1.

0 Introduction
Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from
petroleum fractions (petrochemicals). It is not only used as household cleaning materials in
our daily life but also widely applied in industrial as fuel additives in order to prevent fouling.
The first synthetic detergent was developed by the Germans during World War I and started
to develop rapidly since 1949. Soaps are often replaced by detergents as it has higher washing
characteristics in hard water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg 2+ ions and
Ca2+ ions in hard water but soaps do. Detergent ions do react with the ions in the hard water
but the magnesium salts and calcium salts formed are soluble in water. (Abayomi, 2013)
Detergents are amphilic molecules, meaning that their structures consist of a polar
head (hydrophilic) and a non-polar tail (hydrophobic). Hydrophilic molecules can
dissolve readily in water but not in oils and grease. In contrast, hydrophobic molecules can
dissolve readily in oils and grease but not in water.
Generally, detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge
on the detergent ion.
(a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a negativelycharged ion. Sulphates, sulphonates, carboxylates (soaps), and phosphates are some of
the example of anionic hydrophiles.

Diagram 1: Structure of alkyl benzenesulfonate detergent

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(b) Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a positivelycharged ion. Cationic hydrophiles are some form of an amine product.

Diagram 2: Structure of quaternary ammonium detergent

(c) Non-ionic detergents where there is no charged ion on the head of the detergent
particle. The hydrophiles can be from hydroxyl group.

Diagram 3: Structure of alcohol ethoxylate detergent (Nsb.wikidot.com, 2015)

The basic component of a synthetic detergent is a 'surface active agent' (surfactant). A
surfactant is formed when a strongly hydrophobic group is bond together with a strongly
hydrophilic group in the same molecule. When surfactant is mixed with clean water, the
hydrophilic group of surfactant dissolves in water while the hydrophobic group sticks out
from the surface of water. The hydrophilic group will weaken the forces of attraction between
water molecules and lower the surface tension of water. When the surface tension is lowered,
the water molecules will spread out and wet the cloth or plates to be cleaned. Hence,
surfactants act as a wetting agent. In addition, surfactants also act as emulsifying agent by
breaking large drop of oil or grease into smaller droplets that float in water. (Yin Toon, Wai
Leng, and On Tin, 2010)

Since detergents are synthetic cleansing agent, its structure of the hydrocarbon chain
can be modified to produce detergents with specific properties. Nowadays, different types of
detergents have been synthesised for specific uses such as shampoo and dish cleaners. A
number of additives are used to enhance the cleaning ability of detergents. Phosphates or
zeolites are added to control the alkalinity and soften the water. Biological enzymes such as
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amylase, lipase and protease are added to break down fat and protein molecules in food
stains. Other constituents include foam stabilisers, bleaches, fragrances, optical whiteners and
fillers to improve the free-flowing properties of powder detergents. (Primaryinfo.com, 2015)

2.0 Literature Review

The first synthetic detergents are invented by Germans during the First World War at
that time, detergents are designed to utilize fats for other purpose instead of cleaning activity
and they were called as Nekal. Nekal was made up by coupling propyl and butyl alcohols
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with napthalene, followed by sulponation which is having a short chain alkyl naphthalene
sulphonate type structure. With this kind of composition, Nekal can only be counted as
moderately good detergents since it didn't show high efficiency on its usage. However, they
are still being manufactured in large quantities for textile auxilaries due to its good wetting
ability.
In the late 1920s and early 1930s Nekal was modified to be more functional.
Sulphonated long-chain alcohols was used to replace short chain alkyl naphthalene
sulphonate. It was sold as the neutralized sodium salts together with sodium sulphate as an
extender. In the early 1930s, USA market came out with another new type of detergent which
having long-chain alkyl aryl sulphonates. Benzene was chemically designed as aromatic
nucleus and alkyl portion was made from a kerosene fraction. However, this latest products
by USA were only available with the presence of sodium sulphate as extender. Both of these
Germany and USA products were sold as cleaning materials but didn't cause a big impact to
the market.

GERMANY

USA
vs

alkyl aryl
sulphonates

alcohol sulphates

At the end of the World War 2, alkyl aryl sulphonates had almost completely defeated
alcohol sulphates in the number of sales. There are two main reasons that alkyl aryl
sulphonates stabilized its position in the market. Firstly, consumers were willing to purchase
USA products instead of Germany's since the alcohol sulphate had limitation in cleaning
properties. Furthermore, the Germany companies were making alcohol sulphates inroad to
shampoo field which became less competitive in cleaning agents' market. There are still
alcohol sulphate type of detergents sold. For example, popular brand, Teepol, a secondary
alcohol sulphate are still currently hitting the market.

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USA

GERMANY

alkyl aryl
sulphonates

alcohol sulphates

In the period of 1950-65, PT benzene (an alkyl benzene made from propylene
tetramer coupled to benzene) was used to displace all other type of detergents and gained its
foothold in the market. It is because PT benzene was very easy to be manufactured and
versatility. Until now, some of the detergents are still based on PT benzene for modification.
In this century, there are a lot chemical development which have produced detergents
with different chemical composition. However, there is no 'perfect' detergent in this world.
There must be a limit to each type of detergents. This is due to the availability of raw
materials in particular country. For example, Germany, USA and United Kingdom are the
three major producing countries. Germany developments are mainly in manufacturing alkane
sulphate type of detergent; USA and UK are more focus on lgepon type of compounds and
secondary olefine sulphate products respectively. The developments would prefer the
chemical compounds which is easier to obtain in their own country instead of using shipped
raw materials. The primary reason is saving cost, in order to increase the contribution
margins, developments have to adjust the manufacturing cost as low as possible. Besides that,
the development still need to consider following factors in order to produce high quality
products:

ease of manufacture;
availability of raw materials;
suitability of finished product;
cost of manufacture.
In conclusion, sales of detergents are covered all around the world. It became the

necessities for human cleaning activities. The various chemical compositions of detergents
allows users to apply on different activities. For example, detergents for car washing may not
suitable for kitchen utensil. Distinctive of chemical contents have its advantages and
disadvantages on particular field.
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3.0 Reaction Mechanism

3.1 Anionic Detergent
Alkylbenzene sulfonates

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Anionic detergents are characterized by their negatively charged hydrophilic head groups.
The most common of the synthetic anionic detergents are based on the straight straight chain
alkylbenzene sulfonates. Using a Friedel-Crafts reaction of olefin with benzene in slight
excess, in the presence of either aluminium chloride or hydrogen fluoride to produce
alkylbenzene as raw material for the synthesis of the anionic surfactant. (Tsoler and Sosis,
2009). The alkylbenzene varies in average molecular mass, depending upon the starting

materials and catalyst used, it is often a mixture in which the length the alkyl side chain
varies from 10 to 14 carbon atoms, for example:

Alkylbenzene
The sulfonation of alkylbenzene can be handled with oleum, sulfuric acid, or gaseous sulfur
trioxide. The sulfonate group is introduced in the benzene ring primarily in the p-position.
The process may be operated as either a batch or continuous process. The continuous
sulfonation of alkylbenzene is carried out at 40-50 oC with a molar excess of 1-3% sulfur
trioxide, diluted to 5-7% in dry air. The resulting sulfonic acid is then neutralized with an
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide to form alkylbenzenesulfonate, for example:

Alkylbenzene

Alkylbenzenesulfonic

Alkylbenzenesulfonate

acid

The content of alkylbenzenesulfonic acid can be increased with aging step, which is
necessary for sufficient degree of sulfonation. During aging, the Anhydrides, the by-products
of sulfonation step can react with further alkylbenzene, sulfuric acid, or traces of water,
increasing the content of alkylbenzenesulfonic acid. The anhydrides can be converted to

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alkylbenzenesulfonic acid by addition of 1-2% water at 80 oC in order to stabilize the

products.

3.2 Cationic Detergent

With this surfactants, the hydrophilic head is positively charged. Commonly used cationic
surfactants contain a quaternary respective tetracoordinated nitrogen atom. The cationic can
be obtained by the reaction of tertiary amines with classical alkylating reagents such as
methyl chloride, dimethyl sulfate. The residues R1 R3 represent the alkyl group such as
methyl. The R4 stands for the alkyl or aryl part of the alkylating reagent, mostly methyl
benzyl. (Texter, 2001) The quaternization reaction is carried out at temperature between 80
and 100 oC, for example:

Tertiary amine

Example for amine salt:

Dimethyl alkyl amine salt

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Alkyl amine salt

3.3 Nonionic detergent

Ethers

Non-ionic detergents are characterized by their uncharged hydrophilic head groups. The
most important technology in synthesizing non-ionic detergents is the reaction of long
chain alcohols with epoxyethane (ethylene oxide) to form ethers. The reaction with
ethylene oxide is most frequently in order to increase hydrophilicity and thus water
solubility of alcohols. (Drugbase.de, 2015)
The ethoxylation reactions are normally carried out in batchwise in a stainless steel reactor
at temperature range from 120 to 180 oC and at pressure of 5-7 bar, as below:

Alcohol

Ethylene oxide

Ether

Although they do not contain an ionic group as their hydrophilic component, hydrophilic
properties are conferred on them by the presence of a number oxygen atoms in one part of
the molecule which are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water molecules.

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4.0 Block Flow Diagram

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Diagram 4: Detergent powder manufacturing process

Step 1:
Anterior Ration Unit

The solid raw materials such as sodium sulphate, STP are transferred to each silo respectively
by pneumatic transport. Then, the solid raw materials are put into each solid scale hopper
respectively to be measured and controlled for their feeding amount.
The liquid tank farm is used as general storage for liquid raw materials and fuel oil. The
liquid raw materials that stored in the farm are transported to each high tank respectively by
pump. Again, the liquid raw materials is put into each liquid scale respectively to measure its
feeding amount. The ingredients fed into the mixer reactor is shown in table 2. This unit is
controlled by PLC, programmable logic controller. It is easy operation, safe and reliable. (Heyuan.com, 2015)

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Step 2:
Crutcher

Other materials like enzyme, Soda Ash, perfume and etc. (listed in Table 3) are scaled
continuously basis on the flux of detergent powder and mixed with the powder prior to
packaging. The air blown through the mixture in fluidizer and mix them into homogeneous
powder. This unit is controlled by PLC. The controller system monitors the whole production
and auto control the parameters in production. The operation of control system includes
manual and auto operation. The software for monitoring includes collection of site
information, information alert, production report, system self-diagnose and so on.

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Step 5:
Packaging
The final step in the manufacturing of detergents is packaging. Detergents, including
household cleaners, are packaged in cartons, bottles or cans. The selection of packaging
materials and containers involves the consideration of product compatibility, stability, cost,
ease of use and etc.

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5.0 Application of synthetic detergent

Synthetic detergent can be classifying into three categories. There are anionic
(negatively charged head), cationic (positively charged head), non-ionic or neutral (uncharged
head).

Anionic detergents have a negatively charged polar head group. The negative charge
of this head group is balanced by the sodium cation (Na+), which is arising from the
manufacturing procedure. However, the negatively charged head group can also interact with
other cations in the water such as magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+). Hard water
contains high levels of these cations. Anionic detergents are the most common detergents in
laundry detergents, dishwashing liquids, and oven cleaners. They are also effective at fabric
softener residue, emulsifying oil and clay soils, and are high sudsing. Anionic detergents are
more effective than non-ionic detergents in the wetting of metal surfaces. When reading the
ingredients list on cleaning products, identify anionic detergents by referring their names:
Sodium, Ammonium, Magnesium, Sulfate, Sulfonate, and Gluconate. Some examples are
linear alkyl sulfonates (LAS), alkyl aryl sulfonates such as dodecylbenzene sulfonate
(DDBS), and alcohol ether sulfates such as sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES). (Frydendall,
2015)

Non-ionic detergents have neutral (non-polar) head group. They are not attracted to
the positive ions, so they are not as easily impaired under hard water conditions. Some
nonionics are high foamers (like anionics), while others do not generate much foam. Because
of their low foam characteristics, they may be effectively used in conjunction with scrubbing
machines or other cleaning equipment. They are often used in low-sudsing detergents,
cleaning plastics, hair shampoos, nappy washes, fabric softeners and conditioners, and can be
used in combination with anionic detergents. Furthermore, it is also very effective for
removing oils and grease. (Gsa.gov, 2015). Some examples are alcohol ethoxylates.

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Cationic detergents have a positively charged polar head group. Cationic

manufactured from weak alkalis and strong acids. They are acidic in nature with a pH value
less than 7. These detergents carry anti-static properties and are effective in repelling dust.
The positive charge in a cationic detergent repels the charged dust in the atmosphere. These
detergents are generally not the primary cleaning agent, but are used in as mild antibacterial
agents and fabric softeners. Sample of cationic detergents products are car shampoos,
dishwasher detergents and cosmetics. (Tsoler and Sosis, 2009).

It is common for more than one detergent to be used in a laundry detergent. This is
because the actions of the detergents can reinforce each other, giving rise to a greater cleaning
result from the combination than would be expected from a mixture of the two working
independently. However, anionic and cationic detergents are mismatched because of their
opposite head-group charges.

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6.0 Comparison
Differences in general formula between synthetic detergents and soups
Comparison between synthetic detergent and soap Detergents are soups like compound which
are used for cleaning purpose. There are sodium salts of long chain alkyl benzene sulphonic
acids or sodium salts of long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate. Whereas, soups are salts of long
chain carboxylic acid (Citycollegiate.com).
The general formulae for soups and detergents are as below:

Differences between synthetic detergents and soups (Living Sience Chemistry, 2008)
1.

Detergent can be used in hard water as well as soft water but soups are not
suitable for use in hard water. This is because soaps will react with Mg2+and thus,
soaps do not lather in hard water.

2.

Detergent forms no scum during washing of clothes but soups does. Scum are not
form during washing of clothes by using detergents and as a result it is easier to wash
clothes with detergent while scum are formed during washing of clothes by using soup
and repeated washing with water is necessary to remove the scum completely.

3.

Detergents are not saved for human use while soups are saved for human
consumption. Detergents are prepared from coal tar and petroleum which is not saved for
human use while soups are prepared from vegetable oils and animal fats which is saved
for human use.

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4.

Synthetic detergents have a stronger cleansing action than soups. Detergents are
synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure of the hydrocarbon chain can be
modified to produce detergents with specific properties

5.

Synthetic detergents can be used in acidic water while soup cant be used in
acidic water. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acids
molecular size that are insoluble in water but for detergent, H+ ion is acidic water do not
combined with detergents ions.

6.

Synthetic detergents are non-biodegradable but soups are biodegradable. This is

because soups are made from vegetable oils and animal fats which can be composed by
bacteria while detergents are made from coal tar and petroleum which cannot be
composed by bacteria. As a result, detergents cause water pollution.

Summary differences between soup and detergent

Soup
Detergent
1) Soups are sodium or potassium salts of long 1) Synthetic detergents are sodium salts of long
chain fatty acids. The anionic group in soup is chain alkyl hydrogen sulphates or long chain
COO-.

benzene sulphunic acids. The anionic group in

synthetic detergent is -OSO-3 or

SO-3.

2) Soups are obtained from vegetable oils and 2) Synthetic detergents are made from coal tar
animals fats.

and petroleum.

3) Soups are biodegradable.

3) Synthetic detergents are not biodegradable.

4) Soups do not lather readily in hard water.

4) Synthetic detergents lather readily in hard

water

5) Soups exhibit weak cleaning actions.

5) Synthetic detergents exhibit strong cleaning

6) Scums are separated during use.

actions
6) No scum is separated during use.

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7.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, synthetic detergents produced from petrochemicals have a polar head
(hydrophilic) and a non-polar tail (hydrophobic). Detergents can be classified into three
types. Anionic detergents have negatively-charged polar head. Common anionic detergent is
alkylbenzene sulfonates. Alkylbenzenesulfonate is produced by Friedel-Crafts and
sulfonation reaction. Anionic detergents are often found in laundry detergents and
dishwashing liquids. Cationic detergents have positively-charged polar head. The cationic
surfactants contain a quaternary respective tetracoordinated nitrogen atom and it is obtained
by the reaction of tertiary amines with alkyl halides. Cationic detergents are usually used in
mild antibacterial agents, car shampoo and cosmetics. Non-ionic detergents do not have any
charge on their polar head. Commonly synthesized non-ionic detergents are ethers. Ethers are
formed when a long chain alcohols reacts with ethylene oxide. Non-ionic detergents are often
used in low-sudsing detergents, hair shampoos and also conditioners. Spray drying method is
the most common method used in manufacturing detergent powder in the industry. Synthetic
detergents have better cleaning ability than soaps and can dissolve readily in hard water
without forming scum. However, the detergents will cause the environmental problems.

8.0 References
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