is also much

larger
of the primary winding of a transformer,
than
the reactance
The
of the air gap.
lent
approximate equivachieflyon account
The
is given in Fig. 218.
circuit of the induction motor
The

reactance,

Xi,

of

induction

an

motor

YMMVn/ww
//

'

I
A.
Fig.

use
error

of

this circuit will

of about

between

no

load

per

and

217.

generallyintroduce

cent,

in the induced

full load.

The

nearly constant
voltagesEi and E2

power

and

the

torque

correspondingto any given slipvary as the square of E2, and the

introduced
mate
by the use of the approxiin these quantities
error
circuit may,
therefore,be as high as 10 per cent.

454

PRINCIPLES

Since

/i

and

The

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

everything on Fig. 218 is referred

In +

to the

primary, 7'i

^2 vectorially.

of the true

tion
equivalentcircuit for purposes of calculabe considerablysimplified
can
by dividingthe impedance
drop in the primary into two components, one, produced by the
excitingcurrent, I", and the other,by the load component, I'u
Under
the drop due to the excitingcurrent
ordinaryconditions,
will subtract almost directly
from the impressedvoltage. It may
use

Fig.

be

assumed

without

constant

value of the induced

Ei

V'l is

where

/" Vn^

no

Vi-

F'i-7'i(ri+jx0

turn

not

to

load to that where

with
under

xi^

7'i(ri+jxi)

voltage obtained

from
Xi^ directly

Polyphase
motor

InVn'

assumption ought
of

introducing any great error in the

voltage,Ei. According to this assumption

constant

218.

Vi.

The

exceed

the rotor

Induction

error

2 per

produced by this

from

the

condition

is blocked.
"

rotor,which

the influence

in Ei

cent,

Regulator. Any

coil-wound

by subtracting

polyphase

is blocked

of the torque

so

induction

that it cannot

developed by the motor,

polyphase transformer in which the time phase

relation between
the primary and secondary voltages of like
be changed progressively,
phase may
by any desired amount,
with respect
by merely moving the rotor into different positions
be used

may

to

the stator.

as

For
but

as

Such

device

is in

common

use

in laboratories

tion
phase shiftiagtransformer,but its chief use is as an inducregulator for controllingthe voltage of polyphase lines.
to add
the latter use it serves
a voltage of fixed magnitude
of adjustablephase to each line of the system.

POLYPHASE

If the rotor

of

an

blocked, with the

the centres

of

induction

with

motor

of the rotor

centers

454a

MOTORS

INDUCTION

coil wound

rotor

is

phase belts directlyopposite

phase belts,the maximum

stator
corresponding

through the rotor and stator windings of like phases,due to

the revolvingmagnetic field produced by the excitingcurrents
in the stator windings,will occur
Under
instant.
at the same

flux

this condition

the

primary and

secondary induced

voltagesof
like phases will be in time phase and the ratio of their magnitudes
will be equal to the ratio of the numbers
of effective primary
and secondary turns per phase. The effective turns
are
equal
to the actual turns
multipliedby the pitch and breadth factors.
If the rotor is turned through any
angle, such as a electrical
degrees,in the direction of rotation of the revolvingmagnetic
the maximum
value of flux linkingany rotor winding will
field,
time degrees later.
not change in magnitude but it will occur
a
The secondary induced voltageswill be displacedby a like angle
and will lag by an
angle a behind the corresponding primary
induced
voltages. By changing the relative positionsof the
desired
rotor and stator windings with respect to each other,any
the voltages without
be obtained
between
phase angle may
alteringtheir relative magnitudes.

Fig.

The

connections

for

218a.

three-phase induction

regulator are

connected in Y but
The primariesare shown
given in Fig. 218a.
they might equal well have been connected in delta.
the line the voltage of which
The primariesare shunted across
secondary is inserted in each line as
is to be regulatedand one
shown.
The

ratio of transformation

the circuit should

at

times

average

the

the load
than

be such

as

of average

of the main

the desired

to maintain

load.

regulatorwould

When
be

transformer

set

feeding
voltageat

the load
to

increase

is greater
the

line

454"

PRINCIPLES

OF

when

voltage

and

the line

voltage.
For

capacity.
ten

only

of

line would

This

ten

to

ten

of

use

of

set

decrease

to

voltage, i.e.,from

the

below

cent,

per

be

regulator of minimum

variation

cent,

per

average,

required.

be

left to

in Fig. 2186.
diagrams for one phase are shown
right these represent, respectively, the condition

change

in

Vector

voltage,

decrease

in

voltages

to

in

increase

an

neutral

the

on

is the

-"7

by

the

rotor

the

rotor

that

to

the
is

worm

The

either

provided

to

180

to

180

difference

in

phase.

stator

by

sides

line

of the

with

gear

also

influence

when

their

or

automatically.

so

currents.

which

motor

device

Some

of the rotor

it

developed

carry

small

turn

lock

to

torque

windings
a

on

possible to

serves

of the

the shaft of

on

hand

it

trolled
con-

mounted

the gear

only makes

not

windings is

stator

limit the movement

between

induction

degrees

regulator

the

are

of the regulator

degrees.

phase regulator adds

or

secondary

and

rotor

the

usually mounted

be

polyphase

and

and

by the regulator.

position, but

under

turn

rotor

is controlled
must

device

desired

any

V2

no

2186.

and

worm

This

it will not

between

The

shaft.

of

"

of

and

voltage added

positions of the

means

and

Vi

primary

Fig.

relative

From

voltage (not maximum)

voltage (not minimum).

regulator. Vr

The

lator
regu-

kilovolt-ampere capacity of the

of the

cent,

per

it would

average

permits the

twenty

above

cent,

per

less than

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

adds

out

of

the

action

of the

regulators should
a

variable

be

single-phaseand
The

noted.

voltage which

is either

phase with the line voltage. The

voltages

which

are

fixed in

magnitude

the

singlein

phase

polyphase

but

variable

CHAPTER
Effect

Harmonics

of

in

XLIV

the

Air-gap
Effect of Harmonics
Flux.

Thus

in the

Space

Distribution

of

the

Flux

Space Distribution

of the

Air-gap

of the space distribution

only the fundamental
of the flux due to each phase has been considered.
The harmonics
in the time variation of the air-gap flux were
also neglected.
This was
equivalentto assuming that both the space distribution
and the time variation of the air-gapflux were
sinusoidal.
The
voltage induced by the air-gapflux in the primary winding must
be equal at every instant to the primary impressedvoltageminus
the primary leakage impedance drop. The wave
shape of the
It follows,
air-gapflux must adjustitselfto meet this condition.
that if the impressed voltageis sinusoidal,
the time variation of
the air-gapflux will also be sinusoidal except in so far as it may
be slightlyaffected by the small resistance and leakage drops in
the primary windings.
be exactlysinusoidal
The space distribution of the flux cannot
with any
possibledistribution of the primary winding, but it
of slots per phase and the
approaches this form as the number
"

number

of

the rotor

far

phases are

increased.

slots will introduce

presence

small harmonics

the space distribution of the

littleeffect.
relatively

variation and
will have

The

of the stator and

into both

the time

air-gapflux but these

neglectall harmonics in the time variation of

in
this condition,all of the harmonics
the air-gap flux. Under
considered with respect
the space distribution of the flux,when
frequency
to any
phase of the stator winding, have fundamental
motive
with respect to time.
They can, therefore,induce only electroforces of fundamental
frequency in the stator winding.
For

the present

of the space distribution of the flux induces

in the rotor which react to diminish the flux that produces
currents
in the space
the harmonics
them.
In a similar way,
The

fundamental

455

456

PRINCIPLES

OF

of the flux induce

distribution

will not

currents

be true

MACHINERY

in the flux

harmonics

which

in the rotor

currents

the harmonics

to diminish

react

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

causing them.

of the rotor

also
These

current, since

the ratios of their

of

the

frequenciesto the frequencyof the fundamental

current
cannot, under
ordinary conditions,be

rotor

integers.
harmonics

All the odd

of the

distribution

third harmonic
the

with

third

may

is the order of the

integer.

any

In

cancel.

ing,
six-phasewindIn general, the

expressedby
2xm

harmonic,

(160)

"

the number

of

phases and

three-phasewinding, the firstharmonic which

monic
is the fifth. The rotating field due to the fifth haroccur
turns in the oppositedirection to the field produced by the

In the
can

of

phases cancel.

be
p

where

fifth harmonics

and

harmonics
possible

In

air-gap flux.

in the three

in the space
three-phasewinding, the

exceptionsoccur

some

case

fundamental.
the

The

direction

same

the fields caused

field due
as

in the

by harmonics

in

turn

The

where

{2xm +

general,

to

the fundamental.

of the order
=

(2xm

opposite direction

the

In

in

1)

the field due

as

fields due to harmonics

The

turns

of the order

direction

same

harmonic

that due to the fundamental.'

turn

to the seventh

to

"

1)
the

field due

to

the

mental.
funda-

speed of these fields is

ni

is the

of the stator

fundamentals

speed of the field produced by the

flux.^

Synchronous Generators, page 47.

in the space distribution
of poles produced by any harmonic
The number
of poles produced by the fundamental
of the flux is equal to the number
and
The frequency of the harmonic
multipliedby the order of the harmonic.
1

Section

on

fundamental

are

the

same.

458

PRINCIPLES

OF

From

equation(166),it is obvious
respect to the fifth harmonic, which
to the fundamental

in the
S6

If the

to the fundamental

condition,the

rotor

turns

of

case

1 +

5(1

5s

slipof the

with

rotor

tion
oppositedirecthree-phasewinding, is
in the

s)

synchronous speed with respect

Under this
of the stator field,
s will be zero.
slipwill be six times the speed of the field
at

to the fifth harmonic.

due

The

frequency of

ratio of the

E^.p,caused

by

electromotive

the rotor

of the order

harmonic

any

the electromotive
is

that the

is driven

rotor

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

p to

frequencyof

by the fundamental

in the rotor

force induced

the

force,

(equation 164)

fr.l

fr.l

from

Replacing (ni + pni) by its value

that

remembering

equation (165) and

1
^'

o" "o

-^^^^'^ ^''"^ ^^^gives

~

fr."
fr.l

Sjl

$" from

of

value

substituting the

By

Sfl

equation (166) this

becomes

(1

1 +

^)P

(167)

/r,l
ratio will be

This

the

in the rotor

the

frequenciesof

the fundamental

by

distribution

space

of the

stator

variation of the stator flux due to any

The

rotor

and
the

current, therefore,cannot
a

series of harmonics

and

ordinary understanding of the

If the time
flux may
The
rotor

variation

be resolved into

effect of these
will be

No

integer only in exceptionalcases.

an

simple relation exists between

induced

fundamental

harmonics

currents

the harmonics

and

in

when
the time
field,even
phase is assumed sinusoidal.
be resolved
is not

into

mental
funda-

periodiccurrent

in

term.

of the stator
a

the

in

sinusoidal,the

flux is not
and

seriesflfharmonics.

producing

currents

similar to the effect of the harmonics

in the

in

the

space

POLYPHASE

distribution

of

the

variation

time

stator

of

the

frequencies

of these

themselves

and

The

relation

the

harmonics

the

flux

to

definite
If the

their

same

method,

to

the

fundamental

of

the

contact

to

slightly

the

the

flux

will

will, consequently,
of

case

which

etc.

respect

by the

to
motor

what

In
to

the

Due

to

these

follows
stator

in
the

the

be

for

The

in the
The

circuit

direction

of

main

torque

of the

harmonics

in

in

torque

large slip and

the

high

their

effect

on

rotor

the

ish
dimin-

air-gap
the

opposite

tion
direc-

and
In

air-gap

the
flux

5th, 11th,

reactance

torque

space

motion

the

flux

produced

motor.

the

are

zero.

to

their

at

average

be

torque

the

the

instant

the

1) in

"

due

parts

from

The

setting

any

therefore,

motor.

by

part

Their

waves.

rotates

instant.

to

that

only

(2a;m

any

obtained

close

diminution

harmonics,

will

phase

motor,
this

produce

of

by

recorded.

would

by

is,therefore,

current

were

fundamentals.

be

oppose

three-phase

can

17th,

due

the

to

It

constant

be

by the

among

variation

instant

of

would,

order

of each

flux

due

the

time

air-gap flux will tend

the

developed
of

harmonics

by these

in

the

from

their

on

the

caused

currents

progressively

vary

of time

harmonics

of the

distribution

would

device

length

relations

(167).

values

alone

points

torque

the

rotor

be

the

but

rotor,

secondary

the

in

continually changing.

of

would

contact

harmonics

by

to

the

different

of the

Certain

flux

would

reasonable

any

in

instantaneous
of the

since

progressively

caused

the

of

changes

current

harmonics

instant,

over

the

be

by equation

form

wave

the

integral

will

the

harmonics

in

fundamental

device, and

the

to

of

have

not

represent

its

form

contact

due

to

The

currents

phases

given

as

since

wave

the

by

flux.

frequencies

the

attempt

curve

do

relative

and
the

induce

currents

459

MOTORS

air-gap

or

flux

between

are

useless

INDUCTION

with

developed

small.

only
windings

the

fundamental
will

be

considered.

of

the

revolving

field

CHAPTER

Analysis

Internal

Torque

Effect

Thereto;
Voltage

Breakdown

Shape

Fractional-pitch

Analysis of
of the

Slots

Starting

on

"

the stator

or

power

Pi

Slip

and

to the vector

diagram
input
power

The

452.

page

phase is

per

VJi

Torque

Refer

Diagram.
motor, Fig. 215,

the Vector

induction

the motor

to

Rotor

of

and

ing
Curve; Stability; Startof
Windings; Effect

Slip; Speed-torque

Torque;

Torque

Breakdown

the

on

Corresponding

Resistance, Impressed

Reactance,

op

mum
Maxi-

Torque;

Slip

the

and

Frequency

and

Internal

Diagram;

Vector

the

of

XLV

el'

cos

(168)

Resolving the impressed voltage, Vi, into its components,

Pi

{El+

Eili

"1/1

0 +

dj^ +

cos

ej;

cos

(/ia;i)7i
cos

6,^ +

cos

expressionfor Pi

The

/in) h

/ixi +

stator

^ -|- (Iiri)7icos
loss.

copper

be further

may

by replacingh

expanded

by its components.
Pi

cos
^i(/'i+ I^ + Ih-[-e)

EJ'i

cos

ef'l
+ EJ^

dj^'40

I+

cos

EJh
+

Eil'i

Eil'i
the

power,

+
dj"\

dj'lis the

cos

rotor

cos

0 +

core

cos

0 +

loss -|-0 +

transferred

power

stator

by electromagnetic induction

across

and

copper

loss.

0
stator

stator

the
is the

copper

loss.

copper

loss.

air gap

to

total rotor

P'2.
P'2

FJ\

cos

ej"\ Eih
=

460

cos

df,'

(169)

POLYPHASE

If E2 is resolved

INDUCTION

461

MOTORS

into its components,

the

expressionfor P'j

becomes

P'i

The

[hr2+ hxiS

/2V2

li^x^scos

rotor

0 +

cos

loss +

copper

internal power,

P2

Eiil

el
s)\li
cos

"

^+

"'2(1

IiEi{l

s)

and

cos

e,t"~'^

cos

^'(i-')
by

For any fixed

induction motor

slipthe

"

and
a;2^s^
"

ra^ +

"7=======,

(170)

'
-

?^2

is,therefore,

rotor

Replacing 1

ef:^^-'^

internal power.

0 +

P2, developed in the

=

s)/2cos

a;2V

respectively,
gives

'

internal power
varies as the square

developed by a polyphase
of the voltage E^, i.e.,
aa
in the rotor by the air-gapflux.

the square of the voltage induced

El will not differ greatly from Vi under

operation, since ZiZi is

ordinary conditions

of

large,although much largerthan in

the transformer.
E'x and E^ are directlyproportional,or E^ is
equal to Ex when referred to the voltage,Ei. E2 is the voltage
induced in the rotor when blocked by the same
flux that induces
of the difference in the
El and differs from Ei only on account
number
of rotor and stator turns.
E2 referred to Ei by multiplying
it by the ratio of the effective number
of stator to rotor turns
be equal to Ei.
For a fixed slip,
will,therefore,
s, the internal
developedby a polyphaseinduction motor is approximately
power
proportionalto the square of the impressed voltage. It must be
holds only so long as the primary
remembered
that this statement
pressed
impedance drop is negligiblewith respect to the primary imonly when the voltage
voltage. It is strictlyaccurate
induced

by the

voltage,a

air-gap

condition

which

flux
never

is

proportionalto the impressed

in practice.
occurs

developed by any motor is equal

Let Tj be
its torque times the angular velocityof its rotor.

Internal Torque.
to

not

"

The

power

the

internal

corresponding

torque

the

to

internal

Pj.

power

Then

P2

Replacing

by its value

n2

446, leaving
revolutions

the

out

per

2^712Ta

equations (149) and

from

equation (149)

in

60

second

to

(150),page

get the

in

speed

gives
P2

27r^(l

(172)

8)^2

Hence

The
induced

in the

equation (173) corresponds

in

voltage E2

secondary of

Although the E^ of

flux.

be assumed
induction
much

motor

larger leakage
this reason,

be

obtained

218, page
From

from

is constant

load

to

approximate equivalent

the

duced
in-

full load.

replaced by the

be

ordinary operating

of Vi in terms

approximate value
the

under

motor,

be

of E2 may

circuit

shown

in

Fig.

454.

Fig. 218,
7i
ViS

From

no

an

of the

account

induction

E2 in equation (173) should

An

may

purposes

On

considerably from

impressed voltage,Vi, which

conditions.

voltage

by the mutual

for most

assumed.

so

of the

reactance

voltage varies
For

transformer

not

may

static transformer

the

independent of the load, the E2 of

and

constant

to

1(ri+

72

l2V{riS

Fig. 215,

jxi) +

+
(j-i

7-2

"

jxij
(174)

n)^ + s\xi + Xiy

452,

page

E2S

/2V'r2^+

XaV

Therefore,
^'z

'

17

X2^S'

ins +

r2r +

sKxr +

^"^^

X2y

"

If E2 from

equation (175) is substituted

in

equation (173) the

expression for internal torque becomes

-''

4^/1 ins +

r2y +

s^

(xr + X2y

^
.

'

POLYPHASE

INDUCTION

Ti
The

motor

power

-f2"

obtained

in terms

of Vi

by

bining
com-

(175).
7i^(l

of rotor

T"

be

may

equations (171) and

In terms

463

MOTORS

S) STi

the motor

current

is

power

Equation (175),givingthe relation between E,. and F], neglects

the effect of the excitingcurrent, 7", on the primary impedance
pedance
drop. For a transformer, the effect of In on the primary imin most
of the small
account
cases
on
drop is negligible

magnitude
With

the

per

motor

the

conditions

of full-load current.
is also

motor

transformer.
are

/" is large,often

excitingcurrent

cent,

these reasons,

of

excitingcurrent

induction

an

the motor
to 40

of the

larger than

The
that

of

different.
as

much

impedance
a

as

of

an

transformer.

35
duction
in-

For

7" of the primary current

the component

For

of the

neglected when findingthe primary impedance

drop without causing serious error.
and
all
Equations (176) and (176a) for torque and power
subsequent equations derived from them involve equation (175).
in these equations as
in which 7" is neglected. Since Fi appears
a square
error
produced in it by the neglectof 7" in equation
any
motor

cannot

be

(175) will be exaggerated.

In all equations for torque and
to be

the actual

stator

power,

V\ should be understood

impressed voltageminus

the part of the

impedance drop caused by the component 7" of the stator

will be made
I^Zi,
No great error
by assuming Vi
current.
is equal to Vi
InZi, algebraically.(See page
vectorially,
stator

"

"

Vi
7"2i.
454.) It is fullyas accurate in most cases to assume
is equal to Vi
hxi, algebraically.
vectorially,
for normal
When
operatiug
calculating torque or power
conditions from any of the equationsinvolving Vi, Vi should be
"

"

replaced by

Vi

Vi

"

hxi

where

the

subtraction

is made

algebraically.Under these conditions 7" may be assumed

and equal to no-load current at rated voltage.

stant
con-

464

OF

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

If the rtriistancesand reactances, and the voltage,V\,in equation

(176)are expressedin absolute units,the torque will be in
centimeter

dynes.*

Maximum
Thereto.

Torque and the Slip Corresponding

fixed stator frequency,/i, and impressed

Internal
For

"

any

when the second

voltage,Fi, the torque will be a maximum
term
of equation (176) is a maximum.
Therefore,the slipat
which

the maximum

torque

occurs

be found

may

sr2
=

as

follows:

(177)
Substitutingthis value of
maximum

in

equation (176) gives for the

torque
1

vVt.^

^^

mT

^^^^^

2{ri+ v;^7TT^r+^

equations(177)and (178)it follows that the slipat which

to the
maximum
internal torque occurs
is directly
proportional
internal
secondary or rotor resistance,
and, that the maximum
From

torque itselfis independentof the

rotor

resistance.

The

effect

slipat which
maximum
internal torque occurs
without changing the value of
that torque. Neither the maximum
internal torque nor the slip
is independentof the primary or stator resistance.
at which it occurs
Both are decreased by increasing
the primary resistance.
The Effect of Reactance, Resistance,Impressed Voltage and
Torque and the Breakdown
Slip.
Frequency on the Breakdown
The maximum
torque which can be developedby an induction
of

the
increasing

rotor

resistance is to increase the

"

is its "breakdown"

motor

become

the torque at which it will

torque,i.e.,

unstable with

increasing
slip.
The maximum
torque and the slipat which that torque occurs
Both decrease
depend upon the stator and rotor leakagereactances.
with increasing
reactance, equations(177)and (178). It
to have largebreakdown
is,therefore,
obviouslyimpossible
torque
associated with small slip. In order to have largebreakdown
of an
induction
be
motor
must
torque, the leakage reactance
of an induction motor
small. Since the leakagereactance
like
*

may

Where

be used

stator

is

small,as

for

ri.

frequency.

under

Under

normal

ohmic
operatingconditions,

all conditions

ri

must

resistance

be effective resistance at

466

PRINCIPLES

in

crease

increase

OF

ALTERNATINO-CURRENT

to

an

slipdue
in the

increase

in load

torque developed. The

MACHINERY

would

then

ratio of the

cause

an

maximum

torque to the full-load torque is largelya question of design.

For

most

motors

the ratio is two

or

even

greater.

StartingTorque. At starting,the slipis unity.

condition,equation(176),page 462, becomes
"

VV^."'

Fig.

1 at

Replacing Vt^ by

219.

equation (174),page
startinggives
from

T,

this

r.f in equation (179) is the startingtorque.

its value

Under

462, and

/2V2

47r/]

remembering

that

(180)

is,the startingtorque is proportionalto the copper loss

pressed
in the secondary or rotor circuit. This torque for any fixed imvalue
voltagemay be increased up to a certain maximum
by increasingthe resistance r^ of the rotor circuit. It makes no
ally
difference whether the increase in resistance is obtained by actuincreasingthe rotor resistance or by putting external resistThat

POLYPHASE

in series with

ance

be

maximum

make

the

(177)for

the rotor

when

windings.

the constants

The

torque
r-2'
=

startingtorque will

of the motor

sUp unity in equation (177),page

maximum

467

MOTORS

INDUCTION

464,

are

such

From

as

to

equation

starting

at

(xi+ Xi)^

n^ +

(181)

By properly adjustingVi the maximum

be made
torque may
to occur
at starting,
but for this value of resistance,
the slipunder
normal
low.
running conditions will be large and the eflS.ciency
One curve
on
Fig. 219, page 465, is drawn for that value of r2
which gives maximum
torque at starting.
It will be seen
from Fig. 219, that the portions of the speedbetween
maximum
torque curves
torque and synchronous speed
are
approximately straightlines. Therefore,when the maximum
to occur
at startingby increasing the rotor
torque is made
is approxiresistance,the slip at which full-load torque occurs
mately
the ratio of full-load torque to maximum
this condition both the speed regulationand the

equal to

Under
are

very

For

torque.

efficiency

poor.

best

running condition,r^ should be as small as possible.

For best starting torque, it should be large. In any
motor,
must
be
made
between
these
two
a
compromise
requirements.
By proper design,it is possibleto obtain good speed regulation
with sufficiently
ing
startingtorque. When
largestartsatisfactory
temporarily be increased by
torque is required,r2 must

insertingresistance
cut

out

when

in

the rotor

the

rotor

is up

to

circuit.

This

resistance

is

speed.

Windings. In order to obtain good operating

Fractional-pitch
of induction
the reactance
it is desirable to make
characteristics,
low.
motors
(Seeequations 176, 178 and 179.) For this reason
windings are generallyused for both the stator
fractional-pitch
of
Fractional
and rotor.
pitch windings reduce the amount
fore
They therecopper requiredby shorteningthe end connections.
reduce the resistance.
They also reduce the reactance since
polyphasewindings,contain
some
slots,in most fractional-pitch
"

-coilsides which

148.) By

are

not

in the

phase. (See pages

same

decreasingthe length of

the reactance

of those connections.

and

tional-pitc
connections,fracing
the reactance
by decreas-

the

windings further diminish

81

end

467a

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

Fractional-pitch
windings distribute the turns in a greater
number
of slots per phase and thus produce a similar effect to
of slots per pole per phase. This gives
using a greater number
distribution of the air-gapflux and thus decreases
a better space
the losses caused by the harmonics in that flux. By reducing the
harmonics
in the air-gap flux,fractional-pitch
windings also
reduce

the

of reverse
by the harmonics
phase order,i.e.,of the order p
{2xm
1) where m is the
number
of phases and x is any integer. (See
page 456.)

torque caused

reverse

The
and

decrease

in the reactance

"

increases the maximum

torque

also increases the

sHp at which the maximum

torque occurs.
(Equations177 and 178.) The change in the shp, however, is of
minor importance compared with the change in the maximum
of turns
torque. By decreasingthe effective number
(effective
number
the
actual
number
the
equals
multipliedby
pitch and
breadth factors),
a fractional-pitch
winding increases the magnetizing
and

ciurent

load.
a

thus reduces

In the design of

fractional number

the power

it is sometimes

motor,

of turns

factor

in order

for any

necessary

to obtain

the proper

given
to

use

ing
operat-

flux

density. Fractional-pitch
windings may be used for this
since they give the effect of a fractional number
of turns.
purpose
Effect of Shape of Rotor
Slots on StartingTorque and Slip.
By proper shaping of the rotor slots and also of the inductors
be accomplished in increasing the starting torque
much
can
without
sacrificinggood speed regulation. If deep, narrow
"

slots with low-resistance

rotor

inductors

and

end

standstill may
times greater than its resistance under normal

used, the
The

cause

inductors

elements
page

the

apparent resistance

toward

current

are

considered

similar to the

will increase in

several

made

running conditions.
at

standstill is due

the top of the inductors.

to

these

are

by the slot leakage, but the

tendency of the slot-leakage
be

divided

elements, dx and

67, the linkages with

be

at

the local losses set up

of the increase is the

flux to force
the

in the

increase

in part to

chief

resistance

rotor

connections

elements

into

dyj shown
due

to the

If

horizontal
in

Fig. 41,

slot leakage

ductor,
passing from the top to the bottom of an inof the lower elements
causing the leakage reactance
As a
of those above.
to be higher than the leakage reactance
the
result,the current, will not be distributed uniformly over

POLYPHASE

INDUCTION

cross-section of the inductors but

upper

portions producingan
The effectis the

wires but is much

as

the

marked

more

will be forced toward

apparent

same

4676

MOTORS

their

ance.
increase in their resist-

ordinaryskin effectof circular

for the motor.

The

reactance

of these

elements,and consequentlythe apparent increase in the

is dependent upon
the frequency. At startingthe
resistance,
frequency of the rotor current is /i. At any slip,
s, it reduces to
and at full load it has from 2 to 10 per
jfis,
value accordingto the size and type of the

of its starting

cent,

motor.

Due

to the

decrease in the local losses and in the skin effect with

frequency,the
much

resistance of the

less than at
Power

Low

rotor

starting.
of Low-speed

Factor

the torque of

varies

motor

decreasing
be
running may

when

fixed output,
the speed. For fixed

Motors.

as
inversely

For

"

frequency, the speed varies inverselyas the number of poles.

Therefore,for fixed output and frequency the torque per pole
is constant.
The

of turns

number

in the

determined,as

the stator

on

of

case

of

an

induction

is

motor

transformer,by

4.44"'"/A^10-^

voltageper phase induced in the stator winding

equal to the impressed voltageper phase) and "pm is
(sensibly
of turns per
the total flux per pole. N is the effective number
by the number of poles. This assumes
multiplied
pole per phase'
where

E is the

series connection.
Consider

is already

motor
Suppose a six-pole

case.
specific

output,
designedand it is desired to designanother for the same
that the
frequency and voltage but for half speed. Assume
flux densityand axial width of the stator and rotor cores are to be
that the ampere
Also assume
for both motors.
kept the same
conductors (productof current by conductors)
per inch of rotor
Then, for equal
and stator peripheryare to be kept constant.
torque per pole,the second motor

V2
times

as

great as that

also be 0.707 times

the flux
much

as

density are

flux

per

oi

must

7TT
1.41

have

poleface

0-707

the firstmotor.

The

flux per

polewould

great,since the axial width of the

not

to be

pole,N would

motor, but there would

be

changed.

be 1.41 times

oniy

With
as

0.707

cores

and

times

as

greatas for the first

467c

PRINCIPLES

OF

if
times

as

For

given

0.707

pole.

turns per

many

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

power-current, the total peripheralforce

stator

the rotor,which is proportionalto the product of the

conductors on the rotor and the average
flux densityin

exerted

on

ampere

the air gap, would be 1.41 times as great for the second motor
as
for the first. To get twice as many
poleson the stator,with the
pole arc decreased to

its value for the firstmotor, would

necessitate

of both the stator and rotor

diameter

second motor,

would
therefore,
Force

radius

increase in the

an

The

of 0.41.

torque of the

be
1.41

1.41 X

great as the torque of the firstmotor, which is what is

requiredfor an equal output at one-half speed.
assumed
to operate at the same
The two motors
flux
were

times

as

density. If the air gaps are equal,the magnetizingcurrents will

of turns per pole. The
nearly inverselyas the number
vary
magnetizing current of the second motor would therefore be
about

1.41 times

motor

would

Assume

that of the flrst. The

be
consequently

of full-load current.
would

be

operates at

Its magnetizingcurrent
sin

motor

lower than that of the flrst.

that the first motor

0.90 at fuU load.

The

factor of this

power

(cos-i0.90)

would

power

then be approximately

0.44

factor of the second

power

factor of

or

low-speed

approximately

(tan~^

cos

'

0 90

^'^^

fixed output, flux densityand frequency,the effect of

decreasingthe speed of an induction motor by designingit for
For

greaternumber
current

The
at

of

and hence

design of

polesis,in general,to increase the magnetizing

to lower the power
factor for any given load.

low-speedinduction

satisfactorypower
of turns

used

on

will operate
factor is difficult. In practicethe number

the stator may

motor

which

have to be determined

by the questionof permissiblepower

desirable flux density.

factor than

by

more

the most

CHAPTER

Rotors, Number

of

Rotor

Disadvantages

of

Rotors, Number

the

distinct types of rotors

Two

used

are

Rotors;
Types

and

of Rotor

Slots, Air

Stator

and

Rotors; Squirrel-cage

wound

wound

XLVI

Stator

of

Gap; Coil-

Advantages
Rotors

Slots, Air Gap.

in induction

and

motors,

Two

"

the

coil-

squirrel-cage.Each of these possesses certain

distinct advantages. Both
have
slots which
are
usually partially
closed.
slots are
undesirable
as
they would
Very open
This
materially increase the effective length of the air gap.
and hence decrease the
would increase the magnetizing current
On
the other hand, completely closed slots are
factor.
power
usually undesirable as they would decrease the reluctance of
the path of the leakage flux and conseqixently
increase the stator
and

and

rotor

the

thus

reactances

decreasing the maximum

torque

veloped
de-

used
Magnetic wedges are sometimes
to hold the coils in the slots. Such
wedges give the effect of
closed or partiallyclosed slots and decrease the effective length
of the air gap.
The stator shown in Fig.212, page 445, has such
For
wedges. Induction motors always have very short air gaps.
this reason,
they should be provided with such bearings as will
minimize
and the danger of the rotor striking
the effect of wear

by the

motor.

the stator.
The
same.

of the

number

of slots in the rotor

In order

magnetic
be

to

prevent

and

stator

periodicvariation

circuit of the motor

the

must

not

be

the

in the reluctance

ratio of these numbers

integer. Moreover, if the rotor and stator had

the same;
number
of slots,there would
be a tendency for the
rotor at starting
to lock in the positionwhich
makes the reluctance
of the magnetic circuit a minimum.
The
Rotors.
Coil-wound
windings of coil-wound rotors are
be arranged for
similar to those of alternators.
They must
of
of poles as the stator, but the number
the same
number
must

not

an

"

468

470

OF

PRINCIPLES

and

Advantages
The

"

the

chief

by

inserting

in

the
its

are

than

higher

is

large
1

This

necessarily

starting

and

the

resistance
many

taken

is
times

by

factor

power

referred
that

motor

the

the

This

starting
of

resistance*

have

at

to
of

the

increase

this

and

having

starting
primary.

squirrel-cage

variation

of

type

to

or

rotor

less

ruggedness

are

extremely

rotors

speed

is

varied

torque

Consequently,
good

Rotor.

rotor

resistance

slip rings.

resistances.
but

coil-wound

apparent

Squirrel-cage

low

torque

its

higher

type.

very

the

of

Types

Two

disadvantages

slightly

cost,

current

to

chief

The

have

low

starting

used

the

by
its

having

between

squirrel-cage
and

rugged

be

speed.

the

of

resistances
may

of

possessed

it offers

resistance

vary

Disadvantages

advantage

possibiUty

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

they

velop
de-

regulation.

The

squirrel-cage

rotor

is low.

Its

type.

actual

resistance

ia

CHAPTER
Methods

XLVII

Startdstq Polyphase

of

Varying

OF

Motors;

Speed

the

Division

to the

Polyphase

Developed
Motors

in

ods
Motv^rs; MethInduction
Motors

by

StartingPolyphase Induction Motors.

equivalent circuit of the polyphase induction
stator

/" and

I2

In +

considered

are

Referring

"

motor, Fig.

is

current

Il

in

Concatenation

est

of

217, page 453, the

where

of

Power

of

Concatenation; Losses
Methods

Indxtction

h
At

vectors.

as

starting,full

voltage being applied and no resistance added to the rotor

is from five
circuit,the current taken by an induction motor
to eight times
the full-load current.
If the stator and rotor
constants
assumed
referred
to be approximately equal when
are
to either the stator or rotor, the magnetizing current
when the
slipis unity will be only about half as large as it is wheo the
motor
is running under normal conditions,same
tage
impressed volConsequently, the startingcurrent taken
being assumed.
to its rotor
which
has no resistance added
circuit
by a motor
be considered to be approximatelyequal to the secondary
may
referred to the primary. From
current
Fig. 217, neglectmg
the divided circuit and making s
1,
=

^"-

^i|

^2'L^
,

The

approximate

power

P-f-'-

factor

correspondingto

reactances

are

//
Vin

resistance be added
that

to the rotor

magnetizingcurrent

three

to

factor at

power

circuit.

equations (182)and (183)can

is added

the

to the rotor

(183)

^2
+ {xi+ Xi)^
/"2)^

usually from

Therefore, the

this is

''iV)

The

(182)

A
^2
+ r2y + (xi-I-Xi)^]
lV{ri

be

negligible.

the

times

startingis low if

It must

sistances.
reno

be remembered

appliedonly when

circuit as under

471

four

this condition

no

ance
resistalone is

472

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

startingtorque, equation (180),page 465, has already been

The

to be

found

47r/i
The

starting torque is, therefore,proportionalto the

circuit.

loss in the rotor

torque of the motor

be increased

It may

to

resistance

by increasingthe

copper

the maximum
of the

rotor

circuit.
Small

motors

the

line,but

to

be

may

when

current

at

current

taken

by

the

of this method

use

employed

even

started

low

large

directly

by connecting;them

in this way,
factor.

power

motor

in the

started

The

they take
magnitude

of

very

the

largerthan a few horsepower prevents

for startinglarge motors.
It is seldom

case

of small motors.

starting polyphase induction

from
the line: by
without
motors
taking excessive current
reducing the impressed voltage,by insertingresistance in the
with squirrel-cagearmatures
must
be
circuit. Motors
rotor
started at reduced
with coil-wound
armatures
voltage. Motors
be started by either reducing the voltage or by inserting
may
resistance,although the latter is usually employed. There
would
be no object in using a coil-wound
armature
except for
increasingthe startingtorque or for varying the speed.
reduced
The
voltage for starting is usually obtained
by
of a compensator
means
giving from one-half to one-third
normal
is brought up to speed on
this
voltage. The motor
reduced
full line voltage. For
on
voltage and then thrown
with coil-wound
starting motors
trollers,
armatures, drum-type consimilar to those employed for varying the speed of
There

are

direct-current

two

methods

series

for

motors,

are

generallyused.

The

first

positionof the handle on these controllers puts the stator across

full line voltage and closes the rotor circuit through resistance.
Successive
positionsof the controller handle reduce the resistance
and finally
the rotor is short-circuited.
The resistance
units are usually of the grid type and are external to the controller.
When
this method
of starting is employed, motors
be brought up to speed under
load which requiresa
may
any
The
torque not exceeding the maximum
torque of the motor.
current required to develop a given torque when
startingwith

POLYPHASE

in the

resistance

develop the

same

per

is

ampere

when

rotor

the

on

same

as

that

constant

stable

requiredto
The

running conditions.

characteristic

473

MOTORS

circuit is the

torque under

operating
the

INDUCTION

torque

of the induction

motor

part of its speed-torquecurve,

synchronous speed and maximum

torque. If full-load torque is required,the current will be equal
full-load current
to the normal
of the motor.
Equation (176),
be written
page 462, for the torque may

i.e.,on

part between

T,

(184)

47r/i
From

Fig. 218,

454,

page

r2

ri

V,

Qn +

'

(r,7) +

(a;i+ ^^y.

Xl

-J

X2

(185)

'

(186)

V,(G-jB)

Therefore, if ti plus the resistance,

r'2,inserted in the rotor circuit at startingis made equal to
divided by the slip at full load, both the torque developed
n
At

starting, s

by the
load.

This

1.

and the current

motor

will also be the

where

"

starting,
rj

(181),page
When

only, it

when

r^

at

full

factor is

r\ is made

full load.

the motor

be made

must

at full load

slipat

is the

develop its maximum

equalto VnM^T^T+^aPi

torque

equation

466.

resistance

or

in

is inserted

in the

armature

during starting
and arranged to

placed inside the rotor

rod passingthrough the
of a sliding
by means

is sometimes

be cut out

as

same

If it is desired to have
at

as

same

equation (186) the approximate power

From

equal to

it takes will be the

474

PRINCIPLES

OF

holloTV shaft.

The

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

objectionto

MACHINERY

this arrangement

is the

danger

over-heating the starting resistance either by leaving it in

circuit too long or by trying to start the motor
under too great

of

load.

Although

be

ing
accomplished in increasingthe startwith squirrel-cage
armatures
by properly
torque of motors
with coil-wound
shaping the rotor slots and inductors,motors
be employed when
rotors and slip rings should
high starting
torque is desired. It is possibleto design motors with squirrelwhich
will give full-load torque at starting
armatures
cage
and will also have fairlysatisfactory
speed regulation. Such
motors
velop
require several times the normal, full-load current to dethis torque at startingsince at starting,they are not on
the part of the speed-torque curve
where the torque per ampere
is approximately constant.
Methods
of Varying the
Speed of Polyphase Induction
Motors.
There are four ways
by which the speed of a polyphase
induction motor
be changed:
may
(a")By insertingresistance in the rotor circuit.
be connected
for
(6) By using a stator winding which can
different numbers
of poles.
(c) By varying the frequency.
for two
series connection
or
more
or
(d) By concatenation

much

can

"

"

motors.

(a) By

This

method

of

controlling the

speed
of an
induction
rotor
with slip
motor
requires a coil-wound
For
normal
rings. Rotors are usually star-connected.
speed,
the slip rings are
short-circuited.
During starting and also
when
the speed is to be reduced
below normal
speed, the slip
connected
rings are
through suitable resistances. The
slip
of

Resistance.

induction

an

"

motor

?-2

where

=
.

For

"

be found

may

by

K^

r
_

-J[ri
-^J

equation (176),page

given impressed voltage and

+
(a;i

x.Y]]^
(187)

462.

frequency, i?^ is

constant.

POLYPHASE

INDUCTION

475

MOTORS

Therefore, for any fixed internal torque, T2, and constant

impressed voltage and frequency, the slip of an
induction
varies directly
motor
the rotor resistance,
as
r^.
Consequently,
the

speed of

induction

an

resistance in its rotor

motor

the air gap

varied

by inserting

circuit.

According to equation (169),page

across

be

may

to the rotor

P'2

460, the

power

transferred

is

Eih

ef,'

cos

But

I2

"

"

and

cos

dj'

Hence

/2V2

p,

and
s

The

slipis equal to

to the

^f;

(188)

the ratio of the copper

received by the rotor

total power
loss of power
in the

loss in the rotor circuit

from

the stator,

or

the

circuit is

proportional to the slip.

If the slipis 25 per cent., the electrical efficiency
of the rotor
is 75 per cent.
If the slipis 50 per cent., the rotor efficiency
is
If the slipis increased to 75 per cent., the efficiency
50 per cent.
is reduced

to 25 per

rotor

cent.

The

percentage decrease in the

rotor

is proportional
to the slip.
efliciency
of controllingthe speed is
Although the resistance method
simple and often convenient, it is not economical and the drop
in speed obtained
of it is dependent upon
the load.
by means
has its speed
A
motor, delivering full-load torque, which
of its synchronous speed by adding
decreased
to 50 per cent,
will speed up to nearly normal
resistance to the rotor circuit,
The
the load is removed.
speed regulation of a
speed when
is poor.
motor, with resistance added to its rotor circuit,

already been shown

developed by a polyphase

induction

the resistance

circuit.

the

slipat

time lowers

of the

which
the

rotor

internal torque

that the maximum

It has

this maximum

independent of
Adding resistance changes
motor

torque

occurs

efficiency. Adding resistance

is

and

at

the

to the rotor

same

circuit

476
of

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

polyphase induction
adding resistance to the

shunt

has

motor

MACHINERY

armature

much

the

circuit of

same
a

effect

as

direct-current

motor.

(b) By

Changing Poles. The speed of an induction motor

is proportionalto the frequency and
inversely proportional
of polesfor which the stator is wound.
to the number
Therefore,
"

if induction

motors

which

operate

at the

frequency are

same

to

synchronous speeds, they must have different

be arranged
numbers
of poles. Induction-motor
windings may
of poles which are in
for two different numbers
to be connected
the ratio of 2 : 1. By the use
of two
independent windings
four speeds may
be obtained.
Unless squirrel-cage
rotors are
of the rotor
used with such motors, the general arrangement
winding must be similar to that of the stator and its connections
must
be changed whenever
the connections
of the stator
are
changed in order that the rotor and stator shall have the same
number
of poles. On account
of the additional sliprings and
extra complication involved in arranging the rotor windings for
rotors
are
pole changing, squirrel-cage
generallyused for multiunless speeds are required intermediate
to those
speed motors
of poles.
obtained by changing the number
electric
extent
on
Multispeed induction motors are used to some
at

run

different

locomotives.

The

Railroads

on

and

locomotives
the Norfolk

on

of the

some

" Western

Railroad

of this type. Small multispeed motors

tools may
be obtained in sizes up to 10 or
are

for
15

Italian

State

in this country

driving machine
hp. from several

companies manufacturing electrical machinery.

The
difficulties in the design of a satisfactorymultispeed
due to the change in the effective number
of turns per
motor
are
phase, and consequently in the flux density,and to the change
in the coil pitch when
the connections are altered to change the
several practicalways
number
of poles. There
to change
are
^
the number
of poles, but all of these, if the voltage is kept
constant, involve a change in the flux density and magnetizing
which may, in some
current
cases, be as high as 100 per cent., and
which is even
a
change in the blocked current
greater. As a
result the power
and breakdown
be quite different
torque may
for the two
connections.
The
design of multispeed motors,
'

Die

Wechselstromtechnik,

E.

Arnold,

Vol.

Ill, Chap.

VII.

478

PRINCIPLES

OF

full-load current

torque of

of

motor, approximately twice the full-load

one

motor

one

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

at

approximately one-half full-load speed

to

be

results.
Motors
have

which

wound

of

stator

is connected

in concatenation

should

their ratios of transformation

should

connected

unity. The

rotors

the stator

to

motor

resistance.

The

of the second

resistance

is used

If the ratios of transformation

operated

as

well

the

to

mains

The

motor.

connected

or

not

are

Then

unity,the

of

through

provided they

the rotors

must

motors

may

have

equal
be electrically

The

primary of one must

the primary of the other

and

rotor

during startingor

either

in concatenation

rigidlycoupled.

as

and its rotor

required.

speeds are

ratios of transformation.

rigidly coupled.

to the mains

is either short-circuited

intermediate

still be

be

must

is connected

motor

one

the second

when

and

rotors

preferably be
The

are

be

nected
con-

must

be

short-circuited.
Let pi and pa be the number
of poles and let Si and S2 be the
slipsfor the two motors
respectively.If /i is the frequencyof
the

voltage impressed on the first motor, the frequency,

/a,of
the current in the primary of the second motor
is
fi
Synchronous speed for

/iSi

No.

motor

is,therefore,

2/iSi
P2
Its actual

speed is
2/iSi
(1

S2)

Pi
The

speed of

motor

Since both motors

No.

are

1 is

rigidlycoupled they

must

speed,hence
^

Pi

Pi

and
Pi
Si

Pi

"

S2P1 +

P2

run

at the

same

POLYPHASE

the rotor

As

smail.

INDUCTION

of the second

Therefore,the
Si

The

term

same

the

as

be

(189)

approximately.

"

^^

speed of the system is the

motor

short-circuited,
sj will
be neglected,giving

is

motor

s^pi may

"

479

MOTORS

speed of the first

or

2il(i,,)
_

(i
^^)
\
Pl + P2/

Pi

Pi

^i_
Pi + Pi

Pi

If Pi and p2 are equal, the speed of the system

one-half of the normal
speed of either motor.
similar motors

will be
The

equal

use

to

of two

paralleland in concatenation,gives two

efl"cient running speeds, viz.,full speed with two
in
motors
and half speed with the motors
in concatenation.
When
parallel,
the motors
in concatenation,other speeds may
be obtained
are
the

by

both

(190)

in

of resistance in the rotor

use

the motors

in

are

other speeds may

parallel,

of resistance in both

use

of the second

rotors.

The

gives essentiallya constant-torque

twice

the full-load torque

this

speed and

of

one

by the

similar motors

system since approximately

motor

exceeding

without

be obtained
of two

use

When

motor.

can

be

full-load

obtained
current

in

at

any

either

motor.

of poles are
used, three
having different numbers
be obtained, but in this case, two
different running speeds may
at a time.
The full
of but one
motor
of these speeds make
use
in
are
torque of the system is available only when the motors
of
The three speeds are obtained by the use
concatenation.
If motors

(a) Motor

No.

1 alone.

(6) Motor

No.

2 alone.

(c) Motors

No.

example:
and
respectively,
For

P2

minute

12 and

/i

1 and

No.

let the

2 in concatenation.

motors

have

eight and

are,

(a) No.

1 alone

2(25)

speed

60

=
"

(6) No.

2 alone

poles,

frequency be 25 cycles. Then, pi

The speeds obtainable in revolutions

let the
25.

twelve

375

rev.

per

mm.

8,
per

480

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

2(25)
speed

(c) No.

60

1 and

With

1 connected

"

to the mains

2(25)

12

,^

601

"."

"l

P"^

rev.

per

"i^-

,"

150

^"

difference

no

is concerned

system

"^^^^

to the mains

concatenation,it makes

of the

^^^

2 connected

mm.

per

(o ^o)

60

"

No.

speed
In

rev.

2 in concatenation.

No.

No.

speed
With

250

^n

which

far

so

mm.

as

the

speed

is connected

motor

to

the

mains.

Division

of Power

Developed by

in Concatenation.

Motors

"

complete expressionfor the division of the power developed

in concatenation
is very
the
complicated. When
by motors
magnetizing currents and the impedance drops are neglected,
however, the expressionbecomes simple.
Neglecting the magnetizing current will produce considerable
this assumption are
of
under
error
yet expressions deduced
be considered as first approximations. If the
value, and may
is neglected,
the effect
magnetizing current of the second motor
of this motor
the firstis very nearly the same
if a non-inductive
on
as
The

resistance
The

actual

adding

as

added

were

effect of the second

impedance

an

to

equal

be from
a

to

the

0.85

to

non-inductive

is to

The

only the slipbut

Single and
and

resistance

torque.

current

The

double

170, page

to the

first motor.

to the

second

rotor

of

an

The

impedance itself

motor.

The

same

This

effect of
induction

may

adding
motor

given current without alteringthe

effect of adding impedance is to change
a

the torque also.

primes added

will refer to

mechanical

of the

impedance

first motor.

the first is the

on

full-load current.

at

change the slip for

internal
not

0.92

motor

factor of the

power

of the

rotor

the rotor

ratio of the resistance of this

is

to the

power

the

letters for

voltage
the first and second motor, respectively.
is (equadeveloped by the first motor
tion
to

461).
-

si)I\

cos

"^

ej^'^'
"

E'i (1

POLYPHASE

That

developedby

INDUCTION

the second

is

Since

the

magnetizingcurrents and drops

currents, I'l and V\, will be equal.

two

ihe

two

also be

lactors, cos

power

and

5"
7

neglected,the

cos

"",

will

"a

of No.

E\{\

sQ
Sa)

_
~

Power
The

slipof
from

of No.

induction

an

loss in the

copper

the stator.

of this motor

slip,Si,

connected

to the rotor

drops

inductive

is

motor

Since the

of the second

to be

are

The

slip,
S\,

The

zero.

second

is

motor

magnetizing

that motor

on

by the

the
neglected,

will be

motor

of the first. Since

ratio of the

received

power

zero.
is,therefore,

The

to the

equal

drops

neglected,its effect

resistance.

be

cannot

are

^"2(1

circuit to the

rotor

loss in the rotor

copper

and

are

equal. Therefore,
Power

rotor

481

MOTORS

currents

is like

of the first motor,

non-

therefore,

zero.

Power

of No.

E\{\

sQ

_
~

Power

With

the

drops

of No.

W\

in the

second

Power

of No.

neglected,E"i

motor

E'iSi.

Therefore,
1

Si

"

riQll

_
~

Power

slipof the system

The

of No.

is Si

"

"

Si

Substitutingthis

in

(192)
Pl +

division of power

The

between

P2

the two

motors

is

mately
approxi-

therefore,to the ratio of the numbers

proportional,

of

poles.
Since the first motor
on
31

it,its

has line

flux is normal.

pressed
voltage and line frequency imThe

second

motor

receives

482

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

voltageE'2Si at a frequency/2 /iSi. Since

frequencyimpressed on the second motor are
=

the

voltageand
in the

reduced

When
the magnetizing
proportion,its flux is also normal.
currents
are
neglected,both rotors carry equal currents and at

same

full-load current

for the

full-load torque.

system each

This

motor

will develoo

its normal

that the moto

assumes

(ual

ratings.
Losses

in Motors

and

the Same

Current.

in Concatenation.
Number

The

"

current

the

of Poles.

Motors

wi

Conditions

in the firstmotor

ings
Rat-

in the

otors.

is normal.

Neglecting
the firstmotor, and assuming a ratio

current of
exciting
transformation
of unity,the

of

"

current

in the second

is

motor

also normal.
Voltage

the first motor

on

receives
Flux.

Frequency.

and

only half voltage at

The

"

flux of both

The

pressed
voltage and frequency imare
normal, but the second motor
half frequency.
"

motors

is normal

since the first

ceives
re-

normal

ceives
voltage at normal frequency and the second rehalf normal voltageat half normal frequency.
Speed.
The speed of the motors
is one-half normal speed.
Since each motor
has normal current
Torque.
rents
(excitingcurare
neglected)and normal flux,the torque of each will be
"

"

normal.
Copper

Losses.

will have
Core

normal
Losses.

normal.

The

normal

each

"

core

loss in the rotor

carries full-load current

of motor

of this motor

and

No.

1 is

is greater than

of the

frequency and

The

motor

full-load copper
loss.
The core
loss in the stator

account

on

Each

"

one-half normal.

largeslip(50 per cent.).

voltage impressed on motor
The

flux is normal.

No.

This motor

2
runs

are

at

normal

with small slip,for the frequency which is

speed, i.e.,
will be less than
impressed on it. The core loss in this motor
normal on account
of the low frequency.
Each motor
Power.
developsfull-load torque at half speed.
one-half its full-load output.
The output of each is,therefore,
with Equal Ratings and the Same
Number
Motors
of Poles.
Conditions in the System.
"

Power.
The

"

The

first motor

mechanical

work

will be the full-load power

of one
motor.
one-half the power
it receives into
converts

power

and

transforms

the other

half into electrical

POLYPHASE

one-half

at

power

electrical

This
second

normal

This

single

The

"

The

both

core

Efficiency.

The

core

losses

of

The
of

normal

will

be

approximately

will

be

approximately

Motors

with

The

of

motors

must

the

losses

the

by

power

the

in

full-load

the

system.
of

torque

20

with

conditions

the
be

important
considered

therefore,

be

operating

conditions.

in

less

90

than

the

of

each
losses

total

of

efficiency

the

full-load

the

efficiency
cent.,

per

the

by
of

number
that

the

the
more

following

system

the

different

method

used

poles.
has
in

magnetizing
than

have

motors

what
when

motors

as

than

less

of Poles.

analyzed

factor,

somewhat

full-load

when

same

be

losses

copper

cent.

Numbers

be

full-load

be

cent.,

per

forgotten

existing
an

will

is

existing
may

the

will

the

per

80

be

motors.

If

Different

poles

not

both

conditions

conditions

numbers

will
losses

motor.

one

under

motor

It

frequency.

mechanical

twice

efficiency

"

efficiency

losses

copper,

motors.

full-load

for

into

be

normal

one-half

neglects

will

torque

"

the

and

motor.

Losses.
of

voltage

statement

483

MOTORS

is transformed

power

motor.

Torque.

INDUCTION

an

preceded

in

has

concatenation

current,

approximation

regard

and

to

lected
neg-

cannot,
to

actual

CHAPTER

Calculation

of

Its

FROM

Perfokmance

the

for

Calculation

Induc

an

of

TOR

of

Performance

the

Circuit

Equivalent

the

of the

VIII

Circuit; Determina

Equivalent

Constants

XL

an

Induction

from

Motor

Equivalent Circuit.-rThe equivalentcircuit of the induction

in Fig. 222.
is again shown
motor
The
notation
will be used as in the vector
same
diagram of

Its

Fig. 215,
7"
in

as

Ih +

452.

page
e

the excitingcurrent, is not

jif,,

transformer.

no-load

The

of

current

an

the no-load

current

induction

motor

plus a component which suppliesthe no-load copper

friction and
windage losses. The letters gn and 6" are

is equal to Z"
and

Fia.

the

conductance

and

the

222.

susceptance, which,

at

the currents
and I^
Ih +
take, respectively,
equal to Ei. Everything will be referred to the
e

will be per

unless otherwise

phase
7"

The

apparent

+jlv

resistance

r2

of the

ra

El

(?n

voltage

stator

and

jbn)

including
circuit,

rotor

1" '"2

"

484

at

quency,
fre-

stated.

load,is
J? +

normal

the

486

PRINCIPLES

OF

and

to the rotor

represents the internal power

develop if it were
The

speed

actual

(1

"

to

Pp

synchronous speed.
developed by the
power

internal

The

Ei^g.il

Pp developed

power

"

torque

would

rotor

at

the

s) is

"

Ei^QiiX

the motor

at

run

P,
The

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

at

at the

198)

pulley is

and windage loss)

(friction
s)
the pulley is
"

T,

"^
(1

s)

loss to be constant

Assuming the friction and windage

"c

199)

(200)

2x

s)

and windage loss)

{friction
(1-^)
^:

'''~

2.^
P

Pi

The

(195),the

equations (193) and

From

stator

power

input,Pi, is

+iEiB)iEib^)
{EiG)iEigai)

Ei^iGgab+ Bbai,)

(201)

factor is

p-fThe

stator

j:vi

is
efficiency

Pp
''

P[

preceding equations are in c.g.s. units. If the

quantitiesare expressedin practicalunits,the equations become
Stator phase voltage,Fi, in volts
All

of the

Stator

Ei\/G^

phase current, 7i,in

=

Stator power,

B^

(202)

amperes

EiVgat'+

Pi, per phase in

=

ba,^

(203)

watts

Ei^ {Ggab+

Bbab)

(204)

INDUCTION

POLYPHASE

Stator power

487

MOTORS

factor

Vili

Pulley output, Pp, per phase in horsepower

=

{Ei^Qi(1

mTo

Torque
550

at

s)

"

pulley,Tp, per phase in pound feet

and windage lossin watts)l
\ f
(friction
"

I,

2ir

and windageloss inwatts)}^(206)

(friction

"

"

phase current,1 2,

Rotor

in amperes

Eis

Slipin

per

cent.

^100=^100

where

P'2 is the power

air gap to the rotor.

If the constants of
be calculated for any

in watts

motor

assumed

(208)

phase transferred

per

across

the

known, the performance may

are

slipfrom equations(202)to (208),

inclusive.
of the

Determination
Let

Pn

be

no-load

the

for the

Constants

input less

primary copper losses. The

be neglected. Pn should be
voltageequal to Vi may be

rotor

EquivalentCircuit.
friction and windage and

copper

measured
used

"

loss at

at

without

producingany

correction may
be made
If necessary
error.
a
by assuming P" to vary as the square of the
be the total measured

I^

no-load current.

/'" \/l

"

load may
voltageEi, but
no

for the

great

voltage,

voltage. Let /'"

Then

(no-loadpower

factor)^

Ih+e
and

"

The

at a speed
windage loss should be measured
accurfM;"t to measure
s). It is,however, suflSciently

friction and

(1
the no-load speed and
to

"

assume

it to remain

constant-

sponding
corre-

it at

488

PRINCIPLES

On

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

of the

MACHINERY

slipof an induction
ordinary operatingconditions,the frequency,/z
account

in the

current

rotor

is low.

of the rotor

will be

due to the rotor

low

small

leakageflux
The

frequency

The

effective and

nearlythe
will be

fis, of the

the

ohmic

since the

same

on
negligible

ohmic

resistance

wound

rotor, the ohmic

under

motor

core

of the

account

should

be

sistances
re-

loss

used

for

r^

in the formula.
If the
rotor

has

motor

be

may

primary

as

in

measured

transformer

Correction

will

impedance drop when

correction

before it

usually have

findingthe

be

It must

directly.

be

of its

referred

be used

can

to

resistance

made

to

the

in the tions.
equafor the stator

ratio of transformation.

the rotor
and stator
applied in case
both A or both Y.
There
windings are not of the same
type, i.e.,
is no
satisfactoryway of measuring the ohmic resistance of a
rotor.
It is possibleto calculate its value from
squirrel-cage
the dimensions
of the rotor but this is a complicated process.
The

also be

must

effective resistance should

r-i,since the

included

core

account

on

be used

for the

ance,
resist-

stator

loss due to the stator

leakage flux must be

of full frequency being impressed on
the

stator.

If the motor

has

wound

and

rotor

the effective resistance is assumed

and

the ratio of the ohmic

to be the

for both

same

to

stator

windings, the effective resistance of the stator and

of the rotor
be found
sistance
by measuring the equivalent remay
of the whole motor
at approximately full-load current
with its rotor blocked and then dividingthis resistance into two
rotor

parts which

are

in the

resistances.

The

power

is the total copper

ratio of

input

to

the

the stator

loss in the motor

and

stator

plus a

with
core

rotor

ohmic

blocked
loss due

rotor
to

the

rotatingmagnetic field of the stator. This core loss will not be

large compared with the copper loss. It will be approximately
equal to the input to the stator minus the stator copper loss'
with

the

rotor

blocked

and

on

open

circuit and

with

an

pressed
im-

voltage equal to one-half the voltage used for the usual

blocked

run.

If Pb is the power
"

This

necessary,

is

small

be used

input at frequency /i with

correction
in

and

computing

for this

it.

reason

the rotor

ohmic

blocked,

resistance may,

if

INDUCTION

POLYPHASE

and

Vb

and

equivalent

the

current,

corresponding

the

are

489

MOTORS

impressed
of

reactance

the

voltage

entire

and

stater

primary

at

motor

is

frequency

Xt

"/^"^l

{blocked

factor)^

power

J-b

there

As
the

is

it

torque

of

the

torque

of

is
and
the

short-circuited

voltage
load

in

and

the

and

30

be

per

the

blocked,

equally

motor

by

of

introduced

in

far

so

shows

than
the

the

as

referring

also

greater

value

cases

many

seen

much

cent,

to

on

give

that

primary
calculated

of

per

drop
of

the

cent,
at

rated

an

of

the

also

full-load

voltage.

of

is

motor

full-

the
for

higher

full-load
current

of

presence

much

as

greater

percentage

induction
the

same

much

fixed
of

the

are

that

any

account

are

current
50

conditions

except

reactances

impedance
20

will

error

motor

no-load

The

equivalent

is

in

equation

same

approximate

an

impressed

leakage

The

between

be

may

This

transformer

be

must

motor.

is

rotor

current

gap.

as

divides

correct

the

between

output.

When
in

it

of

resistance

rotor

only

not

divides

x^

assume

performance

462.

page

little

used,

is

concerned,

the

If

to

customary

the

how

exactly

assumption

are

(176),

stator.

resistance

15

output

effect

the

is

affect

not

equation

that

it

This

does
and

determining

stator,

them.

between

to

of

way

and

rotor

but

no

usually

the

usually
The

current.

is

air

between

XLIX

CHAPTER

Diagram

Circle

op

Maximum

Scales;

Determination

and

Torque;

Diagram

Circle

the

op

Factor

Power

Power,

Motor;

Induction

Polyphase

the

The
Motor.
Pol3rphase Induction
motor
first applied to the induction
circle diagram was
by
of this
forms
modified
Alexander
Heyland in 1894. ^ Many
diagram have since appeared. One of the simplest of these,
will be given. Although certain apand use
in construction
proximati
of
this diagram,
in the construction
made
are
Circle

of

Diagram

the

"

rule,quite satisfactory.
This diagram like all other circle diagrams of the polyphase
from two
sets of readings
be constructed
induction
motor, may
be obtained
which
quickly and without the use of special
may
the results obtained

by it

are,

as

readings are taken under conditions which

correspond to those existingin a transformer on open circuit and
with the
on
giving current, voltage and power
short-circuit,
In
motor
operating at no load "and again with blocked rotor.
addition the rotor or stator resistance is required.
to the approximate equivalent circuit
Reference
will be made
apparatus.

shown

The

in

These

454.

Fig. 218, page

sine of the

angle

of

li and

lag between
Xl

sin 62

V(ri

?-2 +

RY

Vi is

X2

{x, + X2Y

Hence,
I2

Xl

If

Xl

and

X2 are

assumed

'Electrotechnische
use

is made

by

footnote, page

B. A.
2.

to be

sin 02

(209)

-f- X2

constant, this is the polar equation

Vol. XLI, p. 561,

Zeitschrift,
See "The Induction
Behrend.
.

1894.

Motor,"

claim

of earlier

B. A.

Behrend,

POLYPHASE

of

^^-qr^

Fig. 223 with AB

=
,

is the rotor

scale AB

diameter.

as

(Xl +

Ah

491

MOTORS

Vr

circle with

INDUCTION

This

circle is

diameter.

as

X2)
suitable scale.

to any

current

is the

impressed voltage divided by

reactance, i.e.,by xi + X2, x^ being referred
obtain

To

the

stator

be added

must

Let

AD

Then

and

be

Oa

OA

/a.

Continue

the

ViA

to D

total motor
the

to

7"

current

and

same

stator.

h+e+jl^

draw

OD

pendicular
per-

OD

equal to h+e and I^,respectively.

line drawn
parallelto A Vi.

is the

is the stator

current, h, the

this

To

AVi.

to

Make

to

plottedin

7" and

current

OI2 is the stator

current.

61

power-factor angle.

G'
Fig.

I2C'

7i

is the

di and

cos

223.

of the

component

energy

stator

current.

If Vi is constant, I2C' represents the

scale AD
To the same
represents the
further

The

construction

simplifiedby making
effect

on

the

The

e-

I2.

current

equal to the
and
current

energy

loss.

core

diagram can be considerably

approximation, which will have little

branch

friction and

to the motor.

of the

loads.

at small

except
results,

circuit,
Fig. 218, the
Ih +

an

input

marked

gn takes

windage losses

Let the current

component

are

In the
a

equivalent
current equal to

suppliedby the

dary
secon-

I2 be decreased

of the current

by an amount
tion
supplyingthe fric-

to the
be added
windage losses,and let this amount
which is then the friction-and- windage
Z^ + to give I'h+
e

e,

492

and

PRINCIPLES

OF

core-loss current.

copper

loss.

shown

in

Let I'h+

If these

the no-load

by the load.

the motor

will decrease

slightlyon

value

The

of E2.

loaded, the

is

of

account

decrease

in

the

stator

by assuming the total

any

"n AD

load

is

loss
no-

core

loss

in the

neglected in the
loss will increase
balance

to

the

is introduced

error

and

constant

the

as

the decrease

to balance

stator

will tend
Little

loss

core

core

loss caused

copper

core

loss to remain

core

will be the

true

rotor

and

loss.

core

in the rotor

increase

included

small

will be

copper

slightdecrease

in E2 with

decrease

this increase

stator

OA

primary

approximate equivalentcircuit. The

but

no-load

the

output plus the secondary

motor

the increase in the

As

scale becomes

windage losses.

friction and

loss and

copper

primary
the circle diagram

on

proper

load,plus the

no

current, I^C will be the

load

made

are

the

to

MACHINERY

also include the no-load

changes

Fig. 223, AD

loss in the stator at

and

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

letting

is loaded

motor

in the stator

core

be

loss.

the point B
loaded, I2 will travel toward
the circle and will reach some
on
point,such as R, when the rotor
This is the condition existing
when the rotor is
to rest.
has come
blocked
under
full voltage. Under
this condition,OR
is the
be
primary current and, since the output is now
zero, Rr must
the secondary copper
loss plus the increase in the primary copper
loss caused by the load.
As

the

is

motor

parts such that Rd is the rotor copper

Let d divide Rr into two

loss and

dr is the increase in the

the load.
loss and

Then
pointsd and A.
increase in the primary

copper

AI2.

is the

AI2 represents the increase

loss caused

ef is the

Join the

fC

current

primary

rotor

copper

loss due

in the

primary

It is also the secondary current.

by the load.
Ce, ef and fC are, respectively,the total copper

by

copper
to

the

current

caused

copper
stator

loss in the rotor

produced

be shown

as

the increase in the copper

by the load,i.e.,
by the current AI2.

follows

and

Ce

AC
_

AI2

cos

BAI2

AR

cos

BAR

_
~

Rr~

Ar

^AB
AR

^^AB

(A/j)^
{ARy

loss,the
loss in the
This may

494

PRINCIPLES

OF

is also

Torque

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

proportionalto
hf

Slip
hf

Efficiency
he
hC'
Scales.

The

"

scale in watts
if the

scale is arbitrarily
assumed.

current

is the current

scale

2200, the

power

multipliedby the voltage,i.e.,

inch and the phase voltage is

scale is 5 amp.
per
scale is 11,000 watts
power

current

The

inch.

per

The

power

horsepower is equal to the watt scale divided by 746.

plied
torque scale in pound feet is equal to the watt scale multi-

scale in
The

by

-'""

per

minute.

of two

lines and

Maximum
power

the

on

will

where

hence

is the

does

Power

not

current

maximum.

To

to draw

AR.

The

under

the condition

tions
synchronous speed in revolu-

involve

Factor

that

at

occur

slipis given by

The

Power,

diagram

it is necessary

'

"

tangent

the

ratio of the

lengths

scale.

and

Torque.

which

makes

"

determine

The
the

maximum
distance

the maximum

to the circle

parallelto

726

power

the line

point of tangency represents the positionof the end

of the primary current
is a maximum.
line,O/2, when the power
The
easiest way
to deteirmine the point of tangency is to erect a
The
current
OI2 on
perpendicular bisector to the chord AR.
for the condition of maximum
On
Fig. 223 is drawn
power.
Fig.223, liC is the maximum
output. The maximum
power
power
factor will occur
when
the primary current
line,OI2, becomes
be found by
tangent to the circle. The maximum
torque may
The point
drawing a tangent to the circle parallelto the line Ad.
locates the extremity of the current line
of tangency in this case
of maximum

torque.

will
inspectionof the diagram will show that the motor
output before it developsmaximum
develop its maximum
power
under
ordinary operating
torque. A properly designed motor
the part of the diagram considerably
conditions should work
on
line Oli for maximum
to the left of the extremity of the current
An

POLYPHASE

power

of

shown

INDUCTION

495

MOTORS

The breakdown
Fig. 223.
or maximum
torque
is seldom less than twice full-load
properly designed motor
on

torque.
Determination
determined

from

the rotor
load.

of the
two

blocked

The

conditions

Circle

"

The

of measurements,

sets

and

Diagram.

the other

readings which

are

with

circle

diagram is

one

obtained

the motor

running

at

no

of these

each

required under

with

input,current and impressedvoltage,all

under conditions of normal
frequency. The no-load run should
be made
at rated voltage,but it is seldom
safe to apply rated
voltage

are:

to

to 60 per

power

the

cent, of this

the blocked

The

would
power

the square

the current

assumption
if blocked

take

resistance

be

of the stator

rotor,it is an

of its stator

Usually 40
be appliedwith safety. Under
varies nearlyas the impressed

is used
and

in

with

findingthe

the

current

and

rotor.

The

ratio of transformation
be

rated

resistance of the rotor

is necessary.

matter

easy

to

rotor

the ohmic

measure

resistance

of the motor.

obtained

or

tive
the effec-

If the motor

as

The

stator

has

resistance

measured

by multiplying it by the

referred to the stator

may

is blocked.

voltage impressed.
taken
when
the rotor is blocked
varies nearly as
of the voltage. In addition to the readings already

mentioned, either the ohmic

wound

its rotor

voltagemay

condition

voltage. This
motor

when

motor

square

must

of the

effective

sistance
re-

by multiplying its ohmic resistance

the
This constant
will depend upon

by a suitable constant.
design of the machine.
rents.
the diagram, choose a suitable scale for the curTo construct
this one.
Take
All the other scales depend upon
any
at 0
line OC, Fig. 223, as a base line and erect a perpendicular
factors.
which to measure
thing
Everyas a reference line from
power
0 lay off the
the diagram will be per phase. From
on
blocked current, OR, corrected to rated voltage,and the no-load
age
with the voltcurrent,OA, making anglesdg and "", respectively,
to OC
Through A, draw a line AB parallel
and drop a perpendicular,
AD, from A to the base line. Both
the current circle. The diameter
of the pointsA and R he on
erected at the middle
A perpendicular
of this circle is on AB.
point of a hne connectingA and R will intersect the line AB
and
to AB
Rr perpendicular
at the center of the circle. Draw

reference line Oa.

496

PRINCIPLES

locate the

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

by either making dr equal to the

effective resistance loss caused by the current OR in the stator
or
by making Rd equal to the ohmic loss in the rotor due to the
point d

AR

current

output

this line

JoiningR

in the rotor.

diagram.
or

on

The

conditions

corresponding to
then

torque may

or

at

completesthe

d with A

and

desired current

any

be found.

once

ao

8D0

S600
P

"
4*

50 iJ

cj 10
.400

e. 20

,10

50

S
P4

60-9
a
a
70 M

80

90
JOG
100

600

Output

In

Fig.

The

complete

characteristic

cycle,500-hp. induction
are
plotted in Fig. 224.
direction
from
curves

no

the
load

The

would

motor
to

motor

the

blocked

800
Horse

calculation.

These

0200

Power.

224.

of

curves

calculated
arrows

on

pass

over

condition.

beyond the pointof maximum

conditions.

1000

from
the

three-phase,25a

circle

curves

the
The

curves

diagram

indicate the
in

going

portions of the

torque represent unstable

portionscan, therefore,
only be

obtained

by

CHAPTER

Chaeacteristics

General

Diagram

Circle
IN

Power

of

the

of

of

by

Change

Induction

Generator;

Rotor

Current

Referred

Induced

Voltage, E2; Vector

Voltage,
Generator;

Function

AND

WITH

AN

INSTEAD
AN

Induction

Load

AND

Current

of
of

the
the

Induction

THE

OF

between

Stator

Diagram

of

and

Rotor

the

tion
Induc-

Magnetizing

Current

Apparatus
Use

Parallel

in

of

Condenser

GENERATOR

PARALLEL

IN

Frequency
Voltage,
Generator;
Induction
Generator; Short-circuit
Hunting
Induction
of
Generator;
Advantages

Generator;

Generator;

Induction

THE

Relation

the

Generator;

SYNCHRONOUS

Phase
to

Factor

Slip; Power

in

Synchronous

Induction
OF

WITH

of

Generator;
Generator; Changes

Induction

the

Produced

Induction

the

and

Use

tages
Disadvanof

duction
In-

the

Generator
General

Characteristics

generator does

induction
from
as

an

induction

generator

or

motor.
motor

of
not

the

Induction

differ in its

Whether

an

Generator.

"

An

general construction

induction

machine

acts

its slip. Below

depends solely upon
ous
operate only as motor, above synchron-

synchronous speed, it can

a generator.
speed it becomes
The

power

factor

at

which

an

induction

generator operates

by its slipand its constants, and not in any way by

of the current output is
The quadrature component
the load.
nearly constant for any fixed terminal voltage and frequency and
always leads the voltage. The power factor of the induction
and not by the load, and it
generator is fixed by the machine
is fixed

'

to operate such generators in parallel

is,therefore,necessary
serve
These synchronous machines
with synchronous machines.
not only to supply the quadrature lagging current demanded
ging
by the load,but in addition to supply sufficient quadrature lagthe quadrature leading component of
to neutrahze
current
32

497

498

PRINCIPLES

OF

the current

delivered

generator

depends

excitation

and

this

ALTERNATINO-CUBRENT

by the induction generator. The induction

for
its quadrature leading current
upon

unless

the

leading component,

excitation

and

which

in

MACHINERY

hence

combined

the

its

connected

load

calls for

induction

generator wUl

The

synchronous

voltage.

lose its
machines

its
parallelwith an induction generator determine
voltage and frequency. Its slipfixes its output.
Circle Diagram
of the Induction
Generator.
The
circle
be appliedto the induction
diagram of Fig. 223, page 491 may
generator by merely completing the circle. All currents which
are

"

lie below

the base line OC

in

Changes

Power
in

followingchanges

represent generator action.

Produced

by

occur

power

the

as

in

Change

slipof

SUp.
"

The

induction

an

generator changes.

synchronous speed the rotor current is zero.* The

current
in the stator
comes
entirely from the synchronous
machines, and is the excitingcurrent, /", of the vector diagram
of Fig. 215, page
452.
The
losses are
core
supplied by the
synchronous generators. The mechanical
required to
power
at synchronous speed is equal to the friction
drive the rotor
and windage losses.
To
current.
(6) Below
synchronous speed there is rotor
balance
the demagnetizing action of this current
there must
be an equivalent component
current in the stator circuit. Under
be developed.
this condition only motor
can
power
(c) Above synchronous speed the current in the rotor reverses
{a) At

in direction

as

required

to

balance

current.

At

exists,but
until the

will also the

any

effect of the rotor

opposite to the
At

may

air-gapflux,but

be

delivered

to

the

balances

the

component

demagnetizing
equal and

harmonic

these

loss.

Its external

delivered

currents

harmonics

to

e,

and

in the

circuit

external

required
supply the
this particularcondition occurs,

slip at which
core
suppliesits own
will be
At largerslip,
power
There

be

current, has

current, Ih +

the

'

stator

demagnetizing action of this rotor

speed above synchronism generator action

in the stator, which

current

in the

current

the

will not

power

component

core

output

the
is

loss.
erator
genzero.

to the load.

rotor

due

to

their effect will be

harmonics
small.

in the

POLYPHASE

Power
which

Factor

of the Induction

produce generator

can

that

of the

component

oppositeto
between

the

rotor

the rotor

this current
rotor

INDUCTION

Generator.

generator is

equal

and

ratio of transformation

1:1

The

power

factor of

generated voltage is fixed by the

and the slip. It is given by
6

cos

"

the

vr2^+a;2*s'

slipis small, Xi^s^ is

6j^IS nearly unity.

^2

cos

current

with respect to the

constants

Since

only
is

which

is assumed.

stator

The

"

induction

an

current

current.

and

in

power

primary

499

MOTORS

The

small

load

compared with r^^ and

of

component

current, the Z'l of the usual transformer

the

primary

diagram, is,therefore,
voltage. Neglecting

nearly in phase with the primary induced

the magnetizing current and the phase displacement of the terminal
voltagedue to the resistance and reactance drops in the
primary windings, the primary current will be very nearly in
phase with the terminal voltage. This is the basis of the common
but incorrect statement, that an induction generator can
deliver
only at unity power factor. The magnetizing current is
power
factor in
and the power
negligible
differ considerablyfrom
unity. The
not

induction

an

factor.
is

The
90

over

power

per

correct

deliver power
factor,in the case of

generator

can

cent, at full load, but

of this may
is that
statement

consequence

at

only at leading power

largemachines, usually
load

no

quite low. The quadrature component

mainly magnetizing,varies littlewith the load.
may

be

Phase
and

Rotor

induction

Rotor

Between

Relation

Induced
machine

Current

or

small loads it

of the

Referred

current,

to the Stator

Voltage,E2- The current in the rotor of an

is always given by the followingexpression
"

r2

JX2S

Rationalizing this by multiplyingboth

the denominator
jx^sgives
by ri

the

numerator

and

"

i^
Below

}
^A;7^ -^"^'iv

(210)

for li
and the expression
synchronous speed s is positive

500

PRINCIPLES

takes

OF

the form

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

jB which represents a laggingcurrent

with respect to E^s.
Above
synchronous speed the slipbecomes
negative and the real part of the expression(210) for the current
its sign while the sign of the imaginary part remains
reverses
unchanged. Under this condition,the expressionfor the rotor
becomes

current
current

with

change

in the

The

"

"

jB.

"

respect to E^s which

This

represents

has reversed

its

leading

sign with

the

sign of the slip.

/a in the rotor

current

voltagein

the

which

rotor

cannot, of

actuallylead the

course,

it,since the

causes

inductive.

circuit is

rotor

It is

is considered

current

the

to

apparent

The

reason

change
of the

spect
re-

it has

phase relation.

for

in

with
that

stator

this

this

only when

the

phase

apparent

is the reversal

relative direction of

tion
mo-

of the

Fig.

Consider
This

revolving magnetic
field and the rotor when the slip
changes sign. This may be seen
Let
by referringto Fig. 225.
the magnetic field move
to the
is shown
as
left,
by the arrow.
in any inductor,a, on the rotor.

225.

the

voltage induced

voltage will have

its maximum

value

in the strongest part of the stator

in Fig. 225.

when

the inductor

is

that is,in the positiona,

field,

Below

to the rightrelatively
synchronous speed the rotor moves
and since the rotor circuit is inductive,the inductor
to the field,
will move
to some
positionas b before the current in it reaches
its maximum
value.
Above
synchronous speed, the rotor moves

faster than
to it.
as

field and

the

In this

case

the inductor

b' before the current

cases

the rotor

in the

when

considered
as

the

Therefore,if the electromotive

observed

from

force will be

seen

any

moving
will move

the

to

to

fixed
to pass

left with
such

some

in it reaches its maximum

direction

same

will be

respect

position

value.

In both

with respect to the stator

field,that
force and

point on

is,from
current

moves

right to left.
in the rotor

are

the stator, the electromotive

through its maximum

value

before the

502

PRINCIPLES

leads

when

OF

referred

the

to

generator, becomes
terminal

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

voltage of the induction

terminal

when

lagging current

voltage of the

referred

current

is called for by the load but must

also

current

equal to the leadingmagnetizing

current

For

generator.
is limited

this

the

reason

systems which

to

to

the

synchronous apparatus. The

chronous
synnot
only supply whatever
lagging

must

apparatus

MACHINERY

of

use

have

supply a lagging
of the induction

induction

generators

factor.
inherentlyhigh power
be synchronous generators,

The

synchronous apparatus may

synchronous motors, or rotary converters.
of

Use

Condenser

Parallel with

Induction

an

induction

an

instead

of

Synchronous

Generator.
without

generator

"

Generator

in

It is possibleto operate

synchronous

in

apparatus

is connected
parallel with it provided a suitable condenser
its terminals,but this method
of operation is of no pracacross
tical
of the size and cost of the condenser
importance on account
be required,as well as on
which
would
of the
account
over,
drooping voltage characteristics of such a system. Morevery
the system would not be self-exciting
and would, therefore,
requirean initial excitation from a synchronous generator.
Voltage,Frequency and Load of the Induction Generator.
"

Case

I.

tage
SynchronousGenerator." The volgenerator is equal to the voltageimpressed

In Parallel with

"

of the induction

its terminals

by the synchronous generator to which it

is connected.
The
magnetizing current
automatically adjusts
itself to give this voltage. The
frequency is determined
by
the frequency of the magnetizing current
and is the same
as
the frequency of the synchronous generator.
The load is fixed
by the rotor current which depends on the slip.
In Parallel with a Synchronous Motor
Case II.
or
a Rotary
Converter.
As in Case I, the voltage of the induction generator
is determined
by the terminal voltage of the synchronous motor
across

"

"

or

the

initial excitation

The

converter.

synchronous generator

from

or

the

must

synchronous

come

motor

from
or

the

generator. The frequencyis fixed by the

speed of the rotor and by the load. It is equal to
.-/^
n
P
driven

converter

as

where

and

2
n

are,

60(1

s)

the
respectively,

number

of

poles and

the

POLYPHASE

in revolutions

speed
that

is

INDUCTION

minute.

per

503

MOTORS

It should

negativefor generator action.

The

be

remembered

induction

generator

will carry the entire load and in addition will supply all the
losses of the synchronous machine.
The synchronous machine
will

supply sufficient quadrature

factor of the load

current

adjust the power

correspondingto the
to

the system to that

inherent power
factor of the induction generator for that load.
The slipis fixed by the load.
The voltage regulationof the
on

system is similar to the voltageregulationof

synchronous
generator. The voltage at any given load is fixed by the constants
of the induction machine,the excitation of the synchronous

machine

and

induction

the

of the

circuit external

to

the

machine.

Short-circuit
induction

an

factor

power

Current

of

the

Induction

Generator.

generator depends for its excitation

Since

"

upon

the

synchronous apparatus with which it is in parallel,

the current
it can
supply on short-circuit after steady conditions have been
attained depends upon
the drop in voltage produced at the
terminals of the synchronous apparatus. There is a transient
short-circuit current

but

terminal

voltage becomes

is

Little current

zero.

since the maximum

any

fixed

terminal

were

could
in

is very

short.

If the

zero, the

steady short-circuit current

will be supplied on partialshort-circuit

power

an

induction

machine

can

deliver at

slipand frequency is proportionalto the square of its

voltage,equation (176),page 462. The inabilityto
short-circuit considerablyreduces the resulting
damage

back up a
and permits the
than

its duration

use

of smaller and less expensive circuit-breakers

safelybe

used

if the whole

capacity of the system

synchronousgenerators.

Hunting of the Induction

is free from

hunting since

Generator.

it does

not

"

An

induction

generator

operate at synchronous

speed. Any change in load must be accompanied by an actual

change in speed instead of by a small angular displacementas
in angular
with a synchronous generator. The
irregularities
during a singlerevolution are so small
velocityof prime movers
to produce only insignificant
changes in load.
as
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Induction Generator.
of the advantages and disadvantages possessed by an
Most
"

induction

generator are obvious from what

In a few words, the advantages are:

has

said.

the

already been
ruggednessof

504

PRINCIPLES

OF

rotating

the

well

suited

and

frequency

the

high

to

the

disadvantages

it, the

operate.

of

Induction

the

account

of

the

suitable

only

The
when

In

such

synchronous
unit

and

are

the

required

on

provided

with

Induction
which
the

are

motors
to

induction

grades

for

induction

are

operate
generator

the

on

heavy
action

regeneration

turbine

of

made

power

the

tors.
genera-

corresponding

electrically
No

as

is

governor

it

should

be

device.
of

motors

locomotives

on

such

Under

and

from

steam

but

use

grades.
of

its

together.

speed-limiting

sometimes

ratus.
appa-

operation

synchronous
and

is

factor,

power

for

together

steam

of

form

high

on

delivers,

it

receive

to

generator

speed

to

up

parallel

generator,

suited

which

connected

are

reduced

synchronous

well

connected

directly

at

sequent
con-

parallel

in

current

containing

turbines

the

and

induction

operating

low-pressure

some

and

parallel

in

current

the

is

and

generators

of

generator

brought

voltage

in

apparatus

The

"

stations

generator

factor

power

component

the

cases

it

voltage

operate

lagging

substations

engines

reciprocating

which

synchronous

exhaust-steam

by

the

by

synchronous

Generator.

induction

driven

controlled

fixed

the

feeding

its

synchronizing,

no

quadrature

central

for

those

as

its

operate

leading

makes

parts

attention.

which

at

it must

Use

such

to

rotating

machines

are:

additional

factor

power

with

little

its

requires

synchronous

necessity
with

of

its freedom

short-circuit,

up

automatically

it, it requires

Its

it

speeds,

MACHINERY

back

to

construction

are

of

frequency
with

its failure

part,

hunting,

from

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

is

electric

used

conditions,
on

braking.

down

CHAPTER
Calculation

of

Motor

for

Output,

and

motor

will be

wound

rotor.

and

runs

Three-phase

Induction

Circuit; Calculation
Current
Input, Efficiency, Stator

Factor
and

Torque

of

Equivalent

Torque,

Circuit

Motor."

Constants

the
the

Power

AND

LI

for

also

from

Slip

Equivalent

from

Equations

the

Vector

the

Given

op

Power,

for

Diagram.

1000-hp.,2200-volt,three-phase,25-cycle,12-pole
used.
The motor
is F-connected
and has a phaseTest

the

data

measured

obtained
stator

and

and

from

no-load

rotor

resistances

blocked
are

given

0.130

ohm

0.0772

ohm

below.
Ohmic

resistance at 25"C.

of stator

Ohmic

resistance at 25"C.

of rotor

At

no

load

between

between

Stator

terminals
terminals

voltage

between

terminals

Temperature

of

Stator

windings

current

per

nal.
termi-

25"C.
Rotor
With

volts

2200

75

1
.

short-circuited
rotor

blocked

Total

input

Stator

to

of windings

"

Stator

current

per

Rotor

short-circuited

With

rotor

blocked,

approximately

at

full-load

input to

Stator

stator

voltage

2200

volts

1960

1960

amp.
kw.

nal
termi-

25"C.
Total

amp.
kw.

between

voltage

terminals

Temperature

15.2

stator

between

terminals

29G

'^olts

250

amp.
kw.

current

Temperature

of

windings

Stator

current

per

nal
termi-

25"C.
Rotor

short-circuited

input

Total
Stator

to stator

voltage

on

open

circuit

voltage

Rotor

terminals

Friction and

windage

loss at rated

speed
505

38

between

terminals
Rotor

2200

volts

1500

volts

between

3.1

kw.

506

PRINCIPLES

OF

Calculation

of

equations given

Constants
in

will be

constants

the

for

Chap. XLVIII,
calculated

of 76"C.

temperature

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Equivalent Circuit.
A

phase.

per

will be used.

484

page

The

"

slipof

All

and

0.018

will be assumed.
2200

Ratio

of transformation

1.467

=
-""

loUU

2200
Rated
The

where

phase voltage

stator

equivalent resistance

Pj and

V3y^

is

the stator

are

input

The

of the current,
be for about

equivalentresistance

per

phase

not

loss
as

vary

For this reason,

at 25"C.

is

0.203

ohm.

per

phase

(250)=

resistance of the rotor

to the stator

in Pj does

core

1000

3 X

ohmic

the

full-load current.

38

The

As

rotor.

be constant.

r^ cannot

the stator

phase and

per

with blocked
phase current, respectively,
due to the leakage flux which is included
the square
Pb should

volts.

1270

"

25"C.

at

referred

is
fl 0772
rj

^^^^(1.467)==

If the effective resistances of the stator

be

to

in the

resistances

ratio

same

of the

as

the

equivalent resistance
proportionalto the ohmic
The

the ohmic

and

stator

rotor

ohm.

0.0831

and

rotor

are

assumed

the effective
resistances,
be

may

of the motor

found

into two

parts which

resistances of the stator

effective resistance of the stator

per

by dividing

phase

and

rotor.

at 25"C.

is

'"'''
r.

0.065
=

The

ohmic

0.203

0.089

ohm.

resistance of the stator

Vi

0.065

0.0775

0.0831

(1 +
ohm.

per

50 'X

phase

0.00385)

at

75"C.

is

are

POLYPHASE

The
in the

local

losses

core

INDUCTION

produced by

effective resistance

the stator which

Therefore,the effective resistance of

equal to its effective resistance at 25"C.

temperature.
at

75"C.

ohmic
The

is

resistance at 25"C.

of the

phase

per

the

the

stator

its

minus

resistance at 75"C,

plus its ohmic

effective resistance

included

are

appreciablyaffected by

not

are

507

MOTORS

stator

at

75"C.

is,

therefore,
Tel

The

ohmic

to the stator

0.089

0.102

0.065

no-load

0.0831

(1 +

0.0992

ohm.

Neglecting the

rotor

P"

50

j^

phase

at

75"C.

referred

0.00385)

at 25"C.

15.2

3.1

1.5

is

1.5 kw.

loss,the no-load

copper

the 3.1 is the friction and

core

loss is

10.6 kw.

windage loss.

voltage equal to the rated terminal

voltage equal to the full-load induced

loss is for

core

per

loss in the stator

copper

3(75.1)20.089

This

0.0775

is

where

ohm.

resistance of the rotor

r2

The

voltage instead of for a

voltage,El. The use of this value of the core loss will cause
in the case
of a motor
error
as
large as this.
Pn
Ih +
where

P" is the

,,^^
No-load

core

loss per

e-

phase.

MaO:g^iOOO
=

factor

power

2.78 amp.

1000

2200

Jp

phase.

is

15.2

\/3X

per

/'" y/l

"

0.0531

75.1

{no-loadpower factory

little

508
where

PRINCIPLES

OF

/'" is the no-load

with the rotor

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

current

of the motor

at

rated

voltage

short-circuited.

Vl

75.1

(0.0531)2

75.0 amp.

Ih+e
ff"-

V,
2.78
0.00219

mho

per

1270

75
Y97K

mho

0.0590

phase.

phase.

per

equivalent impedance per phase is equal to the ratio of

with the
the stator
phase voltage to the stator phase current
rotor blocked preferablyat rated voltage.
The

V^
Xe

"*"

The

blocked

\/l

factor

power

I960
-

,./.,

(blocked power

"

factor)^

at rated

voltage is

1000_

a/3

1960

^2^2

2200

1070
^.

Assuming

xi

Xi

1960^1-(0-262)2

0.625

X2

Xi

For the assumed

ohm.

when

x^

-^

0.313

slipof

is referred

to the stator

ohm.

0.018

ns

0.0992

(0.0992)2^
=

0.1809

mho.

0.018

(0.313)2(0.018)2

510

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

3(1219)^

0.982

0-1809

"p

"^^^

"^-^

1000
787

kw.

787
=

Torque.

The

"

1000

of the

torque

hp.

1055

is

motor

3Pp
T

^\1

2t

s)

To

the

express

foot-pounds

in

torque

pound

feet,Pp

1055
2

Pi

input

277.8

of G
"

motor

and

^
833.4

Current.

Factor.

"

found

efHciency of

Input

Power

0.050

"

0.0693)

1219

238.9

The

is

motor

94.4

per

phase

stator

kw.

calculatingEi.

cent.

current

is

jbab)

"

V' (0.1831)2 +

(0.0693)2

amp.

stator

power

factor

7^1 127C^vl38:9
=

833.4

in

the

100

The

Eiigab

277.8

were

OHtPHt

/i

phase is

per

0.1831

Phase

feet.

kw.

The

Efficiency.

0.018)

Bbai)

(1219)2(1.040 X

values

Stator

stator

Pi for the whole

The

^^(1

the

to

E^^iGga",+

2^

22,550 pound

The

550

2t

"

expressed in

second.

per

Input.

be

must

1""

^^-^

is

^^'

'^^^^^

POLYPHASE

of the Calculation

Example
Motor
Vector

an

tion
Induc-

the

Diagram.

"

performanceof

either known

of

of the Performance

Equations for Power, Torque, etc.,and the

method
culating
of calTo apply the equivalent-circuit

from

the

510a

MOTORS

INDUCTION

There

assumed.

or

induction

an

is no

motor

the

be

slipmust

the

such limitation when

performance is calculated from the equationsand the vector

diagram. If the slipis unknown, it is merely necessary to solve
a quadraticequation for slip. (Equations176 and
176o, pages
The
462 and 463.) Two
values of the slipwUl be obtained.
smaller will correspond to stable operating conditions and will
lie on the slip-torque
curve
(Fig. 219, page 466) between the

point of zero slipand maximum

the portionof the curve
which

torque.

of

equation 176 or 176a

which
squared quantities

other will lie

represents unstable

i.e.,beyond the point of maximum

either

The

torque.

The

on

conditions,
solution

of

will involve
will not

taking the difference

differ greatlyin magnitude.

subtracted
will be
quantities
method
of making the
some
exaggerated in their difference,
results than a slide
accurate
computations which will give more
rule must
be used in solvingfor slip.
From
509, the phase voltage,currents, resistances and
page
described on page 505 are:
of the 1000 hp. motor
reactances
Since

in either of the

error

any

Vi

7ft+e
=

Jp
effective

r.i

Xe

Xi

All values

phase.
phase.
phase,

75
.

0 amp.

per

at 75"C.

ohm

0.102

0.0992

xi

0.313

ohm.

Xi

0.313

ohm.

X2

0.626

ohm.

ohmic

=""

1270 volts per

2 78 amp.
per

ohm

at

75"C.

referred to the stator.

are

the results obtained

In order to be able to compare
equationsand vector diagram with those derived from
circuit
made

for

From
V'

(see pages
slipof 0.018.

506

to

1270

1246

"

InXi
-

(approximately)
algebraically

75.1

volts.

0.313

the

the

valent
equi-

510) the computationswill be

463

page

from

5106

PRINCIPLES

From

OF

equation 176a, page

for V

will be used

(ris+

r^y

sKxi +

(0.102 X

X2y

0.01020

(0.018

0.000127

0.018

463)

0.0992)^

0.626)2

0.018)0.018 X

0.0992

^
""

0.01020

263,500

Pp

3P2

3 X

787.4

0.000127

watts

+ windage loss)
(friction

"

263.5

equation 174,

From

(see page

(1246)HI
^

463

VKls)sr,
+ s2(xi+ X2)^
ins + r-2)2

'

in which

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

3.1

787.4 kw.

hp.

1055

462

page

V'lS
h

Vir^s+ r^y
1246

s^{xi+ XiY

0.018

VO.01033
=

Refer

to

the

axis of reference

/i

220.4

vector

amp.

diagram

on

page

Using E^

452.

ra

X2S

.J

"\/r2^
+

Xi^s^

f
=

V^^M-~^2V
0.0992

220.4

V(0.0992)2^ (0.313 X 0.018)^

0.313
-r

221.9

i87.5

\/(221.9)2
+ (87.5)2
238.9

amp.

0.018

V(0.0992)2+ (0.313 X 0.018)2

~

2.78

J75.0

as

an

POLYPHASE

INDUCTION

Primary copper loss

Secondary copper loss
Core

510c

MOTORS

3 X

X
(238.9)='

0.102

3 X

(220.4)^

0.0992

loss

Friction

and

Total

windage

loss

losses

10,560

watts

3,100

watts

45,580

watts

^^^-^^
Output + losses

Efficiency
=

787.4__

787.4

Power-factor

^""

cent.

-^j^^X

l60

45.6

94.5 per

17,460 watts
14,460 watts

100

3Fi7i

(787.4 + 45.6) X

1000
X

3 X

91.6 per

The

100

238.9

cent.

be found

torque may
be found

1270

the power

from

on

510

page

or

it

the

equations for torque given on

It should be remembered
that the equations
pages 462 and 463.
give internal torque. To get external or pulley torque the torque
The
corresponding to friction and windage must be subtracted.
equations give the torque in units corresponding to the units
substituted
in the equations. If practical
peres
units,i.e.,
volts,amand ohms
are
used, the torque will be expressed in a unit
may

for which

there is
To

dynes.

directlyfrom

as

no

which

but

name

is

equalto

10^ centimeter-

torque in this unit to pound-feet it is necessary

reduce
550

multiply by y|g

to

rr

47r/i

0.7376.

'"2
s

^2
X
4
=

3.142

7539

3T2

3 X

"

25

"

(220.4) X
'

'

^iS
0.018

0.7376

pound-feet.
and windage torque)
{friction

-^^"^^

7539
2 X

'^

3.142

22,530 pound-feet.

^^^

(1

0.018)

0.7376

SINGLE-PHASE

INDUCTION
CHAPTER

Single-phase

Induction

Induction

phase

Single-phase
of

is not

Induction

good

so

the

Windings; Method

of

Operation

Single-

op

the

raris
Fer-

Motor
Motor.

induction
single-phase

motor

LIT

Motor;

Explaining

FOR

MOTORS

as

The

"

motor

running

characteristics

but the
quite satisfactory,

are

since it possesses no
heavier than a polyphase motor

polyphase motor

startingtorque. It is also much

for the same
speed and output. The greater weight for a given
of the single-phaseinduction
output is not an inherent peculiarity
motor
alone but is characteristic of any single-phasemotor
or
generator.
A

startingtorque which may

certain limitingvalue by putting resistance

polyphase induction

be increased
in the
rotor

circuit.

rotor

of

to

up

has

motor

No

of resistance

amount

single-phaseinduction

motor

can

inserted

give it

an

in the

initial

form of auxiliary
by some
attain considerable speed before it will develop
device and must
friction and windage. The
its own
sufficient torque to overcome
the direction in
direction of its rotation depends merely upon
Once started,it will operate as well in one
which it is started.
This absence of a startingtorque and
direction as in the other.
vice,
form of auxiliarystartingdethe consequent necessityfor some
the chief factors which limit the use and size of singleare
It must

startingtorque.

phase induction
in

ratingsover

phase

power

60 per

cent,

Motors

motors.
10

or

15

be started

of this type

hp. except in those

than

not

where

Single-phasemotors
polyphase motors of the

is available.
more

cases

are

often used

only single-

cost from
same

30

to

rating and

speed.

Windings.^The
phase

motor

are

of construction

generalfeatures

single-

The essential
polyphase motor.
windings. The stator of a single-phase

similar to those of

difference is in the

of

511

512

PRINCIPLES

OF

always has

motor

fractional

pitch.

MACHINERY

ATING-CURRENT

ALTERN

distributed

The

single-phasewinding usually with

is generallyof the squirrel-cage
type

rotor

ing
auxiliarystartingtorque is obtained by convertinto a repulsion motor
while coming up to speed.
the motor
the stator
If the repulsion-motoraction is not used for starting,
have an
must
auxiliarystartingwinding or its equivalent, in
addition to the regularwinding. By subdividing the main winding
it is possibleto make a part of this serve
winding.
as the auxiliary

except when

the

Explaining the Operationof the SingleFerraris has given an

phase Induction Motor.
ingeniousand
induction
simple explanation of the operation of a single-phase
tors
motor, but as it omits several important facit cannot
be used for analyticaldevelopment.
It serves
useful purpose, however,
a
in bringing out
certain peculiarities
in the
operating characteristics of the motor.
be revector
Any simple harmonic
solved
may
into two oppositelyrotating vectors,
each of the same
period as the given vector
and of one-half its magnitude (Synchronous
58). Let the single-phase
generators, page
Method

of Ferraris

for
"

"y^

/r

stator

field of the

by

two

227). Each
fields I and

227.

Fig.

to

polyphase

any

0 and
If

200
a

cent,

polyphase

decreases.
curve

per

motor.

Below

in

motor

such
the

be

motor

revolving vectors

placed
re-

(Fig.

revolving component

II

acting alone would give rise

similar to that of
a
speed-torque curve
Such a curve
is shown
for slipsbetween
Fig. 228.
is driven

standstill

is similar to the

of

induction

backwards

or

100

portion of the

per
curve

from
cent,

rest, its torque

slip,its torque

between

100 and

in

Fig. 228.
Synchronous speed with respect to field No. I is 200 per cent,
slipwith respect to field No. II and synchronous speed with respect
s

200

to field No.

II is 200

slipwith respect to field No. IThe torques produced by the two fields are oppositely directed
since the fields rotate in opposite directions.
The speed-torque
for the two
curves
in
component
revolving fields are shown
per

cent,

514

OF

PRINCIPLES

the resultant

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

torque is

zero, and

it becomes

MACHINERY

zero

again slightly

speed, for either direction

At
of rotation.
synchronous
other speeds,it has perfectlydefinite values.
If the motor
is
started in either direction and is brought up to such a speed that
the resultant torque is greater than that requiredfor load plus
the motor will gainspeed until the stable part of the speedlosses,
is reached corresponding
to the direction of rotation
torque curve
below

\a

which

is started.

the motor

Fig.

230.

One

is that
peculiarityof the single-phaseinduction motor
its internal torque becomes
below synat a speed slightly
zero
chronous

speed.

induction
single-phase

motor

could

never

if its rotational losses could be

synchronous speed even
made
zero.
Although the torque of a single-phaseinduction
becomes
before synchronous speed is reached, it
motor
zero
be shown
that the change in slipunder load is less than the
can
The
slipof a polyphase
change in slip of a polyphasemotor.
is proportionalto the rotor copper loss (equation188, page
motor

reach

SINGLE-PHASE

476).

For

small

rotor

Adding

(equation 178,
of

slip of

single-phase

the

to

tion
inducof the

root

square

adding

is

the

shows
of

rotor

of

the

induction

its

internal

independent

Fig. 230

to

decreases

maximum

motor

resistance

single-phase

slip but

The

464).

page

of

rotor

its

well.

as

polyphase

the

to

increases

only

torque

by

slip, the

nearly proportional

resistance

not

internal

of

515

MOTORS

loss.

copper

motor

values

is very

motor

INDUCTION

maximum

resistance

rotor

effect

the

on

single-phase

oped
devel-

torque

torque

induction

motor.

the

Although
the
a

method

general

action

rigorous analysis

factor

is

The

induction

phase
and

the

the

the

the

oppositely rotating
at each

currents

to

to

mechanically
the

of

in

the

the

slip of

torque
hold

the

in the

by the
to

the

for

the

with

occur

respect

actual
Most

field is
other

large.

field.

with

The

equal,
to

equal

ing
Accordis

motor

their

rotors

in

parallel

produce

oppositely

stators

should

conditions
of the

of rotation
this

two

equal

for

induction

the

across

to

be

connected
to

as

direction

be

equal voltages.

stators

way

the

be for

to

should

motors

motor.

will

is that

single-

corresponding

curves

reality, the

represent

system

respect

In

induction

revolves

developed

with

to

in series

stators

field which

The

series

their

This

the

should

single-phase

in such

results

fields
not

motor,

rotor.

treating

currents

induction

with

fields.

single-phase

across

and

power

magnetic

connected
in

coupled

source

rotating

Farraris,

polyphase

two

the

component

speed and

of

for

tacitly assumed

are

slip-torque

two

motor

method

the

equivalent

to

The

induction

plain
ex-

Ferraris.

give good

Actually

not

voltages.

of

to

serves

of the

reaction

of Farraris

of

use

voltages.

constant

single-phase

method

fails to

made

just outUned

the

method

motor

slip-torque curves

the

include

in

why

Ferraris

of

must

neglected

reason

of

be

existing

voltage drop

stator

producing

of the

system.

field is small.

opposite

The

conditions

CHAPTER

Quadrature

Field

Revolving

of
of

of

the

Motor;
phase

other

speed

magnetic

which

in space

One

of

than

revolving
are

Operation

the

quadrature

given impressed

not

for

the

change

in

The

load.

the

other

It

is

at

synchronous

at

zero

field

revolving
quadrature,

major

in

above

axis

of the

speed, and

at

in

for the

of the

in

current

the

the

to

change

field.

with

it

were

the

This

speed.
field

stator

and

resistance

nearly circular
synchronous

leakage-

represents

it is

Both

speed.

elliptical,with

the

field below

synchronous

field above

synchronous

stator
stator

the

fields, in

component

synchronous

speed

the

to

two
at

ellipsealong the

which

vector

these

by

right angles

equal

winding

with

stator

magnitude
be

ture.
quadra-

time
stator

to

fields

constant

due
the

has

motor

drop

At

"

winding.

rotor

produced

is
in

would

extremity

is very

and

field

it not

were

the

of the

trace

below

speed,

be

impedance

varies

speed and

zero

drops

reactance

The

field

Motor.

the

to

voltage would
stator

Single-

in

in

nearly

very

its rotation

by

quadrature

or

the

duction
In-

component

two

fields is due

component

produced

rotor

second

in

by

and

component

any

Losses

single-phase induction

for

Single-phase

Induction

Single-phase

and

Motor;

Motors

field, produced

of these

Induction

the

of

Induction

zero

Motor;

the

op

Comparison

Field

Induction

Single-phase

the

Polyphase

AND

Quadrature
any

Single-phase

the

Field

Explanation

LIII

speed.
Fig.

231

represents

with

motor

squirrel-cage

is distributed
The
in the
cage

axis,
stator
rotor.

sides

diagrammatically

in

the

actual

aa,

of

flux

induces

These

of the

axis

the

single-phase
stator

field

is vertical.

voltages in the inductors

So

induction

winding,

which

motor.

stator

voltages
aa.

is the

rotor.

act

far

The
of the

in

opposite directions

as

these

516

voltages

variation

are

squirrelon

site
oppo-

concerned,

SINGLE-PHASE

the armature
closed
The

inductors

coils,as

field will set

of

paired off

the

in these

far

as

coils

in the

the

form

to

series of

horizontal lines of Fig. 231.

by

variation

coils and

winding justas

concerns

517

MOTORS

reacts

effect of these

in the stator

these

the current

short-circuited static transformer

So

the stator

on

by

currents

up

be

may

indicated

voltagesinduced

react

INDUCTION

currents

in the
the

on

currents

secondary
primary.
the

on

will

stator

winding,the rotor winding may be replaced by a singleconcentrated

whose
axis is coincident with the axis of the stator
winding
field and

whose

When

the

sides

rotor

bb.

are

turns, two

electromotive forces
its inductors

by the

is caused

the

the

by

electromotive
when

at

the

The

the stator

the second

pure

pure

electromotive

the

same

the

same

same

the

as

in the rotor

field due

by

inductors
to rotation.

transformer

voltage,
speed voltage. The

forces

direction
side

action of

rotor

induced

by the transformer
the

in

One

other is induced

of

first is

is the

The

movement

through

field.

stator

force induced

rest.

induced

are

transformer

field and

stator

nent
compo-

in the inductors

action

are

in all inductors

in
on

axis, aa, of the

FiG. 231.
stator field (Fig. 232). Therefore, the
axis of the rotor for these voltages is vertical,
and any
current
will react on the stator field. The rotor, so far as
they cause
the effect of this current
is concerned, acts
like the closed
For this current
the rotor
secondary of a static transformer.
effect as an equivalentnumber
of turns
winding has the same
concentrated
The

at

stator

above

66.

applicationof

induced
the

of the

right-handrule

the

inductors

in the rotor

in the

field will act

the horizontal

in all inductors

axis

below

by their

same

on

the stator

that the voltages

through

movement

direction

in all inductors

(Fig.233) and in the opposite direction

that axis.

The

voltagesis horizontal,therefore,and
will react

will show

along

axis of the rotor

any

currents

horizontal axis.

for these

they

So far

as

cause
con-

518

PRINCIPLES

cerns

the effect of these currents

may

be

axis at
at

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

the stator,the rotor

winding
winding having its

replacedby a singleconcentrated
rightanglesto the axis of the stator

field and

its sides

aa.

Since the axis for the

forces may
the stator
The

cause

stator
can

field,
any

have

horizontal,

these electromotive

currents

electromagneticreaction

no

winding.
of the rotor, for the two

axes

forces is

speed electromotive

at rightangles to the
i.e.,

on

on

MACHINERY

forces induced

in it

by the

stator

electromotive

component

field

rightanglesor

at

are

forces

electromotive
quadrature. Both component
flux.
inductors by the same
produced in the same

space

FiG.

Fig.

232.

The

in
are

trans-

233.

voltage is in time quadrature with the stator flux.

of the inductors
The speed voltage is produced by a movement
is constant
for any
the stator field at a speed which
across
be directly
The
fixed load.
speed voltage, therefore,must
former

proportionalto the stator field

are
therefore,
voltages,
component
That
as

due

to

with

component

has its axis

the axis of the stator

the stator
current
as

of the rotor

can

or

on

any

react

this current

other

instant.

every

in time

of the rotor current

to the rotation

field which

at

which

be considered

may

in the stator

field

space

Since there is

part of the motor

the rotor
electrojnagnetically,

and, therefore,so far

as

two

quadrature.

along bb,that is,in

field.

The

no

gives rise
quadrature

winding

upon
must

the axis bb is

which

on

this

act, so far

concerned^

SINGLE-PHASE

like

reactance

coil.

magnetic circuit with

INDUCTION

It is

equivalentto

air gaps.

two

519

MOTORS

singlewinding on

Its reactance

for the axis bb

be

high. The current producing the quadrature field,

must
therefore,
lag nearly 90 degrees behind the speed voltage.
of the speed voltagecoincides in time with
Since the maximum
must

the maximum

flux,it follows that the current producing

the quadrature field,
and hence the quadrature field itself,
both nearly in time quadrature with the stator field.

are

The

of the stator

two

separatelyand
of the

current

is the

component

will be

voltagesinduced

coincides with

axis

they
producing an

current

the axis bb.

actual

The

in the rotor

currents

the rotor

was

of the two

sum

designatedby the letter

component

axis which

as

All

motor.

is the vector

b, to indicate along which

or

inductor

The

to the stator
a

referred to the stator

polyphase induction

rotor

currents.

will be

will be considered

will also be referred to the stator.

in the rotor
in

in the rotor

currents

component

component

/ with

For

armature

It is the

referred

when

react.

rent
cur-

subscript,

example
magnetic

component

rent
cur-

subscriptsmust be
used with the component
voltages:one, a or b, to indicate the
axis to which it belongs;a second, M or Q, to indicate
armature
whether it is produced by the main or stator field or by the quadrature
field;a third,T or *S,to indicate whether a transformer
For example, E^^s is the speed
or
a speed voltage is intended.
voltage induced in the rotor by its rotation in the stator field M.
field.

producing the quadrature

producesa component
along the axis 66.
It

Let

"pm

and

h in the armature

current

and

"pq be the stator

Three

the

which

reacts

quadrature fields,
tively,
respec-

then

Kmt

KNvuf

(211)

KNvMn

(212)

and

E,MS

where

At

a,

constant

the number

of turns

on

the rotor referred to the stator

frequency
speed in revolutions per second multipliedby
of pairsof poles.
number

synchronousspeed/ and

are

equal.

Hence

the

Ei,ms and EaUT

520

PRINCIPLES

must

be

time

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

equal at synchronous speed.

variation and

This

assumes

sinusoidal

sinusoidal space distribution of the flux.

quadraturefield,
pq, will produce two voltagesin the rotor,

The
a

OF

speed voltageand

transformer

EaQs

voltage. These

voltages are

KNiPQn

(213)

KN^Qf

(214)

and

E^QT
These
rotor

voltages are

also

is short-circuited

will have

such

value

equal at synchronous speed.

the component
that the

current

vector

/;,at any

Since
r

and

the
x

voltages and

must

the

speed

of Ei,ms and

sum

equals the impedance drop in the rotor.

The transformer
voltage,E^qt, is in realitya
produced by the quadrature flux ipg.
EtMs + EbQT

Since the

Ei,qt
age
volt-

reactance

(215)

hir + jx)

current

are

referred to

also be referred to the stator.

The

the

stator,

r's for the two

equivalentwindings which have replacedthe rotor winding

be equal. The x's must
also be equal.
From
equations(212),(214) and (215) it follows that
KN,PMn

KNvqI

must

h(r + jx).

operating conditions, the impedance drop, h{r -f-jx),

will be small,as compared with the two voltages,"/i,jfs
and Ej,qt.
Hence, neglectingthis drop
Under

_^=

/.

Therefore,if the rotor impedance drop, Ib{r+ jx),be neglected,

the main and quadrature fields are equal at synchronous speed
since / and n are equal at that speed. Actually at synchronous
of the rotor impedance
less than (Pm on account
speed tpQ is slightly
drop. Below synchronous speed cpQ is less than ip^ since (pq
varies with the speed. The two fields are always in space quadrature
in
time
and are
The
fields
two
are
quadrature.
nearly
in Fig. 234.
shown
The
Revolving Field of the Single-phase Induction Motor.
two fields ip^ and "pq are in space quadrature and very nearly in
"

522

will be

unless the armature

zero

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

PRINCIPLES

and the

current

air-gapflux have

in time

phase.
has a rotor current
induction
motor
At rest, a single-phase
action of the stator flux.
which is produced by the transformer
For this current the magnetic axis of the rotor has been shown to
coincide with the axis of the stator field. The resultant air-gap
is in space phase with this rotor axis. The torque
flux,therefore,
components

is

running, the field ^q, due to the

current
produced in the rotor by rotation,has its
quadrature with the stator field. This field (pq will,

When

zero.

component
axis in space

the

is

motor

therefore,develop torque with the current produced in the rotor

by the transformer action of the stator flux provided "pq and this
current are not in time quadrature.
So far as the component current produced by the speedvoltage
is concerned,the rotor has a magnetic axis which is at rightangles
velop
deto the stator field. This component
current, therefore,may
torque with the stator field. Since the magnetic axis for
this component
is at rightangles to the stator field,
the
current
current

cannot

change

react

in the stator

on

the stator

and

hence

cannot

cause

any

developed
be directlysupplied by the
current
cannot
by this component
stator.
It must
be a part of the power developedby the rotation
of the armature.
of

Therefore,the

current.

This

current

power

be considered

may

as

made

up

magnetizing component for the quadrature field and a power

component
supplying the core loss of that field. This current
involves power
developed and, therefore,corresponds to generator
a

action.

Since there is

reaction

no

this current, the power

be
must
current in the rotor producing an
of the field due to this motor
of the stator.

Hence

equivalentcurrent

the stator

suppliedthrough
equal

current

it will react

in the stator

between

The

the stator

winding.

The

to

produce

component

producing the quadrature field and supplyingits core

thus
A

has its

since both

motor

and

In addition

generator power
field.

So far

as

to

motor

is in

generator power
motor

an

rent
cur-

losses

in the stator.

equivalentcurrent

single-phaseinduction

axis

coincide with the axis

must
on

equivalent

an

action.

motor

and

power,

sense

are

it

motor

generator,

ture.
developedin its armamust
develop sufficient

current
for the quadrature
supply the exciting
the axis aa is concerned,the rotor acts as a motor.
to

SINGLE-PHASE

INDUCTION

With

respect to the axis bb the

load

the generator
conditions,

motor

action.

Above

rotor

523

MOTORS

acts

as

generato.-. Under

action is small

compared with the

synchronous speed, only generator action

is

developedwith respect to both axes.

Although the single-phaseinduction motor has a revolving
the simpleexplanationof the operationof a polymagnetic field,
phase
based
its revolvingmagnetic field,cannot
on
motor,
be
induction motor, since the quadrature
appliedto a single-phase
fieldis not produced by a stator winding. Also there is no winding
the
stator inductively
on
related to the current
which produces
the quadrature field,
and hence no
reaction on
such a
winding.
The complete analysisof the operation of the single-phase
duction
inmotor
is not simple. The action of such a motor
be
may
best understood
by a study of its vector diagram. On account
of the motor-generator action in the armature, this diagram is
somewhat
complicated.
Comparison of the Losses in Single-phaseand Polyphase Induction
Motors.

greater than

are

"

The
those

losses of
of

and
of

rating. This is due

motor
any single-phase

To

which

are

secure

in
or

single-phaseinduction

polyphase motor of the same

speed
the
to
inherentlygreater losses
part
generator and in part due

induction
peculiarto the single-phase
flux distribution and also
satisfactory

the stator copper loss over

it is necessary
to use

as
a

motor

much

to

tions
condialone.

motor

to distribute

of the stator surface

as

greater phase spread for the

ble,
possistator

motor
than in the stator winding of a
winding in a single-phase
The stator winding in a single-phasemotor
polyphase motor.
is often tapered off at the edges of the phase belt to improve the
flux distribution.
the use of fewer inductors
Tapering off means
in the end slots of a phase belt. This tapering-off
effect may
be
obtained by a regularthree-phasefractional-pitch
winding on the
stator,using two of the phases in series for the one phase of the
The third phase is used for startingonly.
motor.
single-phase
The overlappingof the phases in a three-phasefractional-pitch
inductors in the end slots of the
winding gives one-half as many
phase belt as there are in the central slots.
With
a
phase spread of 60 degrees,the stator winding of a
surface.
the entire armature
three-phaseinduction motor covers

524

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

For the stator

motor
to cover
the entire
winding of a single-phase
be necessary.
a phase spread of 180 degreeswould
surface,
spread of 180 degrees would not be used in practiceon

armature

of the differential action of the end

account

low breadth

and

turns

the resulting

factor of the

winding.
suming
Most
induction
have
motors
fractional-pitch
windings. Aswith a ^ pitch and a 60-degree
a
three-phasemotor
the breadth factor
phase spread, the total reduction factor,i.e.,
multipliedby the pitchfactor,is 0.92. Equations (3) and (8),
41 and 44.
The total reduction factor for a single-phase
pages
winding
motor, using two phases of a three-phaseF-connected
with a % pitch,is about 0.80.
For the same
magnetomotive
force the single-phase
would
motor
requireapproximately 15
per

the

cent,

rotor

same

increase in the stator

of copper
loss of a

This

current.

requiredfor the
motor
single-phase
loss for

loss is not

would

loss

copper

the

than

ampere-turns

more

corresponding

increase in the amount

an

The

winding.

stator

is in

result in

in

or

for

three-phase motor

stator

copper

general,greater than the

sponding
corre-

This greater stator copper

three-phasemotor.
induction
motor
but
peculiar to the single-phase
motor
or
single-phase
generator as compared with
a

exists in any
of the polyphasetype.
one
The

frequency of

the rotor

of

current

is

polyphase motor

fis where /i is the stator frequency and s is the slip. This

frequency,fiS,is low, especiallyfor largemotors, which at full
load may
have a slipof as low as 2 per cent.
The
local losses
in the rotor, caused by the rotor leakageflux,are negligible
on
account

The
is the

of this low

in each

current
vector

transformer

frequency.
inductor

rotor

action

component currents, one

of the stator, and
the other

speed voltage produced by the

stator.

When

motor
single-phase

of two

sum

currents

of

have

stator

field.

Both

frequency when

stator

referred to the rotor

has

due
due

to
to

of these

referred

the
the

ponent
com-

to

the

frequency fi
fis,
the other has a frequency f/
(2
s)/i. For ordinary values
of slipthe firstof these frequenciesis very low, the second, however,
is nearly twice primary frequency. The
effect of the
increase the loss
double-frequency component is to somewhat
=

due

to

the resultant

rotor

current

one

"

and

to

make

the

apparent

SINGLE-PHASE

INDUCTION

525

MOTORS

resistance of the rotor

There

is

rotor

slightly
greater than the ohmic resistance.
corresponding double-frequencycomponent in the

no

current

Another

of

induction
polyphase

factor which

tends

motor.

to increase

the

loss of

copper

is the

motor
single-phase

magnetizing current for the quadrature

field. This magnetizing current
is carried by the rotor
winding. No such magnetizing current exists in the rotor
The
winding of a polyphase motor.
stator of a single-phase
carries the

motor

magnetizing

equivalentof the
In
the

an

field.

quadrature
loss produced in the rotor by

polyphase motor, the core

revolving field,neglectingthe
flux,is due

to the rotor

field and

for the

magnetizing current

stator

for the main

current

to

equal to

flux which

effect of harmonics

has

frequency with respect

frequencytimes slip.

stator

in the

For the small

slipat which an induction motor

usually operates, this loss is
induction
also has
motor
generally negligible.A single-phase
a

revolvingfield.

This

field is not

constant

in

magnitude

cept
ex-

be resolved into
synchronous speed. In general it may
two
components: one, a revolving field,which has a constant
value of the quadrature field;
strength equal to the maximum
the other, an oscillating
field with its axis along the stator axis.
at

latter component

The

between

has

maximum

the maximum

value

the difference

equal to

values of the stator and

quadrature

oscillating
component produces a flux variation of
value of
If (pm is the maximum
frequenciesin the rotor.
flux
and s is the slip,the oscillating
component
oscillating

fields. The
two

the

in the rotor

is
=

The

"Pm

(1

sin ut sin

^'ifmcos

scot

"

s) (at
K^n. cos (2
"

frequency of the first component

frequency times slip,while

twice stator frequency minus

that

of the

"

s) ut*
of the
second

flux is stator

component

is

The
frequency times felip.
second component
has, therefore,nearly twice stator frequency.
The
loss due to the first component is negligible
rotor
core
but the core
loss due to the second component cannot be neglected.
This

unit
*

second

volume

in

stator

tends to make

component
the

rotor

of

Generators,"p.
"S3nQchronous

59.

the

core

single-phaseinduction

loss per
motor

526

PRINCIPLES

OF

slightlygreater than the

of a polyphase induction
The

chief factor

and

rating is

unit volume

of the

rotor

motor.

the

makes

that of

the

loss per

core

which

greater than

motor

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

core

loss of
of

polyphase motor
of iron

greater amount

single-phase
the same
speed
a

in

necessary

both

ductor
inFor the same
single-phasemotor.
loss,a three-phasegenerator or motor when operated
copper
single-phasecan deliver only about 50 to 57 per cent, of
its rated three-phase output.
If the motor
or
generator be
rewound
for single-phaseoperation only, its single-phaserating
below
the
be somewhat
can
increased, but will still be much
polyphase rating. It follows, therefore, that a single-phase
iron as a threeinduction
motor
must
have nearly twice as much
of the same
speed and output with a corresponding
phase motor
and

rotor

greater
The

loss.

core

losses of

greater than
and

of the

stator

then inherently
are
single-phaseinduction motor
of the same
those of a polyphase motor
rating

speed, and

motors

thus

less than

are

those
is

single-phasemotor

The

single-phaseinduction
of corresponding polyphase motors.
heavier since it requires much
more

efficiencies of

the

iron.

The

motors
single-phase induction
are
factors of polyphase induction
the power

inherently less than

As

motors.

only
motor

about

the
50

of the
of

current

the power

of

factors

power

of

output

per

cent,

single-phaseinduction

great

as

as

the

output of

motor

polyphase

weight,
component
power
is only about
single-phaseinduction motor
the

same

component

of the

of the current

in

phase of
winding of a

one

is

stator

equal to
a two-phase
single-phase

weight. The stator

motor
carries the magnetizing current
for both the main
field
and the quadrature field,
and is,therefore,about twice as large
of one
the magnetizing current
as
phase of the two-phase motor.
The ratio of magnetizing current to power
in the stator
current
of a single-phase motor, therefore,is much
greater than the
of the

motor

ratio of the
for

same

same

currents

for

in general
two-phase motor
or
It follows,therefore,that the power

polyphase motor.
factor of a single-phasemotor
a

polyphase motor

of the

same

is less than

speed

and

the power

output.

factor of

CHAPTER
Diagram

Vector

of

Generator

LIV

Single-phase

the

Action

of

the

Induction

Single-phase

Motor;
Induction

Motor
Vector

For
Diagram of the Single-phase Induction Motor.
convenience
of reference,
the main
stator field will be repreor
sented
and the quadrature field caused by the
by the polesMM
The
actual motor, of
armature, by the poles QQ, Fig. 235.
ferred
projectingpoles. All vectors will be recourse, does not have
"

to the stator.

Synchronous Speed. Consider first the conditions existing

the motor
when
driven up to synchronous speed from some

At
in

"

outside

Assume
of power.
of rotation
of the

source

direction

the

be

armature

to

armature

there

In

clockwise.
are

two

the

voltagesto

consider with respect to each of the

bb, a transformer
voltageand a speed voltage.
A transformer
voltage is 90 de-"

two

axes,

aa

and

grees

behind

Some

convention

for

the

the flux

producing it.

must

be

adopted

lation
determining the time-phaserebetween
speed voltage and
mum
maxiflux producing it. The

values

occur

at the

same

time, but

Fig.

may

not

235.

be of the

same

sign.
be arbitrarily
positivedirection of the stator flux may
assumed.
This, with the direction of rotation of the armature,
direction of the quadratureflux. The revolving
fixes the positive
in
progress in the direction
magnetic field of the motor must
rotates.
Therefore, if upward fluxes.Fig.
which the armature
235, are assumed to be positivefor the polesMM, a clockwise
The

527

528

OF

PRINCIPLES

rotation

of the

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

armature

will make

from

left to

rightpositive

QQ.
quadrature field,
flux. A
if it produces a positive
A current in a coil is positive
if the current due to this voltage would
speed voltage is positive
flux.
produce a positive
induction
The
time-phase vector diagram for a single-phase
the
motor
at synchronous speed is given in Fig. 236, in which
stator flux is drawn
positive.
flux for the

Fig.

The

rotation

component
hand
above

induces a
field,MM,
force,Ei,ms- Applying Fleming'sright-

of the rotor

electromotive

rule,it will be

seen

236.

in the

stator

that this acts

the horizontal axis and inward

outward

in all inductors

in all inductors

below

that

According to the convention adopted for determining the

sign of a speed voltage,this voltage is positive. The component
current
h set up by this voltage reacts along the quadrature
axis.
It is largely a magnetizing current, and lags nearly 90
degrees behind the voltageproducing it. To avoid unnecessary
axis.

530

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

speed,mechanical

in
suppliedto the pulley,
of the friction and windage losses,
by an amount
excess
equal to
the product of the voltageEi,msand the energy component of the
is equal
current h with respect to Ej,ms- This mechanical
power
loss due to the quadraturefield plus a small copper
to the core
nous

be

must

power

loss in the armature.

The

current

/" reacts

the stator

on

by

transformer

action and

rent
equivalentcurrent in the stator winding. The curact
/(,which is the magnetizing current for the fieldQQ cannot rethe stator.
Due to the rotation of the armature, however,
on

produces an

equal component

an

does

component

/" appears

current

react

the stator.

on

The

of the

quadrature field is thus transferred

owing

to the rotation of the armature.

current,the

field. The

for its own

which

is

main

and

carries

stator

equal to

the

sum

and

in the armature

magnetizingcurrent
winding

to the stator

In addition to this transferred

magnetizing and core-loss

carries
stator,consequently,
of the

this

rent
cur-

current

magnetizingcurrents

for the

induction
single-phase

motor

quadrature fields.

It should

now

be

clear that

at no load.
To get it up
synchronous speed even
would have to be suppliedto meet
to that speed,sufficient power
if there were
loss of the quadrature field even
friction
the core
no
losses. On the other hand, a polyphase
and windage and copper
would run
induction motor
at synchronous speed at no load if it
had no friction and windage losses.
Below Synchronous Speed. If the mechanical
which
power
drives the motor
up to synchronous speed be removed, the motor
will slow down
and the speed voltage Ei,ms will decrease.
The
current
h will also decrease,as will the flux "pq. The voltage
crease
rapidly even, first on account of the deEaQs decreases more
in the speed and second on account
of the decrease in the
flux (pq. The voltage E^qs-^s
to the
approximatelyproportional,
of the speed.
square
If the reluctance of the magnetic circuit for the quadrature

cannot

reach

"

field is assumed
to
proportional

may

constant, the flux "pq and the current

each other and

EbQT

KNipQf

EtQT

K'NI^

be written

h will be

SINGLE-PHASE

K' and

where

and

constant

are

INDUCTION

if / be assumed

is the total reactance

with respect to the axis bb.

sign is used

because

constant

of the rotor

It is assumed

E^qt is

winding
and

hX

considered
The

constant.

voltagerise

531

MOTORS

is

minus

voltage

drop.

EiQr is thus

reactance

voltage.

EbMs + EiQT

Ib{r+ jx)

EbMs

h{r + jx)

"

hX
^^

^^T^
+j (x-\- X)

(216)
'
^

v^

COS

Therefore,cos
and

such

those

nearly
in
not

produced by
Since

current

alter in direction

down,

and

results from

due
field,

are

for moderate

changes
Is,Fig. 236, will decrease in magnitude but

as

is loaded.

the motor

the decrease

in the

As the motor

slows

Ij will decrease.
core

loss of the

This

ture
quadra-

in "pq.

to the decrease

conditions

dh is constant

cos

the generator action of the current

decrease

The

V?-'+ (x + xy
sensiblyconstant
For ordinary variations in speed
change in load,X would be very

constant.

constant.

speed,the

Qh is constant, since

is assumed

as

06

for the other component

current, la,are

ent.
differ-

The

voltageE^mt is constant assuming (py[ to be constant,

while the voltage E^qs varies as the square
of the speed. The
decrease in speed causes
Ea, Fig. 236, to rotate counter-clockwise,
carrying with it the

current

The

now

current

/" will
This

voltageEaQsIf there
the motor

were

no

la which

have

at the

same

time increases.

negative projectionon

negativeprojection
represents motor

copper

loss and

no

friction and

its

speed

action.

windage losses,

speed below synchronism that the

motor
developed by la was
just equal to the generator
power
developed by lb. This generator power suppliesthe core
power
loss of the quadrature field.
If the load be now
applied,the motor will slow down, until
action of la becomes
at a certain small slipthe motor
enough
would

run

at such

532

OF

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

greater than the friction and

of 7;, to cause
net motor
a

windage

the generator action

and

enable

sufficient to

power

the

general,the change in the slipof

a
single-phasemotor for a given change in load will be less
motive
The back electrothan for a correspondingpolyphase motor.
varies with the
force EaQs of the single-phase
motor
motor

to carry

square

of the

its load.

In

speed while the back electromotive

force

Eiil

s)

"

polyphase motor varies as the first power of the speed.

induction motor
be shown
to be
The slipof a single-phase
can
nearly proportionalto the square root of the rotor copper loss.
to be
The slipof a polyphase induction motor
has been shown
of

proportionalto the first power

It should

be noticed

that

magnetic axis lies along the

the motor.

The

of the rotor copper loss.

the component
current, la, whose

stator

other component

of
is the power
current
field,
current,h, is merely the magnetizing

quadrature field. The current la in

put
conjunction with this quadrature field produces the power outof the single-phase
induction
motor.
If
Generator
Action of the Single-phaseInduction
Motor.
for the

current

"

driven
motor

from

above
will act
below

decreases

single-phase induction

synchronous speed, the

as

generator.

If such

synchronous speed, the

and

becomes

synchronism.

At

zero

at

net

be

motor

internal

speeded up

motor

power

small

positiveslipbelow
motor
developed
power

some

this

slip,the internal
is just equal to the core
loss caused by the quadrature field.
Above
the speed corresponding to this slip,the mechanical
loss
to supply the core
applied to the pulley commences
power
of the quadrature field. At synchronous speed no internal motor
is developed and all of the core loss of the quadrature field
power
is suppliedby the mechanical
Above
synchronous speed
power.
generator action is developed along the axis
power

field,MM.
both

to

commences

At
losses

some

supply the

small

core

aa

and

loss caused

negative slipabove

the mechanical

by the

stator

synchronism,

Above
suppliedby the mechanical power.
this slipnet generator power is developed and power
is delivere4
to the circuit to which
the motor
is connected.
Like a polyphase
induction generator, the single-phase
induction generator
delivers only leadingcurrent at a power factor which is fixed by
core

its constants

and

are

the

slipand

not

by the load.

CHAPTER

LV

Commutator-type, Single-phase, Indtjction Motor;

factor
Diagrams
Compensation; Vector
the
of
Motor;

Speed

Control

of

the

Commutator-type,Single-phase,Induction

any

rotor, similar to the armature

be used
of the

rotor

So

concerned, such

is

equivalentto
the

When
in

drum

has its axis

as

an

to

aa

The
between

and

along the line

ing
connect-

ture
arma-

with
the

its

brush
is

armature

pairs of brushes

at

per

rightangles to MM

QQ.
field,
Let Fig. 237 represent the
are

motor,

tion
reac-

pair of poles are

required:one,
the
short-circuiting armature
along
diameter
a
parallelto the axis of
the stator field,
MM, and the Other,
the armature
along
short-circuiting
diameter

direct-current

drum-

single-phaseinduction

motor, two

singlecoil

armature

plane perpendicular
used

far

is

axis.

"

induction motor, in place of a

single-phase
squirrel-cage
type. The magnetic field produced by

brushes.

placed on

of

Motor,

for the

direct-current armature
the

Commutator-

of
Motor; Commutation
Motor
Commutator-type,Single-phase, Induction

THE

may

pensated
Com-

Single-phase,Induction

type,

wound

Power-

Fig.

237.

along the axis of the quadrature

or

The

motor.

brushes
short-circuiting

bb.

magnetic axis of the

the

brushes

aa

for any current

with the axis of the

armature

coincides

passing
stator

for any current

MM.
The magnetic axis of the armature
field,
bb coincides with the axis of the
the brushes
passing between
standquadrature field,
QQ. This latter field does not exist at still.

533

534

PRINCIPLES

The

the brushes

field MM
bb.

MACHINERY

ALTERNAriNG-CVRRENT

field,
MM,

stator

between

OF

transformer

produces a

rotation

The

aa.

voltage,EomT)

speed voltage,EtMS) between

quadrature field,QQ, also produces two
induces

The

in the

of the armature

the

brushes

voltagesin

the
voltage,^jgr, between
the
brushes
bb; the other, a speed voltage,EaQs" between
All four voltagesare assumed
to be referred to the
brushes aa.
stator.
effect as the correspondingvoltages
They have the same
of the single-phaseinduction
when
motor
operating with a
rotor.
squirrel-cage
the

armature:

The

The

the brushes

/" between

current

power.

transformer

one,

the

between

current

produces the

aa

motor

bb is the magnetizing

brushes

quadrature field. The brushes- aa may

brushes since they carry the current which

for the

current

be called the power

The brushes bb carry the current for
produces the motor power.
for this reason, be called the field
the quadrature field and may,
The

brushes.
either the

actual

vector

sum

accordingto

which

these currents

are

to

the

current
or

carried

difference of the

quarter of the

rotor

in the vector

used

by the

inductors

la and

currents

is considered.

diagram, they

are

is

When
referred

stator.

A motor

with

rotor, short-circuited along two

drum-wound

diameters.Fig. 237, operates exactlylike a

rotor.
The
vector
diagrams of the
cage
the

are

rotor

The

same.

circuited

addition

motor
two

of the commutator

with

squirrel-

types of
and

motor

the short-

it possibleto control the power

also to vary its speed over
a considerable

brushes,however, makes

factor of the motor

and

synchronism. As low as one-half

be obtained
in practice. The
motor
synchronous speed may
also be operated above
synchronous speed. There is no
may
armature
or
one
except to secure
object of using a drum-wound
both

range,

both

above

and

below

of these results.

Power-factor
may

be

in the brush

Compensation.
"

compensated for
circuit bb to

cause

induction motor
single-phase
factor by inserting
a voltage
resultant voltageEa (Fig.236,

The

power

the

528) to rotate in the direction of lead until the current la,

which lags behind the voltage Ea by a fixed angle,leads the transformer
voltage EaMT- The angle by which /" lagsbehind Ea is
page

fixed

by

the

leakagereactance

and

the resistance of the rotor.

INDUCTION

SINGLE-PHASE

voltagewhich

the transformer

phase with

is in

the

that

induced

in the rotor

action of the stator fieldwill rotate

in the desired direction.

brushes

535

MOTORS

With

voltageinserted

of the stator

bb,the component

demagnetizingeffect of

this

the

the rotor current

voltageEa

between

which

current

by
the

balances

age
la will lead the volt-

By giving this
component of the stator current sufficient lead,the quadrature
component may be made to neutralize the laggingmagnetizing
The magnetizing current is thus
current carried by the stator.
The
transferred to the rotor.
voltage required foi- powerfactor compensationmay
ing
be obtained from a compensating windplaced in the stator slots with the regular stator winding.
The brushes bb instead of being short-circuited are connected to
the terminals of this winding. The voltageinduced in the compensating
winding will be in phase with the voltageEaUT (Figconsidered with respect to the stator,but
236, page 528) when
in the stator

induced

when

considered

with

by the

stator

flux.

respect to the rotor, it

be either in

may

oppositionto the voltageEaMT accordingto the

way the terminals of the compensating winding are connected to
the brushes bb.
Reversing the connections of the compensating
phase with

coil with

or

in

respect to the brushes

voltageinserted
the rotor.

The

bb

reverses

phase

the

of the

in the rotor with respect to the voltageEaUT ^^

compensatingfield should be connected so as to

ing
voltagein phase with EaUT- Instead of havthe regularstator
a separate winding for the compensation,
the purpose
by bringingout two
winding may be made to serve
ing
this is done, the stator windtaps from suitable points. When
ture
acts both as the primary winding with respect to the armaand as the compensatingwinding.
make

the inserted

The
vector
Compensated Motor.
diagram of the compensated motor is shown in Fig. 238. This
is similar to the diagram in Fig.236, page 528, except that the
voltage inserted by the compensating coil has been added.
Referringto Fig. 238, let Eic be the voltageinduced in the
compensating winding. The voltage EbB causing the current
Vector

Diagrams

in the armature

of the

between

the brushes

"

bb is the vector

sum

of

Ei,Msand Ebc, Fig.238. This is balanced by the voltageE^qt

and resistance drops due to
togetherwith the leakage-reactance
h in the rotor and in the compensatingwinding. The current h
to Ei^ and lagsbehind that voltageby nearly 90
b proportional

536

PRINCIPLES

degreesjustas

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

voltageEi,msii the case of the

The result of adding the voltageEi,cto
nncompensated motor.
the circuit bb is to rotate the current h and with it the quadrature
than 90 degreesbehind
flux "pq so that if"Q lags by more
the voltageEj,msin the power
The
resultant voltage Ea causing the current
it did behind

circuit of the motor,

it

in the

as

the

E^j^fTinstead of laggingbehind
motor
(Fig.236). As a result,the

leads

now

uncompensated

Fig.

current

la (Fig.238) leads the transformer

which

amount

depends

in the brush

and

EaMT

upon

7'i to flow in the

the

the

circuit bb.

by transformer

causes

current

238.

equivalent stator

action

current

la reacts

an

on

the stator

equivalentand opposite
winding. If /" leads the voltage

current

an

7'i will lead the component

El which must be impressedon the

voltage
the voltage Ei
EaMT induced in the stator
"

by

serted
magnitude of the voltageEi,c in-

The

stator

voltageEaur

stator

to balance

winding by the

538

but

PRINCIPLES

the

as

main

compensating winding has few

winding,the
to /".
relatively

It should

be

noticed

referred to the stator

For this reason, it is omitted in

that the magnetizing current

by compensation and
The

producing flux.

current

component

this condition

to the

compared

turns

lb when

current

is neutralized

stator

effect in

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

stator

is small

the

OF

Fig.239.
in
/^j,,
have

can

which

no

duces
pro-

is the

leading component
of the rotor current.
the
magnetizing
By compensation
current is transferred from the stator to the rotor and, in a sense,
the mutual

the

flux under

is made

motor

to

generate its

magnetizing current.

own

tion
Speed Control of the Commutator-type, Single-phase,InducMotor.
There are two ways of varying the speed of a commutator-type,
induction motor,
(a) By insertinga
single-phase,
voltagebetween the brushes aa in phase with or in oppositionto
the transformer
voltage induced between the brushes aa by the
stator field. This is analogous to varying the voltage impressed
the armature
of a shunt motor.
on
(6) By insertinga voltage
between
the brushes bb which is in phase with or in oppositionto
the brushes bb by the stator
the speed voltagegenerated between
field. This is analogous to varying the fieldexcitation of a shunt
"

motor.

(a). Let the slipbe s. If the frequency,/, is assumed

be
constant, equations (212) and (213),pages 519 and 620, may
Method

"

written

EbMS

E,Qs
If the

KN.pMn

KVm(1

KNvqU

KVq(1

flux "pQ is assumed

be

to

s)
s)

proportionalto the

(217)
(218)
current

causing it,
"Pq

k'EbMs

kh

A;'Vm(1

s)

(219)
(220)

(equations(216)and

(217),pages 531 and 538).

suming
AsExcept for the primary impedance drop, "pm is constant
and replacing
"p]tito be constant
tpg in equation (218) by
its value from equation (220)

E^QS
Since "f"Qand

(Pm

are

equal

-^"(1
at

sy

(221)

synchronous speed (page 520),

SINGLE-PHASE

it follows

from

equations

539

INDUCTION

MOTORS

and

213, (pages 519

211

and

520),

that

EaMT and E^qs are also equal at synchronous speed.

Therefore,K" in equation (221) is equal to Eajnr- Hence, at

any

speed

EaQS

E^ifj.{l S)2

^"^r (speed)==

(|.)'

and

speed
where

is the number

of

^ J^!^

poles and / the frequency. Equation

(222) givesthe speed in revolutions

Let

an

to

(222)

per second.

electromotive force e, either in phase with

or

in

opposition
ing
Neglect-

EainT be inserted in the brush circuit aa,

the resistance
the motor

must

Fig.237.
leakage-reactance
drops in the armature,

and

change its speed until

EaQS
Putting this value

of

EaMT

(223)

EaQg in equation (222) gives

speed

-'i^
V

EaMT

By changing the voltagee considerable variation in speed may

be obtained.
the speed cannot
In practice,
be reduced
much
below half synchronous speed on account
of the resulting
decrease
in the flux
ipQ which varies with the speed. The torque developed
is proportional
to the product of the field flux (Pq
by the motor
the current
If the flux
them.
la and the phase angle between
factory
much
below one-half of its normal
value, satis"Pq is diminished
Moreover, sparking will
operation cannot be obtained.
be likelyto occur
at the brushes hh since the speed voltage and
the transformer

mutation
voltage in the coils short-circuited during com-

by 66 will
later.
much

the

of this

same

effect

on

the

of

in the

shunt

will be considered

Commutation

equal.

circuit

speed as the voltage

resistance,
however, will

resistance

in the

be

A resistance inserted in the brush

in the armature

by

not

not

be
The

motor.

commutator-type

equation for speed under

so

great

drop

e.

"

will have
The

effect

resistance put

as

in

aa

speed produced

induction

motor

square-rootsign.

enters

540

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

of obtaining
diagrammaticallythe method
inserted for varying the speed.
with secondary taps for varying the voltage
transformer

Fig. 240 shows

the voltageto be
r is a

varying the speed.

Method
(b) Any motor must speed up until its speed voltage
plus the resistance and leakage-reactancedrops in the armature
circuit. Therefore,if
equals the voltage acting in the armature
the resistance and leakage-reactancedrops are neglected,
e

is inserted in the brush

which

circuit

for

aa

"

EaMT

KN^Mf

EaQS

KN,pQfil

voltagee' in phase

(225)

to be proportionalto the
(a),cpg is assumed
producing it,according to equation (219),page 538,

Fig.

If

s)

in method

If,as
current

(224)

between

the brushes

in

or

oppositionto E^ms

is inserted

bb,

"Pq

EbMs

with

240.

h'{EiMs " e')

KNipMU
KNtpMfil
=

s)

Therefore

EbMS

-2?aMr(l

"

S)

and
"PQ

At

'"'aMT'(1

s) + e'

k'E,aMT

synchronous speed both e' and

(pQ

="

(1
s

EaMT

must

S) +
be

E.aMT

zero

and

(226)

SINGLE-PHASE

As (Pq

tpyi at

541

MOTORS

INDUCTION

synchronous speed

Substituting
"pm for
equation(226)gives
=

VQ

Substitutingthe

the

k'E^MT

(1

^M

value

is outside the brackets

which

S)

of ^pq from

in

(227)

EaMT

equation (227) in equation

(225) gives
Reactance

FiG.

KNcpmS

KNfd
(1

speed

241.

s)"PMI(1

s)2 +

s) "

^}

"{l-s)

EaMT'

\2EaMT/

^~

2EaMT'

55^)
|L/7Ty^)'-("

(228)

ture
equationis merely approximate since it neglectsthe armato the current
the flux (pq proportional
drops and assumes

This

e'
it. According to equation(228)
.producing
p

3
must

to halve

equal to
Instead

speed and

the

to double

the

speed,it would

equal +
have

to

be

"

p.

of

voltage in
inserting

the brush

circuit

66, resistance

542

may

OF

PRINCIPLES

be inserted.

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

This

MACHINERY

will increase the

speed of the

but

it will also decrease

Except
If any

the power
factor.
for small changes in speed, method

motor

b is unsatisfactory.

great change in speed is produced, this method

causes

sparkingat the power brushes aa.

The voltagee' inserted in the brush
from

transformer

circuit bb may
be obtained
in shunt around an impedance coil

connected

placed in series with the motor, Fig.241.

of the
Commutation
duction
Commutator-type, Single-phabe,InMotor.
The alternatingflux of the quadrature field of
the single-phase
induction motor
induces a transformer
voltage
in the armature
brushes aa.
coils short-circuited by the power
This voltage,unless neutralized,would
produce large currents
"

in the short-circuited coils and

interruptedwhen
would

these currents

the coils moved

result in bad

from

would

have

the brushes.

under

to be

This

field would

produce
a similar act'lon in the coils short-circuited by the field brushes,
bb.
In the single-phase
induction motor, fortunately,there ia
also a speed voltage induced in each of the short-circuited coils..
The transformer
and the speed voltages in the coils under the
brushes aa neutralize at all speeds. They neutralize in
power
the coils under the field brushes bb at synchronous speed only.
Due to the neutralization of these voltages,the single-phasecommutator
induction motor
does not require any specialdevices
to improve commutation, for example, such
the resistance
as
leads used

between

sparking.

the armature

The

stator

winding and

commutator

of

series motor.
single-phase

voltageand Eas the speed voltage

Let EaT be the transformer

in the armature

turns

number

in the short-circuited coils.

short-circuited

brushes aa.
by the power
Also let EiT and E^s be the correspondingvoltages in the armature
turns short-circuited by the field brushes bb.
Let N' be the
of turns

E,T

Then

KiN'"PQf

(229)

Eas

KiN'^Mn

(230)

EtT

KiN'ipMf

(231)

KiN'ipQfi

(232)

and

Ets
where

Ki is a constant, N' the number

of short-circuited

turns,

SINGLE-PHASE

/ the frequencyand
pHed by the number
brushes

have

the

INDUCTION

MOTORS

543

the

speed in revolutions per second multiof pairs of poles. Unless the two sets of

width, N'

same

will not

be the

same

for both

sets of brushes.

It has been
and

shown

that the fields "pm and

in space quadrature
vention
Applying the con-

"f"Qare

nearlyin time quadrature.

for determiningthe phase of a speed voltagewill show
the two voltagesinduced
by "f"M and "pQ in each group of

that

very

coils short-circuited

by the brushes are oppositein phase.

For good commutation, the two voltages in the coils shortcircuited by the brushes during commutation
should be equal.
They are in time-phase opposition. Therefore,for good commutation,

armature

the

followingrelations

should

hold.

For

the brushes

aa,

K^N',PQf

K.N'vMn

^=^
n

For the brushes

(233)
,Pq

bb,
EbT

Ebs

"

KiN'vmJ

KiN'"pQn

(234)

synchronous speed, (Pm ^'iid "pq are equal. Therefore,at

since
synchronous speed equations(233) and (234) are fulfilled,
at this speed / and n are
equal. As the single-phaseinduction
motor
equations
operates under normal conditions with small slip,
tions,
(233) and (234)are nearly fulfilledunder normal operatingcondiAt

and

under

these conditions

there will be littletrouble from

either set of brushes.

sparkingat

the effect

Consider

on

of

commutation

varying the speed by

(a),i.e.,by insertingvoltage in the brush circuit aa.

to h and confield "pq, neglecting
sequently
saturation,is proportional
Since E^^s
to EimsKNip^n,
proportional

method
The

"PQ

where

Ki is

Since
so

(pm

KzipMn

constant.

is nearly constant, "pq and

long as magnetic saturation

vary

nearlyin proportion

of the circuit for "pQ is not reached.

544

PRINCIPLES

The

condition,

OP

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

^M

.for

good

"

commutation

the

at

brushes

aa

'n

Vq
fulfilled.

is, therefore,

f
.

"Pq

condition,

The

for

"

commutation

good

"

the

at

brushes

bb

obviously

is

the

in

change
the

only

too

not

obtained

be

the

method

effect

equations

is

^aMT
(1

and

(224)

the
for

current

and

if

using,

provided

brushes

carry

Good

v^q-

necessary,

of

mutation
com-

high-

narrow,

the

varying

speed

by

reason,
cannot

If

motor

method
used

the

speed

it is obvious

The

aa.

and

(6)

for

except

from

maintained

brushes

power

be

the

is

240,

page

KN"pQf{l

therefore,

condition

the

(226),

constant.

commutation

good
at

nearly

s) and,

"

this

Under

this

these
field

commutation

on

EaMT

not

since

quadrature

by

serious,

very

(6).

From

that

not

brushes.

Consider

"Pq,

is

great,

the

for

current

may

resistance

is

speed

small

This

fulfilled.

not

sparking
varying
for

small

S)

is

speed
must

by

varied

inversely

vary

equations
at

the

here
the

(233)

field

brushes

aa

is

speed

variations

changing

and

brushes

carry

as

"pq.

(234)
bb,

the

power

serious.

most

is
in

unsatisfactory
speed.

but

For

546

PRINCIPLES

ance

or

cut

out

if the

speed, even

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

of reactance, or

always

are

OF

of both.

when

the

The

resistance and
has

motor

startingwinding

reached

its

reactance

operating

is left connected.

few

important arrangements for obtaining a revolving

magnetic field for startingpurposes follow.
of the

simplestmethods is
diagrammatic form in Fig. 242.

One
in

more

is the

which
90

of the

is

space

main

field

due

to Tesla.

This

is shown

auxiliary winding
slots but with its magnetic axis

winding.

is

an

placed in the stator

degrees from the magnetic axis of the main

stator

is used.
For starting,
armature
A squirrel-cage
winding, M.
connected
in parallel
to the line,the main
both windings are
tive
winding, M, through a non-inducresistance,R, the auxiliary
winding, Q, through a reactance,
rents
By this arrangement the curplaced
in the two
windings are disin time
phase by a large
angle and a revolving magnetic
field results. Although far from

X.

constant

in

sufficient to

magnitude, this
bring the

motor

field is
up

to

speed if the load be small. One

crease
object of the resistance R is to deWhen
the motor
the starting current.
approaches its
normal
speed, this resistance and the auxiliarywinding are
automatic
out
cut
on
centrifugaldevice mounted
by some
Fig.

the

shaft

242.

of the

motor.

The

arrangement

just

described

is

In practiceit is impossible
equivalent to a two-phase motor.
to get a phase displacement of nearly 90 degrees by a splitmotor
phase device and, hence, for a single-phaseinduction
using such a starting device the starting torque is small and
the startingcurrent
correspondinglylarge.
induction motor
The main winding of any single-phase
usually
has a phase spread of about f or 120 degrees,and is equivalent
connected
in series. The
to two
phases of a three-phase motor
be placed in the free third of the stator.
auxiliarywinding may
If the auxiliarywinding is disconnected
after starting,it may
with wire of smaller size than the,main
be wound
winding and

SINGLE-PHASE

with

INDUCTION

greater number

of turns.

regularthree-phasewinding
phases are
and

these

connected
two

in

constitute

In

is used.

one
series,

547

MOTORS

most

however,

cases,

For

starting,two of the
of these phases being reversed,

the

auxiliarywinding. The third

phase constitutes the main
the motor
has
winding. When
reached
its speed, the three windings are grouped to form
an
ordinary delta connection and the single-phasemains are connected
to

of the

two

any

three

running connections are shown

Reversing the connections
two

terminals.

The

starting and

Figs. 243 and 244.

of phase II for starting puts the
fields produced by the startingconnections in space quadra-

FiG.

in

Fig.

243.

244.

is obtained
phase displacement of the currents
in Fig. 242.
indicated
by the method
be obtained by the use
The required phase displacement may
in constator
F-connected
of a regular three-phase Ajunction
or
The

ture.

time

with
connected
of the

in

series and

terminals

of the

the

single-phasemains.
common
junction

The

connections

the

reactance

when

the

often used

are

are

cut

motor

and

reactance

is up

third

The

the

between

the

across

three-phasewinding

resistance

Two

connected

to

is connected

to

are

terminal

line.

and

reactance.

The resistance and

Fig. 245.
automaticallyby a centrifugalgovernor

indicated

out

shunted

then

resistance

non-inductive

to

for small motors.

in

speed.

This

arrangement

for
It is objectionable

is

quite

largemotors

548

PRINCIPLES

large startingcurrent.
be diminished
by using a A-connected
of the

account

on

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

may

The

startingcurrent

motor, connected

in

Y for

starting.
A simpler arrangement

avoids

which

necessityfor changing

In this ment
arrangeresistance
while startingthere is in series with the motor
a

the stator

and

connections

shown
The

in

Fig. 245

resistance and

the

is shown

Fig. 246.

each

parallelwith

in

reactance

in

the

other.

The

directlyacross

puts the

motor

reactance

in series

are

arrangement
the

also connected

mains.
across

mains.

!"0t)"ooooo"ooooo
AAAAAA/

Fig.

245.

startingtorque obtained
Fig. 245 or Fig. 246 is small.
The

From

two

produce

to

load

three

to
a

times

by the arrangements shown in

The
is large.
startingcurrent
full-load current
is usually required

startingtorque of

from

30 to 40

per

cent,

of full-

torque.

be very much
increased by the use
startingtorque may
of a clutch which slipsuntil about 80 per cent, of full speed has
Such a clutch usually forms
been attained.
an
integral part
The

of the motor.

torque

may

By the
be

of

use

obtained

at

slippingclutch nearly full-load

startingwith

only about

full-load

current.

Resistance
and

and

inductance

capacity might be used in place of resistance

for starting a single-phase
The
motor.
size

SINGLE-PHASE

and

of the

INDUCTION

549

MOTORS

condenser

requiredto produce the necessaryphase displacementprevent the use of capacityfor this purpose.
For small motors, such as fan motors, the phase displacement
be obtained
by the use of so-called shading coils. This
may
is the simplestmethod
for obtainingthe required quadrature
cost

flux for

this purpose
the stator is constructed
salient poles. About
one-half of the face of

starting. For

with

laminated

each

pole

is surrounded

by

winding. The arrangement

indicated in Fig. 247.

low-resistance

of the currents

induced

of this type is

247.

Fig.

short-circuited

short-circuited

four-polemotor,

246.

Fig.

The

of

shading coils are

shown

as

in the short-circuited

"S.

The

effect

shading coils is to

ing
change in the flux produced by the main stator windThe result is that the
in the half of the polesthey surround.

oppose

the

flux rises to

maximum

in the unshaded

in the shaded

its maximum

portionsof

portionsbefore
the field.

The

it reaches
effect is

to the shaded
shift in the field from the unshaded
progressive
tion
direcportionsof the poles. The armature will rotate in the same
the shift in the field. The shadingcoils are left in circuit
as
has reached speed as the loss in them is small and
after the motor
a

importance in the small motors for which this method

startingis used.
be used
Method
may
(c). A polyphase induction motor
of

of

no

"

phase converter

to

furnish

polyphase power

to

other motors

as

for

550

PRINCIPLES

them

starting
which

OF

from

is used

by

speed

starting

be

better

"

when

method

is

with

electrical

diameter.
from

the

axis

device

comes

of this

the

slip is about

of

the
the

10

without

drawing

motor

principle
short-circuited
is reached.

is up

They
to

'"Series

large

To

are

series

the

from

With
brushes

are

from

usually

their

left in

Repulsion

Motors,"

p.

lifted

not

the

position

571.

even

mutator
com-

motors

are

and

the

the

after

single-

repulsionis

armature

when

the

are

speed

to

All

brushes

along

the

up

of

motors,

position

this

each

single-

stator

mains.
use

get starting torque,

ring

from

the

the

such

When

as

coming

make

motors

speed.
and

with

placed
dis-

making

Such

while

torque

current

starting.

slight angle

in

slightly

forces

lifted

are

its

along

runs

is short-circuited.

resistance

and

then

in
are

short-circuiting

motor

brushes

started

motor.

device

cessive
ex-

principle.

motor

repulsion

thus
The

The

excessive

in

as

tion
induc-

and

is
A

will

without

are

brushes

to

explained.

armature

centrifugal

been

It

commutators

winding.'

commutator

induction

commutator

field.

the

developing

phase

through

cent.,

method

single-phase

the

these

speed

to

up

This

which

with

of

up

required

Motors

stator

armature

with

of

speed

the

winding.

the

capable

not

of

motor.

started

usually

axis

brought

repulsion-motor

armatures

per

armature

when

is

short-circuiting

of

back

induction

phase

Arnold.

The

has

starting

the

motor

application.

converter

for

of

use

E.

to

brushes

use

against

the

by

drum-wound

provided

limited

phase

method

be

described.

just
has

the

polyphase

must

large starting torque

is due

have

way

converter

motors

best

The

Hne.

methods

after

The

(d).

current,

coil

of the

understood

motors,

this

phase

single-phase

Method

This

the

one

MACHINERY

single-phase

as

some

of

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

operating
are

axis
the

rotated
of

the

motor

CHAPTER
The
The
motor

Induction

Induction
may

Motor

Motor

be used

as

as

LVII

as

Phase

Phase

Converter

Converter.

"

An

induction

to change the
phase converter, i.e.,

ber
num-

of

is
phases of a system. Except when the transformation
from or to single
phase,it may be made much simpler,much more
economicallyand with less unbalancingby the use of static transformers.
When
transformers
used for phase conversion,,
are
they produce no unbalancingwith balanced loads provided their
the unsymmetrical arrangegrouping is symmetrical. Even
ments
which are in common
F-connecuse, namely, the T- and
tion
tions,produce only slightunbalancing of voltages. The inducmotor
when used as a phase converter
always produces some
unbalancingof voltagesand currents and this unbalancingmay be
where an induction motor
would be
large. In many
cases
very
used as a phase converter, for example,for producingthe required
phase displacementfor startingsingle-phase
motors, unbalancing
is of small importance. In other cases
where unbalancing is of
for it by adding to
correct
importance,it is possibleto partially
of the phasesauxiliary
some
voltagesobtained from transformers.
The two cases
is of real
where the induction phase converter
for the conversion from single-phase
to polyphase power
are
use
and vice versa.
Such conversion cannot be made by transformers.
is in the operation of
A recent applicationof phase conversion
electric locomotives
Threeusing three-phaseinduction motors.
motives
suitable for operatinglocoare
specially
phase induction motors
verter
on
long heavy grades. The installation of a phase conlocomotive
a
on
having three-phaseinduction motors
from a singletrolley.
makes
it possibleto operate the locomotive
line construction
This gives the simplicityof single-phase
bined
comtion
with the advantages gained by the use of polyphase inducmotors

for the motive

advantages are
grades.

electric

power.

braking and
551

Not
power

the least among

regenerationon

these
down

552

OF

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Any induction motor which has a symmetrical polyphase

velops
winding and is operated from a line with balanced voltages dea revolving
magnetic field approximatelyconstant in magnitude
and rotatingat nearly constant
speed. It is obvious that
of
if this motor
have a second winding with a different number
phases,balanced polyphasevoltageswill be induced in this second
ent
winding by the revolvingmagnetic field. A second or independwinding is not necessary
provided suitable taps are brought
the main
out from
winding. Such a device could be used to
transform
from
balancing
unpolyphase to singlephase without much
of the

polyphase system*
In a single-phasesystem the power is zero at least twice during
each cycle. The power
suppliedto the polyphase side of a phase
converter
transforming polyphase to singlephase must likewise
fall to zero
at least twice during each cycleunless there is some
of storingup kinetic energy
in the moving part of the sysmeans
tem.
This

would

energy

be

stored

during times

of minimum

A
single-phaseside and given out at other times.
slightvariation in the angular velocityof the rotor during each
of storingup and givingout this energy.
cyclesupphes the means
When
the demand
for energy
the single-phaseside is below its
on
value for a cycle,the rotor is acceleratingand storing
average

output

on

the

kinetic energy.
When
the rotor is retardingand

the demand

up

The

phase

phase
to

converter

the average

giving up its kinetic

in this

there must

case

value,

energy.

also be used to transform

may

polyphase,but

is above

of

from

single

necessitybe

unbalancing of the polyphase voltagesdue to the

change in the quadrature field with load and to the impedance
Since one
drops in the windings of the converter.
phase of the.
more

or

converter

less

acts

as

motor

impedance drops cannot

voltage of each phase.
It has been shown
a

that

while the others act

produce the
a

same

as

generator, the

effect in the terminal

induction
single-phase

quadraturefield which, combined

with the stator

motor

develops

field,
produces

in
rotating magnetic field. This rotating field is constant
magnitude at synchronous speed except for the leakage-reactance
and resistance drops in the rotor windings. Below
synchronous
speed the magnitude of the rotatingfield varies during a cycle,
due to the decrease in the quadrature field produced by the slip.

554

PRINCIPLES

OF

three-phase

without
the

If

by

actual

great

the

as

in

teaser

capacity

phase,

the
has

for

single

windings

The

stator

the

diagrams.
balanced

the

the
of

advantage
of

amount

the

to

three

are

Special
under

line

two

devices

varying

the

main

requiring

as

ring
must

load.

be

only

the

half

be

place

in

shown

windings
used

as

is

used,
the

of

former
trans-

This

least

converter

delivered.

power

for

be

obtained

single-phase

the

to

power

may

three-phase

are

is

transformer.

arrangements

phase

shown

or

power

phase

three-phase

taking

plying
sup-

therefore,

side

converter

converter

the

line

single

need
If

comes

polyphase

two-phase

capacity

forms

converter

for

from

two-phase

where

given

made

delivered.

from

the

phase

the

third

converter,
of

the

on

power

T-connection,

connections

voltages

power

the

amount

is

and

phase

arrangement

from

the

single

feeding

The

half

transformed

the

as

transformation

two-phase

from

of

other

single-phase

the

capacity

transformation

desired
the

the

only

phase,

two

from

great

as

The

transformed.

The

converter.

delivered.

MACHINERY

transformation

two-thirds

be

must

be

must

system

directly

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

transformation

Figs.
merely
for

and

248
to

249.

simplify

keeping

the

SERIES

AND

REPULSION

CHAPTER
Types

Single-phase

of

LVIII

Commutator

Characteristics; Starting;
Connections

of

Series

Motors

Doubly

Motors;

Single-phase Commutator
Characteristics.
Single-phasecommutator

grams
Dia-

Doubly

Fed

and

Motors

into two

pensation
Com-

with

Series

with

motors

"

be divided

Motors;

Power-factor

Tjrpes of

characteristics may
(a) Series motors.

Series

with

Fed

Singly

for

Repulsion

and

MOTORS

series

general classes:

(b) Repulsion motors.

The
the

chief distinction
receives

armature

between

these
The

power.

is obtained

motors

of

current

by conduction
is
repulsionmotors

better

armature

from

and

operating characteristics

the

of

two

about

from

1.4

repulsion motors

of series motors.

than

armature

induction

by

less than
of

The

In

types

other
are

way

of series

current

the line.

obtained

winding on the stator.

For speeds greater than zero
speed, the commutation

types is in the

two

chronous
syn-

is inherently

respects the

similar.

Both

their

equivalent.
1. An excitingwinding for producing the excitingor torquejunction
producing field,i.e.,the field which produces torque in con-

types require three windings

with

the armature

2. An

energy

3. A

compensating

which
the

winding may

one

and

winding for producing

armature

winding

types of motors,

some

motor,

current.

which

motor

compensates

power.

for

the

reaction.

armature

In

or

or

be made

exciting winding

the armatures
motors

might

as

called

to

well.

of the two
be

for

as

example the simplerepulsion

serve

On

types of
Conductive
555

as

ing
compensating wind-

account
motors

of the

way

in

receive current,

Series

Motors

and

556

There

Starting. Series and

are

repulsionmotors

"

of the

modifications

many

having series characteristics.

of motors

generaltypes

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Series Motors.

Inductive
two

OF

PRINCIPLES

started

be

may

with

but
series motor,
direct-current
in series like any
variable speed is desired,it is customary to start motors

resistance
when

of any
appreciablesize on reduced voltage obtained from a
This transformer
transformer
or
compensator
or a compensator.
also be used

may

to

voltage.
Doubly Fed Motors.
series and

Some

motors.

to the

In addition

"

repulsionmotors,

doubly fed

speed by changing

the

vary

there

forms

the

impressed

simple or singlyfed

is another

class known

of this latter class

are

as

times
some-

motors.
Doubly fed motors
may
series-repulsion
The
armature
be either of the series or the repulsion type.
of a motor
of the doubly fed type receives power
by induction
from a winding on the stator and in addition receives power
by

called

conduction
from
the

motor

the line.

from

transformer
is

The

connected

operated and

power

from

across

the

this transformer

the line is obtained

mains

from

which

serves

for

starting

Doubly fed motors

varying the speed of the motor.
wider
characteristics over
be given better commutation
a
may
of the singlyfed type. In general,
range of speed than motors
they have better operating characteristics above synchronous
speed than singlyfed motors.
The
operates best at speeds below
simple repulsion motor
synchronous speed while the doubly fed repulsionmotor operates
best at speeds above synchronous speed. By proper
switching
and

also for

arrangements,

motor

may

be

started

with

the

connections

which

factor and torque when

give best commutation, power
startingand may be operated with the connections best adapted
For example, a motor
to the load conditions.
be started
may
and on reaching synchronous speed
motor
as
a simple repulsion
into a doubly fed series or repulsion motor
be converted
may
for
operation at speeds above
synchronism. By properly
circuit connections
it is possibleto make
changing the motor
certain types of doubly fed motors
regenerate for braking purposes
in electric railroad work.

Diagrams of Coimectioiis
The
and Repulsion Motors.
"

for

Singly and

connections

Doubly Fed
for a simple or

Series

singly

SERIES

fed series motor,

fed series motor

in

AND

S
C

A
T

MOTORS

557

simpleor singlyfed repulsionmotor, a doubly

and a doubly fed repulsion motor
shown
are

Figs.250, 251, 252 and

=

REPULSION

253.

In these

Series

figures

winding producing the torque

Compensating winding.

field.

Armature.

and startingtransformer.
Speed-regulating

Fig.

In the
to serve

Figs.251
axis out

250.

Fig.

repulsionmotor,
for both
and

This

of coincidence

magnetomotive

Fig.

singledistributed winding is made

and compensating windings shown
in

the series

253.

251.

is

accomplished by shiftingthe brush

with the axis of the singlewinding. The

force of this

singlestator winding

Fig.

252.

may

then

be

253.

magnetomotive forces at right

angles to each other, one along the brush axis the other at
right angles to the brush axis. The first correspondsto the
magnetomotive force of the compensating winding, the second
to the magnetomotive force of the series winding. By changing
resolved

the

into

two

positionof

the

component

brush

axis with

respect to the axis of the

558

PRINCIPLES

the

winding,

stator

of

OF

the

motor

the

by
the

axis
To

of

the

be

of
of

since

brushes

be

and

thus
for

factor

underlying
factor

it
for

compensate
make

to

this

compensation

compensation

or

is

termined
de-

from

displaced

are

repulsion
force

of

by

always

must

motor

only

the

reaction,

armature

neutralized

distributed

similarly

In

in

the

addition

tributed
dis-

compensating

to

"

is

by

possible

the

motor

load
is

the
of

reactance

repulsion

particular

some

rotation

winding.

reaction,
to

neutraUzing

Compensation.

armature

of

brushes

magnetomotive

can

Power-factor

direction

the

series

the

compensating

for

which

characteristics

operating

winding.

winding

winding

armature

The

in

purpose

distributed,

other

the

changed.

stator

compensating

and

direction

its

serve

speed
be

may

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

addition

the

exciting

much

single-phase

the

The

speed.
same

induction

as

that
motor.

extra

winding

unity

at

operate
and

of

power

principle
for

power-

CHAPTER
Singly

Series

Fed

Vector

Motor;

Diagram;

Starting

Vector

Over-

Speed

and

LIX

Diagram;

Under-compensation

and

Control;

Commutation;

Construction, Efficiency

poles;

Approximate

Losses

and

of

InterSeries

Motors
Series

SinglyFed

Motor.

"

Since

and

in the field of the series motor

any

direct-current series

the current
at

reverses

would

motor

in the armature
the

same

time,

develop torque if supplied

with

alternatingcurrent.. Owing to the high inductance of the

field and armature
windings of such a motor, as well as to the
little torque or power
would be developed and
largeiron losses,
the power
factor would be very low.
Destructive sparkingwould
also

due

occur

the transformer

to

by the brushes
torque developed by

short-circuited
The

product of the

action

coils

armature

during commutation.
any

motor

is

and

the

current

armature

in the

proportional to the
component

of the

is in time

In a
phase with that current.
series motor, the flux is very
nearly in time phase with the
current.
Any required torque may be obtained by using either
few armature
a strong field and
turns, or by using a weak field
In other words, the ratio of armature
and many
turns.
armature
In order to
be either large or small.
turns to field turns
may
which

air-gapflux

minimize

reaction

the effect of armature

and

to

reduce

the cost

design of a direct-current series motor

If the
armature.
calls for a strong field and a relativelyweak
is to operate on alternatingcurrent, the design calls for
motor
the
construction,

of

weak
The

reactance

t-urns.

of few
may

field and

turns

of

and

be very

strong
relatively

By using
much

usual

a
an

coil varies

weak

field and

armature

reduced.

correspondingincrease

consequently

in

the

as

armature.

the square

of the number

of

strong armature, i.e.,a field

of many
turns, the field reactance
tates
This reduction,however, necessiin the armature
reactance.

armature
559

ampere-turns and

Nothing would

be

560

OF

PRINCIPLES

gainedby using a

ALTERN

weak

possibleto compensate
the cross-flux
The

field and
for the

produced by

reactance

drop in

MACHINERY

ATING-CURRENT

strong armature

armature

reactance

the armature

it not

caused

by

current.

series motor

depends

/ is the frequency,Nf the field

Na^, where

were

on

turns

/, Nf^
and

and

Na the

small,the
frequency must be low. Except in very small sizes the design
of a satisfactory
60-cycleseries motor is not practicable.On
the series motor is essentially
account
of commutation
difficulties,
turns.

armature

order

In

to

make

the

reactance

If the voltage were

to be doubled, the
low-voltage motor.
also be doubled.
The
of all windings would
turns
reactance
would increase four times, while the current for the same
output
a

would

be

halved.

The

main
drop would repercentage reactance
reactance, therefore,is not the factor

unchanged. The
which limits the voltage to low values.
The voltagesfor which
tween
series motors
are
alternating-current
usually designed lie beand
quency
200
300.
Except for very small motors, the freis never
greater than 25 cycles. Abroad, frequencies
low as 12)-^and 15 cyclesare used.
as
The
internal power
is equal to the
developed by a motor
and
the component
of the
current
product of its armature
electromotive
force of rotation
in phase with it. In
armature
the series motor, the electromotive

phase

with

force of rotation

is in time

the

flux,since it is produced by the rotation of the

inductors in the alternating
field and not by the transarmature
former
action of the field on the armature
winding. Since the
for any
speed is constant
given load, the electromotive force
will be directlyproportionalto the flux. Whenever
the flux is a
For
maximum, the electromotive force will be a maximum.
motive
given current,the power developedis proportionalto the electroforce of rotation.
This electromotive
force is equal to
the total voltage impressed on
the motor
less the total impedance
and field windings. If the total
drop in both armature
is large,the electromotive
reactance
force of rotation will be
small and littlepower
will be developed. The power
factor will
also be low.

Ea
where
of

Ea, K,

rotation,a

KX

and iV^ are,

constant, the
"p

speed X

ip

Na

the electromotive force

respectively,
air-gapflux and the armature
turns.

562

PRINCIPLES

It is

impossibleto compensate

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

for the

leakage

In

reactance.

order to get sufficient flux with few field turns, the air gap should
should be massive and should be operated
be small,the field core
low
relatively
compensated, the

at

density. Since the

flux

of

presence

except for

mechanical

circuit of

multipolarmotor

small air gap

The

reasons.

is

Fig.

of

that of
force

magnetomotive
of

circuit

of turns, the field reactance

254.

the field reactance

is less than

multipolarmotor

magnetic

than

Since the reactance

of the number

the square

is

objectionable

length of the

total

bipolar motor, and for the same

largertotal flux can be obtained.
as

is not

shorter
necessarily

varies

reaction

armature

of

bipolar

motor.

Fig. 254
and

shows

arrangement

compensating field of
coils must

same

the

be

so

connected

of conductors

the

on

The

four-polemotor.
that the current

direction in all of the conductors

under

any

ture
armapensating
com-

flows in the
one

pole.

developed field showing the compensating winding is given in

The
be connected
in series
compensating field may
Fig. 255.
with the armature, in which

case

the motor

is said to be conduc-

in which
tivelycompensated. It may be short-circuited on itself,
is inductivelycompensated and the compensating
the motor
case
winding acts like the secondary of a short-circuited transformer
for which
the armature
winding is the primary. Conductive

SERIES

compensation

AND

on

direct and

Fig. 256 shows a portion of

compensated series
single-phase
of

an

563

MOTORS

obviously be used in all cases

must

is to operate both

REPULSION

where

motor

current.
alternating

the
motor

of

large 25-cycle
for mounting in the cab

stator

electric locomotive.

Fig.

255.

Fig.

256.

Diagram. The vector diagram of a singly fed series

motor
is given in Fig. 257.
the armature
The subscripts/, a, and c refer to the main field,
Vector

and

the

"

respectivelycompensatingfield,

564

PRINCIPLES

The

current

OF

I, which

is the

in all

same

is resolved with respect to the main

/p,and

windings of the motor,

field into a magnetizing component,
which

Ih +

component,

suppliesthe iron losses

Fig. 257, Irf is the drop in

e,

by the field. Referring to

voltage due to the resistance of the main
caused

quadraturewith I^,is the

due to the flux

ip.

voltage induced
with

the armature

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

actual reactance

field winding.

drop in

I^f, in

the main

field

Ea is the voltage drop required to balance

by rotation and is in time phase

in the armature
flux and

the

with the current

I^.

The

two

small

trianglesat the right are the equivalentimpedance drops in the

due to their effective resistand compensating fields,
armature

FiG.

and

257.

effective

Perfect compensation
leakage reactances.
is assumed, i.e.,
reaction by
complete neutralization of armature
the compensating winding.
Approximate Vector Diagram. The angle between the magnetizing
ances

"

component

/^ and

the total field current

I is small.

In the

ing
Accordapproximate diagram this angle is assumed to be zero.
to this assumption the field flux ip and the voltage drop Ea
in time phase with the total field current
/.
are
and resistance drops by their
Replacing the real reactance
equivalentvalues gives the approximate vector diagram shown
in Fig. 258.
The resistance drop and equivalent reactance
drop
in the series field are oh and ha,Figs. 257 and 258.
of
The sum
these drops is equal to the voltagewhich would be found by a
voltmeter

running.

placed across

the main

field winding,with the motor

SERIES

Over-

and

REPULSION

AND

Under-compensation.
"

for any load will be obtained

cross-flux due to the armature

565

MOTORS

The

when

maximum

the

factor

compensation for the

is

current

power

perfect. Either

over-

under-compensation will increase the resultant reactance drop

in the armature
and compensating field.
If the motor
is over-compensated,the magnetomotive force of
the compensating winding is greater than the magnetomotive
force of the armature
and their resultant magnetomotive force
or

causes

flux in the

produced by

direction

same

the flux which would

as

be

the

compensating winding alone. Since this flux

links with both the armature
and the compensating winding and
is 180 degreesfrom that which the armature
alone would produce,
due to it lags behind the armature
the drop in the armature
current by 90 degrees. The drop in the compensating winding

Fig.

leads the

current

in that

258.

winding by

90

degrees. It will be

largerthan the drop in the armature, since for over-compensation

the effective turns
the effective turns

on
on

the

be greaterthan
net drop due to both

compensatingfield must

the armature.

The

leads the current

compensatingwinding, therefore,
by 90 degrees. If the motor is under-compensated,there is an
unbalanced
magnetomotive force which sends a flux in the
armature

and

motive
magnetoin the direction of the armature
i.e.,
oppositedirection,
will be
force. In this case the drop through the armature
greater. The net drop due to the cross-flux caused by armature
of the
and compensating field windings is 90 degrees ahead
pensation.
the flux is caused by under- or over-comcurrent, whether

Over-compensation cannot
the power factor of the
increasing
effect,

produce
motor.

capacity

566

PRINCIPLES

OF

Speed

Starting and

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Control.

alternating-currentseries

An

"

of
started,and its speed controlled,
by means
series resistance,just as with the direct-current series motor.
and the
The reduction of voltageacross
its terminals for starting,
its speed,may
variation in the impressedvoltage for controlling
former
be more
economically obtained by using taps on the transmotor

or

The

be

may

latter method

employed

for

which

from

compensator

produced in the

during

short-circuited

They

coils when

commutation.

The

by the brushes
like the

act

currents

the

design of an
transformer
voltage

is due to the

armature

for which

Large

always

in the
greatest difficulty

The

"

series motor
alternating-current

field.

power.

is

large motors.

Commutation.

brushes

receives

motor

of its greater economy

account

on

the

link

short-circuited

coils which

armature

with

the full flux from

secondary of

short-circuited

field coils of the

motor

Since

these

currents

interrupted when the coils move

In addition
sparking will occur.

from

under

the

sparking,the

transformer

to

currents

the

former
trans-

the

coils.

armature

are

primary.
produced in these
are

causing excessive heating will be

Bhort-circuited

by the

be

must

brushes, bad

causingheating and excessive

in the

coils short-circuited

by the brushes react on the field and thereby reduce the torque
They will also lower
developedby the motor for a given current.
the power
In order to make
factor.
the operation of a series
motor
be adopted
must
some
means
commercially satisfactory,
for reducing these short-circuit currents.
some
They are most troubleduring startingwhen the field flux is usually greater than
under normal
The time during which
running conditions.
any
coil remains short-circuited is also a maximum
armature
during
starting.
of reducing sparking, caused by the
The
most
common
way
interruptionof the transformer current in the coils short-circuited
by the brushes,is to diminish this current
by the insertion of
resistance leads betweeen

winding. Fig.
with

259

the commutator
of these

Two

respect to the short-circuited

external

two
circuit,

Although
as

these

measured

are

in

bars and

resistance
coil while

are

in series

with respect to the

parallel.

resistance leads increase

between

leads

the armature

the armature

ance
resist-

brushes,they actuallydiminish

the

SERIES

AND

REPULSION

total copper
loss in the armature
on
decrease they produce in the copper
coils.
while
motor

567

MOTORS

of the

account

loss in the

very

large

short-circuited

The

of the motor
be improved by their use,
efficiency
may
by diminishingsparking they make the operation of the
commerciallypossible. These resistance leads are usually

of German

silver and

the armature

coils.

are

laid in the bottom

Increasingthe

of the slots

number

containing

of commutator

"

bars

Commutator

(Armature

t Winding
Fig.

decreases

the number
decreases

coils.

The

lower

of turns

259.

quently
adjacent bars and consevoltage in the short-circuited
be made, the smaller will be

between

the transformer
this

voltagecan

the resistance

required in the resistance leads in order to reduce

the current
to a
in the coils short-circuited during commutation
signed
which are deFor this reason, series motors
permissiblevalue.
circuits must
have many
to operate on alternating-current

Brush

"

-Commutator

JKcactance
Colls

mmmmmM--\

Armature

Winding

Fig.

commutator
reason

The

bars and

why such
chief

motors

few
are

turns

260.

wound

involved
difficulty

bars.

between

This

is also the

only for low voltages.

in the

use

of resistance leads is

ing
adequate space for them and to prevent their overheatance
resistis running, any one
When
a motor
and burning out.
small part of the time.
lead is in circuit only a relatively
If only enough coolingsurface is provided to keep the leads cool

to

secure

568

PRINCIPLES

under
is at
at

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

OF

condition,they are liable to burn out when the motor

is revolving
rest and carrying current, or when its armature
the use
slow speed as in starting. In spiteof this difficulty,
this

of resistance leads in the

method

simple series

reducing the

of

short-circuited

in the

current

factory
satis-

is the most

motor

coils to

values.
permissible
Inductances,arranged as shown in. Fig. 260, will reduce the
tion
sparking,but are not used on account of the resultingcomplicaand the space required.
The

sides of any
looked at from

two
as

forces
to

or

coil must

one

the

produced in

them

current

from

and

to

reactance

be in

shown

arranged as

the

small reactance

very

going
conjunctionfor

shall neutralize for currents

Coils

the short-circuit current.

tions
direc-

same

in order that the magnetomotive

the external circuit and

coming from

interposea high

end

same

in the

be wound

passage

of the

to current

taken

in

Fig. 260

short-circuit

by the

motor

the external circuit.

Interpoles. Interpolesconnected in series with the

troubles
of no use in suppressing
the commutation
are
"

transformer

action

in the

short-circuited

coils.

The

armature

due to the
flux produced

is nearly in phase with the current.

by such interpoles
The
of the short-circuited
voltage induced by the movement
coils through this flux will be in phase with the flux
armature
and nearly in phase with the current.
The transformer
voltage
induced in the short-circuited armature
coils by the main field
is in quadrature with the current.
ages
These two quadrature voltneutralize each other,but must
not only cannot
give a
resultant voltage which is greater than either. Moreover, since
is proportional
to frequency and independent of speed,and
one
the other is proportionalto speed and independentof frequency,
if they are
they can be made to neutralize at only one speed even
as
brought into the correct phase relation,
they may be by the
of suitable connections.

use

Interpolesare
from

current

small auto-transformer

they take, and

degrees behind
the
armature

used

sometimes

the

their

to aid commutation.

shunted

around

flux, will be

flux of the

main

Excited

the armature, the

approximately

field.

Under

this

90

dition
con-

speed voltage induced by them in the short-circuited

coils will be nearly in time phase opposition to the

CHAPTER

Singly

Fed

Repulsion

Running;
of

Motor;
Diagram;

Vector

Series

the

LX

Repulsion

and

Motor

at

Rest;

Motor

Comparison

Commutation;
Motors

for

The
connections
Singly Fed Repulsion Motor.
ductively compensated singly fed series motor
are
"

con-

shown

in

pensating
winding a ad CC the comIn
winding. The armature
winding is not shown.
practicethe compensating winding is placed in slots in the pole

Fig.

MM

261.

is the

main

field

faces.
The

connections

shown

are

in

for

an

Fig. 262.

Fig.

inductivelycompensated series motor

The
armature
and compensating field

Fig.

261.

262.

Fig.

263.

primary and secondaryof a short-circuited transformer.

is the same
with conductive
The
as
operation of the motor
compensation, provided the magnetic circuit for the cross-field
is sufficiently
good to prevent largemagnetic leakagebetween the
compensating and the armature
windings.
Instead of short-circuiting
the compensating field,this field
act

as

and

the main

field may

short-circuited.

This

be connected
scheme

in series and

of connections

the armature

is shown

in

Fig.
in the armature
will now
263.
The
be obtained
current
by
will operate satisfactorily
The
motor
induction.
provided the
and
magnetic circuit for the armature
compensating field is
tween
sufficiently
good to permit satisfactorytransformer action bethem.
The

connections

shown

in

Fig. 263
670

are

those

of

repulsion

SERIES

The

motor.

the

and

REPULSION

necessityfor

the axis of the main

and

AND

571

MOTORS

good magnetic circuit both

field and

also

along the

compensating field requiresthe

along

axis of the armature

of non-salient

use

poles

uniform

air gap.
With non-salient polesboth the main and
be distributed,
compensating field windings must
being placed

in slots in the stator.

There

is

particularobject in using two

independent windings for these two fields. In the simple repulsion
in a singleuniformly distributed
motor, they are combined
winding and the effect of two windingsis obtained by displacing
the brush axis from the axis of the singlestator winding. The
magnetomotive force of this singlewinding may then be resolved
into two
along the brush axis,corresponding
components, one
to the magnetomotive
force of the compensating winding, the
other at right angles to the
brush

axis and

the

to

corresponding

magnetomotive

of the main
The

field

force

winding.

connections
motor

no

for
shown

are

pulsion
re-

dia-

grammatically in Fig. 264,

salient poles being indicated
merely for simplicity.
F

represents the

and

of the

magnitude
force

force is resolved

direction

of the

into two

Fig.

264.

netomotive
mag-

winding.

stator

This

components, T and S.

magnetomotive
The

component

T, alongthe brush axis,correspondsto the compensatingfield and

produces current in the armature
by transformer action. It will
be called the transformer
field. The component S, at rightangles
field of Fig. 263.
It
to the brush axis,correspondsto the main
produces torque in conjunction with the current induced in the
T.
It cannot, however, produce
armature
by the component
by transformer action. When
the armature
revolves,a speed voltage is induced in the armature
between
The field S will,therefore,
the brushes by the field S.
be called the speed field. It may
also be called the torque field,
any

voltagebetween

since

it

the brushes

produces torque

current.

is the back

The

in

voltage induced

electromotive

conjunction with
in the

armature

force of the motor.

the

armature

by the field S

572

PRINCIPLES

The

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

relative

mined
magnitude of the two component fields is deterby the positionof the brush axis with respect to the axis of
the stator
winding. Increasingthe displacement of the brush
axis from

the axis of the stator

field and

increases the

down.

Reversing

brushes

reverses

the

of the transformer
it

speed field and

the

direction

of

the

the transformer

the motor

causes

speed field S without

to slow

displacement of the
changing the direction

field T with respect to the armature.

the direction of rotation

reverses

of the motor
upon

field decreases

well

as

as

the position of the brush

of the motor.

Hence,

The

teristics
charac-

its direction of rotation

depend

axis.

speed of the repulsionmotor may be varied by changing

the impressed voltage,as in the series motor, or by changing the
positionof the brush axis. In the doubly fed repulsionmotor,
in addition to the methods
juststated,the speed may be changed
circuit.
by varying the voltage inserted in the armature
The

The

series motor

with

either conductive

or

inductive

sation
compen-

axis,since the magnetomotive

and of the compensating field neutralize
forces of the armature
has a
along this axis. Except at starting,the repulsionmotor
strong field along the brush axis. This is the essential difference
has

between

no

field along the brush

the two
in their

The

armature

action

types of motor

and

is the

cause

operatingcharacteristics.
of the repulsion
current
motor

between

the armature

and

ference
of the chief dif-

results from

the component

former
trans-

of the

magnetomotive force which lies along the brush axis.

is equal to the armature
The load on this equivalenttransformer
current
multipliedby the back electromotive force generated in
the armature
by its rotation in the speed field. Neglecting the
magnetizing current in the stator winding for the transformer
current
is proportionalto the stator current
the armature
field,
and, therefore,to the current producing the speed field. Hence
has the torque and speed characteristics of
the repulsionmotor
stator

series motor.

It differs

materiallyfrom

the

series motor

in

This difference is due to the transformer

commutation, however.
which induces a speed voltage in the armature
coils shortfield,
circuited by the brushes and neutralizes at synchronous speed the
transformer
voltage produced in those coils by the speed field
conditions are
similar to those existingat the brushes aa
The

SERIES

in the

AND

573

MOTORS

REPULSION

single-phasecommutator-type

induction

motor, Fig. 237,

533.

page

Motor

Rest.

In

discussingthe repulsion motor, the two

component fields will be replacedby two separate fields in space
or speed field SS, the other
quadrature : one the torque-producing
the current-producing
transformer
field TT, Fig. 265.
The
or
at

short-circuited
With
with

"

the motor

the

voltage

brushes

armature

rest,the component

at

forms

armature

as

aa.

field TT

short-circuited

is the

TT

across

shown

are

in

conjunction
The

transformer.

equivalent impedance drop of this

transformer.
(ps

due to SS

in the armature

between

The

flux

to the brush

the brushes
axis.

the

vector

drops due
and

to

formed
the

to

the

of the

sum

the

The

equivalent

to

in series with
there

Since
induction

the

will

transformer
and

conditions

are

be

any

the field SS

between

armature,
power

cannot

total

former
trans-

impedance

an

reactance

coil.

mutual
Fig.

and

of the

field SS

will be
copper

winding and the core loss due to the flux "ps.

drop should be small compared with the total

Consequently
field SS

high, The
loss in

The

the

resistance

reactance

magnetizing current and the flux

nearlyin time phase with the current

the

will be

265.

the

by it will be merely the

absorbed

is perpendicular

field SS

short-circuited

voltage

transformer

since the axis of SS

field TT

by:the component

any

impedance

component

short-circuited

armature.

The

the motor

voltage impressedacross
be

produce

cannot

(ps

drop.
of the

taken

by

act
component field TT and the armature
together like a short-circuited transformer,the current h in the
rent
be very nearlyoppositein time phase to the curmust
armature
current
7" and
Therefore, the armature
in the field TT.
and since
be nearly in time phase opposition,
the flux (Ps must
the brush axis is at right anglesto the axis of the flux ^5, torque
At starting,
will speed up.
will be developed and the motor

the motor.

Since the

nearly all the drop in voltage through the motor is in the comChanging the brush positionalters the relative
I)onentfield SS.

574

PRINCIPLES

number
The

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

of ampere-turns in the two

further the brush

component

axis is moved

from

fields SS

and

TT.

the axis of the stator

winding, the greater will be the field SS and the smaller will be
the field TT.
For a given current, this will increase the voltage
at the instant of starting.
the motor
drop across
Motor
Running. When the motor speedsup, a speed voltage,
the brushes aa by the rotation of the armature
Es, is produced across
in the component
field SS.
This voltage corresponds to
"

the back

electromotive

force of the series motor.

It will be in

time

phase with the flux (ps and since the stator current and (ps
are
nearlyin time phase,this voltagewill be nearlyin time phase
with the stator current.
Neglectingthe excitingcurrent for the
transformer formed by the stator winding and the armature, the
armature
current
la is in time oppositionto the stator current.
ture
Therefore,
Es will be nearlyin time phase oppositionto the armaHence the load on the transformer formed hy TT
current.
and the armature
will be nearly non-inductive.
The armature
current /" is due to the resultant of the transformer
voltage E^
and the speed voltage Es, acting on the armature
pedance
leakage imZa
ra + jxa,wherc
Xa is the leakage reactance.
"

Et + Es
^

This current

will

E^

Ta

+ JXa

Ta

+ JXa

lag behind the resultant voltageEa by

an

angle

whose
The

tangent is

"
"

under

load is

equivalentto a loaded transformer

in series with an impedance coil. The poles TT with the armature
form the transformer.
The poles /SS with their winding
form the impedance coil.
Vector
clearer
Diagram. The load conditions will be made
To simplify this
by a time phase vector diagram. Fig. 266.
diagram the flux (ps is assumed in phase with the current taken
The ratio of transformation
TT
between
and
by the motor.
the armature
is taken as unity.
Referringto Fig. 266, "ps is the flux produced by that component
of the magnetomotive force of the stator winding which
The flux
correspondsto the winding on the polesSS, Fig. 266a.
to be in phase with the current
I taken by the
"f"s is assumed
of the stator
motor.
The
other component
magnetomotive
motor

"

AND

SERIES

REPULSION

575

MOTORS

that corresponding to the magnetomotive force of the

force,i.e.,
Instead of dividing
poles TT, divides into three components.
the magnetomotive force into three components, the current /
carried by the field winding on TT may
These
be so divided.
components correspond to those into which the primary current
of any static transformer
be conveniently resolved.
They
may
are a magnetizing component,
I^t;for the flux,v'd ^ component,

Fig.

e,

supplyingthe

I'l,which

balances

266.

and

core

loss due

the

demagnetizing action

to

"pt

load

component,

of the

armature

current.

The

flux

"pt

voltage,Et,
This corresponds to the voltage
former.
the secondary winding of a trans-

induces in the armature

in time

quadrature with

induced

the mutual

"PT.

flux in

transformer

by
Es is the speed voltage induced in the

armature

by

the

576

PRINCIPLES

field

"ps.

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

This

voltage corresponds to the voltage rise through

the load on a transformer.
The vector
of E^ and Es is the
sum
resultant voltage Ea, which causes
the current to flow through
the armature
leakage impedance.
The vector
of
sum
Ej- and the impedance drop due to / in
the field TT.
field TT gives the drop in voltage, Vt, across
Vr
added
to the impedance drop in the field SS gives the voltage
the stator.
drop, V, impressed across
The actual repulsion
has a singlestator winding instead
motor
of the two shown
the vector
in Fig. 26Qa.
To make
diagram
"

the
it is necessary
to combine
correspond to the actual motor
two
drops Izs and Iz^ into a single impedance drop Iz
7(r + jx),where r is the effective resistance of the whole stator
ing
winding and x is the leakagereactance of the whole stator windThe resistance
due to the flux cpsplus the stator reactance
include the effect of the local losses due to the leakage
r should
=

flux of the stator, and

where

A; is

also the

loss due

core

Power

factor

Power

input

Internal power

Torque

cos

VI

cos

to

the flux

"f"s-

Egla cos Oa
kla(pscos da

constant.

Iz

Et +

Et

Es
J

"

"*

Za

Es
where

is the

speed of the
-V

k'tpsu
Therefore,

motor.

Iz-h k'^sn

"''"
Za

V -IZ
n

The

current

laZa

fT

"

/" is nearly in time

phase oppositionto the

stator

ture
sign of /" is reversed in order to refer the armaimpedance drop to the stator, the equation for the speed of
the repulsionmotor
becomes

current.

If the

^
n

This is also the

ff

-^^

equation for the speed

of

(236)
series motor.

578

OF

PRINCIPLES

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

synchronous speed n and / are equal and the two fields are.
therefore,approximately equal at this speed. This relation is
independent of the positionof the brushes with respect to the
singledistributed stator winding. Changing the positionof the
At

alters the relative number

brushes

fieldsSS and
all

TT,

of ampere-turns of the nent

compobut the ampere-turns of the field TT are not
The

magnetizing ampere-turns.

and

the

the

inagnetizingampere-turns

speed of

relation between
the

on

poles TT

the

total

depends

on

the motor.*

the speed and transformer voltages

be,respectively,
coils. The voltage e" is
induced in the short-circuited armature
induced by the flux ips and lags 90 degrees behind that flux and,
therefore,90 degrees behind the current /. The voltage e, is
induced by the flux tpf and is in time oppositionto that flux.
Let

e,

In

order

and

Ct

whether

determine

to

is in

e^

phase

time

with

the convention
opposition to the flux ^y, use
cording
given under the single-phaseinduction motor on page 527. Acit
to this convention, a speed voltage is positivewhen
which produces a positiveflux.
causes
a current
Refer to the small figurein the corner
of Fig. 266.
Assume
left to rightas the positive
direction for "pg. In the actual motor
the effect of the poles TT
and SS is secured by displacing
the
in

or

time

brushes

from

the axis of the stator

field. Let the dot-and-dash

line represent the axis of the actual stator

2 form

of the actual

one

polesand

Poles

winding.

3 and 4 the other.

If the

of the

from left to
flux "("gis assumed
positivedirection of the flux "pj,must then be downward
direction

be clockwise.

must

axis.

direction of the stator

assumed

instant when

This

the current

be

can

seen

flow in SS

The
as

1 and

tive
posi-

right,the
for the

direction of rotation

follows.

Consider

is right-handed as

seen

the
from

flux "pg is then positive.Since T2 and Si form one

pole,the current in the winding on the poles TT is right-handed
the left.

when
is in

seen

The

from

to
opposition

'

but

In

upon

the flux does not

transformer
the

vector

repulsionmotor
of the transformer

the

in the

the current

sum

depend

and
on

in
the

on

current

depends

on

current, which
must

the

primary

of the primary and

armature

and

armature

winding on TT,

side of the armature

the left-hand

on

Therefore,the

above.

flow out

right-hand
current

secondary currents.
corresponds to the secondary

the speed of the motor.

alone
In

the

current

SERIES

side.
will

This

cause

REPULSION

AND

armature

current

clockwise

rotation.

Consider

the instant
This

Fig. 267.

of the current

in

579

MOTORS

conjunctionwith

the

field SS

the flux (pj.is positive,i.e.,

downward,

when
flux is

produced by the magnetizing

I and

will be

ponent
com-

nearly 90 degreesbehind

diagram. Fig. 266)

The flux "ps is nearlyin time phase with the current and approximately
90 degrees ahead of (pj,. The transformer
voltage e", produced
will
be
90
in the short-circuited armature
degrees
coils,
induced
behind (pg. According to the convention,the voltagee,

(seevector

coils is

by rotation in the short-circuited armature

negative,that is,opposite in phase to the
drawn
causing it and is,therefore,Fig. 267. The two voltagesinduced
coils undergoing commutation

flux (pj-

upward
in the
are,

on

ture
arma-

therefore,
"P,

opposite.
e,
et

where

k"

is

k"(pj,n
k""psf

constant,

and

/ have

the

et
same

before.
as
significance

FiQ.

"Psf

et

(240)

ipjM

e,

From

equation (239),page

267.

577,

Therefore,
e,

\n/

perfectneutralization of the transformer

coils undergoing commutation
armature
For

et_
e.

condition

This
where
at

V^

n.

can

Above

be

""

fulfilled

voltage et in the

only

synchronousspeed

at
-

synchronous speed,
decreases

rapidlyand

e^

=1.4

synchronous speed the

difference between

e,

and

et

580

PRINCIPLES

is

great

as

OF

at

as

inherent

conditions

motor.

So far

ALTERN

starting. Above

1.4

for commutation

are

obviously operates best

The

in the series

repulsionmotor

the armature

at

a non-inductive
improved by inserting

be

circuit.

in the armature
and

than

worse

synchronous speed.
of the repulsionmotor, while being brought

commutation

speed,may

to

up

synchronous speed, the

is concerned, the

commutation

as

MACHINERY

ATING-CVRBENT

brushes

This

resistance should

short-circuited

as

soon

as

ance
resist-

be cut

out

the motor

has reached
of
of

tion
operating speeds. As the conditions for commutarepulsionmotor are inherentlygood in the neighborhood

synchronous speed, the

resistance

should

be

cut

out

synchronous speed is reached.

Insertingresistance while
will also improve the power
factor,but the higher
factor and

the better commutation

are

to the decrease

obtained

at

before
ing
startpower

loss in efficiency.

is not serious
efficiency
This
provided the resistance is used only for startingpurposes.
method
of starting may
be used to advantage with doubly fed
series or doubly fed repulsionmotors.
Such motors
are
usually
started as simple repulsionmotors.
They are designed to have
relativelylow synchronous speed and to reach that speed quickly
when
ordinary load conditions they operate
starting. Under
above
circuit.
synchronism with no resistance in the armature
The loss in the startingresistance should be no greater than for
The

any

loss due

direct-current

series motor.

The

in

effect of

short-circuiting

through resistance while startingmay be shown

From
equation (240),page 579, the ratio of the

the armature
follows:

voltagesinduced

in the short-circuited armature

as

two

coils is

"Psf

et
_

Vtu

e,

For

good commutation

these

two

voltages should

neutralize

and

^"

The

fluxes

vT

and

(ps must

(^"

'

also be in both

space

and

quadrature. These conditions are exactly fulfilled only at

speed. At the instant of startingn is zero, and
nearly zero.
very

time
chronous
syntpT

is

SERIES

The
page

AND

REPULSION

581

MOTORS

repulsionmotor will always speed up until equation(235),

574, is fulfilled. According to equation (235)
Es + Et

Es is in time phase with

with la.
If resistance
increased

for

ips

laZa

(242)

and, therefore,
nearlyin time phase

is inserted

in the

given current

and

will be
circuit,
7"2",
brought approximately

armature
may

be

in time

phase opposition with Es. Under this condition E^ will

be approximately in phase with /". Since Et is a transformer
voltage,the flux ^j. producingit will be nearlyin time quadrature
with Z" and, therefore,
with "ps. This is the approximate phase
relation existing
between
"ps and
"pt at synchronous speed, with
no

resistance in the armature

which
At

armature

must

given speed

circuit.

be fulfilledfor
and

It is

good

one

of the two

ditions
con-

commutation.

the resistance in the

current, increasing

circuit increases

and also tends

E^ and, therefore,
^T
to keep (Pt and "ps in time quadrature.
Except for limits of saturation,equation (241)for good commutation
be satisfied by putting resistance in the armature
may
circuit,
provided n is not zero.
Although the limits of saturation
prevent equation (241)being satisfied when n is low, commutation
amount
duringstartingmay be improved by inserting
a moderate
of resistance
in

in the armature

making

"pt

equal to

circuit.

the two fluxps are

circuit,
(239),page 577.

Comparison

of the

Series

With

^g.

There
no

should

be

no

resistance in the

culty
diffiture
arma-

equal at synchronous speed,equation

and

There
is
Repulsion Motors.
little difference between
the speed, torque, efficiency
and current
of simple series and simplerepulsionmotors, but the comcurves
mutation
of the repulsionmotor
is inherently
the better between
and 1.4 synchronous speed. This is about the only factor
zero
in favor of motors
of the simplerepulsion
type. This superiority
in commutation
is most
marked
near
synchronousspeed and for
this reason
are
repulsionmotors
designed so that their normal
nous
running speed is near synchronism. Above about 1.4 synchrois inherently
of the repulsion
motor
speed the commutation
The repulsion
motor
has a
than that of the series motor.
worse
distributed field winding without salient polesand for this reason
"

582

it

PRINCIPLES

requires

good

brushes
this

series
the

the

reason

repulsion

of the

motor

of the

series

the

reactive

the

component

in

field

of

connection

between

little

series

almost

are

speed.

the

of

use

since

with

for

If
in

being

This

repulsion

conditions

motors,
the

to

is
and

requiring

economy

tates
dic-

variable

tage
vol-

transformer
able

this

For

directly from

the

obtaining

no

electrical

no

transformer.
of

small

is

minor

windings.

under

very

especial advantage

no

is

One

power

motors

used

control.

speed

of

motor,

There

"pj,.

to

carries

motor

there

field

use

transformer

for

necessary

for

the

series

motor.

receive

to

always

Except

series

and

wound

without

mains,

types

is

be

may

flux

is that

its armature

of

in the

drop

of the

repulsion

the

the

motor

practical advantage,

variable

there

in

factor

power

reactive

winding

in the

than
factor

power
the

For

573, corresponding

page

produces

repulsion

field

high-voltage
of

which

the

field

TT,

component

advantage

the

main

winding

current

corresponding

reason,

the

The

the

to

SS, Fig. 265,

heavier

less than

inherently

armature

field SS.

somewhat

output.

in addition

since

winding

drop

quadrature

is

the

of

component

be

and

axis

ture
arma-

tates
necessi-

This

action.

of the
must

speed

motor

motor,
field

component

motor

same

simple repulsion

axis

the

Moreover,

the

along

the

its field for

on

motor.

transformer

circuit

along the

as

series

from

magnetic

well

as

of ampere-turns

the

is derived

current
a

than

strength

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

number

greater

field

same

OF

be
wind

required,
the

stator

high voltage.
At

and

they
speed

speeds, the

operating

have
the

very

nearly in time

been

shown

repulsion
At

strength.
motor

field,the

has
rotor

fields

an

core

to

motor

speeds

"p^

and

be

equal.

has

other

than

at

speed

synchronous

rotating field of

synchronism,

field.

ture
quadra-

synchronous

Therefore,

uniformly

synchronous

in space

are

At

quadrature.

ellipticalrevolving
loss at

ip^

Due

speed

to

the
this

is small.

stant
con-

sion
repul-

rotating

CHAPTER
Compensated
Phase

Repulsion
Relations

Voltages;

LXI

between

Power-factor

Diagram; Speed
Advantages
Rotation;

Connections;

of

and
Fltjxes, Currents
Compensation; Commutation;

Vector

Compensated

Diagram

Motor;

Control

and

Direction

Disadvantages

and

of

of
the

Motor

The compensated repulsion

Repulsion Motor.
motor
differs from the uncompensated motor
by having the reactof its speed or torque field compensated. Therefore, its
ance
power factor is high. Compensation is obtained by making the
ing
armature
winding produce the torque field and then neutralizthe reactance
winding by
voltage produced in the armature
in the
this torque field by means
of a speed voltage induced
armature
by the transformer field.
has a singlefield winding with the
The simple repulsionmotor
brushes displacedfrom the axis of this winding. Two
windings
with their axes
at rightanglesmight be used in placeof the single
spond
winding. The fields produced by these windings would correto the component fields T and S, Figs.264 and 265, pages
lie along the axis of the
brush axis would
The
571 and 573.

Compensated

"

"

winding producing the transformer field T.

would
be
The
flux which
Two
windings are unnecessary.
produced by field winding S may be obtained from the armature
winding by adding a second set of brushes placed with their
field winding T
axis at rightanglesto the axis of the transformer
The firator original
and to the axis of the other brushes as well.
brushes since they carry
will be called the power
set of brushes
current
producing motor
power.
the component of the armature
The

axis of these
field T.
brushes

coincides

brushes

The
since

second

they

with

set of brushes

carry

the current

former
the axis of the trans-

tation
will be called the exci-

which

produces the

'

torque

or

speed field. If the excitation brushes

583

are

connected

584

PRINCIPLES

OF

to the

secondary of

stator

winding,a

these
the

will flow

current

This

the

quadrature with

between
through the armature
nearly in time phase opposition to

will be

current.

placed in series with the

auto-transformer

an

brushes, which

stator

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

will

current

produce

field in space

axis of the

brushes
and nearly in
power
in the stator.
This is the
current

phase oppositionto the

of the
arrangement
Winter-Eichberg compensated repulsion
Whether
the speed or torque field is positive
motor.
or negative,
the transformer
field is positive,depends on
the way
the
when
time

excitation

brushes

connected

are

connections

Reversing the

the

reverses

the

to

of these brushes

phase of the speed

series
with

the series transformer

excitation

or

respect

transformer.

the

to

and

armature

hence

direction

of

field with
rent
cur-

the

reverses

rotation

of

the

motor.

Diagram of Connections.
The
diagram of connections
of the compensated
Winteris shown
in
Eichberg motor
Fig. 268.
T
is the
stator
winding
and corresponds to the winding
"

Fig.

of

the

268.

simple repulsion

the armature

considered

as

considered

armature

It

motor.

with

with

of the

component

forms

field T

transformer

respect to the brushes

respect to the brushes

bb

with
The

aa.

corresponds

and
component field S of the simple repulsion motor
produces the speed or torque field. The compensated repulsion
induction
motor, Uke the single-phasecommutator-type
motor,
of its armature
has its torque field produced by a component
to

the

The

current.

difference
to the

motors

is due

torque

field is

induction
is

motor

equivalentto

motor

the

difference

produced.
shunt

way

the

of

the

two

for the

current

single-phase commutator-type
bb short-circuited

excitation.
bb connected

series with

characteristics

in the

The

has the brushes

has the brushes

S.T.,in

in

the motor

The

and

compensated

to the terminals
and

has

series

has what

repulsion
of

former,
trans-

excitation.

586

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

the

compensated repulsionmotor, in which there are in addition

the brushes bb, a speed voltagedue
two similar voltagesbetween
to "pt, and a transformer
voltage due to "ps- Since "pt and "ps
both in space quadrature and also nearly in time quadrature,
are
the two voltages they produce in any given circuit on the armature
be nearly in time phase oppposition.
must
The

letter E

will be used

with

three

subscriptsto

indicate

between either set of brushes.

A
voltageinduced in the armature
letter,a or b, will indicate which set of brushes is considered,S
or
T, will indicate the field which is producing voltage and s or t
will indicate

whether

the

voltage is a

speed

or

transformer

voltage.
Compensation. The power factor of the repulsion
of its torque
motor
is determined
largelyby the reactance
field. If this can
be compensated for,the power
factor of the
motor
will be high. It will not be unity even
in this case
on
account
of the magnetizing current required for its transformer
field. By over-compensating, it may
be made
unity,however.
In the circuit formed by the series transformer S.T. and the armature
between
the excitation brushes bb,there are three voltages,
namely: the voltage E^Tg produced by the rotation of the armature
in the field "pt, the voltageE^gtproduced by the transformer
action of the field "ps and the voltageimpressed across
the brushes
The voltage across
the brushes
bb by the series transformer S.T.
the secondary of the series transformer
bb and also that across
are
each equal to
Power-factor

IbZh is the impedance drop in the armature

where
brushes
The
and

"

66 due to the armature

between

the

resistance and

leakage reactance.
voltagesEi,stand Ej,tsare nearly in time phase opposition
are
nearly in quadrature with the current 7 taken by the

motor.

the primary of the series

across
~^bTs" the potential
transformer
S.T., Fig. 268, is equal to the equivalent impedance
drop of the transformer plus a voltage equal to the impedance
The armature
drop IbZb in the armature.
impedance drop must,
the
ratio
of course,
be multipliedby
of transformation
of the
Since IbZb and the equivalent drop in the
transformer
S.T.
If

Eist

SERIES

transformer

determined

AND

REPULSION

587

MOTORS

small,the power factor of the motor will be

by the magnetizing current for the stator
principally
are

both

field (pT.

Neglecting
between

leakage-impedance drops

the

the brushes

Ebst and

bb and

E,,Tashould

in the transformer

in

the

the two

armature

voltages

be

excitingcircuit of the

equal for perfectcompensation of

motor.
The excitingcircuit includes

transformer

the armature

S.T.

and

circuit between

the
the

the brushes

bb.

Eisi
EbTa
where

k, N, f

and

^Vs^f

k"PTNn

of
a constant, the number
respectively,
effective armature
tions
turns, the frequency and the speed in revoluof pairs of poles.
multipliedby the number
per second
voltage due to the speed or torque field "S.
Etst is the reactance
this voltagemust be
For perfectcompensation of the torque field,
neutralized.
For perfect compensation of the excitingcircuit
n

are,

Ebst

Ef,Ts

Therefore, for perfectcompensation

"Psf

of the

excitingcircuit

fTn

or

"Pt

perfectcompensation of the excitingcircuit at synchronous

speed, "ps should be equal to "pt. Under this condition the motor
For

almost
factor determined
will operate at a power
magnetizing and load components of the current

wholly by the
in the

stator

winding.

equal,there would be perfectcompensation at

synchronous speed for the motor and for the series transformer
At speeds other
it not for the stator magnetizing current.
were
than those near
synchronous speed, the compensation will be
be made
quitegood
defective when (ps and "pt are equal. It may
synchronism by adjustingthe
at speeds above
at starting and
With

IPs

and

(Pt

588

PRINCIPLES

excitation

OF

the

^^

pg

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

speeds

motor

up,

in such

way

that

the

relation

(243)

approximately fulfilled. This is accomplished by changing

The
the positionof the tap t on the transformer
S.T.,Fig. 268.
flux ^5 is fixed by the current taken by the motor.
Neglecting
the drops in the stator,"pt is fixed by the voltageimpressed across
the stator.
the series transformer
Since the voltage drop across
is small, ^r is very nearly fixed by the voltage impressed on the
is

and

motor

its series transformer

considered

as

unit.

For

any

will be approximatelyfixed while

given impressedvoltage,ipT
ips
will change with the load,increasingas the speed n decreases.
For any
fixed impressed voltage and positionof the tap t,
the degree of compensation and, hence, the power factor will vary
with the load.
By making the adjustment for compensation at
the average
running load, the impressedvoltage being fixed,the
narily
be maintained
high over the range of load ordipower factor may
the
used without changing the impressed voltage. When
impressed voltage is changed, the positionof the tap t on the
series transformer
be changed to produce compensation for
must
the

condition.

new

Commutation.

The

conditions

which

give perfect compensation

for the excitingcircuit,
also produce perfectcommutation
"

the power
brushes
brushes is influenced
at

circuited
found

coils.

in any

with in the
Consider
brushes

The

aa

in

so

far

The

at these

action

other

difficulties

manner

the

the commutation

by the transformer
commutation

direct-current motor
same

as

as

or

generator and

are

shortthose

be dealt

may

in these machines.
coils short-circuited

armature

in the

excitation

flux

by

the

power

produces a transformer
tage
voltage in these coils in time quadrature with that flux. A volwill also be induced in these coils by their rotation in the field
These two
voltages will be in time phase opposition as in
"Pt.
Call them
the simple repulsionmotor.
et and
e, respectively.
aa.

"ps

Then
et

e,

k'N'^sf
k'N'ipT^

SERIES

where

N' is the number

coil.

armature
et

AND

and

For

REPULSION

of turns

MOTORS

between

589

bars in

commutator

complete neutralization

of the two

an

voltages

e,

"Psf

'Prn

This is also the condition

(244)

7
for

perfectcompensation of the speed

field.
Let

e'tand

e', be the two

coils short-circuited

voltages induced

brushes hb.
by the exciting

e't
e',
of these

voltagese'tmust
"PTf
=

circuit

the condition

for

equal e',and

"Psn

_"Pt

f
This is not

Then

k'N'^Tf
k'N'ipsn

For neutralization

in the armature

"Ps

perfectcompensation

of the excitation

brushes aa.
at the power
perfectcommutation
at both sets
Complete compensation and perfectcommutation
of brushes can
simultaneouslybe obtained only at synchronous
speed,and then only if (Pt equalsips.
brushes and perat the power
To maintain
good commutation
fect
it
is
to
for
the
excitingcircuit,
compensation
necessary
vary
"Ps

with

the

or

for

speed in

such

way

that the relation

-r

"

is ap-

"p^

accomplished by changing the

positionof the tap t on the series transformer as the voltage
is changed in order to vary its speed.
the whole
motor
across
is usuallychanged by means
The voltage impressedon the motor
of taps on its secondary. For
of a compensator with a number
It should be large
low speeds as at starting"ps should be small.
the motor
for high speeds. By varying "ps, as the voltage across
commutation
is changed, permissible
power factors and satisfactory
be obtained not only at synchronbrushes may
ous
at the power
proximately satisfied.

speed, but
synchronism as

at

well.

This

is

starting and

at

speeds

somewhat

above

590

OF

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

complete neutrahzarotation voltages in the armature

lack of fulfilment of the conditions

The

tion of the

transformer

by the excitation brushes

coils short-circuited

By the

of

use

by

brushes

narrow

the commutation

in

aa

hh is not

comparativelyhigh

satisfactory. The

approximatelythe

serious.

resistance

current

the current

hb will be smaller than

to the total stator

current

of

be made

may

the brushes

the brushes

and

for

ratio of the stator

ried
car-

carried

by
ing
magnetiz-

current.

is
of compensation by the series transformer
possibility
limited by the saturation in the magnetic circuit for the flux "psdefective at speeds much
For this reason, commutation
becomes
is made
in excess
of synchronism unless the motor
unduly heavy.
of auxiliarycommutating
This difficulty
be met by the use
may
The

coils

the stator

placed on

by the

power

circuited armature
The

tpT at

the

the stator

are

either short-circuited

winding in such

points at which

of these coils is to reduce

commutating

These

aa.

coils

commutating

in series with

flux

tributed
commutating coils are not disoccupied by the shortonly the zone
spans
coils,and its effect is limited to that zone.

brushes

Each

coils short-circuited

the armature

over

the coils

the flux due

This reduces the

zones.

to

way

a
are

as

or

to

connected

placed. The

the field T

effect

within

speed voltagein the

by the brushes

the

oppose

In this way

the

ture
arma-

good
be maintained
above
commutation
synchronous speed.
may
While starting,
as well as while the motor
speed is below synchronism,
the commutating coils are cut out.
When
the speed of the
motor
exceeds synchronism, they are automatically inserted.
Vector Diagram.
The operationof the compensated repulsion
motor
be made
clearer by a vector
diagram. The current
may
producing the speed field will be assumed to be in phase with the
flux tps which it produces. This assumption was
made
in the
For perfect
simple repulsionmotor and also in the series motor.
the series transformer
across
compensation the drop in potential
It is merely that due to the equivalentimpedance drop
is small.
in the transformer
and the leakage-impedance drop in the motor
between
the brushes hh. The excitingcurrent of the
armature
series transformer for this small voltage drop may
be neglected
and will be neglected in the vector
diagram. All currents and
voltagesare referred to the stator of the motor.
coils short-circuited

"

aa.

SERIES

The

brushes

the stator and

aa

REPULSION

diagram is shown

vector

apphes to

AND

is the

same

repulsionmotor

as

in

Fig.

the part of the

which

apphes

The

269.

considered

armature

591

MOTORS

part which

with respect to the

diagram of the

to its armature

pensated
uncom-

and transformer

field.

Referring to Fig. 269, let I be the stator current.

This is also
the current taken by the motor.
The current
I is divided into

"Bftla

Fig.

the three

269.

components //, I^t and h+e

la is the armature

motor.

It is equal and

produced by

oppositeto h'.

the stator.

transformer

is

the brushes

bb

as

current

The

Since the

the current
neglected,
is equal to the stator

for the sated

uncompenbetween the brushes aa.

it was

flux

"pt,

in

phase with Z^r,is

excitingcurrent

for the series

7;,in the armature

current

/.

between

592

PRINCIPLES

Its

OF

phase with respect to

the brushes

way

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

connected

are

connections

Reversingthe
armature

bb

reverses

the

S.T.

phase of the

with respect to the stator

bb flows in such

between

by the

to the series transformer

these brushes

If the current

current.

is determined

current

of the brushes

between

current

the stator

MACHINERY

direction

as

to

The

produce positiveflux,it will be positivecurrent, page 528.

connections
will be assumed
to make
h positive. The
so
as

field

of the

field

"Ps will then

"Ps

and

positive as

the armature

direction of
The

be

The

shown.

/" between

current

direction
the brushes

aa

fixes the

will be clockwise.

rotation,which

equal. This corresponds

to the condition
of perfectcompensation at synchronous speed,
which condition is assumed.
The two
voltages in the armature
two

fluxes

shown

ips are

EaSs a^nd their resultant

is Eation
EaTt is 90 degrees behind "pj,. According to the convenfor determining the direction of a speed voltage, EaSa
between

the

and

"pr

brushes

is in time

phase

la in the

armature

aa

with

(pg and

with

I.

The

component

current

Ea, the resultant of EaTt and

and
is determined
by the resistance

lags behind

EaSs) by an angle which

of the
leakage reactance
A

EaTt and

are

between

armature

the brushes

aa.

pressed
EaTt, niust be iming
the stator to balance the voltageinduced by (pj,. Addon
the stator leakage-impedancedrop /zy, of the stator, to this
far
the stator.
Thus
voltage gives the voltage drop Vt across
the diagram is exactly like that for the uncompensated motor.
There
the brushes
between
two
are
voltages in the armature
bb

voltage

which

must

"

EaTt,equal

now

and

opposite

considered.

be

These

to

are

the

transformer

voltage Ei,stand the speed voltage Ei,ts- As perfectcompensation

is assumed, these voltages are
is
90
equal. E^st
degrees
behind
is opposite in
according to the convention
Ei,j's
"ps, and
time
phase to "pt. The resultant Ei of these two voltages is
equal to the resistance and leakage-reactancedrops through the
bb and
armature
between
the brushes
is equal to the voltage
must
which
be impressed across
the brushes
bb by the series
transformer.
The voltage drop across
the primary of the series
transformer
is equal to
Et plus the equivalentleakage-impedance
drop Izfrin the transformer.
Adding "Eh and this equivalent
impedance drop to Vt gives the voltage V, which must
"

594

PRINCIPLES

speed,

OF

This

The

on

of

connections
and

the

The

chief

high

power

carry

the

good
of

and

armature

speed.

circuit

compensated

for

inherent

imcompensated

and

without
presence

also

the

the

as

and

increasing
of

the

commutation

the

extra

Compensated

of

tion
excita-

speed
fixed

field.

for

the

using
are

is

often

overall

brushes
losses.

difficult

operating
of

objection
brushes

for

required
to

of
the

the

which
at

as

find

the

to

except

dimensions
increases

and

saturation

poor
are

which

range

good

chief

The

are

factor

power

the

by

"

motor

brushes

which

brushes

many

Motor.

considerable

at

commutation

it

high
over

is

the

at

necessity

of

motor

secondary

repulsion

maintained

speed

Twice

speed.

The

the

conditions

the

Both

maintained

is

motor

the

reversing

commutation

limit

be

can

thus

current.

be

upper.

commutating

reversing

compensated

good

may

The

by

of

the

power

commutation

the

motor.

of
and

varies

inserted.

are

Disadvantages

factor

sation.
compen-

which

auxiliary

transformer,

the

advantages

magnetic

these

of

the

is reversed

series

speed

characteristics

the

rotation

the

Advantages

590

power-factor

controller

speed

page

of

direction

the

by

synchronous

mentioned

and

commutation
done

be

may

Above

speed.
coils

good

maintain

to

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

chronous
syn-

for

room

the

friction

an

for
motor.

losses

CHAPTER
Doubly

Series

Fed

Series

Motor;

Doubly

Series

Fed

Series

Fed
Doubly

Compensated

Advantages
Doubly

Fed

of

Doubly

Starting

Motors;
Fed
Speed

and

and

Fed

Series

Doubly

the

Doitbly

Motor;
tion
Regenera-

Repulsion
of

Compensation

Repulsion

of

Motor;
pensated
Com-

Fed

Doubly

the

of

Commutation

and

Compensated

Motor;
Types

Two

the

the

the

Motor;

Compensated

Fed

of

Repulsion

Fed

Motor

and

Repulsion Motors.
differ from singly fed

repulsion motors

of

Operating

and

Control

Repulsion

Doubly

Commutation

Disadvantages

and

Diagram

Repulsion

Fed

DotrsLY

Motors;
Vector

Motor;

Doubly

the

the

Approximate

Motor; Starting
Motor; Doubly

Fed

BY

Repulsion

and

Series

Fed

LXII

types in having their armatures

receive

Doubly

"

motors

fed series

of the
in two

power

same

ways:

the
namely, by conduction
usuallyfrom a transformer across
and by induction from a portionof the stator winding. This
line,
from a portion of the
part of the stator winding receives power
The chief advantage of
which feeds the armature.
transformer
of the singlyfed types is better
motors
over
doubly fed motors
commutation
The

over

greater operating range

diagrams of connections

doubly fed repulsionmotors

page

and

557

also in

mutating characteristics

by

the main

be used

on

between

and

600,

and

account

272,
has

pages

596

inherentlybad

of the transformer

oppose

coils
this

the commutator

commutation
winding to make satisfactory
and
doubly fed series motor, the armature
596

and

253,

series motor

nothing to

speed.

doubly fed series motors

in Figs. 252 and
shown

field in the armature

As there is
leads must

are

Figs. 270

respectively.
The simple or singlyfed
induced

for

of

com-

voltage

undergoing

mutation.
com-

voltage,resistance

bars and

the

ture
arma-

possible. In

the

compensating field

596

PRINCIPLES

form

transformer.

degrees in

90

from

OF

space

flux of

the

voltage in

the

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

The

flux

phase, and
the

armature

main

produced by this transformer is

nearly90 degrees in time phase

series field.

coils

MACHINERY

It induces

undergoing commutation

speed
which

voltage in these coils and to

These
be made
to
two
voltages may
improve commutation.
neutralize sufficiently
the use of commutating resistance
to make
bars
the armature
leads between
winding and the commutator
tends

to neutralize

the transformer

unnecessary.

inherentlyhas good
simple or singlyfed repulsionmotor
commutating characteristics in the neighborhoodof synchronous
and at the same
speed. By doubly feeding the repulsionmotor
be varied
time arranging the series field so that its strength may
The

Fia.

270.

with the
may

speed,the conditions which produce good commutation

be maintained
at speeds considerablyin excess
of synchronous

speed.
The diagram of connections
Doubly Fed Series Motor.
doubly fed series motor is given by Fig. 270.
This figureis like Fig. 252, page
557, except that the
"

field is lettered T to

correspondto

the

of

pensating
com-

used for
lettering

The transformer
simple and compensated repulsionmotors.
is marked
which suppliesthe motor
Tr.
Assuming a ratio of transformation of unitybetween the armature
and the compensating winding T, and neglectingthe exciting

the

ampere-turns for the transformer

the currents

phase

or

in

formed

A
by T and the armature
in all parts of the motor
are
equal and either in time
time phase opposition. The excitingampere-turns

SERIES

AND

for this transformer

They

to the

and

the

597

MOTORS

to the vector

ampere-turns

be considered

cannot

or

equal

are

and

ampere-turns

REPULSION

in

to be confined

of the armature

sum

the

field

winding

T.

to either the armature

compensating winding alone,as both receive power.

Changing the relative positionof the taps t and t' changes the
the transformer
formed
voltage impressed across
by the winding

the

the

armature

brush

a,xis. The

the reactance
the

and

form

flux

the

drops also

not

line of
increase

exist in the armature

and

The

only voltage
leakage-reactance

drops in the transformer thus formed are the

and the resistance drops in these windings. These
resistance

the

motor, since the armature

static transformer.

along

of this flux does

presence

drop through

winding

alters the

and

reactance

and

in the compensating

field of the

singly fed series motor.

to a
Bringing the taps t and t' together changes the motor
simple inductivelycompensated series motor.
Disconnecting
the motor
from the transformer
at t changes it to a simpleconductDoubly feeding the motor
ively compensated series motor.
by moving the taps t and t' apart produces a commutating flux
at the brushes and changes the speed. Moving t' upward from t
a
voltage,Et, to be induced in the armature
(Fig.270) causes
which is very nearly in time phase with the voltageVa impressed
Tr.
and speed field by the main transformer
the armature
on
The

motor

must

speed

up

until its back

electromotive

force is

circuit
equal to the total voltage Va + Et acting in the armature
and in the speed
less the total impedance drop in the armature
circuit by
field S.
Increasing the total voltage in the armature
adding the voltage Et, induced by the stator winding T, increases

speed,therefore.
Approximate Vector Diagram
For equilibriumof speed

the

"

Ess

of the

Va +

Doubly Fed Series Motor.

Et-Iz

This is
Ess is the back electromotive force of the motor.
the brushes
between
the speed voltageproduced in the armature
aa
by the field S. Iz is the total impedance drop in the armature
of unity
and speed field. Assuming a ratio of transformation
where

between

the armature

resistance

and

and

the
neglecting
winding T, the

the field winding T and

leakage-reactance drops in the

598

PRINCIPLES

OF

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

MACHINERY

voltage Et is opposite in time phase and equal in magnitude to

the voltage Vt impressed on the stator winding T by the transformer
Tr.
electromotive
and

armature

by the

The

must, therefore,
speed up until the back
force Es, is equal to Va + Vf less the series-field
motor

impedance drops. The

sign before

mined
Vt is deter-

winding T is connected to the transformer

Tr.
In practiceit is always connected
to make
Et and Va in
phase. The
approximate vector diagram of the doubly fed
series motor
is shown
in Fig. 271.
Iz and Esa are voltagedrops. Va is the voltage drop across
the armature
and series field. Et
Vt is also a voltage drop.
way

the

Fig.

271.

(^.

degrees behind of
that voltage. For any given current, 7, the relative magnitudes
therefore by the
of ips and ipT are fixed by the voltage Vt and
positionsof the taps t and t' on the transformer Tr.
Series Motor.The flux ^j.
Commutation
of the Doubly Fed
coils undergoing
induces
a
speed voltage,e,, in the armature
commutation.
This voltage is in time phase oppositionwith the
The
flux ips also induces a voltage in these coils,
but
flux ipT.
this is a transformer
voltage and is in time quadrature with and
lagging the flux. These two voltageswould be in time phase
Q zero.
In practice they may
be made
to
opposition were
to make
neutralize sufficiently
commutating leads unnecessary.
the
For a given current, their relative magnitudes depend upon
speed and upon the relative positionsof the taps t' and t. For
given current and given positionof the taps, there will be a
any
The

flux

ipT

producing

the

voltage Et

is 90

"

SERIES

speed

which

at

AND

the two

nearly enough equal

for

REPULSION

599

MOTORS

voltageswill be equal. They will be

ordinary speed variations on each side

of this

speed to produce satisfactory

commutation.
The speed of the doublj fed series motor
is controlled by varying
the voltages across
both the armature
and series field and

also the
maintain
For

voltageacross the stator winding T in such a way as

approximatelythe conditions for good commutation.

to

perfectcommutation
ei=

e,

h'N'"psf k'N'vTU
=

where

k',N', f

turns

per

armatiure

by the number

For

and

of

of
a constant, the number
respectively,
the frequency and the speed multiplied
coil,

are

pairs of poles.

Therefore,to produce
at any
fixed current, (pr should vary inversely
good commutation
That is,to maintain
the voltage across
as n.
good commutation
the stator field T should be decreased as the speed of the motor
is
increased.
The
speed is increased by increasing the voltage
any

given current, (ps is

impressedon

the armature

and

constant.

the main

field.

Doubly
fed series motors
are
usuallystarted and brought up to speed as
Above
synchronous speed they
singlyfed repulsion motors.
For better commutation,
operate as doubly fed series motors.
Startingand Operating the Doubly Fed

resistance
while

may

coming

be
up

inserted
to

in the

Series

as

"

during the period

armature

synchronous speed

Motor.

repulsionmotor,

580.

page

In order to gain anything by

Doubly Fed Repulsion Motor.
the
to arrange
doubly feeding a repulsionmotor, it is necessary
"

circuits in such

motor

speed field S, Fig. 253,

the

motor

is

changed.

way

page

This

that the

557,
can

strengthof

the series

or

speed of
dependen
be accompUshed by using in-

may

be varied

as

the

former
windings for the speed and the compensatingor transdistributed stator winding
instead of the usual single
fields,

The variable
simplerepulsionmotor.
obtained
by connectingthe terminals of

of the
be

excitation may
then
the speed field "S to

600

OF

PRINCIPLES

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

the

secondary terminals

for

of

series transformer

compensator
which is placed in series with the compensating field C, Fig. 253.
be varied independently of
The strength of the speed field may
taken by the motor
the current
by using different secondary
The
diagram of connections
taps on this series transformer.
a

or

with variable
excitation is
doubly fed repulsionmotor
C in Fig. 253.
in Fig.272, where T is the winding marked

shown
S.T.

is the

variable

series transformer

excitation for the

or

to

compensator

speed field S.

furnish

the

Tr is the transformer

supplying the motor.

The doubly fed repulsionmotor, Fig. 272, possesses
no
ticular
parand has the
advantages over the doubly fed series motor

Fig.

272.

pensator
disadvantage of requiringa series transformer or comfor excitingits speed field.
The
WinterDoubly Fed
Compensated Repulsion Motor.
Eichberg type of compensated repulsion motor, if doubly fed,
distinct advantages over
the doubly fed series
two
possesses
motor
for railway service,namely, the power
to regenerate and
nections,
power-factorcompensation. By a slightmodification of its conbe
into
it may
tion
induca doubly fed single-phase
changed

distinct

"

motor

and

electric power

as

such

to the line

over

of connections

The

diagram
repulsionmotor is shown

in

wide

to

return

of

speed.
doubly fed compensated

range

for the

regenerate and

Fig. 273.

possibleto operate this motor at speeds as high as three

synchronous speed and still maintain approximately the

It is
times

be made

may

602

PRINCIPLES

OF

MACHINERY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Winter-Eichbergdoubly

fed

repulsionmotor

no

possesses

tages
advan-

the

for railway work, except

doubly fed series motor
when
used on
roads with heavy grades where
regeneration of
factor
is desirable.
Both the advantages of higherpower
power
and of regenerationare obtained at a sacrifice of simplicity.The
brushes
doubly fed series motor requiresonly one-half as many
over

for the

polesthan
less than

the
half

between
aa

polesand as it would be wound for fewer

doubly fed repulsionmotor it will actuallyrequire

as

motor

brushes

is

brushes

many

the two

motors

as

that motor.

far

so

as

There

commutation

is no

tion
ques-

at the brushes

Except in the neighborhood of synchronous

is concerned.

speed,the

of

number

same

commutation

inherently poor.

is smaller than
commutation

bb of the

at the field brushes

As

the

that carried

current

by the

be maintained

may

repulsion

by those
factory
brushes,satisby using proper

carried

power

at them

brushes.
of the Doubly Fed Compensated
Compensation and Commutation
The condition for good commutation
Repulsion Motor.
brushes aa
and for perfectcompensation of the
at the power
speed field is (equation(244),page 589)
"

!?-

f^.

approximately this condition,the field

is increased by
be increased when the speed of the motor
"f"smust
increasingthe voltage for double feeding. At a fixed current,
is approximately constant.
The
frequency / is constant.
"Ps
and compensaTherefore,if the conditions for good commutation
tion
to be fulfilledat each speed for normal
are
current, the field
be changed in direct proportionto the speed. This can
"P3 must
t of the autoreadilybe accomplished by moving the connection
to
downward
transformer.Fig. 273, to the left as C is moved
increase the speed.
Startingand Speed Control of the Doubly Fed Compensated
For starting,
C and B, Fig. 273, are brought
Repulsion Motor.
A to reduce the voltage
toward
together and both are moved
the transformer
field T.
The speed field is weakened
across
by
Yioving t on the series transformer to the right. As the motor
time t is
speedsup B and C are moved downward, and at the same
Therefore, to maintain

"

SERIES

moved
at

the

to

normal

is

conditions

is

for

made

be

the

to

left

and

type

of

speed
fixed

remains

downward.

maintain

to

for

synchronous

speeds

moving

and

starting
drum

until

higher

by

commutation

for
a

continued

fed

6U3

MOTORS

For

doubly

good

by

is

reached.

moved

connections

REPULSION

This
is

motor

time

same

left.

current

the

and

AND

the

At

the

approximately
The

compensation.

changing

the

controller

speed

ent
differ-

easily

can

suitable

operating

contactors.

bb

short-circuited.

are

is

place

speed.

which

the

by

will

occur

The

speed
induction

The

determined

regeneration

at

series

the

regeneration

For

at

the

generator.

regeneration

speed

speed

Moving
takes

place.

which

of

the
to

If
in

is

the

brushes
takes

moved
of

excess

actual

produce

downward

and

regeneration

C.

slightly

between

slip required

S.T.

at

position

difference
is

transformer

to

ous
synchronand

speed
regeneration

increases

B,

the

chronous
synas

an

speed

INDEX
eight sections

The

into which

the

book

is divided

are

indexed

under

the

eight following headings: Synchronous

Generators, pp. 605-607; Static
Transformers, pp. 607-608; Synchronous Motors, pp. 608-609; Parallel
Operation of Alternators, pp. 609-610; Synchronous Converters, p. 610;
Polyphase Induction
pp.
use

611-612; Series
of

in the

Motors,

pp.

610-611; Single-phase Induction

and

Repulsion Motors, pp. 612-614.

these section indices,a subject index
is given.
indices.
index
the
refer
section
to
subject

SUBJECT
Alternators,see Generators.
Converters, Induction, see
phase Induction Motors,
Synchronous, p. 610.
Generators,

Induction,
Induction

The

page

Alternators,
pp.

tion
p.

see

611;

phase
Poly-

Motors,

numbers

INDEX
of

Single-

Motors,

facilitate the

To

609-610.

Motors, Induction, Polyphase, pp.

Induction,
610-611;
Singlephase, pp. 611-612; Series and
Repulsion, pp. 612-214; Synchronous
pp.

p.

608-609.

Static
605Regulators, Induction, see
Synchronous, pp.
607.
Transformers,p.
eration
607; Synchronous, Parallel OpTransformer,
Static,
pp. 607-608.
of, see Parallel Opera-

611;

INDICES

SECTION
SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS,
pp. 1-150

of, on regulation,
79, 83; effect of, on armature
reaction,79.
Alternators,types of, 1.
of determining
American
Institute,method
regulation, 104, 105,
Air

gap,

influence

149; permissible temperatures

of
for insulation, 18; method
132, 150.
determining efficiency,
see
Cores, Insulation,
Armature,
and
Reactance, Resistance
Windings.
Breadth
Blondel

factor,39; table of, 41.

two-reaction

determining

method

of

regulation, 106,

115.
605

Calculation,of regulation,efficiency.
etc.,142.
Characteristics, open-circuit, 96;
96.
short-circuit,
Coils,types of, 29.
ential,
Cooling, 15; radial,16; circumferor
17; axial,17; filtering
washing air for, 17
Cores, armature, 4; field,9.
Core
of,
losses, 123; measurement

126,

128.

Distribution

of

armature

winding,

29; effect of, 45.

Efficiency,131, 150.
Electromotive
force, induced, 20;
calculation
of, 21, 24; phase
e.m.f. and flux,
relation between
form
of,23; harmonici
22; wave
47.
in, 42, 44, 45,

606

INDEX

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

Field, types of,9; insulation of, 14;

flux,distribution of, 10, 54, 84.
Flux, 53; distribution of, 10, 54, 84;
in of, singlesecond
harmonic

alternator,59; leakage,
armature
leakage, 56, 66,
53;

phase

Reaction, armature, 53; with nonsalient poles, 58; with salient

poles,64, 145; second harmonic
in

and

flux

e.m.f.

due

third

harmonic

to, 69; factors

in

which

Potier triangle,
influence, 79; from
of,
102, 148; components
in Blondel two-reaction method,

75, 77, 80.

Cores,4.
Frames, see Armature
106.
Frequency, 4.
Regulation, 52; conditions for best,
Harmonics, 42; effect of pitch on,
vector
diagram, 87;
82; from
44; effect of phase spread on,
from
synchronous-impedance
45; in three-phase alternators,
third
in
due
to slots,50;
method, 90, 91, 95, 98; magnetomotive-f
47;
of singlemethod,
force
90,
electromotive
Potier
93, 95, 99, 105, 106;
phase alternators, 59; second
stitute
Inin
field flux of
100; American
method,
single-phase
method, 104, 105, 149;
alternator,59.
tor,
facBlondel
two-reaction
Heating tests, 136; zero
method,
power
106.
136; separate open-circuit
and

short-circuit,
137;

Hobart

and

Punga,
138; Goldsmith,
139; Mordey, 140.
Inductor, 22, alternator,3.
Insulation, armature, 12; field,14;
pennissibletemperatures

for,18.

of, 126,
Losses, 123; measurement
127, 128.
Magnetomotive forces, 53.
Magnetomotive-force
method, for
determining regulation,90, 93,
95, 98, 105, 106.
Open-circuit, characteristic,96.
e.m.f. and
Phase, relation between
flux, 22; spread, 38; effect of
form, 45.
phase spread on wave
Pitch, pole, 37; coil,37; factor,43;
effect of, on harmonics, 44.
of determining reguPotier,method
lation,
100; triangle, 148.
Rating, 51; single-phaserating, 83
leakage,52, 66,
Reactance, armature
80, 144; equivalent leakage,77;
of measuring
methods
ture
armaleakage, 102, 118, 119,
synchronous,
91, 98, 104,
148;
149.

of

Resistance

armature,

effective

of, with
78, 82; determination
field removed, 121; from shortcircuit test, 127.
Retardation

method,

of measuring

losses,128.
characteristic,
Short-circuit,
96; core
sustained
losses, 127;
current,
133; transient current, 133.
Slots,effect of shape of,on armature
effective resistance, 68; effect
of shape of, on
tance,
leakage reaceffect
of, on poleface
80;
losses,124; effect of, on eddycurrent
losses in inductors, 124.
Stampings, armature
core.
4; field
core, 9.

Synchronous, reactance, 91, 98, 104,

tion
149; impedance,
92; regulaby synchronous-impedance
method, 90, 91, 98, 149.
tion,
Temperature, permissiblefor insula18.
1.
alternators,

Types,

of

Vector

diagram, general, 84; synchronous

impedance, 91; magnetomotive
force, 93; short-

607

INDEX

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS

STATIC

circuit, 93, 94; Blondel

two-

component

reaction,113.
Wave

reaction

form, effect of pitch on, 44;

effect of coil spread on, 45; effect

Current

of Y

Eddy

and A connection

Wiadings,
27;

open
bar
and

and

of

of

primary, 184;
secondary, 183.

rushes, 176.
transformer, 222.

Current

currents, losses due

to, 200;

closed

screening effect of, 205.

circuit,
trated
coil,28; concenEflaciency,206, 295; all day, 209.
Electromotive
distributed, 29;
force, induced, 164,
half
of
from
flux curve,
wave
shape
coiled, 30;

and
whole

on, 47.

TRANSFORMERS

and

spiral,lap and wave, 33; single

and polyphase, 35; bracing of,
37;pitchof,37; effect of pitchof,

173.

culation
Equivalent circmt, 195, 197; calof regulationfrom, 198.
in operation of a
wave
on
form, 44; distribution, Flux, concerned
effect of, on wave
transformer, 179; mutual, 179;
form, 45.
tion
leakage, 179, 187; determinaSTATIC
TRANSFORMERS,
of wave
shape of,169; wave
pp. 151-296
forms
of flux and e.m.f.,171.
Harmonics, relative magnitudes of,
Auto-transformer, 231.

Breathers, 163.
Calculation, of

in flux and

Current, exciting or no load, 182;

magnetizing component of,165,
166, 167, 182, 293; hysteresis

187.

electromotive

force,
of
current
exciting
singleregulation,losses,
phase transformer, 176; with
etc.,288.
reactance,efficiency,
T connection, 263; in exciting
160.
Cases, types of,
and voltages of singlecurrents
CoUs, types of, 165; insulation of,
connected
155.
phase transformers
in
Auto-transformer.
see
three-phase,
exciting
Compensator,
276;
and voltages of threecurrents
Connections, A and Y, 252; testing
for A and Y connections, 255;
phase transformers, 279.
and
A
Hysteresis loss,202.
V, 257; T, 259;
open
Induction
distortion by
regulator,238, 454.
Scott, 262; wave
of coils,155.
Insulation
T, 263; three- to six-phase,265;
double
A and
double
Losses, 200; eddy current, 200, 205;
Y, 265;
of
hysteresis,202; measurement
diametrical,267; double T, 268;
three- to twelve-phase, 269.
core, 213; separation of eddy
and
current
Constant-current
hysteresis, 214;
transformer, 226.
values
relative
of, for maximum
Cooling, 158.
efficiency,208.
Cores, 153; jointsin, 154.
Lamination
of core, thinness of, 153;
Core losses,see Losses.
insulation
of laminse, 153.
Core
type, single-phase, 151, 167;
Leakage, magnetic, 179; flux, 179,
three-phase, 272.
171 ; in

and

eddy-current component
mination
of, 165, 167, 182, 292; deterof
of

wave
no

form

of

ponents
com-

load, 174; load

Mutual

flux,179.

Oil, 162.
Opposition test, 218.
Parallel operation,single-phase,
243
three-phase, 283;
systems, 286.

of

and

;
A

608

INDEX

STATIC

Potential

TRANSFORMERS

transformer, 225.

Radiation, from

pp. 297-340

160.

cases,

of

Ratio

MOTORS,

SYNCHRONOUS

transformation, 183.
tion
Reactance, leakage, 180; calculaof, 188, 291; equivalent,
196, 291, 294; relative values
of primary and secondary, 186;
measurement
of,217, 218.
Reactance
coil,166.
Reduction
factors,184.
Regulation, calculation
of, from

Advantages,
Air

gap,

338

effect

stiffness

on

effect

of coupling,

starting,
321;
325; effect on damping, 321.
Amortisseur, 318, 319.
on

reaction, see Reaction.

Characteristics,operating,297.
Circle diagram, 330; proof of, 330;
construction
of, 333; limiting
vector
operating conditions from, 335;
diagram, 192; from approximate
uses
of, 336.
equivalent circuit,
Compounding curves, 298, 307, 337.
198, 295.
Resistance, relative values
mary Construction, 297.
priand secondary, 186;equivCoupling, stiffness of, 321; effect of
alent,
and
air gap
leakage reactance
196, 294; measurement
of

equivalent,216.

Secondary,

reaction

on, 321.

of, 183;

independently loaded

two

aries,
second-

241.
Shell

Armature

type, single-phase,
151, 157;
274.
three-phase,

Steinmetz, exponent, 204.

Tanks, see Cases.

Terminals,

bushings for, 158;

157.
condenser, 157; oil filled,
Three-phase
transformers, coretype, 272; shell-type,
274;
in

excitingcurrent

voltages, 279; advantages

disadvantages,282.
Transformer, 151; on open
165;

on

monics
har-

Damping, 318.
Damper, 299, 318, 319.
Disadvantages, 338.
Efficiency,338.
and
Excitation, normal, 298; over
under, 298; change in normal
with load, 306; maximum
and
effect
minimum, 309, 313, 335;
of change in, 307.
Flywheel, for damping, 318, 319.
Hunting, 314; period of,317; damping,

and
and

318.

Lag
Lead

of current, effect

circuit, Limiting

closed circuit,183.

Vector

diagram, no load, 181; load,

190; of reactance
coil, 166;
analysis of, 191; solution of,
192; approximate, 197.
Voltage,induced, 164, 180, 182.
Wave

form, of exciting current,

three176; of voltage from
tion
phase connections, 276; distor263.
by T connection,
Windings, 155.

conditions

maximum

Types, 161, 157; three-phase,272,

274.

of, 302.
of, 302.

of current, effect

power,
power

and

of

minimum

operation,
tion,
excita-

309, 313, 335; maximum

311, 313, 336; minimum

factor,335.

Losses, 338.
Load, effect of
Magnetomotive

change in, 307.

force, vector

gram,
dia-

306.

Operation, explanation of, 299.

Power, equation of, 310; maximum,
311, 313, 336; phase displacement
of motor

maximum,

318.

electromotive

for

610

INDEX

OPERATION

PARALLEL

OF

CONVERTERS

SYNCHRONOUS

ALTERNATORS

Output,

effect on, of short-circuit,

357;
effect on, of increasingr or z, 358 ;

relative
and

converter

of

converters

as

generator, 408,"

as

table of relative

outputs, 409;
parallelingthrough
plots of relative outputs, 410,
tween
highimpedance, 359 ;relation be411.
and
for
360.
r
z
maximum,
Parallel operation,435.
Torque engine, irregularityof, 363.
425.
Poles, commutating, 417; split,
minal
Voltage, variation in phase of terverted,
3
94
394
Rotary converter,
;direct,
; incaused
ing,
huntvoltage
by
394, 429; split-pole,
effect on, of

356.
Wave

425.

of, 377; effect

of
third
harmonic
in, with
grounded neutrals,379.
form,

effect

SYNCHRONOUS

CONVERTERS,
pp.

393-442

Damping bridges.
Armature
reaction,414.
Calculation,of field excitation and
e""cieucy,437.
Converter, see Rotary converter.
Commutating poles,417.
Copper loss,403; inductor heating,
403; calculation of,406; table of
Amortisseur,

see

ratio of maximum

to

heating, 407; curves

of inductor copper
loss,408.
of a.c.
and
relative
values
Current,
d.c, 400; table of ratios of a.c.
and d.c, 402.
Damper or damping bridges, 418,
420, 431.
Damping, 418, 431.
generator, 430.

411, 440.
Efficiency,
Flash-over, 421o.

Heating, see Copper loss.

Hunting, 417; sparking caused by,
armature
418, 419; effect on
418.
reaction,
Inductor
heating,403; table of,407.
converter, 429.
393.
Mechanical
rectifiers,

Inverted

Mercury

arc

393.
rectifiers,

of converting

Methods

a.c.

to

d.c,

393.
Motor

generators, 394; versus

converters, 432.

rotary

414.

converter, 430.
Sixty-cycle

Split-poleconverter, 425.
of,419.
Starting,methods
Transformer
connections,422, 428.
Voltage,induced, 395, 396.
Voltage control,423, by synchronous
booster, 424; by induction
ance,
regulator,424; by series react425.
425; by split-pole,
table
398.
Voltage ratio,396;
of,
INDUCTION

POLYPHASE

MOTORS,

minimum

inductor

Double-current

Reaction, armature,

Air

gap,

effect

pp.
of

443-510
slots

on,

small,
machines, 443.
torque, see Torque,

necessityfor

468;

465.

Asynchronous
Breakdown

imum.
max-

performance, from
equivalent circuit, 484, 505;
circle diagram, 490.
from
Circle diagram, 490; proof of, 490;
scales for, 494; determination
of, 495.
Concatenation, 477; speed in, 479;
division of power
in,480; losses
482.
in,
Current, starting,471, 473.
vector, 452;
Diagram, transformer
490.
analysisof, 460; circle,
Efficiency,
486, 494, 510.
Equivalent circuit,452; calculation
of performance from, 484, 505.
Field,revolving,444, 446; see Flux.
Flux, 446; harmonics
in, and their
effect,
455; see Field.
Calculation

of

611

INDEX

POLYPHASE

INDUCTION

MOTORS

POLYPHASE

INDUCTION

MOTORS

-pitch windings,467.
Slots,effect of shape of, on starting
acteristics
Generator, induction,general chartorque, 467a, relative numbers
circle
gram
diaof, 497;
of, in rotor and stator, 468.
of,498; effect of change in
StabiUty,464.
factor
slipof,498; power
of,499;
of, 471; torque,
Starting,methods
phase of rotor current referred
465, 472; current, 471, 473;
factor, 471.
to stator, 499; vector
diagram
power
in
with
methods
of varying, 474; by
of, 501;
parallel
chronous Speed,
synresistance,474; by changing
apparatus, 501, 502;
in parallelwith condenser, 502;
quency,
poles, 476; by varying frevoltage,frequency and load of,
477; by concatenation,
of,
502; short-circuit current
477; speed-torque curve, 465.
503;hunting of,503 ;advantages
Torque, internal, 461; effect of
in
and disadvantages of,503; uses
fiux
harmonies
459;
on,
down,
464, 494; breakmaximum,
of, 504.
effect
of rein
sistance,
effect
455.
see
Maximum;
Harmonics,
of, flux,
reactance, voltage and
Load, equivalent to a non-inductive
451.
frequency on break-down, 464;
resistance,
starting, 466; starting, proLosses,487, 488, 507.
portional
to rotor
loss,
Polyphase induction
motor, 444;
copper
operation of, 444; revolving
466, 472; effect of shape of
slots on starting,467o.
rotor
field of, 446; equivalent to a
Vector
451.
diagram, 452; analysis of,
transformer,448,
Fractional

460.
Polyphase induction regulator,454.
cuit,
cirequivalent
Windings, 444; fractional pitch,467.
Power, 452 ; from
486; from circle diagram,
INDUCTION
SINGLE-PHASE
493; in concatenation,480, 482;
MOTORS,
pp. 511-564
494.
maximum,
Power
Armatures, see Rotors.
factor,494; at starting,471.
mutator
required for comBrushes, number
Reactance, effect of, on break-down
tion
commuta464.
motor,
533;
torque,
at brushes, 542.
Resistance, of rotor, 488; of stator,
maximum
que
toreilect
use
of,to increase starting
Clutch,
of,on
488;
diminish
and slipat maximum
starting
torque and
torque,
"

464; effect of,on startingtorque,

466, 467, effect of,on shp, 466;
effect of shape of slots on, 467a.
Revolving magnetic field,444, 446;
effect of harmonics
in,455.

current, 548.

Characteristics,511.
Construction,see Windings.
Commutation, of commutator

type

of motor, 542.

type of motor, 533.

Rotor, reaction of current on stator,
motor
as,
448; coil wound, 468; squirrel Converter, induction
551.
advantages
and discage, 469; advantages
470.
of two types of,
Currents, components of rotor, 517,
518, 519, 622; components of
torque, 464;
Slip,445; at maximum
stator,530.
effect of shape of rotor slots on,
Commutator

to
467o; proportional
laer loss,475.

rotor cop-

Efficiency,see
Electromotive

Losses.

forces,

induced

in

612

INDEX

SINGLE-PHASE

INDUCTION

MOTORS

SINGLE-PHASE

MOTORS

INDUCTION

ing resistance to rotor,515; condition

rotor, 516, 617, 518; axis of
the
for
for
rotor
production of,621.
517, 618; phase
e.na.fs.,
Vector diagram, for uncompensated
of,with respectto flux,527.
motor
at synchronous
speed,
Field,quadrature,516, 518; relative
below
synchronous speed,
magnitudes of component fields,
527,
520; revolving, 520.
530; for compensated motor,
of explainingoperaFerraris,method
535, 637.
tion,
512.
Voltage, speed, see Speed voltage;
Electromotive
forces.
see
523, 532 ;
motor
Windings, 511.
generator action,522.
in
and
phase
Weight, relative of single-and polyLosses, comparison of,
single
motors, 511, 626.
polyphase motors, 523.
axis
of
Magnetic
rotor, squirrel-cage
Generator

action

of motor,

type, 533.
type, 517, 518; drum
Magnetizing current, for quadrature
field,518, 622, 525; of stator,
626; for quadrature field in
stator, 630.

Operation, explanation of, 521

Output, relative of single-phaseand
polyphase motors, 526.
Phase
converter, 551; transforming
from
one
to three phase, 553.
Power
factor, of single and polyphase
motors, 526; compensation

for,634.
Quadrature field,616; magnetizing
current for,518, 522, 525, 530.
Revolving field,620; shape of, 521.
Rotation, direction of,511.
Rotor, squirrel-cagetype, 612; drum
type, 533; drum type equivalent
to squirrel-cagetype, 534.
SUp, 616, 532.
Speed, 514, 530; control of, with
commutator-type

Speed electromotive
phase of, with

of motor

638.

force,517, 518;
respect to flux,

AND

SERIES

MOTORS,

REPULSION

pp.

555-603

Advantages and disadvantages, of

compensated repulsion motor,
694; of doubly fed series and
repulsionmotors, 601.
Air

gap,

of

series

motor, 562; of

repulsion motor, 571.

ries
Commutation, 665; of singly fed semotor, 566 ;resistance leads,
666; inductances,568; of doubly
fed series motor, 698; of singly
fed repulsion motor, 577; best
for repulsion motor
at
chronous
synspeed, 580; improved
while
starting by resistance in
armature
circuit,580; of compensated
repulsion motor, 588;
of doubly fed repulsion motor,
602.

Commutator,

necessity

for

many

segments with series motor, 667.

Commutator

motors,

with

series

565.
characteristics,

Comparison, of singly fed series

and
627.
repulsion motors, 681; of
of, 645; by spht
doubly fed series and repulsion
Starting,methods
phase, 545; by shading coils,
motors, 601.
ries
Compensating winding, 555; of se649; by phase converter, 549; by
repulsion-motor action, 530;
motor, 561, 562.
clutch,use of, 548.
Compensation, 558; of series motor,
Torque, starting,511, 513, 514, 548;
661; conductive,562; inductive,
and under,
curve
of,512; effect on, of add562; effect of over

613

INDEX
SERIES

AND

REPULSION

of

665;

MOTORS

SERIES

singly fed

repulsion
motor, 582, 586; of doubly fed

repulsionmotor,

AND

REPULSION

of series

Reactance,

MOTORS

motor,

560.

Regeneration, by doubly fed

602.

pensated
com-

repulsion motor, 601,

tor,
Component fields,of repulsion mo571; relative magnitudes of,
572, 577; of compensated repulsion

603.
Relative

strengths,of

field with

and

armature

series

motor, 659.
of, with singly
fed repulsion motor, 672; with
compensated repulsion motor,

motor, their relative magnitudes, Rotation, direction

585, 587, 588, 589;

their relative
602 ; of

of

repulsion motor,

fed

doubly

magnitudes, 599,
fed series motor,

doubly

their relative

of series

motors, 569;

of repulsion motors, 571.

and

a.-c.

improve

mutation
com-

motor

in
to

armature

improve

of

566,
repulsion

commutation

while

series motors

Differences, between

to

of series motor,

598;

Construction

Doubly

Resistance, leads

magnitudes, 697,

699.

for

593.

d.-c. operation,559.

Series

starting,680.
motors, see Singly

motors

and

Doubly

fed

series

fed

series

fed

compensated,
motors.
repulsion motor, unpensated,
556, 595, 699;
Singly fed repulsion motor, uncomcompensated, 600; compensa570;
555,
component
tion,
fields,
tude
602; commutation, 602;
571, 572; relative magnicontrol
of
starting,602; speed
602;
component fields,572,
tages
577; necessity for non-salient
regeneration,601, 603; advanand disadvantages, 601.
poles, 571; torque and
speed
Doubly fed series motor, 556, 596;
characteristics,
572; equivalent
in series with
to a transformer
vector
approximate
diagram,
ing,
impedance, 673, 574; equaan
597; commutation, 598; starttion
for speed, 576; speed control,
599; speed control, 597,
tages,
572; vector diagram, 674;
599; advantages and disadvan601.
commutation, 577.
pensated,
of series motors, 669.
Efficiency,
Singly fed repulsion motor, comof
of
series
nections,
condiagram
583;
Field,
motor, 561, 569; see
tude
684; relative magniComponent fields.
of
for
fields,
685,
low, 660.
component
Frequency, necessity
in
fed
series
585;
armature,
voltages
on
singly
588;
Interpoles,use
"

motors, 568.
Magnetic circuit,of series motor,
662; of repulsionmotor, 671.
Power, internal,of a motor, 560.
Power
pensated
factor,558; lower for uncom-

repulsionmotor
for series motor, 582;

Repulsion

motors,

repulsionmotors
motors.
repulsion

see

and

see

power

factor

compensation,586;

gram,
commutation, 688; vector diarection
590; speed control and diof rotation, 593.
Singly fed series motor, 665, 559;
than
construction, 569; efficiency
pensation.
Comand losses,569; starting,556,

Singly fed

Doubly fed

pensation,
566; speed control, 566; com561, 566; compensating
winding, 561, 562, 566;
commutation, 566 j relative

614

INDEX

AND

SERIES

REPULSION

of

strengths

equation

Speed,

repulsion
Speed

singly

and

speed

and

fed

of

599;

repulsion
of
of

on,

of

series

motor,

current

in

repulsion
doubly

569;

fed

by

brushes,

Types,

of
series

commutator

characteristics,

with

motors
555.

necessity

for

in

560,

566;

series

motor,

singly

fed

580;

low,

singly
in

595,

571,
fed

singly

repulsion

with

Winter-Eichberg

ries
se-

fed

series

motor,

597,

598;

673,

in

sion
repul677,

679,

compensated
585,

586,

556.

motor,

fed

doubly

589.

Windings,

fed

doubly

uncompensated

motor,
in

sion
repul-

567.

induced,

motor,

688,

566.

motor,

598.

of

674;

of

590;

ies
ser-

singly

compensated

motor,

Voltages,

effect

coils

armature

circuited

short

597,

602.

motor,

Voltage,

566;

motor,
fed

593;

of

566;

motor,

series

singly
572,

motor,

Torque,

series

fed

doubly

control,

of

564;
motor,

motor,
series

singly
of

repulsion
fed

fed

singly

563,

motor,
fed

MOTORS

of

diagram,

speed

control.

Starting

Vector

singly

Starting

see

fed

REPULSION

AND

664.

576.

motor,

control,

field,

663,

for

of,

SERIES

and

armature

diagrams,

vector

559;

MOTORS

584.

587,