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(ii)
(iii)
uOHkH w.h (cm)
m%;sM,
wod< isoaOdka;h wkqj .Kkh lrkak'
by; .Kkh ls wkqj Tn f.a m%;sM, igyka lrkak'
idlPdj
fuu ks.uk yd tajdfha fodaI ms<sn| Tn f.a woyia o" tu w.hhka jvd;a ksjer j ,nd .ekSu
i|yd Tn f.a fhdackd o bm;a lrkak'
igyk
jZkshr le,smrhl uQ,dxl jro jZkshr mudKfha uQ,sl msysu wkqj lshjk wdldrh;a" fYdaOkh
i|yd tu w.h wod< kqfuka wvq l< hq;= o" tfia ke;fyd;a kqug tl;= l< hq;= o" hkak ;SrKh
lsu;a jeo.;a f'
1'9 rEmh
1'10 rEmh
ykq tlsfkl iamY jk m le,smrfha jZkshr mudKh iSreudre l< g jZkshr le,smr foll
uQ,dxl jro igyka jk wdldr by; rEm igykaj,ska oelaf'
A
FT
1'9 rEmhg wkqj uQ,dxl jro ^jZkshr mudKfha Y=kH yd m%Odk mudKfha Y=kH w;r
mr;rh& mudKfhka iDcq j u lshug mqjk' tu w.h 0'3 mm f' ksje/ mdGdxlh h
hq;af;a jZkshr mudKh p,kh jQ r m%udKh hs' jZkshr mudKfha p,kh wdrN jkafka
fuu msysf isg h' tfy;a mdGdxl jd;d lrkafka m%Odk mudKfha Y=kHfha isg h' tu
ksid fYdaOkh i|yd fuu w.h ^0'3 mm& wod< mdGdxlfhka wvq l< hq;= h'
1'10 rEmhg wkqj uQ,dxl jro jZkshr mudKfha Y=kH yd m%Odk mudKfha Y+kH w;r mr;rh
mudKfha oelafjk mdGdxlfhka iDcq j u ,nd .; fkd yels h' iumd; jk mdGdxlh
olajd we;s jZkshr fldgiaj, mr;rfhka m%Odk mudKfha fldgiaj, mr;rh wvq lsfuka
uQ,dxl jrfoys w.h ,nd .; yels f'
uQ,dxl jro = (8 x 0.9 - 7.0) mm = (7.2 - 7.0) mm = 0.2mm f' fYdaOkh i|yd fuu w.h (0.1mm)
wod< mdGdxlhg tl;= l< hq;= f'
tfuka u jZkshr mudKfha we;s uq fldgia .Kkska iumd; jk mdGdxlhg wkqrEm w.h
wvq lr ,efnk w.h" jZkshr mudKfha l=vdu kqfuka .=K lsfuka o b;d myiqfjka
uQ,dxl jro fih yel'
f wkqj"
uQ,dxl jro = (10 -8) 0.1mm = 0.2mm f'
uekSu i|yd imhk jia;= yels;dla rg taldldr h hq;=h'
mK wxl
uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkh Nd; lr
02
1' isyska lhl IalNh fiu

2' jdfka $ re f.da,hl IalNh fiu
3' wkalaI lodjl >klu fiu
4' Pdhd msgm;a lvodishl >klu fiu
jH yd WmlrK
uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkhla ^wdudk (guage) 22&" isyska lhla" jdfka $ re f.da,hla ^5mm
l muK fnda,a fnhdka f.da,hla&" wkalaI lodjla" Pdhd msgm;a lvodishla
isoaOdka;h
bial=remamq wka;rd,h x o" jD;a; mudKfha fldgia .Kk n o k"
A
FT
wod< tallj,ska WmlrKfha l=vd u kqu
boao
od,h
od, ysi
lsKsysr
l%uh
2'1 rEmh - uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkh
uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkfha l=vd u kqu ,nd .kak' boao lsKsysrh iu. iamY jk m
od, ysfika muKla w,a,d lrljkak ^boao lsKsysr iu`. iamY jQ g fyda boao yd lsKsysr h
jia;=jla iu`. iamY jQ g ls-ls Yohla ksl=;a lrka od, ysi ksoyfia lrlef&' uQ,dxl
jrola fmkakq lrkafka k tu jro igyka lr .kak'
1' lfha IalNh uekSf lh boao yd lsKsysrh w;r /|efjk m od< ysi lrljd
IalNfha w.h ,nd .kak' lh tys wlaIh jgd 900 lska lrljd mdGdxl ,nd .kak' lfha
ia:dk ;=kl t m mdGdxl ,nd .kak' fYda; mdGdxl my; oelafjk 2'1 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak'
2' f.da,h boao iy lsKsysrh w;r /|efjk fia ilia lr f.da,fha tlsfklg ,n IalN ;=kla
Tiafia mdGdxl ,nd .kak' fYda; mdGdxl my; oelafjk 2'2 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak'
3' wkalaI lodj" boao iy lsKsysrh w;r r|jd tys ia:dk ;=kl >klu i|yd mdGdxl ,nd .kak'
fYda; mdGdxl my; oelafjk 2'3 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak'
4' Pdhd msgm;a lvodish lene,s 20 lg lmd tajd tl u; tl ;nd tajdfha >klu i|yd mdGdxl
,nd .kak' t m ia:dk ;=kl mdGdxl ,nd .kak' fYda; mdGdxl my; oelafjk 2'4 j.=fjys
igyka lr .kak'
6
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkfha l=vd u kqu }
uQ,dxl jro }
2'1 j.=j
lfha IalNh (mm)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
uOHkH
IalNh
(mm)
2'2 j.=j
f.da,fha IalNh (mm)
(ii)
(iii)
A
FT
(i)
uOHkH
IalNh
(mm)
2'3 j.=j
wkalaI lodf >klu (mm)

(ii)
(i)
len,s 20 l >klu (mm)

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iii)
uOHkH
>klu
(mm)
2'4 j.=j
len,s 20
uOHkH
>klu (mm)
lvodisfha
uOHkH
>klu (mm)
fYda;
mdGdxlh
m%;sM,
idlPdj
fuu ks.uk yd tajdfha fodaI ms<sn| Tnf.a woyia o" tu w.hhka jvd;a ksje/ j ,nd .ekSu
i|yd Tn f.a fhdackd o bm;a lrkak'
igyk
uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkhl m%Odk mudK fLdjg idfmalaI j jD;a;dldr mudKfha Y=kH
msysgk wdldrh wkqj uQ,dxl jro lshjk wdldrh;a" fYdaOkh i|yd tu w.h wod< kqfuka wvq
l< hq;= o" t fia ke;fyd;a kqug tl;= l< hq;= o" hkak ;SrKh lsu;a" jeo.;a f'
2'2 rEmh
2'3 rEmh
A
FT
boao lsKsysr iu`. iamY jk m od, ysfika w,a,d lrlejQ g uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkj,
uQ,dxl jro igyka jk wdldr folla by; rEm igykaj,ska oela f'

2'2 rEmhg wkqj uQ,dxl jro ^m%Odk mudK fLdj iy jD;a;dldr mudKfha Y=kH w;r mr;rh&
0.02 mm f' ta wkqj jD;a;dldr mudKfha Y=kH msysgkafka m%Odk mudK fLdjg my<sks'
jD;a;ldr mudKh N%uKh u wdrN jkafka 0.02 mm isg h' tuksid fYdaOkh i|yd fuu w.h
wod< mdGdxlfhka wvq l< hq;= h'
2'3 rEmhg wkqj jD;a;dldr mudKfha Y=kH msysgkafka m%Odk mudK fLdjg by<sks' ta wkqj
uQ,dxl jro 0.01 mm f' jD;a;dldr mudKfha Y=kH mudK fLdj yd imd; jkafka th
0.01mm la m%Odk mudK fLdj foig lrlejQ miq h' tu ksid fYdaOkh i|yd fuu w.h wod<
mdGdxlhg tl;= l< hq;= h'
Pdhd msgm;a lvodishl >klu uekSf WmlrKfha l=vd u kqug wkqj m%;sY; fodaIh 1] la fyda
Bg wvq fyda jk fia >klu mdGdxlfhka ,efnk m Pdhd msgm;a len,s ixLHdj f;dard .; hq;=h'
mK wxl
f.da,udkh Nd; lr
03
1' wkalaI lodjl >klu fiu

2' f.da,Sh jl% mDIaGhl jl%;d wrh fiu
jH yd WmlrK
f.da,udkh" ;, ^m%ldY iu;,& re lene,a,la" wkalaI lodjla" Trf,daiq rejla'
isoaOdka;h
f.da,udkfha bialr
= emamq wka;rd,h x o" jD;a;dldr mudKfha fldgia .Kk y o k"
l=vd u kqu
jD;a;dldr mudKh
isria mudKh
A
FT
bial=remamq ;=v jl% mDIaGh iamY lrk ,laIHhg mdo ;,fha isg we;s Wi h o"
f.da,udkfha mdo folla w;r mr;rh a o" f.da,Sh mDIaGfha jl%;d wrh R o k"
3'1 rEmh - f.da,udkh
l%uh
3'2 rEmh
f.da,udkfha l=vd u kqu ,nd .kak' f.da,udkfha mdo" ;, re mDIaGh u; ;nd bial=remamqf
;=v re mDIaGfha iamY jk m ilia lrkak' fuh re mDIaGfhka wdxYsl mrdj;kfhka
iEfok bial=remamq ;=fvys m%;snh;a" bial=remamqfjys ;=v;a" iamY jk m ilia lsfuka is
l< yel' isria mudKfha iy jD;a;dldr mudKfha mdGdxl weiqka bial=remamq ;=fvys msysug
wkqrEm mdGdxlh ,nd f.k igyka lr .kak' fuu mdGdxlh uQ,dxl jro f,i igyka lr .kak'
1' bial=remamqj u|la by<g Tfidjd wkalaI lodj bial=remamqjg my<ska msysgk m re mDIaGh
u; ;nd bial=remamq ;=fvka wkalaI lodf by< mDIaGh iamY jk m bial=remamqj lrljd
wkqrEm mdGdxlh ,nd .kak' f whqka wkalaI lodf ia:dk ;=kl mdGdxl ,nd f.k 3'1
j.=fjys fYda; mdGdxl igyka lr .kak'
2' bkamiq f.da,udkfha mdo f.da,Sh mDIaGh iamY jk fia o" bial=remamqf ;=v f.da,Sh mDIaGh iamY
jk fia o 3'2 rEmfhys oelafjk m bial=remamqj ilia lr wkqrEm mdGdxlh ,nd f.k fYda;
mdGdxl igyka lr .kak' f.da,udkh lvodishla u; ;nd ;o lrkak' mdoj, ;=vq u`.ska we;s
lrk i,l=Kq w;r r jZkshr le,smrfha wNHka;r ykq weiqfrka uek .ekSfuka f.da,udkfha
mdo w;r r ,nd .kak'
9
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
bial=remamq ;=v mdo ;,h iamY lrk g mdGdxlh }
3'1 j.=j
wkalaI lodf >klu (mm)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
uOHkH
>klu
(mm)
h ys w.h
= ....... mm
f.da,udkfha mdo folla w;r r (a)
= ....... mm
a ys uOHkH w.h
= ....... mm
A
FT
isoaOdka;hg wkqj Trf,daiq ref jl%;d wrh R .Kkh lrkak'
m%;sM,
idlPdj
igyk
fuu ks.uk yd tajdfha fodaI ms<sn| Tn f.a woyia o" tu w.hhka jvd;a ksje/ j ,nd .ekSu
i|yd fhdackd o bm;a lrkak'
mDIaGh W;a;, fyda wj;, u wkqj" jl%;d wrh uekSf h ys ksje/ w.h i|yd wdrNl
mdGdxlh ^bial=remamq ;=v" mdo ;, iamY lrk g mdGdxlh& wod< mdGdxlfhka wvq l< hq;= o" t
fia ke;fyd;a wod< mdGdxlhg tl;= l< hq;= o" hkak ;SrKh lrkak'
jD;a;dldr mudKh lrljk Ydj wkqj tu mudKfha mdGdxlh lshug ie,ls,su;a h hq;=h'
jdudj;j lrlef jD;a;dldr mudKfha igyka mdGdxlh fl<skau lshh yels w;r
olaIK
s dj;j lrlef jD;a;dldr mudKfha igyka uq fldgia .Kkska jD;a;dldr mudKfha
igyka mdGdxlh wvq lsfuka ksh; jD;a;dldr mdGdxlh ,nd .; yel'
10
mK wxl
p, wkalaIh Nd; lr
04
1' flaYsl k<hl wNHka;r IalNh fiu

2' rn k<hl wNHka;r IalNh fiu
3' rn k<hl ndysr IalNh fiu
jH yd WmlrK
p, wkalaIhla" flaYsl k<hla" rn k<hla" wdOdrlhla
isoaOdka;h
jZkshr mudK iys; WmlrKhl m%Odk mudKfha fldgia n ixLHdjla jZkshr
mudKfha fldgia N ixLHdjla iu. imd; f k"
m%Odk mudKfha l=vd u fldgil .
A
FT
l=vd u kqu
4'3 rEmh
4'2 rEmh
4'5 rEmh
4'1 rEmh - p, wkalaIh

4'4 rEmh
l%uh
p, wkalaIfha l=vd u kqu fidhd igyka lr .kak' p, wkalaIh iam%S;= f,j,hla Nd; lr
tys mdoj, we;s ix;,k bial=remamq u`.ska ix;=,kh lr .kak'
WmlrKfha wkalaI fldgi yd taldlaI jk m flaYsl k<h wdOdrlhla u`.ska ;sria j r|jd
wkalaIfhka flaYsl k<fha uqyqK; kdNs .; lrkak'
p, wkalaIfha yria l 4'2 rEmfhys oelafjk whqre ilia jk ;=re wkalaIh ;sria j p,kh
lrka ;sria mudKh Nd;fhka X1 yd X2 mdGdxl;a" wkalaIfha yria l 4'3 rEmfhys oelafjk
whqre ilia jk ;=re wkalaIh isria j p,kh lrka isria mudKh Nd;fhka Y1 yd Y2 mdGdxl;a"
,nd .kak' Tf mdGdxl 4'1 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak'
flaYsl k<h bj;a lr ta fjkqjg rn k<h Nd; lr fmr m rn k<fha wNHka;r ;sria
IalNh i|yd 4'4 rEmfhys oelafjk X1 yd X2 mdGdxl;a" rn k<fha wNHka;r isria IalNh
i|yd 4'5 rEmfhys oelafjk Y1 yd Y2 mdGdxl;a" f.k 4'2 j.=fjys igyka lrkak'
11
rn k<fha ndysr IalNh uekSf yria l rn k<fha ndysr mDIaGfhys iamY jk m

ilid 4'4 rEmfhys oelafjk X3 yd X4 mdGdxl;a" 4'5 rEmfhys oelafjk Y3 yd Y4 mdGdxl;a" f.k
4'3 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
4'1 j.=j
X1 (cm)
X2 (cm)
Y1 (cm)
Y2 (cm)
flaYsl k<fha uOHkH

wNHka;r IalNh (cm)
4'2 j.=j
X2
(cm)
Y1
(cm)
rn k<fha
wNHka;r
IalNh (cm)
Y2
(cm)
rn k<fha
uOHkH wNHka;r
IalNh (cm)
A
FT
X1
(cm)
4'3 j.=j
Y3
(cm)
Y4
(cm)
X4
(cm)
rn k<fha
ndysr
IalNh (cm)
X3
(cm)
12
rn k<fha
uOHkH ndysr
IalNh (cm)
flaYsl k<fha uOHkH wNHka;r IalNh =
( X2 - X1 ) + ( Y2 - Y1 )
2
rn k<fha uOHkH wNHka;r IalNh
( X2 - X1 ) + ( Y2 - Y1 )
2
flaYsl k<fha uOHkH ndysr IalNh
( X4 - X3 ) + ( Y4 - Y3 )
2
ks.ukh
by; .Kkh ls wkqj Tn f.a ks.uk igyka lrkak'
idlPdj
fuu ks.uk yd tajdfha fodaI ms<sn| Tn f.a woyia o" tu w.hhka jvd;a ksjer j ,nd .ekSu
i|yd Tn f.a fhdackd o" bm;a lrkak'
igyk
rn k<h i|yd 5 mm muK IalNhla we;s 5 cm muK . k< lene,a,la fhdod .kak' rn
k<h ;sriaj /|u i|yd tys isfrys IalNhg jvd iaj,am m%udKhla wvq IalNhlska hq;a
is,skavrdldr o`vq lene,a,la we;= lr o`vq lene,a, iu`. wdOdrlhg i lrkak'
p, wkalaIh Nd; lsf m<uqj tys l%shdld r ^kdNs.; jk r& k isu mlaIKh lsug
myiq f' fndfyda g" fuh wkalaI lf|a igyka fldg we;s w;r tfia fkdue;s k" fldgq
lvodishlg kdNs.; fldg lvodish yd Wmfk;a fl<jr w;r r uek .ekSfuka k .; yel'
A
FT
rn k<fha fyda flaYsl k<fha fldk" o< jYfhka fuu ka tal fh jk m ;efuka
myiqfjka kdNs.; lsu is l< yel'
13
mK wxl
05
n, iudka;rdi% kshufha i;H;dj fiu iy th Nd;fhka fok ,o jia;=jl ialkaOh

fiu'
jH yd WmlrK
n, iudka;rdi% WmlrKh" fkd okakd ialkaOfhka hq;a jia;=jla ^l=vd .,a lene,a,la fyda re
uQhla&" w.h okakd Ndr ;=kla" ys; p;=ri%h fyda fl ;, omK ;Srejla" gr Nd.fha fldajla"
mqjre lgq A4 iq lvodishla" iy f;o`vq ;=,djla'
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
5'2 rEmh
5'3 rEmh
5'1 rEmh
n, iudka;rdi% kshufha i;H;dj fiu
iqiq mudKhlg wkqj imQK lrk ,o OACB iudka;rdi%fha ^5'2 rEmh& OC

lKfha ." mudKfhka .=K l< g ,efnk w.h W3 Ndrhg iudk j yd OC
isria j msysghs k" n, iudka;ri% kshufha i;H;dj ;yjqre f'
jia;=jl ialkaOh ^Ndrh W & fiu
iqiq mudKhlg wkqj imQK lrk ,o OA'C'B iudka;rdi%fha ^5'3 rEmh& OC'
lKfha . mudKfhka .=K l< g ,efnk w.h ialkaOfha w.hg iudk f'
l%uh
mqjre lgq Nd; lr lvodish mqjrej u; i lrkak' 5'1 rEmfha oelafjk mrs W1, W2 yd W3
Ndr ;=,d ;e u; ;nkak' ueo we;s Ndrh uola my<g weo th uqod yer m<uq ;snQ msysug kej;
mefKa oe hs fidais lrkak' ys; p;=ri%h ;ka;=j,g ,n j ;efuka fyda ;, omK ;Srej
;ka;=j,g hka ;nd fyda ;ka;=fjka tys m%;snh jeiS hk wjia:df lvodish u; tla tla
;ka;=fjys m%lafIamKh yels ;r ka ;s;a folla ;nd i,l=Kq lrkak' lvodish mqjrefjka
bj;a lr i,l=Kq lr .;a ,laIH yryd hk m fLd wkak' ;ej, ialkaO uek wod< Ndrj,g
tl;= lrkak'
14
iqiq mudKhla f;dard f.k" W1 iy W2 ys w.hj,g iudkqmd;sl jk m OA iy OB .

m%udK i,l=Kq lrkak' OACB iudka;rdi%h imQK lr OC lKfha . ukskak' by;
isoaOdka;hg wkqj n, iudka;rdi% kshufha i;H;dj ;yjqre lrkak'
W1 Ndrh bj;a lr tu ;ehg imhd we;s jia;=j ^Ndrh W3 & we;= lr fmr m mlaIKh kej;
lrkak' m<uq jk mudKh u Nd; lr OA'C'B n, iudka;rdi%h imQK lr OC' lKfha
. ukskak' by; isoaOdka;hg wkqj imhd we;s jia;=f ialkaOh ksKh lrkak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
Nd; l< mudKh
= ................
OC lKfha .
= .......... cm
OC' lKfha .
= .......... cm
A
FT
isoaOdka;hg wkqj .Kkh lrkak'
m%;sM,
idlPdj
m<uq jk mlaIKfha m%;sM, wkqj n, iudka;rdi% kshuh ;yjqre lrkak' fo jk mlaIKfha

m%;sM, wkqj imhd we;s jia;=f ialkaOh igyka lrkak'
igyk
jia;=f ialkaOh ;=,dfjka uek mlaIKfhka ,efnk w.fha m%;sY; fodaIh fidhkak' lsish
wm.ukhla we;a k Bg fya;= idOl bm;a lrkak'
n, iudka;rdi% kshuh
,laIHhla u; ls%hd lrk n, folla Yd,;ajfhka iy Ydfjka iudka;rdi%hl noaO mdo folla
Tiafia ksrEmKh l< yels k" tu iudka;rdi%fha noaO mdo yuq jk ,laIHh yryd we lKfhaa
Yd,;ajfhka yd Ydfjka tu n,j, im%hqla;h ksrEmKh flf'
n, iudka;rdi% WmlrKfha ;ej,g Ndr fhdod ueo we;s Ndrh u|la my<g weo uqod y, g
th m<uq ;snQ msysug kej; fkd mefKa k lmamsj, >IKh ksid fuh is h yels h' lmams
N%uKh jk ia:dkj,g ,sysiais f;,a fhfuka >IKh wju lr .; yels h'
;ka;= nr iys; jQfha k tajdfha nr;a wod< Ndrj,g tl;= jk neka mlaIKfha m%;sM,j,
ksrjoH;dj wvqug th fya;=f' ;ka;= ieye,a jQ ;rug mlaIKfha m%;sM, jvd;a ksrjoH f'
15
mK wxl
>QK ms<sn| uQ,Ouh Nd; lr jia;=jl ialkaOh ksKh lsu
06
jH yd WmlrK
gr fldajla" msys odrhla" 50 g mhla" re uQhla fyda .,a lene,a,la ^50 g la muK nr&"
kQ,a lene,a,la" ,S l=hla (3" 4")

isoaOdka;h
m0 g - w.h okakd Ndrh

mg - jia;=f nr
iu;=,s;;df >QK ms<sn| uQ,Ouhg wkqj
A
FT
m g y = mg x
0

m x
y =
(m )
0
6'1 rEmh
m
x g t j y m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh =
m0
m = wkql%uKh m0
6'2 rEmh
l%uh
wdOdrlh u; msysodrh ;nd" msysodrh u; gr fldaj ;sria j ;=,kh lrkak' 6'1 rEmfhys oelafjk
m w.h okakd jQ ialkaOh ^m0& iy w.h fkd okakd jQ ialkaOh ^m& msysh odrfha fo mi we;s
fldaf ndyqj, t,a,d fldaj ;sria j ;=,kh jk ;=re x ys f;dard .;a w.hlg wkqrEm j y r
fjkia lrkak' x iy y ys w.hhkaa uek .kak'
mdGdxlj, fyd| iqreula ,efnk m x ys f;dard .;a ;j;a w.hhka myla i|yd mlaIKh kej;
is lrkak' mdGdxl my; olajd we;s 6'1 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak' mdGdxl ,nd .ekSf msysodrh
u; gr fldaf wdrNl msysu fkd fjkia j ;nd .kak'
16
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
6'1 j.=j
x (cm)
y (cm)
x g t j y m%ia;dr .kajkak'
m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh .Kkh lr isoaOdka;hg wkqj we;s jia;=f ialkaOh fidhkak'
m%;sM,
A
FT
mlaIKfha m%;sM, weiqka imhd we;s jia;=f ialkaOh fidhd igyka lrkak'
idlPdj
;=,djla Nd; lr jia;=f ialkaOh uek" mlaIKfhka ,enqKq w.fha m%;sY; fodaIh fidhkak'
lsish wm.ukhla we;a k Bg fya;= idOl bm;a lrkak'
17
mK wxl
U - k<h Nd; lr jhl idfmalaI >k;ajh fiu
07
jH yd WmlrK
U - k<hla" gr Nd.fha flda folla" fmd,a f;,a" c,h" l,m wdOdrl" ys; p;=ri%hla

isoaOdka;h
gr Nd.fha flda
U - k<h
A
FT
fmd,a f;,a

c,h
7'1 rEmh
7'2 rEmh
fmd w;=re uqyqK;g wkqrEm ugf isg c, lfoa Wi hw o" j lf|a Wi hl o"
c,fha iy jfha >k;aj ms<sfj<ska w iy l o" jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh o o" k
+ hw w g =
+ hl l g
( )
hw = l hl
w
( )
hl g t j hw m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh = l =
w
jfha idfmalaI >k;ajh
l%uh
7'1 remfhys oelafjk wdldrhg U - k<h isria ;,hl msysgk m wdOdrlhg i lrkak' U k<fha ndyqj,g wdikak j tajdfha fo mi gr Nd.fha flda wdOdrlj,g i lrkak' U - k<fha
tla ndyqjlska c,h ^>k;ajfhka je jh& tla;rd m%udKhla we;= lr bka miq wfkla ndyqfjka
fmd,af;,a ;j;a m%udKhla we;= lrkak' ys; p;=ri%h Wmfhda.S lr f.k c, udjlhg iy j
udjlhg wkqrEm mdGdxl ^x yd y& o" f;,a $c,h fmd w;=re uqyqK;g wkqrEm mdGdxlh (z) o"
ksjerj igyka lr .kak' ;j;a fmd,a f;,a ^>k;ajfhka wvq jh& iaj,am ne.ska tl;= lrka x,
y iy z i|yd mdGdxl yhla muK ,nd f.k tajd 7'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
18
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
7'1 j.=j
x (cm)
y (cm)
z (cm)
hl = (y - z) (cm)
hw = (x - z) (cm)
hl g t j hw m%ia;dr .kajkak'
A
FT
m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh .Kkh lr tu`.ska jfha idfmalaI >k;ajh ,nd .kak'
m%;sM,
mlaIKfha m%;sM, weiqka jfha idfmalaI >k;ajh ksKh lrkak'
idlPdj
ys; p;=ri%h fhdod f.k j udjlfha m;=,g wkqrEm mdGdxlh ksje/ j uek .; yels h'
U - k<fha ndyqjlg m<uq j >k;ajh wvq jH we;=<;a l< fyd;a c, ndyqf udjlhg by<skq;a
fmd,a f;,a ia;rhla msysgk neka mlaIKh fodaI iys; f' tu ksid U - k<fha ndyqjlg m<uq
igyk
j tl;= l< hq;af;a >k;ajfhka je jh ^c,h& hs'

fmd,af;,a we;= lsf fmd w;=re uqyqK; U - k<fha jl% fldgig we;= fkd lsug j.
n,d .kak'
19
mK wxl
fyhd WmlrKh Nd;fhka jhl idfmalaI >k;ajh fiu
08
jH yd WmlrK
fyhd WmlrKh" 15 cm muK ma,diala isxchla" c,h yd fldm i,af*a djKhla fyda fjk;a
iqiq djKhla" gr Nd.fha fldajla" ys; p;=ri%hla
8'2 rEmh
8'1 rEmh
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
hw - lrfha c, ugfuka by< c, lf|a Wi

hl - lrfha j ugfuka by< j lf|a Wi
w - c,fha >k;ajh
l - jfha >k;ajh
jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh o o" k<h ;=< we;s jd;fha mSvkh o" k
o
+ hw w g =
+ hl l g
hw w = hl l
hw = l hl
w
( )
l
hl g t j hw m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh =
w =
20
l%uh
8'1 remfhys oelafjk m fyhd WmlrKfha ndyq c, iy j lr ;=< nyd la,smh jD; lr
lka Wrd fyda isxch Nd;fhka jd;h bj;a lr ^>k;ajfhka wvq jh Wmu Wig tk ;=re&
ng foflys c, yd j l|ka h Wilg meKs miq la,smh ;o lrkak' oYlj, ;=v lrj, we;s
c, yd j mDIaG iamY jk fia ilia lrkak' ys; p;=ri%h Wmfhda.S lr f.k mudKh u.ska
c, lf|a Wi hw iy jh lf|a Wi hl uek igyka lr .kak' la,smh iaj,amhla nqre,a lsfuka
iy kej; ;o lsfuka hw yd hl i|yd wkqrEm w.hhka lsysmhla ,nd f.k mdGdxl 8'1 j.=f
igyka lr .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
8'1 j.=j
c, lf|a Wi hw (cm)
A
FT
j lf|a Wi hl (cm)
hl g t j hw m%ia;dr .kajkak'
m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh .Kkh lr t u`.ska jfha idfmalaI >k;ajh ,nd .kak'

ks.ukh
mlaIKfha m%;sM, weiqka jfha idfmalaI >k;ajh ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
igyk
j l|kaj, Wi ksje/ j uek .ekSu i|yd ir, kq WmlrK Nd; lr fhh yels l%fudamdh
i|yka lrkak'
oYl iys; fyhd WmlrKhla Nd; lr mlaIKh lrkafka k my; oelafjk m mdGdxl
,nd .ekSf l%uh o isoaOdka;h o fjkia lr lr .; hq;= h' c, yd j l|ka wp, j msysgk m
ilia lr .ekSfuka miq oYlj, ;=vq lrj, we;s c, iy j mDIaG iamaY jk m fjkia lrkak'
oYlj, by< fl<jf isg c, lf|a Wi h'w iy j lf|a Wi h'l uek .kak' ta ta oYlj, Wi
x1 iy x2 o uek .kak' c,fha iy jfha >k;aj ms<sfj<ska w iy l o" jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh o o"
k<h ;=< we;s jd;fha mSvkh o" k
o
= + (h'w + x1 ) w g = + (h'l + x2 ) l g
(h'w + x1 ) w = (h'l + x2 ) l
h'w =
( )
l h'l + ( x2 l - x1 w )
l
h'l g t j h'w m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh =
w =
21
mK wxl
nr fh mlaId k<hla Nd;fhka jhl >k;ajh fiu'
09
jH yd WmlrK
lelEre k<hla" Wi irdjla" ialkaO tall lsysmhla" jZkshr le,smrhla" ,sgr i,l=Kq iys;
m%ia;dr lvodis mhla" m%udKj;a ;r fidah laf,darhs djKh" Bh uQksiai $ l=vd hlv
fnda, ^nhsisl,a&" b iaj,amhla
isoaOdka;h
k<fha nr fh b iys; fldgfia mudj
wvx.= jH iys; k<fha ialkaOh
k<fha iss,skavrdldr fldgfia ndysr yrialv j.M,h
k<h ;=<g tl;= l< wu;r ialkaOh îalkaO m Nd; lr&
jfha >k;ajh
k<h bmsf,k g .s,S we;s is,skavrdldr fldgfia Wi ^k<fha we;s b mDIaGfha isg&
A
FT
V -
M -
A -
m -
-
l -
bms,Sf uQ,Ouhg wkqj
(M + m)g = (V + Al) g
m g t j l m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh G k"
k<fha ndysr IalNh d k"
9'1 rEmh
l%uh
k<h isria j bms,Sug wjYH Bh uQksiai wju m%udKhla k<h ;=<g fhdokak' Bh uQksiai
jefik fia j l< b k<h ;=<g j;a lrkak' ^k<fha f.da,dldr fldgi imQKfhka u bj,ska
jeish hq;=h'& lvodis mfha mudKfha Y=kHh k<fha is,skavrdldr fldgfia my< ugfuka wdrN
jk fia th k<fha we;=<;ska . w;g w,jkak ^9'1 rEmh&' Wi irdj jfhka mqrjd k<h jh
;=< isria j bms,Sug i,iajd .sf,k Wi l igyka lr .kak' k<h ;=<g ialkaO tallhla we;=
lr wkqrEm l ys w.h igyka lr .kak' îgyk n,kak'&
m ys w.h je lrka wkqrEm l i|yd w.hhka yhla muK ,nd f.k mdGdxl my; oelafjk 9'1
j.=f igyka lr .kak' jZkshr le,smrh Nd; lr tlsfklg ,n Yd folla Tiafia ia:dk
foll k<fha ndysr IalN ukskak'
22
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
9'1 j.=j
m (g)
l (cm)
9'2 j.=j
k<fha IalNh (cm)
k<fha uOHkH ndysr IalNh (cm)
(i)
(ii)
m g t j l m%ia;dr .kajkak'
A
FT
m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh .Kkh lrkak'

by; isoaOdka;hg wkqj jfha >k;ajh .Kkh lrkak'
m%;sM,
mlaIKfha m%;sM, weiqka jfha >k;ajh ksKh lrkak'
idlPdj
igyk
mlaIKfha m%;sM,j, ksrjoH;dj je lr .ekSu i|yd .; hq;= mQfjdamdhhka idlPd lrkak'
m<uq j k<h ;=<g tl;= lrk ialkaO l=vd w.hl isg je lrka k<h tys jD; lg wi,g
tk ;=re .s,ah yels Wmu ialkaOh fidhd .kak' tu ialkaOfha w.h wdikak iudk fldgia
yhlg fnfuka ,efnk w.hg iudk ialkaO jrlg tl;= lr mdGdxl ,nd .kak' t fia ie,eiq
lsfuka mdGdxl w;r fyd| iqreula ,nd .; yels f'
k<h isria j bms<sug wjYH Bh uQksiai k<h ;=<g oud" tajd jefik fia WKq lrk ,o b
k<h ;=<g tl;= lrkq ,ef' fuys WKq lrk ,o b wju jYfhka 9'1 rEmfha fmkajd we;s
m k<fha wfha we;s wO f.da,h jeiSug m%udKj;a ;rj;a tl;= lsug j. n,d .; hq;=h'
m fmhla Nd; lr mlaIKh lsf tl;= lrk ialkaO iudk w.hhka mj;ajd .ekSug
nr bj;a lsug isjk wjia:d t<ef' f i|yd iudk ialkaO tall ilia lr .ekSfuka nr bj;a
lsf is jk wmyiq;d u`.yrjd .; yels h'
23
mK wxl
ir, wj,nh Nd; lr .=re;ajc ;ajrKh fiu
10
jH yd WmlrK
ir, wj,nhla" gr fldajla" rdu >ldjla" ksfIK l+rla" ueka isria j lemQ fmdfrdmamhla

A
FT
isoaOdka;h
10'1 rEmh
10'2 rEmh
ir, wj,nfha . l o" foda,k ld,dj;h T o" k
l g t j" T2 m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh
l%uh
ir, wj,nfha ;ka;=j fmdfrdmamh ;=<ska hjd wp, wdOdrlhlska t,a,d wj,nfha . l ^ngd
f.a flakah olajd& uek igyka lr .kak' wj,nfha fm;g wdikak j tys my< u msysf"
ksfIK l+r isria j wdOdrlhl r|jkak' wj,nh isri iu. l=vd fldaKhlska ^50 fyda 60& msysgk
m ngd mfilg weo uqod yefuka isria ;,hl foda,kh lr" rdu >ldj Nd; lr foda,k
25 lg .; jk ld,h uek igyka lr .kak' mlaIKh kej; is lrkak' l ys . 40 cm muK
w.hlska wdrN lr 10 cm l m%udKj,ska fjkia lrka by; i|yka l< wdldrhg mdGdxl yhla
muK ,nd f.k tu mdGdxl my; oelafjk 10'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
24
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
10'1 j.=j
l (cm)
foda,k
(i)
25 lg
ld,h (s) (ii)
T (s)
T2 (s2)
l g tj T2 m%ia;dr .kajkak'
isoaOdka;hg wkqj g ys w.h .Kkh lrkak'
A
FT
m%;sM,
mlaIKfha m%;sM, wkqj g ys w.h ksKh lrkak'
idlPdj
YS% ,xldf g ys w.h 9'78 m s-2 f,i i,ld Tng ,enqKq w.fha m%;sY; fodaIh fidhkak'
igyk
imhd we;s rdu >ldf l=vd u kqu wkqj ,nd .kakd kqf m%;sY; fodaIh 1] jk m foda,k
ixLHdj f;dard .kak'
iQ;%h i;H jkafka foda,k fldaKh l=vd jQ g h'
l=vd fldaKhla msysgk m ngd foda,kh lsf tu foda,k tlu isria ;,hl msysug j.
n,d .kak' fndfyda g th wdikak ;sria b,smaidldr p,s;hla h yel'
wj,nfha ngd ksfIK l+r miq lrk fudfydf;a u rdu >ldj lsh
% d;aul lsu i|yd wjfrdayK
.Kka lsfuka wdrN lrkak'

Wod( 3" 2" 1" 0" 1" 2" ''''''''''" 25
ksfIK l+r yryd tla Ydjlg wj,nh p,kh jk g z3Z isg .Kka lsu wdrN fldg z0Z
lshfjk g rdu >ldj l%shd;aul lrkak' n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk l%shdj,shla njg fuh m;au;a"
rdu >ldj l%shd lrkakd tys oauhg yev .eiSu;a ksid fuu.ska mqoa.,noaO fodaIh wju f'
25
mK wxl
11
fy,slaiSh kaklska wj,nkh lr we;s jia;=jl ialkaOh yd foda,k ld,dj;h w;r

inkaO;dj i;Hdmkh lsu'
jH yd WmlrK
fy,slaiSh kakla" 50 g m lg,hla" rdu >ldjla" ksfIK l+rla" wdOdrl
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
11'1 rEmh
11'2 rEmh
t,a,d we;s ialkaOh m o" kafka kq ksh;h k o" foda,k ld,dj;h T o" k
m g t j" T2 m%ia;drh uQ, ,Hh yryd hk ir, fLdjla k"

T2 m nj i;Hdmkh f'
l%uh
1'1 rEmfhys oelafjk m fy,slaiSh kak wp, wdOdrlhlska isria j t,a,d tys my< fl<jrg nr
fhh yels m lg,fha wdrNl Ndrh ^rEmfha wre lr we;s fldgi& t,a,kak' kafka fl<jrg
;sria oYlhla inkaO lrkak' ksfIK l+r 11'1 rEmfhka oelafjk m kafka ksYap, msysf
tys foda,k fm;g wdikak j oYlh t,af,a wdOdrlhlg inkaO lrkak'
ialkaOh ksYap, msysf isg u|la my<g weo uqod yer isria ;,hl foda,kh ug i,iajd foda,k
50lg .; jk ld,h rdu >ldj weiqka ukskak' tu w.h kej; ,nd .kak' tl;= lrkq ,nk
ialkaOh m je lrka m ys w.h yhla i|yd by; i|yka l< wdldrhg mlaIKh kej; is
lr mdGxl my; oelafjk 11'1 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak'
26
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
11'1 j.=j
m (g)
(i)
foda,k
50 lg
ld,h (s) (ii)
T (s)
T2 (s2)
m g tj T2 m%ia;dr .kajkak'
ks.ukh
A
FT
m g tj T2 m%ia;drfha yevh wkqj ialkaOh yd foda,k ld,dj;h w;r inkaO;dj i;Hdmkh

lrkak'
igyk
imhd we;s rdu >ldf l=vd u kqu iy fy,slaiSh kafka oDV;dj wkqj ,nd .kakd kqf
m%;sY; fodaIh 1] jk m foda,k ixLHdj f;dard .kak'
iQ;%h o j,x.= jkafka ia:dmkh l=vd jQ g h'
fy,slaiSh kak ieye,a fkd f k my; oelafjk isoaOdka;h Nd;fhka lrKh lsfuka
mlaIKh is l< yelsh'
fy,slaiSh kafka ialkaOh m0 k
T2
m g tj T2 m%ia;drh ir, fLdjla f,i ,efnhs k ialkaOh yd foda,k ld,dj;h w;r

inkaOh i;Hdmkh f'
27
mK wxl
jksudkh Nd; lr iriq,l ixLHd;h fiu
12
jH yd WmlrK
jksudkhla" ixLHd;h fkd okakd iriq,la" 0.5 kg m lg,hla" ieye,a lvodis wdfrdaylhla
Nd; l< jksudk lfha lene,a,la" gr fldajla" f;o`vq ;=,djla
isoaOdka;h
12'2 rEmh
A
FT
12'1 rEmh
lfha wkqkdo ixLHd;h f o" wkqkdo . l o" wd;;sh T o" tall .l ialkaOh m o" k
lfhka t,a,d we;s ialkaOh M k"
m g t j" l2 m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh =
l%uh
jksudkfha lmamsh Wka hk lfhka 0.5 kg l wdrNl Ndrhla t,a,kak' fia;= w;r mr;rh
l=vd jk fia ilia lr" fia;= w;r lh u; tys ueog jk fia ieye,a lvodis wdfrdaylhla
kxjkak' iriq, lmkh lr jksudk fmh u; ;nkak' lvodis wdfrdaylh laIKslj bj;g
is hk f;la fia;= w;r mr;rh l%ufhka je lrkak' f whqka uQ,sl wkqkdo wjia:dj ,nd
f.k t,a,d we;s ialkaOfha w.h M iy fia;= w;r lfha . l uek igyka lr .kak'
M ys w.h 0.5 kg l m%udKfhka je lrka by; i|yka l< wdldrhg wkqrEm l ys w.hhka yhla ,nd
f.k mdGdxl my; oelafjk 12'1 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak' m ys w.h fidhd .ekSu i|yd imhd we;s
jksudk l lene,af,a . gr fldafjka uek tys ialkaOh f;o`vq ;=,dj Nd; lr ,nd .kak'
28
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
12'1 j.=j
M (kg)
l (cm)
l2 (cm2 )
l lene,af,a .
l lene,af,a ialkaOh
= ............... cm
= ............... kg
M g t j l2 m%ia;dr .kajkak' m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh .Kkh lrkak'

m ys w.h .Kkh lrkak'
isoaOdka;hg wkqj f ys w.h .Kkh lrkak'
A
FT
m%;sM,
mrSlaIKfha m%;sM, wkqj iriqf,a ixLHd;h ksKh lrkak'
igyk
lmkh jk iriq, fia;= fol w;r uOHhg wdikakj jksudkh u; ;efuka Yla;s ifma%IKh
fydka is jk ksid wkqkdo wjia:dj jvd myiqfjka ,nd .; yels f'
jksudk lh lmkh jk iriq,la iu. wkqkdo jk wjia:dj ,nd .ekSu i|yd my; i|yka
l%u o wkqu.kh l< yels h'
^1& Y%jKfhka iqir lsu
iriq,;a" jksudk lfha fia;= w;r fldgi;a" jka jr lmkh lrkak' fol u tl u
iajrfhka Y%jKh jk ;=re ^taliajkh jk ;=re& fia;= w;r mr;rh l=vd w.hl isg l%ufhka
je lrkak'
^2& kq.eiq u.ska iqir lsu

iriq,;a jksudk lfha fia;= w;r fldgi;a tljr kdo lrkak' kq.eiq Y%jKh jk ;=re
fia;= w;r mr;rh l=vd w.hl isg l%ufhka je lrkak' wk;=re j kq.eiq fkd wefik
wjia:dj ,efnk f;la fia;= w;r mr;rh ilia lrkak'
29
mK wxl
13
jksudkh Nd; lr we lhl ixLHd;h iy lmk . w;r inkaO;dj

i;Hdmkh lsu
jH yd WmlrK
jksudkh" iriq,a lg,hla" 2 kg mhla ieye,a lvodis wdfrdaylhla

13'1 rEmh
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
13'2 rEmh
lfha wkqkdo ixLHd;h f o" wkqkdo . l o" wd;;sh T o" tall .l ialkaOh m o" k
g t j" l m%ia;drh uQ, ,laIHh yryd hk ir, fLdjla fuka

nj i;Hdmkh f'
l%uh
jksudkfha lmamsh Wka hk lfhka 2 kg wdrNl Ndrh t,a,kak' fia;= w;r mr;rh l=vd
jk fia ilia lr fia;= w;r lh u; ueka msysgk fia ieye,a lvodis wdfrdaylhla kxjkak'
wvq u wkqkdo . ,efnkafka je u ixLHd;fhka hq;a iriqf,ka fyhska" je u ixLHd;fhka hq;a
iriq, lmkh lr jksudk fmh u; ;nkak' lvodis wdfrdaylh laIKslj bj;a j is
hk f;la fia;= w;r mr;rh l%ufhka je lrkak' iriqf,a ixLHd;h f iy fia;= w;r lfha
. l uek igyka lr .kak' ixLHd;h wjfrdayKh jk m iriq,a f;dard .kska by; i|yka
l< wdldrhg f iy l i|yd wkqrEm w.hhka yhla ,nd f.k mdGdxl 13'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
30
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
13'1 j.=j
f ( Hz )
l ( cm )
( Hz -1 )
g t j l m%ia;dr .kajkak'
m%;sM,
A
FT
Tng ,enqKq m%ia;drfha yevh wkqj lfha ixLHd;h iy lmk . w;r inkaO;dj i;Hdmkh
lrkak'
igyk
wkqkdo wjia: dj ksj er j ,nd .ekS u i|yd mla I K wxl 12 igyfkys i|yka l% u fo
wkq.ukh lrkak '
31
mK wxl
14
ixjD; k<hla yd tla iriq,la Nd; lr jd;fha jks m%f.h iy k<fha wdka;
fYdaOkh fiu
jH yd WmlrK
IalNh 2.5 cm la muK yd . 50 cm muK jQ k<hla" ixLHd;h okakd iriq,la" gr nd.fha

fldajla" Wi irdjla" c,h" wdOdrlhla
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
14'2 rEmh
14'1 rEmh
14'3 rEmh
ixjD; k<hla uQ,sl iajrfhka wkqkdo jk g ;rx.fha ;rx. wdhduh o" k<fha . l1
o" k<fha wdka; fYdaOkh e o" k
jd;fha jks m%f.h v o" uQ,sl iajrfha ixLHd;h f o" k
fo jk wkqkdo wjia:df k<fha . l2 k
^1& ka yd ^2& ka
32
l%uh
14'1 rEmfhys oelafjk m k<h irdj ;=< we;s c,fha .s,ajd wdOdrlhg inkaO lrkak' iriq,
lmkh lr k<hg by<ska w,a,d k<fha jd; l| l=vd .l isg l%ufhka je lrka m<uq jk
jrg k<fhka Wia y`vla ksl=;a jk wkqkdo wjia:dj ,nd .kak' gr fldaj Nd; lr c, ugf
isg k<fha jD; fl<jrg we;s . l1 uek .kak'
iriq, kej; lmkh lr k<hg by<ska w,a,d" k<h ;j rg;a c,fhka by<g Tijka fmr
m fo jk jrg wkqkdo jk wjia:dj ,nd .kak' wkqrEm jd; lf|a . l2 uek .kak' mdGdxl
my; 14'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
14'1 j.=j
l1 (cm)
l2 (cm)
A
FT
iriqf,a ixLHd;h f (Hz)
isoaOdka;hg wkqj jd;fha jks m%f.h v iy k<fha wdka; fYdaOkh e .Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
idlPdj
Tf .Kkh ls wkqj jd;fha jks m%f.h;a" k<fha wdka; fYdaOkhla ks.ukh lrkak'
o;a; fmd;la weiqka wod< WIaK;ajfha jd;fha jks m%f.h ,nd f.k tu w.fha;"a mlaIKfhka
,enqKq w.fha;a" wm.ukh .ek fya;= idlPd lrkak'
33
mK wxl
15
ixjD; k<hla yd iriq,a lg,hla Nd; lr jd;fha jks m%f.h iy k<fha wdka;
fYdaOkh fiu'
jH yd WmlrK
IalNh 2.5 cm la muK yd . 50 cm muK jQ k<hla" ixLHd;h okakd iriq,a lg,hla" gr
nd.fha fldajla" Wi irdjla" c,h" wdOdrlhla

A
FT
isoaOdka;h
15'2 rEmh
15'3 rEmh
15'1 rEmh
ixjD; k<hla uQ,sl iajrfhka wkqkdo jk g ;rx.fha wdhduh o" k<fha . l o" k<fha
wdka; fYdaOkh e o" k
jd;fha jks m%f.h v o" uQ,sl iajrfha ixLHd;h f o" k
g t j l m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh
v = wkql%uKh 4
e = |wka;#LKavh|
34
l%uh
15'1 remfhys oelafjk m k<h tys c, ugug by<ska we;s . wju jk fia irdj ;=< we;s
c,fha .s,ajd wdOdrlhg inkaO lrkak' iriq,a lg,fha je u ixLHd;h we;s iriq, lmkh
lr k<hg by<ska w,a,d k<fha jd; lf|a . l%ufhka je lrka m<uq jk jrg k<fhka Wia
yvla ksl=;a jk wkqkdo wjia:dj ,nd .kak' c, mDIaGfha isg k<fha by< fl<jr olajd . l
uek .kak' iriqf,a ixLHd;h f igyka lr .kak'
ixLHd;h wjfrdayKh jk m iriq,a f;dard .kska by; i|yka l< wdldrhg uQ,sl iajrfhka
wkqkdo wjia:djka i|yd wkqrEm k<fha . l o" iriqf,a ixLHd;h f o ;j;a wjia:d my; ,nd
f.k mdGdxl my; oelafjk 15'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
15'1 j.=j
A
FT
f ( Hz )
l ( cm )
( Hz-1)
ks.ukh
g t j l m%ia;dr .kajkak'
m%ia;drfha wka;#LKavh ,nd .kak'
isoaOdka;hg wkqj jd;fha jks m%f.h iy k<fha wdka; fYdaOkh .Kkh lrkak'
Tf .Kkh ls wkqj jd;fha jks m%f.h;a" k<fha wdka; fYdaOkh;a fldmuK f oehs
ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
mlaIK wxl 14 ys m idlPdj is lrkak'
35
mK wxl
p, wkalaIh yd re l=hla Nd; lr rej, j;k wxlh fiu
16
jH yd WmlrK
p, wKalaIhla" iDcqfldaKdi%dldr re l=hla" iq lvodishla

A
FT
isoaOdka;h
16'1 rEmh
16'2 rEmh
16'3 rEmh
re l=fha by< mDIaGfha isg lvodisfha we;s 'X' i,l=Kg we;s r" i;H .eUqr f'
re l=h ;=<ska wNs,n j i,l=K foi ne g fmfkk m%;snhg we;s r" oDYH
.eUqr f'
jd;hg idfmalaI j rej, j;k wxlh ang k"
p, wkalaIfha wkalaIh i,l=K u; kdNs .; l< g" isria mudKfha mdGdxlh x o"
i,l=fKa m%;snh u; kdNs.; l< g mdGdxlh y o" iy re l=fha by< mDIaGh
u; kdNs .; l< g mdGdxlh z o" k
i;H .eUqr = z - x. oDYH .eUqr = z - y
l%uh
p, wKalaIfha mdou u; ;enQ iq lvodishla u; ;Ska; i,l=Kla () fhdokak' 16'1 rEmhys
oelafjk m p, wkalaIh isria j by<ska wgjd th ;Sk;
a i,l=K u; kdNs.; lrkak' wkalaIfha
isria mrsudKfha mdGdxlh (x) ,nd .kak' oeka imhd we;s re l=h ;Ska; i,l=K u; ;nkak
16'2 rEmhys oelafjk m wkalaIh mudKh Tiafia Tijd th ;Ska; i,l=fKys m%;snh
u; kdNss.; lr isria mudKfha mdGdxlh (y) ,nd .kak' bkamiq ;Ska; i,l=Kg by<ska re
l=fha by< mDIaGh u; imhd we;s ishq l=vq iaj,amhla ;=kS j w;=rkak' 16'3 rEmhys oelafjk
m wkalaIh kej;;a mudKh Tiafia by<g Tijd ishq l=vq u; kdNs.; lr isria mudKfha
mdGdxlh (z) ,nd .kak' mdGdxl my; oelafjk 16'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
36
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
16'1 j.=j
x (cm)
y (cm)
z (cm)
i;H .eUqr
(z-x) (cm)
oDYH .eUqr
(z-y) (cm)
isoaOdka;hg wkqj rej, j;k wxlh .Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
Tf .Kkh ls wkqj rej, j;k wxlh ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
A
FT
mlaIKfha ksrjoH;dj je lr .ekSu i|yd .; hq;= ls%hdud. ms<sn| idlPd lrkak'
igyk
i;H .eUqr je jk m re l=fha . me;a; isria j msysgk m ilid mlaIKh lsfuka

i|yd jvd ksrjoH w.hla ,nd .; yels h' re l=fha by< mDIaGh u; fhdok l=vq fyda yqKq
i,l=K b;d ;=kS h hq;= h' t fia ke;fyd;a tys >klu ksid z mdGdxlh fodaI iys; f'
jhl j;k wxlh fiu i|yd o Tng fuu mlaIKh lrKh l< yels h'
37
mK wxl
17
ms%iauhla ;=<ska is jk lsrKhl wm.ukh mlaId lr t u`.ska ms%iaufha wju wm.uk

fldaKh fiu
jH yd WmlrK
iumdo re m%siauhla" is;a; mqjrejla" mqjre lgq" iq lvodishla" m%ldY w,afmfk;a;s y;rla"
fldajla iy fldaKudkhla
17'2 rEmh
17'1 rEmh
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
l%uh
m;k fldaKh i l=vd w.hl isg l%ufhka je lsf wm.uk fldaKh wvq wjuhla yryd
kej; je f' wju wjia:djg wkqrEm wm.uk fldaKh wju wm.uk fldaKh (Dm) f'
is;a; mqjrej u; mqjre lgq u`.ska iq lvodish i lrkak' lvodisfhys ueog wdikakj osla w;g
AB ir, fLdjla wkak' fuu ir, fLdj u; iqiq mr;rj,ska msys ,laIH y;la i,l=Kq lr
ta tl tflys AB iu`. wNs,n jk fia fLd wkak' tu wNs,n iu`. ms<sfj<ska 30o, 40o, 45o,
50o, 55o, 60o, 70o ne.ska jk fLd wkak' imhd we;s m%siaufha odrhla (PQ) 300 m;k fldaKfhka
we fLdj AB yuq jk ,laIHh ue jk fia 17'1 rEmfhys oelajk m AB fLdj u; ;nkak'
bkamiq m;k fLdj u; w,afmfk;a;s folla (P1 ,P2) tlsfklg yels ;r wE;ska isria j isgqjkak'
ms%iaufha wfkla uqyqK; (QR) ;=<ska tu w,afmk;a;s foflys m%;sn kslaIKh lr tu m%;sn
(P'1 ,P'2 ) iu`. talfh j msysgk fia ;j;a w,afmfk;a;s folla (P3 P4 ) tlsfklg wE;ska
isria j isgqjkak' m%siaufha odr lvodish u; i,l=Kq lr th lvodisfhka bj;a lrkak' P3 iy P4
w,afmfk;a;sj, mdo hd lrk fLdfjka ks.; lsrK ,nd .kak' m;k lsrK bhg;a" ks.;
lsrK miqmig;a" la lr tajd w;r wm.uk fldaKh (d) uek .kak'
wfkla m;k fldaK i|yd by; i|yka l< wdldrhg mlaIKh kej; is lr wod< wm.uk
fldaK uek mdGdxl my; oelafjk 17'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
38
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
17'1 j.=j
m;k fldaKh (i)
30o
40o
45o
50o
55o
60o
70o
wm.uk fldaKh (d)
i g t j d m%ia;dr .kajkak' isoaOdka;hg wkqj wju wm.uk fldaKh (Dm) ,nd .kak'
ks.ukh
mlaIKfha m%;sM,j,g wkqj wju wm.uk fldaKh ks.ukh lrkak'
igyk
A
FT
wju wm.ukhg wkqrEm jQ m;k fldaKh ^ im) fomfiys jQ l=vd mrdihl (im 50) m;k fldaK
lsysmhla i|yd wm.uk fldaK fidhd m%ia;drfhys we;=,;a lsfuka jvd iqug jl%hla we|Sug myiq
f' tu.ska wju wm.uk fldaKh i|yd jvd ksrjoH w.hla ,nd .; yels h'
w,afmk;a;s wE;ska isgqfuka ks.; lsrKfha Ydj jvd ksje/ j ,nd .; yels h'
wm.uk fldaKh d ys w.h jvd ksje/ j fidhd .ekSu i|yd fhdod .; hq;= ls%hdud. idlPd
lrkak'
39
mK wxl
wj fldaK l%ufhka ms%iauhla ;kd we;s jHfhys j;k wxlh fiu
18
jH yd WmlrK
iumdo re m%siauhla" is;a; mqjrejla" mqjre lgq" iq lvodishla" m%ldY w,afmfk;a;s lsysmhla"
fldajla iy fldaKudkhla
isoaOdka;h
A
FT
udOH folla fjka flfrk w;=re uqyqK; i|yd wj

fldaKh c k" tu r, udOHhg idfmalaI j .yk;r
udOHfha j;k wxlh
18'1 rEmh
l%uh
is;a; mqjrej u; mqjrelgq u.ska iq lvodish i lrkak' lvodish u; m%siauh ;nd tys odr
mekai,lska i,l=Kq lrkak' m%siaufha tla uqyqK;la (AB) iu. iamY jk fia w,afmfk;a;la (O)
isria j isgqjkak' m%siaufha BC uqyqK; ;=<ska AC uqyqK; foi n,d O w,afmfk;af;a m%;snh
kslaIKh lrkak' ms%iaufha BC uqyqKf;ys C fl<jr isg B fl<jr foig wei f.k hkak' tu
m%;snh fmkS-fkd fmkS hk iSudf th iu. tal fh j isk fia w,afmk;a;s folla (P
yd Q) tlsfklg yels ;r ka msysgk fia isria j isgqjkak'
oeka ms%iauh iy w,afmk;a;s bj;a lr lvodish u; my; mshjrj,g wkqj ksudKh lrkak'
O isg AC g ,n j fLdjla we|" OX = XI jk fia tu fLdj u; I m%;snfha msysu
i,l=Kq lrkak'
P yd Q w,afmfk;a;sj, mdo hd lrk fLdj la lr th AC fokh lrk R ,laIHh ,nd
.kak'
R iy I hd lr th AC fokh jk S ,laIHh ,nd .kak'
OS hd lrkak'
^
OS R fldaKh ukskak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
^
OSR =
^
OSR = 2c fyhska c ys w.h fidhd isoaOdka;hg wkqj ang .Kkh lrkak'
40
ks.ukh
.Kkh lsfuka Tng ,enqKq w.h wkqj ms%iauh ;kd we;s jHfhys j;k wxlh fldmuK f
oehs ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
wj fldaKh c ksje/ j fidhd .ekSu i|yd .; hq;= ls%hdud. idlPd lrkak'
igyk
m%siaufha AC uqyqK; yd iamY jk fia c, |lska f;;a l< wKaalaI lodjla ;nd fmr m
mlaIKh is lsfuka c,fha j;k fldaKh fih yels h' fuys ,efnk wj fldaKfha w.h
c, re w;=re uqyqK; i|yd wj fldaKh hs'
A
FT
ms%iaufha AB mDIaGh yd iamY j isk fia O w,afmk;a; isgqh hq;= h' t fia ke;fyd;a AB
uqyqKf;ka j;khla is jk ksid mlaIKh fodaI iys; f' O w,afmfk;af;a ysi ms%iaufha by<
mDIaGhg jvd my<ska msysgkafka k O w,afmfk;af;a ysi bj;a lsfuka w,afmfk;a; AB mDIaGh
iu`. iamY jk fia isgqh yels h'
41
19
mK wxl
jKdj,sudkh iSreudre lsu iy th Nd; lr ms%iauhl j;k fldaKh fiu

jH yd WmlrK
jKdj,sudkhla" iumdo ms%iauhla" wdf,dal m%Njhla ^,s nqnq,la fyda myka oe,a,la&
isoaOdka;h
^2&
^3&
A
FT
^1&
19'2 rEmh
19'1 rEmh
rEmh 19'1 rEmfhys oelafjk m ms%iau uqyqK;aj,ska mrdj;s; wdf,dal lsrK w;r
fldaKh k" flaIfha T1 iy T2 msysj,g wkqrEm mdGdxlj, wka;rh o g
iudk f'
l%uh
msi
% u
a fldaKh
flaIh iSreudre lsu
1' m<uq j yria l meye,s j fmfkk ;=re Wmfk; ^yria l iy Wmfk;a ldph w;r
mr;rh& iSreudre lrkak'
2' bkamiq wE; we;s jia;=jl meye,s m%;snhla yria l u; iEfok ;=re ^yria l yd imd;
jk ;=re& flaIh iSreudre lrkak'

iudka;rlh iSreudre lsu

1' iudka;rlfha la isr mgq iy isria jk fia ilia lr wdf,dal m%Njfhka wdf,dalu;a lrkak'
2' iudka;rlh yd talfh jk fia flaIh ilia lr" iudka;rlfhka ,efnk wdf,dalh
flaIh ;=<ska kslaIKh lr la isf ;shqKq m%;snhla yrial u; iEfok ;=re
iudka;rlh iSreudre lrkak'
m%siau fih ug lsu

19'1 rEmfhys oelafjk m ms%iaufha YsIh ms%iau fifha flakahg wdikak jk fia o" tys tla
uqyqK;la ÂB uqyqK;& kE u ix;,k bial=remamq follg ^Q iy R ix;,k bial=remamqj,g&
,nl jk fia ms%iauh ms%iau fih u; ;nkak' iudka;rlfhka t<efUk wdf,dalh ms%iaufha
YSIh fomi uqyqK;a u; m;s; jk fia ms%iauh iu. ms%iau fih lrljkak'
42
ms%iaufha AB uqyqKf;ka mrdj;s; wdf,dalh kslaIKh l< yels jk m flaIh T1 msysug

lrljkak' la isf m%;snh 19'2 rEmfhys ^1& yd ^2& oYk m:j, m ia f k th ^3& jk
oYk m:fha oelafjk wdldrhg iu;sl ;;a;ajhg m;a jk ;=re Q fyda R ix;,k bial=remamq
foflka tlla muKla ilia lrkak' ms%iaufha AC uqyqKf;ka mrdj;s; wdf,dalh kslaIKh l<
yels jk m flaIh T2 msysug lrljkak' la isf m%;snh 19'2 rEmfhys ^1& yd ^2& oYk
m:j, m ia f k th ^3& jk oYk m:fha oelafjk wdldrhg iu;sl ;;a;ajhg m;a jk
;=re P ix;,k bial=remamqj muKla ilia lrkak'
flaIfha msys fofla u la isf m%;snfha msysu oYk m:fha iu;sl ;;a;ajhg m;a
jk ;=re iSreudre lsu lsysm gla lrkak' fuu iSreudre lsj, ix;,k bial=remamq folla
muKla fhdod .; hq;= h'
m%siau fldaKh fiu
A
FT
m%siau fih iSreudre lsfuka miq flaIfha T1 msysf mudKfha oelafjk mdGdxlh igyka
lr .kak' flaIh T2 msysug lrljd jZkshr mudKfhka oelafjk mdGdxlh o igyka lr .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
19'1 j.=j
T1 msysf mdGdxlh
jZkshr mudKfha
mdGdxlh
T2 msysf mdGdxlh
ks.ukh
isoaOdka;hg wkqj ms%iau fldaKh A ys w.h .Kkh lrkak'
idlPdj
Tf .Kkh lsj,g wkqj ms%iau fldaKfha w.h ks.ukh lrkak'
m%;sM, id:l lr .ekSu i|yd wkq.ukh l< yels oE ms<sn| idlPd lrkak'
igyk
jvd ixf yd ksrjoH jKdj,sudk idod we;af;a wxYl Nd.fha fldgiaj,ska l%udxls; jD;a;dldr
m%Odk mudKfha IalNhl fo fl<jr msysgk m jZkshr mudK folla iys;j h' mdGdxl
,nd .ekSf jZkshr mudK foflka u mdGdxl .; hq;= h' mdGdxlj, wka;rh ,nd .ekSf
ta ta jZkshr mudKj, msys fofla wka;rh .; hq;= h' A i|yd mudK foflka u ,efnk
w.hj, udOHkHh .; hq;= h' f whqka mdGdxl .ekSf WmlrKh ksIamdokfha h fodaIhla
;snqfKa k" ^ms%iau fifha flakah iy jD;a;dldr mudKfha flakah imd; fkd fuka is
h yels fodaIh& fYdaOkh f'
h lsis wdldrhlska m%Odk mudKfha Y=kHh flaIfha T1 yd T2 msys w;r msysfha k" ms%iau
fldaKfha w.h ,nd .ekSu i|yd mdGdxlj, wka;rh 3600 ka wvq lr 2 ka fnh hq;= h'
43
mK wxl
20
jKdj,sudkh Nd; lr ms%iauhl wju wm.uk fldaKh fiu iy ms%iauh ;kd we;s
jHfha j;k wxlh fiu
jH yd WmlrK
iSreudre l< jKdj,sudkhla" iumdo ms%iauhla" fidah oe,a,la fyda fidah jdIam mykla
isoaOdka;h
m%siau fih
iudka;rlh
A
FT
m%siauh
20'2 rEmh
la isf
m%;snh
20'1 rEmh - jKdj,sudkh
20'3 rEmh
ms%iaufha wju wm.uK fldaKh Dm o" ms%iau fldaKh A o" ms%iauh ;kd we;s jHfha
j;k wxlh n o" k
n=
l%uh
iSreudre l< jKdj,sudkhl iudka;rlfha la isr fidah wdf,dalfhka wdf,dalu;a lrkak'
20'2 rEmfhys oelafjk m iudka;rlfhka ,efnk wdf,dalh ms%iaufha uqyqK;a yryd j;kh
h yels jk fia o" m;k fldaKh l=vd jk fia o" ms%iauh ms%iau fih u; ;nkak' j;k lsrK
kslaIKh l< yels jk fia flaIh T1 msysug lrljkak' m;k fldaKh i l%ufhka je jk
m ms%iau fih lrljkak' tg 20'3 rEmfhys oelafjk m la isf m%;snh oYk m:fha
tla Ydjlg .uka lr tla;rd ia:dkhl k;r wk;=rej wdmiq .uka lrk nj fmfka'
flaIfha oYk m:fha isria lh la isf m%;snh k;r jk ia:dkfha th yd imd; jk
m flaIh T2 msysug lrljkak' mudKfhka oelafjk mdGdxlh igyka lr .kak' ms%iauh
bj;a lr flaIh iudka;rlh yd talfh jk m T3 msysug lrljkak' flaIfha oYk
m:fha isria lh la isf m%;snh iu. imd; lr mudKfhka oelafjk mdGdxlh igyka
lr .kak' mdGdxl my; oelafjk 20'1 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak'
44
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
20'1 j.=j
T2 msy
s f mdGdxlh T3 msy
s f mdGdxlh
wju wm.uk fldaKh 0
jZkshr mudKfha
mdGdxlh
ms%iau fldaKh A i|yd mlaIK wxl 19 ys ,nd .;a w.h Nd; lrkak' by; isoaOdka;hg wkqj
ms%iauh ;kd we;s jHfha j;k wxlh n .Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
mlaIKfha m%;sM, wkqj ms%iaufha wju wm.uk fldaKh Dm yd ms%iauh ;kd we;s jHfha j;k
wxlh n ks.ukh lrkak'
A
FT
igyk
wju wm.uk fldaKfha w.h ksje/ j ,nd .ekSu i|yd mlaIK wxl 19 igyfkys i|yka
l%ufo wkq.ukh lrkak'
45
mK wxl
21.1
W;a;, ldphl m%;sj, msysgq imd; l%ufhka ,nd .ekSu iy t u`.ska ldpfha
kdNSh r fiu
jH yd WmlrK
wdOdrlhl kex jQ W;a;, ldphla" wdOdrl i l< m%ldY w,afmfk;a;s folla" gr fldajla
iy miq ;srhla
isoaOdka;h
1
1
v
u
1
f
A
FT
W;a;, ldphla i|yd jia;= r u o

m%;sn r v o ldpfha kdNs r f o"
k"
21'1'1 rEmh
1
,l=Kq iuq;sh ^kj ldishdkq& fhdod g t j m%ia;dr .; l< g ,efnk m%ia;drfha
u
1
wka;#LKavh f' f wkqj ldpfha kdNSh r .Kkh lr .; yels h'
f
l%uh
1
1
ys w.h o ys w.h - o f'
u
v
tg
^ u ys w.h v ys w.h - o f'
we;s W;a;, ldph wE; msys jia;=j,g fhduq fldg ;srh u; meye,s m%;snhla ,nd .kak'
ldph;a ;srh;a w;r r gr fldafjka uek ldpfha o< kdNSh r fidhd .kak' gr fldaj
wdOdrfhka fih u; yqKqj,ska fLdjla wkak' tu fLdf ueo fmfofia tu fLdjg ,n j
wdOdrlh u; kexjQ ldph ;nkak' ldpfhka tla mil tu fLdj u; l,ska fidhd .;a kdNSh rg
jvd u|la r isk fia o" w,afmfk;a;s ;=v ldpfha m%ldY wlaIh iudk Wiska isk fia o" wdOdrlh
u; kexjQ tla m%ldY w,afmfk;a;la kdNSh rg jvd je rlska jia;=j Ô& f,i ;nkak' miq
;srh jia;=jg jvd ka tu me;af;a u ;nd wfkla me;af;a ka wei ;nd jia;=f hl=re meye,s
m%;sunhla Î& fmfka oe hs kslaIKh lrkak' t fia fkd fmfka k jia;=j ;j;a ldpfhka wE;g
f.k f.dia m%;snh weig fmfkk fia ilid .kak' ^21'1'2 rEmh m x Io oDIafha wju
r h hq;= h'& fLdj t,af,a u wei ;nd O ys hl=re m%;snh" tu fLdj t,af,a msysgd we;s oe
hs ;yjqre lr .kak' ^t fia fkd fmfka k wdOdrlh iu. ldph iq jYfhka N%uKh lsfuka
tu fLdjg ldpfha ;,h ksje/ j ,n jk fia ilia lrkak' ;j o w,afmk;af;a ;=v ldph
uOHfha fkd fmfka k ldpfha ;,h isria jk fia ilikak' oeka wfkla m%ldY w,afmfk;a;
^P& 21'1'2 rEmfhys oelafjk m wlaIh u; ;nd tys ;=v m%ldY wlaIh u; msysgk fia ilikak'
46
I
x
P
u
xD
21'1'3 rEmh
21'1'2 rEmh
I m%;snfha ;=v P ys ;=v iu. imd; jk fia P bhg fyda msgqmig fyda iSreudre lrkak'
imd; wjia:df wlaIfha fo mig wei ;sria j p,kh lrk g I yd P ys ;=vq tlsfkl imd;
j rEmh 21'1'3 g wkqj idfmalaI p,s;hlska f;dr j tlg p,kh jk fia ia f'
A
FT
oeka ldph yd jia;=j w;r r u yd ldph yd m%;snh w;r r v gr fldaj Nd;fhka uek
.kak' jia;= r iqiq f,i fjkia lrka m%;snh P iu. imd; fldg u u yd v i|yd ;j;a
mdGdxl hq., myla ,nd f.k tu mdGdxl 21'1'1 j.=f igyka lrkak' ^ ldishdkq ,l=Kq iuq;sh
wkqj ,l==K o iu`.&
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
j.=j 21'1'1
v (cm)
1
(cm-1)
u
u (cm)
1
(cm-1)
v
1
1
g t j m%ia;dr .; lrkak'
u
v
isoaOdka;hg wkqj m%ia;drfha wka;#LKavh weiqka ldpfha kdNSh r .Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
by; .Kkfhka ,o w.h kdNSh r f,i ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
ldpfha kdNs r jvd ksje/ j fidhd .ekSu i|yd Tng Nd; l< yels Wml%u yd fodaI wju lr
.ekSug .; yels ls%hdud. idlPd lrkak'
47
igyk
O jia;=j ldpfha kdNs ,laIHhg wdikak j ;enqj fyd;a we;s jk m%;snh ldphg b;d wE;ska
msysgk fyhska weig th fkd fmksh yels h' ^m%;snh fydka fmkSug th weig bfhka
Io oDIafha wju ka j;a ;sh hq;= h'& tu ksid jia;= r iqiq f,i ieleiSug j. n,d .;
hq;= h'
1
m%ia;drh weh hq;af;a u iu`. fkd j iu`. fyhska m%ia;drfha ,laIHj, fyd| iqreula i|yd
u
1
ys w.hka o< jYfhka iudk wka;rj,ska isk fia u g w.hka f;dard .; hq;= h' Wod u i|yd
u
1
1
1
1
25
= 0.04
28
= 0.0357
32
= 0.0312
40
= 0.025
u
u
u
u

50
)
)
1
= 0.02
u

65
(
(
1
= 0.0154
u
)
)
A
FT
(
(
W;a;, ldphl ;d;a;al m%;sn tajdfha jia;=j iu`. yqjudre l< yels fyhska ^m%;snoaO ,laIH&
u yd v i|yd mdGdxl hq., yqjudre fldg mdGdxl f,i Nd; l< yels h'
fuys ;d;a;al jia;= yd ;d;a;al m%;sn mlaIKh i|yd Wmfhda.S fldg f.k we;' tfy;a
wjYH k ;d;a;al jia;= - w;d;a;al m%;sn fyda w;d;a;al jia;= - ;d;a;al m%;sn i|yd
jqj o" mlaIKh is l< yels h' ^ldishdkq ,l=Kq iuq;sh wkqj ;d;a;al jia;= - w;d;a;al
m%;sn i|yd u + o v+ o jk w;r w;d;a;al jia;=-;d;a;al m%;sn i|yd u - o v - o f'&
fuu ish u wjia:d i|yd m%ia;drh weh yels w;r 1 jk" 3 jk" 4 jk jD;a; mdoj, m%ia;drh
wef|hs'
wjia:d ;=k i|yd m%i;

a drh tl u ir, fLdjl fldgia jk w;r kE u m%i;
a drhl wka;#LKavfhka
f .Kkh l< yels h'
fuu ish u wjia:d i|yd m%ia;drh

weh yels w;r 1 jk" 3 jl" 4 jk
jD;a; mdoj, m%ia;drh wef|hs'
wjia:d 3 i|yd m%ia;drh tl u ir,
fLdjl fldgia jk w;r kEu
m%ia;drhl wka;#LKavfhka f .Kkh
l< yels h'
/v
;d;al jia;=
w;d;al m%;sn
/u
w;d;al jia;=
;d;al m%;sn
;d;al jia;=
;d;al m%;sn
21'1'4 rEmh
48
kdNSh r .Kkfha l,am l%u

;d;a;al jia;= ;d;a;al m%;sn i|yd
(i)
u, v, f, ish,a,g u ,l=Kq iuq;sh fh g
1
1
v
u
1
|v|
1
= f
/v
1
1
+
|u|
|f|
1
1
g t j
m%ia;drh we g"
|u|
|v|
tys wka;#LKavh c =
/u
A
FT
1
|f|
f'
(ii) u, v, f, ish,a,g u ,l=Kq iuq;sh fh g

1 1
1
=
v u
f
tu ksid
|u| + |v| =
| |
uv
uv
f
| u v | j,ska .=K lsfuka
1
1
1
=
+
|v|
|u| |f|
|uv| = |f|(|u+v|)
(u+v)

| u + v | g t j | u v | m%ia;dr.; l< g
wkql%uKfhka | f | ,ef'

;d;a;al jia;= iy ;d;a;al m%;sn i|yd | u | + | v | 4 | f | h hq;= nj mdGdxlj,ska

i;Hdmkh lr .; yels h'
49
mK wxl
21.2
wj;, ldphl m%;snj, msysgq imd; l%ufhka ,nd .ekSu iy tu.ska ldpfha
kdNSh r fiu'
jH yd WmlrK
wdOdrlhl kexjQ wj;, ldphla" m%ldY we,afmfk;a;s folla" ;, omK ;Srejla" gr fldajla
iy miq ;srhla
isoaOdka;h
wj;, ldphla i|yd jia;= r u o m%;sn r v o ldpfha kdNSh r f o k'
1
1
1
=
v
u
f
A
FT
fmd ldp iQ;%hg wkqj"
21'2'2 rEmh
21'2'1 rEmh
,l=Kq iuq;sh ^kj ldishdkq& fhdod

m%ia;drfha wka;#LKavh
1
f
1
1
g t j
m%ia;dr .; l< g ,efnk
u
v
f'
f wkqj ldpfha kdNSh r .Kkh l< yels h'
l%uh
gr fldaj wdOdrfhka fih u; yqKqj,ska fLdjla wkak' tu fLdf ueo fmfofia tu
fLdjg ldpfha ;,h ,n j isk fia wdOdrlh u; kexjQ ldph ;nkak'
50
ldpfha tla mfil " jia;=j (O) f,i wdOdrlhl kexjQ w,afmfk;a;la" tys ;=v ldpfha m%ldY
wlaIh iu. iamY j isk fia wlaIhg by<ska 21'1'1 rEmfha oelafjk m ;nkak' miq ;srh
jia;=jg jvd ka tu me;af;a u ;nkak' oeka jia;=j we;s me;a;g reoaO me;af;a wE;ska fih
u; we fLdj Tiafia wei ;nd Wvql=re l=vd m%;snh yd jia;=j ldpfha ueo talfh jk fia
fmfka oe hs n,kak' t fia fkd f k wdOdrlh iu. ldph iq jYfhka N%uKh fldg ^ldpfha
;,hm%ldY wlaIhg ,nl jk fia& ldpfha m%ldY wlaIh u; m%;snh ,nd .kak'
oeka rEmigyfka oelafjk f,i jia;=j we;s me;a;g reoaO me;af;a ldpfha m%ldY wlaIhg my<ska
ldpfhka wOhla jefik f,i fih u; we| we;s fLdjg ,n j wdOdrlh u`.ska ^M& omK
;Srej ;nkak'
A
FT
bkamiq ldpfha m%ldY wlaIhg ;=v iamY jk f,i fih u; we fLdj u; P fo jk m%ldY
w,afmfk;a; wdOdrlhla Nd;fhka msysgqjkak rEmfha oelafjk f,i wei ;nd ldph ;=< fmfkk
I l=vd hl=re m%;snfha ;=v;a" M omKh ;=<ska fmfkk I/ m%;snfha ;=v;a imd; jk fia
omKh yd P w,afmfk;a; w;r r fjkia lrkak' jia;= r u o" ldph yd omKh w;r r y o"
omKh yd P w,afmfk;a; w;r r x o" ukskak'
u wNsu; f,i fjkia lrka y ys w.h ksh; j ;nd ;j;a wjia:d myla i|yd m%;snh yd imd;
jk r x uek m%;sM, my; oelafjk wdldrfha j.=jl igyka lr .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
j.=j 21'2'1
x (cm)
1
(cm-1)
u
u (cm)
v=x-y
(cm)
1
(cm-1)
v
1
1
g t j m%ia;dr .; lrkak'
u
v
isoaOdka;hg wkqj m%ia;drfha wka;#LKavh weiqka ldpfha kdNSh r .Kkh lrkak'
^m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh m fidhkak' m%ia;drh u; msys ;j;a ,laIHhl x, y LKavdxl ,nd .kak'
y = m x + c ilrKhg m ys w.h;a x iy y ys w.h;a wdfoaY fldg c .Kkh lrkak'
51
ks.ukh
by; .Kkfhka ,o w.h ldpfha kdNSh r f,i ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
ldpfha kdNs r jvd ksje/ j fidhd .ekSu i|yd Tng Nd; l< yels Wml%u yd fodaI wju lr
.ekSug .; yels ls%hdud. idlPd lrkak'
igyk
21.1 mlaIKfha igyk n,kak' u f;dard .ekSu i|yd tu Wmfoia ms<smeh yels h' ;d;a;al
A
FT
jia;=j, ish msys i|yd m%ldY flakah yd kdNsh w;r msys m%;sn ,efnk fyhska yels ;r
ys hk f,i u ys w.hka f;dard .kak'
52
mK wxl
la,a k<h Nd; lr jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh fiu
22
jH yd WmlrK
la,a k<h ^tla fl<jrla jid we;s rih mghlska he<s jdhq l|la isr lr we;s isyska re
nghla&" gr fldajla" l,m wdOdrlhla
22'1 rEmh
22'1 rEmh
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
22'2 rEmh
fifha isg k<fha by< fl<jrg we;s Wi
l -
jdhq lf|a .
L -
k<fha .
A -
k<fha wNHka;r yrialv j.M,h
h -
x -
rih lf|a .
rih >k;ajh
H -
jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh (Hg cm)
fndhs,a kshuhg wkqj (
h t j
p =
k
V
(H +
xh
k
)g =
L
Al
1
m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh = A x g
l
kL
H =
k
Al
( H + x sin ) g =
1
=
l
Axg
AHg
h +
kL
k
wka;#LKavh =
AHg
k
x
wka;#LKavh
L
wkql%uKh
53
l%uh
22'1 rEmfha oelafjk m k<fha ixjD; fl<jr ;sria fih u; isk fia k<h ;srig wdk;
j; m wdOdrlhlg i lrkak' fifha isg k<fha by< fl<jrg we;s Wi h iy jdhq lf|a
. l uek igyka lr .kak' wdOdrlh ilia lr wdk;sh fjkia lrka h ys w.hka yhla i|yd
wkqrEm l ys w.hka uek mdGdxl my; oelafjk j.=fjys igyka lr .kak' rih mfgys . x iy
k<fha . L uek igyka lr .kak'
22'1 j.=j
h (cm)
l (cm)
1 / l (cm-1)
riosh mfgys . x = ----- cm
k<fha . L
= ----- cm
A
FT
h g t j 1 / l m%ia;drh we| wkql%uKh .Kkh lr wka;#LKavh ,nd f.k isoaOdka;hg wkqj

H .Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
mlaIKfhka ,nd .;a m%;sM,h wkqj H ys w.h ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh jdhqmSvk udkfhka ,nd f.k Tng ,enqKq w.fha m%;sY; fodaIh .Kkh lrkak'
igyk
la,a k<h ilia lr .ekSu i|yd grhla muK . fo fl<jr jD;" wNHka;r IalNh 2 mm
muK jQ isyska re k<hla f.k 10 cm muK . rih mgla we;= lrkak' ngh ;sria j ;nd
rih mgh k<fha ueog tk m ilia lr k<fha tla fl<jrla nkaika odylhg w,a,d k<h
lrljka ixuqKh lrkak' ixjD; fl<jr gr fldajl Y=kH i,l=fKa msysgk fia k<h gr
fldaj u; ;nd rn mj,ska Bg i lrkak'
k<fha jD; fl<jr my<g isk fia ;nd h ys iDK w.hka i|yd o mdGdxl ,nd .; yels h'
mlaIKfha m%;sM, wkqj wfmalaId l< wdldrfha ir, fLdjla ,ef k" m%ia;drh weu i|yd
fhdod .;a ilrKh f.dvke`.Sug Nd; l< inkaOh ^fndhs,a kshuh& i;H nj bka ;yjqre f'
54
mK wxl
23
ksh; mSvkfha jdhqjl mudj yd WIaK;ajh w;r inkaO;dj i;Hdmkh lsu
jH yd WmlrK
rih |lska isr l< he<ss jd l|la iys; tla fl<jrla ixjD; ;=kS ;a;s iys; mgq taldldr re
k<hla" ^0-100& o C WIaK;ajudkhla" c,h iys; Wi lrhla" uka:hla" f;mdjla" l oe,la"
nkaika odylhla" l,m wdOdrlhla" rn m lSysmhla" mm j,ska l%udxls; mudKhla
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
23'1 rEmfha oelafjk k<h ;=< isr we;s jdhqf mudj V

o" tu jdhqf fl,aka WIaK;ajh T o" k"
pd,aia kshuhg wkqj" ksh; mSvkfha we;s wp, jdhq ialkaOhl
jdhq lf|a . l o" k<fha wNHka;r yrialv j.M,h A o"

k"
V = lA
23'1 rEmh
V T
lA = kT
l =
k
.T
A
T g t j l m%ia;drh uQ, ,laIHh yryd .uka

lrhs k"
23'2 rEmh
jdhqjl mudj yd WIaK;ajh w;r inkaO;dj

i;Hdmkh f'
55
k<fha ke we;s fldgfia wvx.= jdhqf mudj V o" k<fha

wNHka;r yrialv j.M,h A o k"
Al + V = kT
l =
23'3 rEmh
( )
k
A
V
A
l%uh
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
A
FT
WIaK;ajudkfha n,anh isyska k<fha jdhq lf|a ueo fldgfiys msysgk m yd k<fha ixjD;
fl<jr mudKfha Y=kH yd imd; jk m WIaK;ajudkh yd k<h mudKhg i lrkak'
23'1 rEmfha oelafjk m WmlrK wgjd WIaK;ajudkfha mdGdxlh;a jdhq lf|a .;a igyka lr
.kak'c,h fydka uka:kh lrka lrh r;a lrkak' WIaK;ajh 100 C lska muK je jQ miq
odylh bj;a lr c,h l,;d WIaK;ajudkfha mdGdxlh ksh; j ;nd f.k rih | ksYap, jQ
g kej; WIaK;ajudkfha mdGdxlh;a jdhq lf|a .;a igyka lr .kak' bkamiq kej;;a lrh
;=< we;s c,h r;a lr uka:kh lrka tys WIaK;ajh 100 C m%udKj,ska kxjka mdGdxl yhla f
wdldrhg ,nd .kak' mdGdxl 23'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
23'1 j.=j
WIaK;ajh (0C)
WIaK;ajh T (K)
jdhq lf|a . l (cm)
ks.ukh
T g t j l m%ia;dr .kajkak'
m%ia;drhg wkqj ksh; mSvkfha jdhqjl mudj yd WIaK;ajh w;r inkaO;dj ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
;=kS ;a;s iys; mgq taldldr k<hla Nd; lsf wjYH;dj idlPd lrkak' WIaK;ajudkfha
n,anh jdhq lf|a ueog yd Bg wdikak j ;ef wjYH;dj l=ula oe hs idlPd lrkak' mlaIKh
is lrk uq ld,h ;=< u jdhq l| c,h ;=< msysgk m WmlrKh wegf wjYH;dj o idlPd
lrkak'
igyk
WIaK;ajh by< hk wjia:df ;a" WIaK;ajh my< nisk wjia:df ;a" hk fo j;df u jdhq
lf|a . igyka lr .ekSu jvd fhda.H f' rih l| k<fha ;a;shg we,S mej;Sfuka is jk
fodaIh t u`.ska wju f'
mgq taldldr k<h ;=< we;s jdhq lf|a . je jk m th 23'3 rEmfha oelafjk wdldrhg kefuka
fyda k<fha fl<jrg ;=kS ;a;s iys; l=vd re n,anhla inkaO lsfuka fyda WmlrKfha
ixf;dj je jk w;r mlaIKh lsf mdGdxl w;r fyd| iqrejla ,nd .; yels h'
56
mK wxl
24
ksh; mudf jdhqjl mSvkh iy ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajh w;r inkaO;dj

i;Hdmkh lsu'
jH yd WmlrK
ksh; mud jdhq WmlrKh" ^0-110 o C& WIaK;ajudkhla" c,h iys; lrhla" nkaika odylhla"
f;mdjla" l oe,la" wdOdrlhla ^WIaK;ajudkh i lsug&" uka:hla
isoaOdka;h
24'1 rEmfhys oelafjk m n,anh ;=< isr we;s he<s jd;fha mSvkh P yd tu jdhqf
ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajh T k" mSvk kshuhg wkqj mudj ksh; g wp, jdhq ialkaOhl
P yd T w;r inkaOh"

A
FT
P T f,i fyda"
P = kT f,i fyda m%ldY l< yels h' k hkq ksh;hla f'
fuys h hkq rih ug w;r wka;rh o" H hkq jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh ^Hg cm& o" f'
24'2 rEmh
.:. P = k T
24'1 rEmh
(H+h)g = kT
T g t j h m%ia;drh 24'2 rEmfha oelafjk wdldrfha ir, fLdjla k" jdhqjl mSvkh
yd ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajh w;r inkaO;dj i;Hdmkh f'
57
l%uh
24'1 rEmfhys oelafjk m ksh; mud jdhq WmlrKfha n,anh o" WIaK;ajudkh yd uka:h o"
lrfha c,h ;=< nyd ,kak' A k<h ;=< rih ugu wp, i,l=K lrd t<efUk ;=re B k<fha
msysu ilia lrkak' WIaK;ajudkfha mdGdxlh 0 0C igyka lr .kak' A yd B ndyqj, riosh
ugj, wkqrEm mdGdxl o" igyka lr .kak'
lrfha we;s c,h r;a lr uka:kh lrka 10 0C lska muK by< .sh miq odylh bj;a lr l
f,djla uka:kh lr WIaK;ajudkfha mdGdxlh o" ^wk;=re j rih ugu o& wp, jQ miq A
k<h ;=< rih ugu kej; wp, i,l=K iamY jk fia B k<h ilikak' WIaK;ajudkfha
mdGdxlh;a" rih uguj, wkqrEm mdGdxl;a" igyka lr .kak' by; i|yka l< wdldrhg c,fha
WIaK;ajh 10 0C muK jQ m%udKj,ska je lrka wjia:d yhl wkqrEm mdGdxl ,nd f.k tajd
24'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
A
FT
24'1 j.=j
(0C)
T (K)
A k<h ;=< rih
ugf mdGdxlh
B k<h ;=< rih
ugf mdGdxlh
ks.ukh
h (Hg cm)
h (cm)
isoaOdka;fha i|yka m m%ia;drhg wkqj ksh; mudf jdhqjl mSvkh iy ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajh
w;r inkaO;dj i;Hdmkh f'
igyk
WIaK;ajudkh
mSvk wdudkh
fl ma,diala ngh
flaYsl k<h
he<s wp, jdhq ialkaOh
jg w ma,dial=j (500 cm3)
c,h
24'3 rEmh
58
by; mla I Kh fnda ka mS v k wdudkh

kue;s WmlrKh Nd;fhka o is l< yels
h' c, ;dmlfha WIaK;ajh fjkia lrka
^WIaK;ajudkfha mdGdxlh wp, j ;nd f.k
mSvkudkfha mdGdxlh wp, jQ miq mdGdxl
,nd .kak'& ;dmlfha we;s c,fha WIaK;ajh
b;du;a fyka kexh hq;= w;r c,h uka:kh
l< hq;= h' n,anh yd wdudkh inkaO lrk
k<h ;=< we;s jd;fha WIaK;ajh yd n,anh
;=< we;s jd;fha WIaK;ajh tl u w.hl fkd
mj;sk ksid Yd, mudjla we;s n,anhla yd
flaYsl k<hla fhdod .;a g" we;s h yels
fodaIh wju lr .; yels h'
mK wxl
Y%K l%ufhka >k jHhl YsIag ;dm Od;dj fiu
25
jH yd WmlrK
le,grhla" lelEre k<hla" Bh uQksiai m%udKhla" ^0 -100& o C WIaK;ajudkhla" c,
;dmlhla" f;mdjla" l oe,la" f;o`vq ;=,djla yd ^0 - 50& o C WIaK;ajudkhla" m%udKj;a ;r
c,h" uka:hla
isoaOdkah
WKqiq jHhla yd isis,a jHhla Y% l< g mirhg ;dm ydkshla is fkd jkafka k"
WKqiq jHfhka bj;a jQ ;dm m%udKh" isis,a jHh ,nd .;a ;dm m%udKhg iudk f'
A
FT
Wla; mlaIKfha ysia le,grfha yd uka:fha ialkaOh m1 o" c,h iys; le,grfha
ialkaOh m2 o" tu c,fha wdrNl WIaK;ajh 1 o" r;a l< Bh uQksiaij, WIaK;ajh
2 o" Y%Kfha Wmu WIaK;ajh 3 o" le,grh iy Y%Kfha ialkaOh m3 o" le,gr
jHfha YsIag ;dm Od;dj c1 o" c,fha YsIag ;dm Od;dj c2 o" Bh uqksiaij,
YsIag ;dm Od;dj c3 o" k by; uQ,Ouh wkqj"
Bh uqksiaij,ska bj;a jQ ;dmh } c,h ,nd.;a ;dmh le, grh ,nd.;a ;dmh
l%uh
uka:h iu. ysia le,grfha ialkaOh (m1) uek .kak' le,grh wvla muK isis,a c,fhka
mqrjd kej;;a ialkaOh (m2) uek .kak' YsIag ;dm Od;dj (S) fiug wjYH >k jHh ^Bh
uQksiai& lelEre k<h ;=<g oud" c, ;dmlh wdOdrfhka r;a lrkak' c,fha kgk ;=re r;a lr
Bh uQksiaij, WIaK;ajh (2) ksh; w.hlg m;a jQ miq th igyka lr f.k Bh uQksiai b;d
blaukska le,grh ;=< jQ c,hg oukak'
Y%Kh fydka uka:kh lr tys Wmu WIaK;ajh (3) igyka lr .kak' f i|yd ^0-50& 0C
WIaK;ajudkh Nd; lrkak' le,grh yd tys wvx.= foaj, ialkaOh (m3) uek .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh

le,grfha yd uka:fha ialkaOh
m1
= ----
le,grh" uka:h yd c,fha ialkaOh
m2
=
c,fha wdrNl WIaK;ajh 1
=
Bh uQksiaij, WIaK;ajh 2
=
Y%Kfha Wmu WIaK;ajh 3
=

le,grh iy tys wvx.= foaj, ialkaOh m3
= -----
---------
---------
by; isoO
a dka;hg wkqj" Bh uQki
s i
a j, YsIg
a ;dm Od;dj .Kkh lrkak' .Kkfha le,gr
f,dayfha iy c,fha YsIag ;dm Od;d i|yd iu; w.hka Nd; lrkak'
59
ks.ukh
.Kkfhka ,enqK w.h Bh uQksiaij, YsIag ;dm Od;dj f,i ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
Bhj, YsIag ;dm Od;dj" iu; o;a; fmd;lska ,nd f.k Tng ,enqKq w.h Nd; lr m%;sY;
fodaIh .Kkh lrkak'
;dm ydksh ksid we;s h yels fodaI iy tajdg ms<sh fhh yels wdldr idlPd lrkak'

igyk
le,grh" ndysr wdjrKh iu`. Bh uQksiai r;a lrk ia:dkh fj; /f.k hkak' t fia
ke;fyd;a c, ;dmlh;a" le,grh;a w;r ;dm mjdrl ndOlhla ;nkak'
A
FT
Bh uQksiai le,grhg udre lrk wjia:df c,h bj;g is fkd hk m is l< hq;=
w;r" WIaK;ajudk mdGdxlh b;d ie,ls,af,ka kslaIKh l< hq;= h' Bh fyd| ikakdhlhla
neka Y%Kh iq ld,hla ;=< Wmu WIaK;ajhg <`.d f'
fuu l%ufhka jhl YsIag ;dm Od;dj fif " by; mlaIKh u wkq.ukh lrka c,h
fjkqjg YsIag ;dm Od;dj fih hq;= jh;a" YsIag ;dm Od;dj okakd jHhl=;a fhdod
.ekSfuka jfha YsIag ;dm Od;dj ksKh l< yels h'
le,grhg fhdod .;a c, m%udKhg r;a l< uqksiai tl;= l< g " Y%Kfha WIaK;ajh
100C lska muK by< hk m Bh uQksiai m%udKh;a mQj mlaIKhlska f;dard .; hq;= h'
r;a l< Bh uQksiai oeug fmr c,fha iy le,grfha wdrNl WIaK;ajh" ldur
WIaK;ajfhka 5 oC la muK my< WIaK;ajhlg wvq lr tu w.h igyka lr f.k" Bh uQksiai
fy<Su l< hq;= h' fuys Y%Kfha wjidk WIaK;ajh ldur WIaK;ajfhka 5 oC la muK by<
hk neka mlaIKh uq,a Nd.fha mirfhka ,enQ ;dmh" mlaIKfha wjidk Nd.fha
mirhg ydks jQ ;dmhg iudk fuka ydks mQKhla is jk neka ;dm ydksh ksid is jk
fodaIh wju f'
fuys c,fha wdrNl WIaK;ajh ;=Idr wxlhg jvd uola by<ska mj;sk m is lsug j.
n,d .; hq;= h'
60
mK wxl
isis,k l%ufhka jhl YsIag ;dm Od;dj fiu
26
jH yd WmlrK
mshk yd uka:h iys; ndysr mDIaGh Tm ouk ,o le,grhla" -10-110 oC WIaK;ajudkhla" ,s
mxldjla" rdu Trf,daiqjla" f;o`vq ;=,djla" m%udKj;a ;r c,h yd jh
isoaOdka;h
26'1 rEmh
A
FT
wkjr; jdhq m%jdyhl isis,a jk r;a jQ jia;= foll mDIaGj, iajNdjh" lafIa;%M,h
yd jia;= yd jgmsgdj w;r w;sla; WIaK;aj ijiu f k" tajdfha ;dm ydks f
udOHkH YS>%;d iudk f'
jh
c,h
26'2 rEmh
tl u le,grhla Nd; fldg iudk mudfjka hq;a j folla by; ;;a;aj hgf;a
isis,a ug bv y, g" uka:h iys; ysia le,grfha ialkaOh m1 o" c,h iys;
le,grfha ialkaOh m2 o" jh iys; le,grfha ialkaOh m3 o" 1 WIaK;ajfha
isg 3 WIaK;ajhg isis,a ug le,grh ;=< c,h we;s wjia:df .; jk ld,h tw
o" jh we;s wjia:df .; jk ld,h tl o" le,grh idod we;s jHfha YsIag ;dm
Od;dj c o" c,fha YsIag ;dm Od;dj cw o" jfha YsIag ;dm Od;dj cl o" k"
[ m1 c + ( m2 - m1 ) cw ] (1 - 2 )
tw
[ m1 c + ( m3 - m1 ) cl ] (1 - 2 )
tl
fuu.ska Cl .Kkh l< yels h'
l%uh
uka:h iys; le,grfha ialkaOh (m1) uek .kak' 70 0C g muK r;a l< c,fhka le,grh
;=fkka folla muK f;la mqrjd mshk jid 26'1 rEmfha oelafjk m wdOdrlhlska t,ajkak' wi,ska
;enQ ,s mxldjla u.ska imhk wkjr; jd; Odrdjlaa ;=< le,grh isis,a ug i,iajkak' c,h
ksr;=re j l,;ka rdu >ldjla Nd; lr WIaK;ajh 40 0C muK jk f;la ks;a;= Nd.hlg
jrla WIaK;ajh igyka lr .kak' wjidkfha c,h iys; le,grfha ialkaOh (m2) uek .kak'
le,Sgrfha c,h bj;a lr fydka msi oud" h<d ta fjkqjg r;a l< jfha iudk mudjla ta
;=<g oud jh i|yd o fmr fia u mdGdxl ,nd .kak' jh iu. le,grfha ialkaOh (m3) ,nd
.kak' mdGdxl 26'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
61
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
26'1 j.=j
ld,h ^ks;a;=&
0.5
1.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
c,fha WIaK;ajh (0C)

jfha WIaK;ajh (0C)
=

-----
c,h iys; le,grfha ialkaOh m2

-----
jh iys; le,grfha ialkaOh m3
1 0C isg 2 0C olajd mrdih ;=< c,h isis,a ug .; jQ ld,h tw
1 0C isg 2 0C olajd mrdih ;=< jh isis,a ug .; jQ ld,h tl
A
FT
uka:h iys; ysia le,grfha ialkaOh m1

-----
= ----= -----
tl u LKavdxl wlaI u; c,h yd jh i|yd ld,hg t j WIaK;aj jl%h iqug j wkak'

WIaK;aj-ld, jl% u`.ska tl u WIaK;aj wka;rh ;=< isis,a ug jhg;a" c,hg;a fjk fjk u
.; jk ld, ,nd .kak' cw iy c i|yd iu; w.hka Nd; lr isoaOdka;hg wkqj jfha YsIag
;dm Od;dj (cl)
.Kkh lrkak'

ks.ukh
idlPdj
.Kkfhka ,enQ w.h jfha YsIag ;dm Od;dj f,i ks.ukh lrkak'
igyk
mlaIKfhka Tn ,nd .;a w.h jfha YsIag ;dm Od;df iu; w.h iu. ii|kaak' mlaIKfha
fodaI wj u lr .ekSu i|yd Tn f.a woyia yd fhdackd bm;a lrkak'

w;sla; WIaK;ajh 20 0C - 30 0C olajd l=vd w.hka i|yd o fuu mlaIKh is l< yels w;r t
g wkjr; jdhq m%jdyhla wjYH fkd f' tfy;a mlaIKh lrk ld, iSudj ;=< le,grh
wjg ksi, jd; mirhla mj;ajd .; hq;= f' .Kkh lsf WIaK;aj mrdihla ;=< le,grh
26'3
62
fuys k WIaK;ajfha ld, wlaIhg ;sria fLdjla we;' c,h yd jh i|yd fLdj lefmk
ia:dkj,g iamYl ksudKh l< hq;= h' ômKhla Nd; fldg& tu iamYlj, wkql%uK l
yd w k"
( )
( )

( )
( )
( )
.:. ( m2 - m1 ) cw
.:. ( m2 - m1 ) cw tan w = ( m3 - m1 ) cl tan l
d
dt
d
dt
dQ
dt
dQ
dt
dQ
dt
dQ
dt
=
=
=
=

( )
( )
tan l
tan w
c
dQ
ksid"
dt
( )
( )
( m2 - m1 ) cw
d
dk
( m3 - m1 ) cl
d
dt
dQ
dt
d
dt
A
FT
= ( m3 - m1 ) cl
( )
d
dt
fuhska cl .Kkh l< yel'
63
mK wxl
Y%K l%ufhka whsiaj, ,hkfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh fiu'
27
jH yd WmlrK
le,grhla" uka:hla" WIaK;ajudkhla" c,h" m%udKj;a ;r whsia" fmryka lvodis" iso`vq
;=,djla" ridhksl ;=,djla iy m fmh
isoaOdka;h
A
FT
YsIag ;dm Od;dj c1 jQ f,dayhlska ;kd we;s" ialkaOh m1 jQ le,grhla ;=< ûka:h
iys;& 1 wdrNl WIaK;ajhl we;s c,h iys; le,grfha ialkaOh m2 o" fuu c,h
;=<g whsia oud uqiq l< g Y%Kfha wju WIaK;ajh 2 o" le,grh iys; Y%Kh
iaklaOh m3 o" c,fha YsIag ;dm Od;dj cw o" whsiaj, ,hkfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh
L o" k"
t g" fuu uqiq lsf mirhg ;dm ydkshla is fkd jQfha he hs ie,elSfuka"

whsia ,nd.;a ;dmh } le,grh ûka:h iu.& iy c,fhka bj;a jQ ;dmh
l%uh
uka:h iys; le,grfha ialkaOh (m1) uek .kak' (m1) th ;=fkka folla muK c,fhka mqrjd
ialkaOh (m2) uek.kak' tu c,fha WIaK;ajh (1) uek .kak' fmryka lvodishl f;; ud;a;=
l< l=vd whsia len,s jrlg tl ne.ska le,grh ;=< we;s c,hg ouka uka:kh lrkak' tla
lene,a,la uqukska u h jQ miq B<`. lene,a, oukak' whsia lene,s c,fha md u je<elaug
fldgq oe,a uka:hla Nd; lrkak'
WIaK;ajh ie,lsh hq;= m%udKhlska (5 0C lska muK& my;a jQ g whsia leg oeu k;r fldg" Y%Kh
fydka uka:kh lr c,fha wju WIaK;ajh (2) igyka lr .kak wvx.= foa iys; le,grfha
ialkaOh (m3) kej; lsrd .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh

64

= ----c,h iys; le,grfha ialkaOh
m2
= ----c,fha wdrNl WIaK;ajh 1
=
Y%Kfha wjidk WIaK;ajh 2
=
le,grh yd wvx.= foaj, ialkaOh
m3
=
le,rsgrh ;=< jQ c,fha ialkaOh
^m2 - m1)
=
j jQ whsiaj, ialkaOh (m3 - m2)
=
---------------------
isoaOdka;fhys oelafjk m%ldYkfhys m1 , 1 , 2 , m2 , m3 , cl iy cw i|yd wdfoaY fldg L .Kkh

lrkak'
igyk
whsia leg uqiq lsug fmr ;=Idr wxlh o< jYfhka fidhd .ekSu iqiq h' t g" wjika WIaK;ajh
;=Idr wxlh blaujd wvq le,grh u; ;=Idr ;ekam;a fuka we;s h yels fodaIh j<lajd
.; yels fjhs'
le,grfha c,hg whsia leg oud uqiq lsu;a iu`. tys WIaK;ajh ldur WIaK;ajhg jvd wvq
f mirfhka ;dmh ,nd .kS' le,grh ;dm mjdrl jHj,ska wjqrd ;efuka" t u`.ska
is jk fodaIh wju lr .; yels fjhs'
A
FT
fkd tfia k Y%K l%uj, Nd; jk ydksmQrK l%uh Nd; l< yels h' le,grh ldur
WIaK;ajfhka 5 0C la muK by<g kxjd tu WIaK;ajh tys uq,a WIaK;ajh 1 f,i i,ld" wjika
WIaK;ajh ldur WIaK;ajhg jvd 5 0C lska my;a jk f;la whsia leg uqiq lrkak' tg" ldur
WIaK;ajhg by<ska jQ 5 0C mirhg ydks jk ;dmh" tu WIaK;ajhg my<ska jQ 5 0C mirfhka
,nd .kakd ;dmh iu`. ydks mQrKh fuka" mirfhka ;dmh ,ef fodaIh wju f'
65
mK wxl
Y%K l%ufhka c,fha jdIamSlrKfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh fiu'
28
jH yd WmlrK
le,grhla" uka:hla" WIaK;ajudkhla" yqud, cklhla" yqud, ynlhla" iso`vq$ridhksl ;=,djla"
mjdrl ;yvqjla" ^f*da$ weianeiafgdaia& nkaika odhlhla" f;mdjla" l oe,la" ^0-50& 0C
WIaK;judkhla
isoaOdka;h
A
FT
YsIag ;dm Od;dj c1 jQ f,dayhlska ;kd we;s ialkaOh m1 jQ le,grhl ûka:h

iys;& 1 wdrNl WIaK;ajhl we;s c,h iys; le,grfha ialkaOh m2 o" he<s
yqud,h hejQ miq Y%Kfha Wmu WIaK;ajh 2 o" le,grh iys; Y%Kfha ialkaOh
m3 o" c,fha YsIag ;dm O;dj cw o" c,fha jdIamslrKh YsIag .=ma; ;dmh L o" k"
^;dm ydkshla is fkd jkafka he hs i,ld&"
yqud,fhka msg l< ;dmh = le,grh ûka:h iu.& iy c,h ,nd .;a ;dmh
yqud, ynlh
WIaK;ajudkh
yqud, cklh
uka:h
le, grh
;dm mjdrl ;yvqj
28'1 rEmh
l%uh
uka:h iu. le,grfha ialkaOh (m1) uek .kak' le,grfhys mudfjka ;=fkka folla muK
c,fhka mqrjd kej; ialkaOh (m2) uek .kak' fuu c,fha WIaK;ajh 1 igyka lr .kak' yqud,
cklfhka yqud, ynlh yryd tys yqud,h wLKav j ksl=;a jk g 28'1 rEmfha oelafjk wdldrhg
;nd yqud,h c, mDIaGfha .eug i,iajkak' Y%Kh fydka uka:kh lrka tys WIaK;ajh 10 0 C
muK by< .sh miq yqud,h heu kj;d,kak' Y%Kh uka:kh lr th <`.d jk Wmu WIaK;ajh
(2) uek .kak' Y%Kh iys; le,grfha ialkaOh (m3) uek .kak'
66
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
=
----
uka:h iys; le,grh iy c,fha ialkaOh
m2
=
----
uka:h iys; le,grh" c,h yd >kSNjkh jQ yqud,fha ialkaOh
m3
= ----
c,fha wdrNl WIaK;ajh
1
=
-----
Y%Kfha Wmu WIaK;ajh 2
=
-----
isoaOdka;hg wkqj c,fha jdIamSlrKfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmhg (L) ,efnk w.h .Kkh lrkak'
m%;sM,
A
FT
by; .Kkhg wkqj c,fha jdIamSlrKfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh ksKh lrkak'
idlPdj
c,fha jdIamSlrKfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh i|yd Tng ,enqKq w.h o;a; fmd;lska ,nd .;a iu;
w.h yd ii|kak' tys m%;sY; fodaIh .Kkh lrkak' yqud, ynlh yd mjdrl ;yvqjla Nd;
lsf wjYH;dj o idlPd lrkak' yqud, ynlh ;=< . jD; k<hla nyd ;sug;a yqud, ynlfha
k<h le,grfha we;s c,h ;=< fkd .s,aug;a fya;= idlPd lrkak'
igyk
;dm ydksh ksid we;s jk fodaIh wju lr .ekSu i|yd Tm ouk ,o le,grhla ;dm mjdrl
jHhlska jg lr ndysr Ndckhla ;=< ;eu tla;rd ms<shula f' fuys ;dm ydksh wju lsug
W;aidy flf' kuq;a ydksmQrK l%uh jvd ksje/ l%uhls' fuys ksh; mir ;;a;aj hgf;a
mlaIK is l< hq;= w;r ;dm ydksh je<elaf Wml%u Nd; l< hq;= fkd f'
c,fha wdrNl WIaK;ajh" ldur WIaK;ajhg jvd wxYl lsysmhlska ^5 0C lska muK& isis,a fldg
yqud,h Y% lsu werh yels h' Y%Kfha wjika WIaK;ajh ldur WIaK;ajhg jvd 5 0C lska muK
je jk fia yqud,h Y% lsu md,kh l< g mlaIKfha uq,a Nd.fha mirfhka we;s jk ;dm
,dNh mlaIKfha wjidk Nd.fha mirhg is jk ;dm ydksfhka mQrKh f' c,fha wdrNl
WIaK;ajh ;=Idr wxlhg jvd u|la by<ska meje;sh hq;= h'
fuu mlaIKfha l=vd yqud, m%udKhla tl= jk neka ialkaOh uekSf ksrjoH;dj ms<sn| j
fYaIfhka ie<ls,s h hq;= f'
^ fndfyda g fuu ydksmQrK l%uh ;dm ydksh wju lrk l%uhla f,i idjoH f,i ykajkq ,ef'
fuys ;dm ydksh is ug bv fok w;r mlaIKh ;=< jk ydksh mQrKh lsu is f' f
ksid ;dm ydksh ksid is jk fodaIh wju f' &
67
mK wxl
Tm oeuQ le,grhla weiqka jd;fha idfmalaI wd;dj fiu
29
jH yd WmlrK
msg; mDIaG Tm oeuQ le,gr folla" l=vd whsia len,s ^m%udKj;a ;r&" uka:hla" 0-50 oC
WIaK;ajudk folla " re ;yvqjla iy wdOdrl folla'
isoaOdka;h
;=Idr wxlfha ix;Dma; c, jdIam mSvkh ^p0& x 100 ]
T2
T1
ldur WIaK;ajfha ix;Dma; c, jdIam mSvkh ^p&
A
FT
idfmalaI wd;dj =
l%uh
29'1 rEmh
le,grj, msg; mDIaG fyd|ska msi oud tla le,grhlg wvla muK c,h oukak' 29'1 rEmfhys
olajd w;s whqre wdOdrl u`.ska T1, T2 WIaK;ajudk ilia lrkak' Tf m%Yajdi jd;h le,grh
foig hdu je<elaug re ;yvqjla wdOdrl u`.ska le,gr bfhka i lr .kak' jrlg tl
ne.ska l=vd whsia len,s tlla h jQ miq wfkl le,grh ;=<g ouka c,h uka:kh lrkak'
c,h we;s le,grfha msg; mDIaGfha ;=Idr ;ekam;a u ksid tys Tmh hka;ka ke;s jk wjia:dj"
wfkla le,grfha mDIaGfha Tmh iu`. ixikaokd;aul j kslaIKh lrkak' tfia ;=Idr yg
.ekSu wdrNl jk wjia:df c,h iys; le,grfha we;s T1 WIaKa;judkfha mdGdxlh 1 uek
.kak' oeka whsia tl;= lsu k;r fldg ;j rg;a c,h uka:kh lrka WIaK;ajh je ug
bv ykak' le,gr mDIaGfha Tmh kej; u;= fjka ;=Idr w;=reoyka jk wjia:dj kslaIKh
lr tu wjia:df T1 WIaK;ajudkfha mdGdxlh 2 uek .kak' oeka T2 WIaK;ajudkh u`.ska ldur
WIaK;ajh R uek .kak' Tf mdGdxl my; whqre j.=jl igyka lr .kak'
68
mdGdxl yd .Kkh

;=Idr ;ekam;a jk WIaK;ajh
1
= ----
;=Idr w;=reoyka jk WIaK;ajh 2
= ---- ldur WIaK;ajh R
= ----by; T1 WIaK;ajudkfha mdGdxlj, uOHkH w.h
1 + 2
2
.Kkh lr ;=Idr wxlh f,i
i,lkak'
ix;Dma; c, jdIam mSvk j.=jla Nd;d lr ;=Idr wxlfha ix;Dma; c, jdIam mSvkh p0 o" ldur
WIaK;ajfha ix;Dma; c, jdIam mSvkh p o" fidhd .kak' isoaOdka;hg wkqj idfmalaI wd;dj
.Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
A
FT
by; .Kkh lsfuka ,nd .;a w.h idfmalaI wd;dj f,i ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
mlaIKh i|yd l=vd whsia lene,s fhdod .ekSf wjYH;dj idlPd lrkak' Yd, whsia lene,s
Nd; l< fyd;a 1 yd 2 WIaK;aj uekSf Tng uqyqK mEug is jk Ialr;d idlPd lrkak'
igyk
re ;yvqj f;dard .ekSf m%Yajdi jd;h le,gr mDIaGfha .eu je<elaug m%udKj;a jk
f,i;a" uka:kh lsu wjysr fkd jk f,i;a" tys . yd m<, f;dard .ekSug ie,els,su;a jkak'
69
mK wxl
iZ,a l%uh u`.ska f,dayhl ;dm ikakdhl;dj fiu
30
jH yd WmlrK
;dm ikakdhl;dj fiu i|yd jQ iZ,a WmlrKhla" (-10-110) 0C rih WIaK;ajudk y;rla"
yqud, cklhla" ksh; mSvk WmlrKhla " jZkshr le,smrhla" rdu Trf,daiqjla" 1000 ml lrhla"
f;o`vq ;=,djla'
isoaOdka;h
T3 T4
T2
3 4
A
FT
T1
yqud, cklfhka yqud,h
c, lrdufhka
fiug
30'1 rEmh
30'1 rEmfha we;s m WmlrKfha oKaf uOHkH IalNh d o" oKaf WIaK;ajh
uksk ia:dk w;r r l o" ;dmuh wkjr; wjia:df T1 , T2 , T3 yd T4 WIaK;ajudkj,
mdGdxl ms<sfj<ska 1, 2, 3 yd 4 o" uek .kakd ,o t ld,hl lrhg tl;= jQ
c,fha iaklaOh mw o" c,fha YsIaG ;dm Od;dj cw o" oKav idod we;s jHfha ;dm
ikakdhl;dj k o" k"
dQ
d
= kA.
dl
dt
mw cw ( 3 - 4 )
= k
t
( )
d
2
( 1 - 2 )
l
l%uh
m<uq j WmlrKfha ,S fmh jD; lr ikakdhl oKaf uOHkH IalNh i|yd tlsfklg
,n Yd folla Tiafia d1 , d2 kq jZkshr le,smrh Nd;fhka ,nd .kak' T1 yd T2 WIaK;ajudk
fhdok k< w;r we;=<;ska (l1& yd msg;ska (l2 & r jZkshr le,smrfha ndysr yd wNHka;r ykq Nd;
fldg ,nd .kak' ;dm mjrKh we;s jk fia fmh jikak'
70
WIaK;ajudk iu`. fyd| ;dm iamYhla we;s jk fia T1 yd T2 WIaK;ajudk fhdok k<j,g
rih iaj,amhla ne.ska oud WIaK;ajudk y;r u 30'1 rEmfha oelafjk f,i i lrkak' yqud,
cklfhka ,efnk yqud,fhka ieu g u jdIam l=rh ms meje;Su ;yjqre lsu i|yd jdIam l=rfha
by< fl<jr we;s k<hg yqud, cklh inkaO lrkak' oKafvka fydka ;dmh wjfYdaIKh
lr .ekSu i|yd oKaf ;dmh m%jdyjk Ydjg reoaO j c,h ixirKh lrug ksh; mSvk
ysfika mefKk c, m%jdy k<h T4 WIaK;ajudk l=rhg inkaO lrkak' ksh; mSvk ysig
c,h ,eug i,iajkak' WIaK;ajudk y;f WIaK;ajh ks;a;= mfyka myg i,l=Kq lr .kak'
WIaK;ajudk y;f u WIaK;aj ksh; jQ miq ^;dmuh wkjr; wjia:dj& WIaK;ajudkj, mdGdxl
w;r fjki uekSug m%udKj;a ;r f k msgdr k<h hka l,ska ialkaOh (m0) lsrd .kakd ,o
lrh ;nd" c,h 500 ml muK tl;= ug .; jk ld,h t rdu >ldfjka uek .kak' mdGdxl
my; oelafjk j.=j, igyka lrkak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
30'1 j.=j
;U oKaf IalNh
d2 (cm)
uOHkH w.h d (cm)
A
FT
d1 (cm)
30'2 j.=j
l1 (cm)
l2 (cm)
uOHkH r l (cm)
ysia lrfha ialkaOh m0
T1, T2 WIaK;ajudk fhdok

k< w;r r
----- kg
30'3 j.=j
1 (0C)
2 (0C)
3 (0C)
4 (0C)
ks;a;= 5 lg miq
ks;a;= 10 lg miq
ks;a;= 15 lg miq
wkjr; wjia:df oS
wjYH k WIaK;ajudk mdGdxl wkjr; wjia:djg tk ;=re ld,h .= l< yels h'

c,h iys; lrfha ialkaOh

(m1)
= ----c,fha ialkaOh
^m1 - m0)
= mw
c,h tl;= ug .; jQ ld,h
t
= -----
c,fha YsIag ;dm Od;dj 4200 J K-1 kg-1 hehs i,ld by; o;a; weiqka isoaOdka;fha olajd we;s
m k .Kkh lrkak'
71
m%;sM,
.Kkfhka ,enQ w.h oKav ;kd we;s f,dayfha ;dm ikakdhl;dj f,i igyka lrkak'
idlPdj
we;s f,dayfha ^;U& ;dm ikakdhl;dj fN!;sl o;a; fmd;la weiqka ,nd f.k Tn ,o m%;sM,h
yd ii|kak' ms<s;=frys m%;sY; fodaIh olajd jvd;a ksje/ j mlaIKh lsug Tn f.a fhdackd
iy woyia olajkak'
igyk
A
FT
yqud, cklfhka jdIam l=rhg yqud, we;= jk me;a;;a" wkjr; c, m%jdyh ;U k<hg we;= l<
hq;= me;a;;a f;dard f.k we;af;a wehs oehs i<ld n,kak ^tfia f;dard.ekSu wksjdh f&' iuyr
Wmlrkj, jdIam l=rfha my< lg Yd,jg;a Wv lg l=vdjg;a idod we;' tneka WmlrKj,
yqud,h hg k<fhka th yel' we;= jk yqud,h tg l=rh msfrk fia ilia f'
yqud,h
72
mK wxl
h<s fldaIhl wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh iy oHq;a.dul n,h fiu'
31
jH yd WmlrK
he<s fldaIhla" ,swegrhla" ixLHdxl fjda,agrhla ^digital&" Odrd kshdulhla ^ 0 - 100 &"
glk h;=rla" inkaOk l" 10 m%;sfrdaOlhla ^R&
31'1 rEmh
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
31'2 rEmh
fldaIfha oHq;a.dul n,h E o" wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh r o" fldaIh u`.ska mm:fha we;s
jk Odrdj I o" he<s fldaIfha w.% yryd Nj wka;rh V o k"
E = V+ Ir
V= - Ir + E
V = -r I + E
I g t j V m%ia;drfha
wkql%uKh = -r
l%uh
31'1 rEmfha olajd we;s m mm:h ilia lr Odrd kshdulh Wmu m%;sfrdaO w.fha ;nd K h;=r
jD; j we;s g ,swegrfha mdGdxlh;a" fjda,agrfha mdGdxlh;a" 31'1 j.=f igyka lrkak'
bkamiq K h;=r jid Odrd kshdulfha m%;sfrdaOh wvq lrka I Odrdf w.h 0'025 A (25 mA) ne.ska
fjkia lrka I ys w.hka 6 la i|yd wkqrEm ,swegr mdGdxlh;a 31'1 j.=fjys igyka lrkak'
73
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
31'1 j.=j
l (mA)
V (V)
I g t j V m%i;
a dr .; lrkak' m%i;
a drfha wkqlu
% Kh yd wka;#LKavh .Kkh lrkak' isoO
a dka;hg
wkqj fldaIfha wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh (r) yd oHq;a.dul n,h Ê& ,nd .kak'
m%;sM,
by; m%;sM, wkqj he<s fldaIfha oHq;a.dul n,h yd wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh olajkak'
idlPdj
A
FT
mlaIKfha WmlrKj, wdrlaIdjg fhdod .;a Wml%u yd fodaI wju lr .ekSug .;a ls%hd ud.
idlPd lrkak'
igyk
mm:fha Yd, Odrdjla .e,Su iy je f,djla Odrdj .e,Su hk lreKq

fol u ksid he<s
fldaIh O%ejKh u yd iq f,djlska he<s fldaIh ickh u is f' Wmu Odrj iSud lsu
i|yd 10 m%;sfrdaOh fhdod .efka' mm:fha fhdok h;=r i|yd glk h;=rla fhdod .ekSfuka
iq f,djla muKla Odrdj .e,Sug ie,eiah yel' ukd oHq;a iamYhla mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd
glk h;=r m%udKj;a ;r ;o lsu wjYH f' ixLHdxl fjda,grhl wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh Yd,
w.hla .kakd ksid fjda,agrh yryd .,k Odrdj fkd i,ld yeh yels f' ta wkqj fldaIh
yryd Nj wka;rh b;d ksje/ j fidhd .ekSug ixLHdxl fjda,agrhla fhdod .ekSu wjYH
f'
74
mK wxl
g fia;=j Nd; lrka m%;sfrdaO folla ieieu'
32
jH yd WmlrK
gr fia;j
= " iamY h;=rla" glk (K1) h;=rla" oHq;.
a dul n,h 2V jk Bh w, ixpdhl fldaIhla
^fyda fYa%Ks.; j fh oHq;a .dul n,h 1.2 V jk Ni / Cd fldaI 2 la&" ueo x .e,ajfkdarhla"
ieieug wjYH m%;sfrdaOl folla" ^0-100& Odrd kshdulhla" 5 k m%;sfrdaOlhla" h;=rla"
inkaOk l
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
32'1 rEmh
32'1 rEmfha R1, R2 m%;sfrdaO" gr fia;=jg inkaO l< g ix;=,k . l1 k"

kaiagka fia;= uQ,Ouhg wkqj"
R1
l1
=
R2
( 100 - l1 )
l%uh
32'1 rEmfhys m mm:h wgjkak' K1 h;=r jid K2 h;=r jD; lr iamY h;=r (S) gr fia;=fjys
lfha tla fl<jrlg ;nd .e,ajfkdagrfha W;al%uKh mlaId lrkak' oeka iamY h;=r
lfha wfkla fl<jrg ;nd .e,ajfkdagrfha W;al%uKh mlaId lrkak' t g .e,ajfkdagrh
tla wjia:djl tla Ydjlg;a wfkla wjia:df wfkla Ydjg;a W;al%uKh fmkajkafka k
mm:fha ksje/ nj ;yjqre f' t fia fkd f k mm:fha wuqKd we;s ia:dkj,ska lsish
ia:dkhl fyda ia:dk lsysmhl oHq;a in|;d nqre,a ;sh yels h' mm:h kej; mlaId lr
oHq;a in|;d fydka we;s jk fia tu fldgia kej; inkaO lrkak'
75
oHq;a in|;d fydka we;a oe hs mlaId lsfuka miq K2 h;=r jD; lr S iamY h;=r gr fia;=
lfha ;ekska ;ek ;nka .e,ajfkdagr mdGdxlh Y=kH jk o< ix;=,k wjia:dj ,nd .kak'
bkamiq K2 h;=r jid m<uq j fidhd .;a o< ix;=,k ,laIHh wdikakfha lfha ;eka ;ekaj,
iamY h;=r S ;nka ksje/ ix;=,k ,laIHh fidhd wod< . l1 uek" igyka lrkak' ta wdldrhg
R1, R2 m%;sfrdaO udre lr fia;=f ix;=,k . l2 uek igyka lrkak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
31'1 j.=j
l1 (cm)
l2 (cm)
isoaOdka;hg wkqj l1 yd l2 g wkqrEm w.hka wfoaY lr my; .Kkh lrkak'
R
=
m<uqjk wjia:df 1

----R2
R2
=
fojk wjia:df

R1
----R1
=
i|yd uOHkH w.h
R2
-----
A
FT
m%;sM,h
idlPdj
by; .Kkh u`.ska ,nd .;a R1 / R2 olajkak'
igyk
mlaIKfha is h yels fodaI yd tajd j<lajd .ekSug fhdackd bm;a lrkak'
R1 yd R2 wl=re udre lr mdGdxl .ekSfuka lfha taldldr nj fkdue;s u ksid is jk

fodaIh wju f'
iamY h;=r lh f.a weo f.k hdfuka j<lskak' fu fia weo f.k hdfuka lfha
yrialfvys taldldr njg ydks is h yels h'
ix;=,k ,laIHh lfha ueog wdikak j ,efnk fia R1 yd R2 f;dard .ekSu ksid wdka; fodaI
u`.ska we;s jk n,mEu wju jk w;r . uekSf we;s jk Nd.sl fodaI o ie,elsh hq;= ;r
wvq lr .; yels f'
R1 yd R2 b;d Yd, w.hka f;dard .; fyd;a .e,ajfkdagrh yryd Odrdj b;d l=vd w.hka
.kakd ksid b;d ixf .e,ajfkdagrhla fhdod .ekSug is u m%dfhda.sl wmyiq;djls' tneka
fu.d .Kfha m%;sfrdaO ieiug fuu l%uh kqiqiq h'
b;d l=vd m%;sfrdaO ixikaokh i|yd fuu l%uh iqiq fkd f' fuys l=vd m%;sfrdaOhg idfmalaI
j inkaOl lj, m%;sfrdaOh o ie,elsh hq;= u thg fya;=j hs'
gr fia;= lfha fo fl<jr wdka; fodaI meje;Sfuka mlaIKfha m%;sM,j,g th n,mdhs'
R1 yd R2 okakd m%;sfrdaO folla fhdod .ekSfuka my; whqre wdka; fYdaOkh i|yd fhh hq;=
, w.hka fidhd .; yels h'
76
32'2 rEmh
R1
l1 +
=
R2 100 - ( l1 + )
A
FT
R1 yd R2 okakd m%;sfrdaO fol 32'2 rEmfhys m inkaO lr ix;=,k . l1 ,nd .kak'

---------------
R1 yd R2 okakd m%;sfrdaO udre lr ix;=,k . l2 uek .kak'

t g"
R1
l2 +
=
R2 100 - ( l1 + )
---------------
yd ilrK iefuka yd .Kkh lr .; yels h'
77
mK wxl
33
g fia;=j Nd;fhka f,dayhl (Cu) m%;sfrdaOfha WIaK;aj ix.=Klh fiu

jH yd WmlrK
m%;sfrdaOh 100 muK jk mjD; ;U l ^34SWG) orhla" ueo x .e,ajfkdagrhla" iamY

h;=rla" fmakq h;=re folla" oHq;a.dul n,h 2 V jk Bh w, ixpdhl fldaIhla fyda fY%AKs.;
j fh fyda oHq;a.dul n,h 1.2 V jk Ni-Cd fldaI folla (0-100) 0C oelafjk WIaK;ajudkhla"
uka:h iy c, ;dmlhla" l oe,la" f;mdjla" nkaika odylhla" gr fia;j
= la 5 k m%;f
s rdaOlhla"
m%;sfrdaO fmhla ^0-500) " Odrd kshdulhla" ^0-100 & inkaOk l
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
33'1 rEmh
33'1 rEmfha olajd we;s m fia;=j ix;=,kh jQ g m%;sfrdaO fmfha m%;sfrdaO w.h
0 0C o`.rfha m%;sfrdaOh R0 o 0C m%;sfrdaOh R o k"
R
RB
R = R0 ( 1 + )

l
( 100 - l )

^fuys iy RB hkq ms<sfj,ska m%;sfrdaOfha WIaK;ajh ix.=Klh iy m%;sfrdaO fmfha
w.h f'&
78
R = RB
l
( 100 - l )
g t j l / ( 100 - l ) m%ia;drfha"
wkql%uKh
R0
RB
wka;#LKavh
R0
RB
33'2 rEmh
l%uh
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
A
FT
33'1 rEmfha m mm:h inkaO lrkak' c,h fydka uka:kh lr WIaK;ajh

igyka lr
.kak' K2 fmakq h;=r jid K1 h;=r jD; lr o< ix;=,k mrdih fidhd .kak' K1 h;=r jid ksje/
ix;=,k ,laIHh fidhd .kak' oeka c, ;dmlh r;a lrka WIaK;ajh 10 0C m%udKj,ska je
lrka tla tla wjia:df c,fha WIaK;ajh ksh; w.hl mj;ajd .kska wkqrEm WIaK;aj yhla
i|yd l ys mdGdxl yhla muK ,nd f.k j.=j 33'1 j.=fjys igyka lr .kak'
33'1 j.=j
(0C)
l (cm)
l / ( 100 - l ) (cm)
g t j l / ( 100 - l ) m%ia;drh wkak' m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh yd wka;#LKavh .Kkh lrkak'

isoaOdka;hg wkqj m%;sfrdaOfha WIaK;aj ix.=Klh .Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
Nd; l< l o`.rh idod we;s f,dayfha (Cu) m%;sfrdaOfha WIaK;aj ix.=Klh ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
mlaIKfha is h yels fodaI yd tajd u`. yrjd .ekSug fhdod .; yels
ls%hdud. idlPd lrkak' Tn Nd; l< jHfha (Cu) ys iu; w.h
j.=jlska ,nd f.k Tn ,nd .;a w.fha m%;sY; fodaIh .ek idlPd lrkak'
igyk
l o`.rh ilia lsf 2.5 cm muK IalNhla yd . 10 cm la muK
jQ is,skavrdldr ,S lene,a,la f.k mjrKh l< 34 SWG ;U lhlska
5 m la muK f.k tu lh folg kjd 33'3 rEmfha m l fo fmdg
,Sh jgd T;d .kak'
33'3 rEmh
79
mK wxl
Njudkh Nd;fhka fldaI foll oHq;a.dul n, ixikaokh lsu'
34
jH yd WmlrK
Njudkhla" 2V Bh - w, welshqf,agrhla ^fyda fYa%Ks.; j inkaO l< 1. 2V Ni-Cd fldaI
folla&" f,la,dka fldaIhla" veksfh,a fldaIhla" ueo x .e,ajfkdagrhla" foux h;=rla fmakq
h;=re folla" 5 k muK wdrlaIl m%;sfrdaOlhla" iamY h;=rla" inkaOl l'
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
34'1 rEmh
l1
l2
E1
E2
foux h;=r E1 fldaIhg inkaO l< g ,efnk ix;=,k . l1 o" E2 fldaIhg inkaO
l< g ,efnk ix;=,k . l2 o" k"
l%uh
34'1 rEmfhys m mm:h wgjkak' K1 h;=r jid K2 h;=r jD; j ;nd foux h;=r E1 fldaIhg
inkaO lrkak' iamY h;=r Njudk lfha A fl<jrg inkaO l< g .e,ajfkdagrfha
W;al%uh tla Ydjlg;a B fl<jrg iamY l< g .e,ajfkda grfha W;al%uh wfkla Ydjg;a
fmkajhs k" mm:fha ksje/ nj ;yjqre f' t fia fkdue;s k igyfka olajd we;s fodaI
ms<sn| ie,els,su;a mm:h ksje/ lr .kak' iamY h;=r lfha ;ekska ;ek iamY lrka
.e,ajfkdagrfha W;al%uKh Y=kH jk o< ix;=,k ,laIh ,nd .kak' bkamiq K2 h;=r jid iamY
h;=r o< ix;=,k ,laIHh wdikakfha iamY lrka .e,ajfkdagrfha mdGdxlh Y=kH f,i fmkajk
ksje/ ix;=,k ,laIHh ,nd .kak' wod< ix;=,k . l1 uek mdGdxlh j.=f igyka lr .kak'
foux h;=r E2 fldaIhg inkaO lr fmr m E2 fldaIh i|yd wod< ksje/ ix;=,k . l2 uek
mdGdxlh igyka lr .kak'
80
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
l1 = ------- cm
l2 = ------- cm
E1
E2
l1
l2
l1 yd l2 g wkqrEm w.hka wfoaYfhka E1 g E2 wkqmd;h .Kkh lrkak'

m%;sM,
fldaI foflys oHq;a.dul n, w;r wkqmd;h wkqj fldaIj, oHq;a .dul n, E1 : E2 m%ldY lrkak'
idlPdj
A
FT
mlaIKfha fhdod .;a WmlrKj, wdrlaIdj ms<sn| Tn .;a mQfjdamdh yd mlaIKfha is h

yels fodaI;a" tajd wju lr .ekSug fhdod .; yels ls%hdud. yd Wml%u wdh;a" idlPd lrkak'
igyk
mm:h wegefuka miq K1 h;=r jid foux h;=r E1 fyda E2 fldaIhg inkaO l< miq iamY h;=r
Njudk lfha A fl<jrg;a" B fl<jrg;a" fjka fjka j iamY lrk g .e,ajfkdagrfha
W;al%uKh tla wjia:djl tla Ydjg;a wfkla wjia:df wksla Ydjg;a fkd fmkajhs k
mm:fha fodaI mj;S' .e,ajfkdagrfha W;al%uKh wjia:d foflys u tl u Ydjg olajhs k
(i) E1 yd E2 fldaIj, Ok w.% E0 fldaIfha Ok w.%hg inkaO fkd w.% udre ;sh
yels h'
(ii)
Njudk mm:fha h ;ekl inkaOl nqre,a ;sh yels h'
(iii)
E0 fldaIh ickh u ksid tys oHq;a .dul n,h E1 fyda E2 fldaIj,
oHq;a .dul n,hg jvd wvq ;sh yels h'
;j o iamY h;=r A yd B fl<jrj, iamY lsf .e,ajfkdagrfha lsis W;al%uhla fkd

fmkajhs k E1 yd E2 fldaI inkaO lr we;s mm:fha ika we;s oe hs fidais lr tajd
ksje/ lrkak'

fldaI foflys oHq;a.dul n, w;r wkqmd;h m%ia;dl l%uhlska jvd ksje/ j ,nd .;
yels h' f i|yd Njudk mm:hg m%;sfrdaO fmhla inkaO lr tys m%;sfrdaOfha O
w.hka i|yd wod< l1 yd l2 i|yd mdGdxl lSmhla ,nd .; yels h' t g"
l1
E
E1
= 1
l1 =
l
l2
E2
E2 2

( )
l2 g t j l1 m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh u`.ska
E1
fih yels h'
E2
O .ska hq;a l iys; Njudk mj;S' fuu . 2 m, 4 m, 6 m wd jYfhka f' gr fldaj

Nd;fhka . uekSf Njudk lfha . ms<sn| ie,els,su;a u wjYH h'
81
mK wxl
Njudkh Nd;fhka m%;sfrdaO ieie|su
35
jH yd WmlrK
Njudkhla" 2V Bh w, welshqf,agrhla ^fyda fYa%Ks.; j inkaO l< 1. 2V Ni / Cd fldaI
folla&" ixikaokh l< hq;= m%;sfrdaOl folla" fmakq h;=re ;=kla" foux h;=rla" 5 k muK
wdrlaIl m%;sfrdaOlhla" iamY h;=rla" ueo x .e,ajfkdagrhla" m%;sfrdaO fmhla ^0-1000& "
2 V ^fyda 6 V) ixpdhl fldaIhla (E2)" inkaOl l
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
35'1 rEmh
ieieh hq;= m%;sfrdaO fol R1 yd R2 o" tajd ;=<ska .,k Odrdj I o" Njudk lfha
tall .l Nj neiau k o" foux h;=r D g inkaO l< g ix;=,k . l1 o" C g
inkaO l< g ix;=,k . l2 o" k"

I ( R1 + R2 ) = k l1 ---------------
I R1 = k l2
R + R2
l
= 1
ka" 1
R1 l2
---------------
l%uh
35'1 rEmfhys m mm:h wgjkak' R m%;sfrdaO fmfha w.h by< w.hl ;nd mlaIK wxl 34
ys m mm:fha ksrjoH;dj ;yjqre lr .kak' bkamiq K2 h;=r jD; j ;nd R m%;sfrdaO fmfha
w.h iqiq w.hl ;nd f.k K1 yd K3 h;=re jid four h;=r D g inkaO lr iamY h;=r Njudk
lfha ;ekska ;ek ;nka o< ix;=,k ,laIHh fidhd .kak'
82
bkamiq K2 h;=r jid ksje/ ix;=,k ,laIHh ,nd f.k wod< ix;=,k . l1 uek .kak' bka miq
foux h;=r C g inkaO lr K2 h;=r jD; j we;s g " o< ix;=,k ,laIHh yd K2 jid ksje/
ix;=,k ,laIHh fmr m fidhd .kak' wod< ix;=,k . l2 uek .kak' mdGdxl 35'1 j.=fjys
igyka lr .kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
35'1 j.=j
l1 (cm)
l2 (cm)
l1 yd l2 wkqrEm w.hka wfoaY lr isoaOdka;hg wkqj
R1
.Kkh lrkak'
R2
ks.ukh
A
FT
by; .Kkh wkqj R1 : R2 wkqmd;h ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
mlaIKfha fhdod .;a WmlrKj, wdrlaIdj i|yd Tn .;a mQfjdamdhka yd mlaIKfha is

h yels fodaI tajd wju lr .ekSug fhdod .; yels ls%hdud. yd Wml%u wdh idlPd lrkak'
igyk
m%;sfrdaO fmfha w.h f;dard .ekSf l1 yd l2 Wmu ix;=,k .la ,efnk m iqiq w.hla
f;dard .ekSfuka wdka; fodaI iy os. uekSf fodaI u`.ska we;s jk n,mEu wju lr .; yels f'
R 1 yd R 2 m%;sfrdaO yryd Nj neiau fjk fjk u i,ld ix;=,k . uekSfuka o" R 1 yd R 2

ieieh yels h' f i|yd ;j;a foux h;=rla fhdod f.k mm:h ilia l< hq;= f' wod< mm:h
35'2 rEmfhys olajd we;'
35'2 rEmh
35'2 rEmfhys m mm:h wegefuka Njudkfha lfha A fl<jr fhh hq;= wdka; fYdaOkh
e fih yels h'
83
T1 foux h;=r C g;a" T2 foux h;=r F g;a inkaO l< g" ix;=,k . l1 k"
I ( R1 + R2 ) = k ( l1 + e )
---------------
T1 foux h;=r C fj; yd T2D E fj; fhduq l< g" ix;=,k . l2 k"
I R1 = k ( l2 + e )
---------------
T1 foux h;=r D fj; yd T2 " F fj; fhduq l< g" ix;=,k . l3 k"
I R2 = k ( l3 + e )
---------------
+ ka;
yd ka;

k ( l1 + e ) = k ( l2 + l3 + 2e )
e = l1 - l2 - l3
---------------
A
FT
I ( R1 + R2 ) = k ( l2 + l3 + 2e )
l1 , l2 , l3 uek .ekSfuka e fih yels h'

m%ia;dl l%ufhka o"
R2
jvd ksje/ j fih yels h'
R1
l1
R
= 2 + 1
l2
R1
l1 =
R2
l
= 1 - 1
R1
l2
f i|yd isoaOdka;fha oelafjk ilrKh my; whqre kej; ms<sfh< l< hq;= f'
R2
+ 1
R1
l2
l2 g t j l1 m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh
.:.
R2
R1
R2
+ 1
R1
f'
= wkql%uKh - 1
f i|yd R m%;sfrdaO fmfha O w.hka ^yhla muK& i|yd wod< l1 yd l2 w.hka ,nd f.k"
R
l2 g t j l1 m%ia;dr .; lr m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh fifuka 1 .Kkh lr .; yels h'
R2
84
mK wxl
Njudkh Nd; lr fldaIhl wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh fiu
36
WmlrK
Njudkh" 2 V welshqf,agrhla fyda fYa%Ks.;j j inkaO l< 1.2 V jQ Ni-Cd fldaI folla& he<s
fldaIhla" ^0-50& m%;sfrdaO fmhla" glk h;=rla" imY h;=rla" ueo x .e,ajfkdagrhla"
inkaOl l
isoaOdka;h
V = IR
E = I ( R + r )
V =
R
r+R
V = kl
.:.
Er
= kl
R+r
36'1 rEmh
ix;=,k . l k"
>
A
FT
wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh r o" '.d'n E o" jk fldaIhla u`.ska R ndysr m%;sfrdaOhla ;=<ska
oHq;a Odrdjla .uka lrk g fldaIfha w.% yryd Nj wka;rh V k"
1
=
l
( )
kr
E
1
k
+
R
E
1
1
tfhka m%ia;drfha
R
l
>
36'2 rEmh
l%uh
36'1 rEmfhys oelafjk m mm:h wgjkak' mlaIK wxl 34 ys m mm:fha ksrjoH;dj mlaId
lrkak' m%;sfrdaO fmfha m%;sfrdaOfha w.h R = 50 jk fia fhdokak' K1 iy K2 h;=re jid K3
jD; lr .e,ajfkdagrfha W;al%uKh Y=kH jk ;=re iamY h;=frka lh iamY lr wdikak
ix;=,k msysu ,nd .kak' K3 h;=r jid Nj wka;rh V g wkqrEm ix;=,k . l ksje/j uek
igyka lr .kak'
85
R ys w.h 5 ne.ska wvq jk mrsos R ys w.hka yhla i|yd by; i|yka l< wdldrhg ix;=,k os.
l uek mdGdxl my; oelafjk j.=fjys igyka lr .kak'
1
1
tfhka m%ia;dr .kajkak'
R
l
mdGdxl iy .Kkh
36'1 j.=j
R ()
l (cm)
1
(cm-1)
l

m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh
A
FT
1
(-1)
R
m%ia;drfha wka;#LKavh
r =
ks.ukh
wkql%uKh
wka;#LKavh
igyk
by; .Kkh lsrSj,g wkqj fldaIfha wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh r ks.ukh lrkak'
mdGdxl ,nd .kakd wjia:df muKla K2 h;=r fydka iamY jk fia jikak'
R ys wju w.h 20 jvd wvq l< fyd;a fldaIh fl ld,hlska ickh h yels h'
86
mK wxl
37
Njudkh Nd;fhka b;d l=vd oHq;a.dul n, fiu ^;dm oHq;a hq.auhl&

jH yd WmlrK
lfha m%;sfrdaOh okakd Njudkhla" 2V welshqf,agrhla ;dm oHq;a hq.auhla" 1000 m%;sfrdaO
fm folla" ueo x .e,ajfkdagrhla" imK h;=rla" fmakq h;=re folla" 5 k muK wdrlaIl
m%;sfrdaOhla" iu; fldaIhla ( Es = 1.0183 V)' inkaOl l'
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
37'1 rEmh
37'2 rEmh
37'3 rEmh
87
37'1 rEmfha m ,nd .;a R g iudk jk fia f;dard .;a m%;sfrdaO R1 yd R2 " k"
R = R1 + R2
37'2 rEmfha ix;=,k . ls o" Njudk lfha (AB) m%;sfrdaOh R0 o" Njudk lfha
. L o" tall .l Nj neiau k o k"
Es =
kL
R2 + k ls
R0
---------------
A
FT
fuu mlaIKh mdi,a oHd.drfha is lsug wmyiq jkafka fjiagka leh iu;
fldaI oHd.drj, fkdue;s u ksid h'
f i|yd m<uqjk oYuia:dkh olajd ksjer j '.d'n' olajk (1.1V) veksfh,a fldaIhla
1.5 V
h<s fldaIh $
we,al,hska fldaIh
200 K
+1.235 V
1 . NC
LM 385 2
3
2
A iy B w.% iu; fldaIfha Ok yd RK w.% inkaO lrk ia:dkj,g inkaO lrkak'

fuys Njh 1.235 V f'
ES okakd ksid;a ( ES = 1.0183 V ), lS uek .; yels ksid;a" L yd R0 w.hka we;s g"
ilrKh Nd;fhka k ^ AB lfha tall .l Nj neiau & fidhd .; yels h'
37'3 rEmfha m ;dm oHq;a hq.auh" inkaO l< g ix;=,k . l k"
;dm oHq;a hq.aufha oHq;a .dul n,h E ûeksh hq;= l=vd oHq;a .dul n,h&
88
l%uh
37' 1 ys rEmfha m mm:h wgjkak' K1 h;=r jid K2 h;=r jD; j ;nd R je w.hl isg l%ufhka
R wvq lrka ix;=,k . je wjia:djl .e,ajfkdagrfha mdGdxlh Y=kH jk R ys w.h fidhd
.kak' R ys w.h je me;af;a 100g jghkak' tu w.h R = R1 + R2 m f;dard .;a R1 yd R2 fhdod
.kska 37'2 mm:h wgjkak'

K1 h;=r jid K2 h;=r jD; j we;s g .e,ajfkdagr mdGdxlh Y=kH jk ,laIHh AB Njudk
lfha ueog wdikak jk fia yd R1 + R2 = R jk fia ieu g u mj;sk mrsos R1 , R2 iSre udre
lrkak' oeka K2 h;=r jid ksjer ix;=,k . ls uek .kak' th 37'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
bkamiq 37'3 rEmfha m ueksh hq;= b;d l=vd oHq;a .dul n,h iys; ;dm oHq;a hq.auh inkaO
lr mm:h wgjkak' K1 h;=r jid ueksh hq;= l=vd oHq;a .dul n,h iu`. ix;=,kh jk Njudk
lfha ix;=,k ,laIHh ,nd f.k wod< ix;=,k . l uek 37'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
A
FT
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
37'1 j.=j
lS (cm)
l (cm)
ks.ukh
Njudk lfha tall .l Nj neiau k yd ;dm oHq;a hq.aufha oHq;a.dul n,h E isoaOdka;hg
wkqj .Kkh lrkak'
idlPdj
by; .Kkh wkqj fhdod .;a ;dm oHq;a hq.aufha oHq;a.dul n,h E ks.ukh lrkak'
mlaIKfha fhdod .;a WmlrKj, wdrlaIdj i|yd Tn .;a mQfjdamdh yd mlaIKfha is h

yels fodaI;a" tajd wju lr .ekSug fhdod .; yels ls%hdud. yd Wml%u wdh;a" idlPd lrkak'
89
mK wxl
wO ikakdhl vfhdavhla i|yd I-V jl%h ,nd.ekSu'
38
jH yd WmlrK
1N 4001 vfhdavhla" 5 k fh Nj fnula (Potentiometer 'B' Type), 100 1W m%;sfrdaOlhla"
^fuu lg,h fjkqjg mdif,a oHd.drfha we;s Semiconductor Diode Traine ys m<uq jk mm:h
Nd; l< yels h'&" 2V ir, Odrd cj iemhqula" 0-1 V fjda,agrhla" ^ f i|yd 2.5V mrdih
we;s m%;siu nyqgrhla Nd; l< yels h'&" 2.5 mA yd 25 mA mrdi iys; m%;siu nyqgrhla ^f
i|yd 2000 A-20 mA mrdi iys; ixLHdxl nyqgrhla jvd fhda.H f'& inkaOl l" mm:
mqjrejla ( Bread board/ Project board)
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
IF
(mA)
38'1 rEmh
+12 V
0V
olaIsKdj; j
VF (V)
38'2 rEmh
VF g t j IF m%ia;dr .;
l< g 38'2 rEmfha oelafjk
,dlaIKsl jl%fha yevh ,ef'
38'3 rEmh
l%uh
isoaOdka;fha olajd we;s mm:h wgjkak' (Semiconductor Diode Traniner yss mm: Nd; lrkafka
k wjYH jkqfha wegrh" fjda,grh yd fldaIh muKs' (A w.%fha Njh Y+kH jk m& VR
jdud; j fl<jrg u lrljd mm:hg ,sh imhkak' oeka l%ufhka A w.%h fjda,grfha
mdGxlh 0.1 V isg wdrN lr 0.1V ne.ska je lrka ^38'1 j.=f olajd we;s m& tys mdGdxlh;a"
wegrfha mdGdxlh;a" my; oelafjk m j.= .; lrkak' wvq fjda,h;dj, oS wjYH mrsos nyqgrfha
iqiq mudKh Nd; lrkak'
90
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
38'1 j.=j
VF
IF
0V
0.1V
0.2V
0.3V
0.4V
0.5V
0.6V 0.55V 0.65V .675V .070V .725V
---A ---A ---A ---A ---mA ---mA ---mA ---mA ---mA ---mA ---mA ---mA
VF g t j IF m%ia;drh wkak'
m%ia;drfha fh fldgi ir, fLdjlska wdmiq .= fldg VF wlaIh lefmk ,laIHhg wod<
fjda,ah;dj ôK fjda,ah;dj Knee Voltage& fidhkak'
ks.ukh
by; m%;sM,h weiqka Tn f.a ks.ukh i|yka lrkak'
A
FT
idlPdj
mlaIKfha mdGdxl jvd ksje/ j ,nd .ekSug l< hq;= oE idlPd lrkak'
igyk
miq keUqre wjia:dj i|yd ,efnk ldka Odrdj A .Kfha fyhska ta i|yd mdGdxl .ekSu wmyiq
h' ^ 1N 4001 i|yd miq keUqre fjda,ah;dj 50V muK jk g ldka Odrdj 10 A muK f' &
5 k Nj Ndclh Potentiometer i|yd fh j.h ^B Type) Nd; l< hq;= h' idudkHfhka y`v
md,l Volume Controller f,i Nd;d jk (A Type) j.fha m%;sfrdaOh p,kh jkafka ,>q.K
luh
f,i neka b;d iqM p,kh lsul tys Njh Yd, f,i j p,kh f' idlPd l< hq;= h'
iajdh;a; p,Hh uekSu i|yd ixLHdxl j.fha gr Nd; fkd l< hq;= h' ^tys ia:djr w.hla
,nd .ekSu wmyiq fyhsks&'
91
mK wxl
39
g%dkaisiagrhla Nd; lr fmd fudapl kHdifia Ib yd Ic w;r ixl%uKsl ,dlaIKsl

jl%h ,nd.ekSu
jH yd WmlrK
2SD400 is,slka g%dkaisiagrhla" 5 k fh Nj Ndcl follaa [(Potentiometer ("B" Type)], 10 k
1/4W, m%;f
s rdaOlhla" 100 1/2W m%;f
s rdaOlhla ^by; ish WmlrK fjkqjg oHd.drfha we;s Bipolar
Transistor Trainer " ys m<uq jk mm:h Nd; l< yels h'&" 10 V mrdih we;s m%;siu nyqgrhla"
100 A wegrhla fyda 50 A mrdi we;s m%;siu nyqgrhla" 25 mA mrdih we;s m%;siu nyqgrhla"
12V ir, Odrd cj iemhqula ^6V ixpdhl fldaIhla jqj o" m%udKj;a h&" mm: mqjrejla (Project/
Bread Board), inkaOl l'
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
1
2
3
39'2 rEmh
39'1 rEmh
Ic
Ib g t j Ic m%ia;dr .; l< g 39'3 rEmfha ys

oelafjk wdldrfha jl%hla ,ef' jl%fha fh
fldgfia wkqlu
% Kh g%dkaii
s g
a rfha ir, Odrd ,dNh
jk f'
Ib
39'3 rEmh
l%uh
39'1 rEmfhys oelafjk mm:h mm: mqjrej u; wgjkak' VR1 yd VR2 Nj Ndcl folu
imqKfhka jug lrljkak' ûeo w.%h N+.; w.%h wi,g mefKa'& oeka mm:hg ,sh imhkak'
VR2 fika ol=Kg lrljd fjda,agrfha mdGxlh (VCE) 5V f,i ilia lrkak' IB fjkia lrk
g fuys mdGdxlh fjkia jk ksid VR2 u.ska mlaIKh mqrd u (VCE) ksh; j ;nd .; hq;= h'
oeka VR1 fika omdg lrljka IB ys w.h 0 isg 10 A ne.ska je lrka Ib ys w.hhkag wkqrEm
Ic ys w.hka ,nd f.k 39'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
92
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
39'1 j.=j
Ib (A)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Ic (mA)

Ib g t j Ic m%ia;dr .; lrkak'
m%ia;drfha fh fldgfia wkql%uKh fidhkak'
isoaOdka;hg wkqj .Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
g%dkaisiagrfha Odrd ,dNh ks.ukh lrkak'
A
FT
idlPdj
Ib iu. IC ys yeisu o" mlaIKh jvd id:l u i|yd .; hq;= ls%hdud. o" idlPd lrkak'
g%dkaisiagr o;a; fmd;lska 2S D 400 g%dkaisiagrfha w.h fidhd Tn f.a ms<s;=r iu`. ii|kak'
igyk
Ib = 0 " IC ueksh hq;= k ta i|yd o" uhsfl%dwegrhla Nd; l< hq;= f' f i|yd ixLHdxl
nyqgrhla jqj o" Nd; l< yels h'
93
mK wxl
40
ir, uQ,sl ;dlsl oajdrj, i;H;d j.= mlaIKd;aul j uid ne,Su yd ta u.ska oajdr
ykd .ekSu
jH yd WmlrK
7408, 7432, 7400, 7402, 7486, 74AS 836, hk ix.Dys; mm: (TTL IC) yhla" r;= LED ;=kla" ks,a LED
tlla" 330 tW m%;sfrdaOl y;rla" 5V cj iemhqula" mm: mqjrejla iy inkaOl l
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
40'2 rEmh
40'1 rEmh
m%;sodkh LED weiqka kslaIKh lsf ks,a meye;s LED oe,afuka m%;sodkh 0 V
nj fyj;a ;l 0 wjia:dj;a" r;= meye;s LED oe,afuka m%;sodkh Ok (+) 5 V nj
fyj;a ;l 1 wjia:dj;a olajhs'
l%uh
mm: mqjrej (Project / Bread Board) u; mm:h ksje/ j wgjkak' ix.Dys; mm:fha 7 jk w.%h
5 V iemhqf iDK(-) w.%hg;a " 14 w.%h Ok(+) w.%hg;a ksje/os j i lrkak' X1 yd X2 w.% ksoyia
j ;sh mm:hg ,sh imhkak'
oeka A yd B w.%j,g X1 yd X2 iamY lrka Ok Nj ,nd D1" D2' D3 , D4 oe,afuka fyda fkd
oe,afuka fyda ;lh z1Z fyda ;l z0Z wkqj m%;sodkh kslaIKh lrkak' i;H;d j.=jl m%;sM,
igyka lr .kak' oeka mm: mqjref we;s ix.Dys; mm:h .,jd fjk;a ix.Dys; mm:hla
i fldg fu f,i u we;s wfkl=;a ix.Dys; mm: i|yd fjk fjk u i;H;d j.=j, m%;sM,
igyka lrkak'
94
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
A
0
0
1
1
40'4 j.=j
B
F
0
1
0
1
ks.ukh
A
0
0
1
1
40'2 j.=j
B
F
0
1
0
1
A
0
0
1
1
40'5 j.=j
B
F
0
1
0
1
A
0
0
1
1
40'3 j.=j
B
F
0
1
0
1
A
0
0
1
1
40'6 j.=j
B
F
0
1
0
1
A
FT
A
0
0
1
1
40'1 j.=j
B
F
0
1
0
1
,efnk i;H;d j.= weiqka tu tla tla ix.Dys; mm: wxlhg wkqj tys we;af;a l=uk oajdr oehs
ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
mm:fha LED j,g fYa%Ks.; f,i m%;sfrdaOlhla fhdod .eksf wjYH;dj idlPd lrkak'
igyk
fuys we;s iEu ix.Dys; mm:hla u iudk oajdr 4 ne.ska we;s tajd h' fuys m<uq fjks oajdrh
muKla Nd; fldg we;' ^b;s oajdrj, m%odk w.% N+ .; lsu jvd fhda.H f'&
fuys Nd; fldg we;af;a TTL IC fyhska +5 V iemhqula ;su wksjdh f' CMOS IC Nd; lrkafka
k +3 V isg +15 V olajd kE u fjd,ah;d iemhqula Nd; l< yels h' t g LED ys md,l
m%;sfrdaOlj, w.hka fjkia l< hq;= h' LEDys ms;r 2.0 V, 10 mA f,i i,ld .Kkh lrkak'
by; IC fjkqjg 4001, 4011, 4030, 4071, 4077, yd 4081 hk CMOS IC jqjo mm:fha w.% fjkila
fkdue;s j Nd; l< yels h'
WodyrK ( 9V cj iemhqula Nd; lr md,l m%;sfrdaOlfha w.h .Kkh lrk whqre my; oelaf'

R yryd f.a kshuh fhfuka"
10
( 9 2.0 ) =
R
1000

R = 700

R i|yd fj<| fmdf<ka m%dfhda.sl j ,nd .; yels g wdikak; u w.h jk
680 m%;sfrdaOlhla f;dard .ekSu iqqiq h'

95
mK wxl
lhl wdldrfhka we;s f,dayhl ^jdfka& hx udmdxlh fiu
41
jH yd WmlrK
tlu oDV wdOdrlhlska (B) t,ajd we;s 3 m muK .e;s IalNh 0'5 mm muK jQ taldldr l
folla" ,sgrj,ska l%udxls; m%Odk mudKhla (M) yd thg mfilska wfkla lhg i l<
jZkshr mudKhla (V), nr r|jkhla" gr rE,la" uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkhla" 1/2 kg l m
lg,hla'
isoaOdka;h
hx udmdxlh =
Mg / A
E =
e/l
e =
wd;kH m%;Hdn,h
gl
M
AE

41'1 rEmh
A
FT
t,ajd we;s Ndrh Mg o" lfha yrialv j.M,h A o" ;;sh e o"
uq,a . l o" k"
l%uh
41'2 rEmh
M g t j e m%ia;drfha"
40'1 rEmfha oelafjk m m%Odk mudKh i lr we;s lh ^p) iDcq j ke rys; j we mj;sk
fia iqiq nrla t,a,kak' jZkshr mudKh i l< fo jeks lfhka (Q) nr r|jkh t,ajkak'
jZksh mudKfha mdGdxlh igyka lr .kak' oeka 1$2 kg mh r|jkh u; ;nd mdGdxlh igyka
lr .kak' 1$2 kg m folla r|jkh u; ;nd mdGdxlh igyka lr .kak' oeka tla mhla bj;a
lr mdGdxlh igyka lr .kak' f wdldrhg jrlg 1$2 kg ne.ska m fhdoka yd bj;a lrka
b;s m o Nd; lrka mdGdxl my; oelafjk 41'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
(M) g t j (e) m%ia;dr .kajkak' m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh fidhd .kak'
wdOdrlfha isg lh jZkshr mudKh f;la Q lfha iM, . gr rE, wdOdrfhka ukskak'
uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkh weiqka lfha ia:dk ;=klska tys yrialv IalNh tlsfklg
,n IalN folla Tiafia ,nd .kak'
96
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
41'1 j.=j
r|jkhg
fhdod we;s
nr
(kg)
jZkshr mdGdxlh
nr tla
lsrSf oS
(mm)
nr bj;a
lsrSf oS
(mm)
;;sh
nr tla
lsrSf oS
(mm)
nr bj;a
lsrSf oS
(mm)
uOHkH
;;sh
(m)
0
/2
1
1 1/2
2
2 1/2
A
FT
lfha uOHkH IalNh = ----- mm

wdOdrlfha isg jZkshr mudKh f;la Q lfha iM, .
= ----- mm
g = 10 m s -2 Nd; lr A j.M,h j. grj,g mj;kh lr wkql%uKh i|yd ,nd .;a iQ;%fha
wdOdrfhka E .Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
idlPdj
.Kkfhka ,enqKq m%;sM, weiqfrka lfha hx udmdxlh ks.ukh lrkak'
igyk
E ys iu; w.h o;a; fmd;lska ,nd f.k mlaIKfhka ,enqKq m%;sM, yd ieiefuka fodaIh
fidhd m%;sY; fodaIh fidhkak'
tl u wdOdrlfhka yd tl u jHfhka ;ekQ l folla t,a,d we;s neka wdOdrlfha my;a

u ksid fyda WIaK;ajfha h fjkia ula is fuka fyda we;s jk fodaI wju f'
nr bj;a fldg mdGdxl .ekSu u`.ska lh m%;Hdia: iSudj blaujQfha o hkak fidais l< yels
f'
nr bj;a lrk iEu wjia:djl u jZkshr mudKfha mdGdxlh Bg fmr meje;s w.h fyda Bg
wdikak w.hla .kafka oe hs fidais lrkak' Ndrh 2 kg blaujk wjia:df jvd ie,els,su;a
jkak'
lfha ;;sh i|yd tl;= lrk wjia:df mdGdxl ,nd .ekSu;a"a bkamiq nr bj;a lrk g
mdGdxl ,nd .ekSu;a" isiqka iska fndfyda g is lrkq ,nk jrols' fuys nr tl;= lrk
wjia:df m%;Hdia: iSudj blau jQfha k fo jk wjia:df mdGdxl j,x.= fkd f'
jka jr nr tl;= lrka yd bj;a lrka mdGdxl .ekSf a hlsis wjia:djl m%;Hdia: iSudj
blaujqj o" m%ia;drh weu i|yd bka fmr meje;s mdGdxl fhdod .; yels f'
fodaI wju lr .ekSug Tn fhdod .kakd Wml%u idlPd lrkak'
97
mK wxl
flaYsl m%jdy l%ufhka jhl ^c,fha& iai%d;d ix.=Klh fiu
^fmdhsfi,a iQ;%h weiqka&
42
jH yd WmlrK
25cm muK . flaYsl k<hla" ksh; mSvk WmlrKh" kq irdjla (100 ml)" gr fldajla"
wdOdrlhla" rdu Trf,daiqjla" p, wKalaIhla" lmq$kQ,a fmdgla" ;kql yhsfv%dlaf,dala w,h

yd fidah yhsfv%dlaihs djKh iaj,amh ne.ska" inkaOl rn k< iam%S;= f,fj,hla'
isoaOdka;h
A
FT
wrh r o os. l o jQ flaYsl k<hl fo fl<jr p mSvk wka;rhla hgf;a t ld,hla ;=<
.,d hk j mudj V o k"
fmdhsfi,a iQ;%hg wkqj"
V
p r4
=
8l
t
p = hg
tneka"
j ugj, wka;rh h o" jfha >k;ajh o" .=re;ajc;ajrKh g o k"
V
h g r4
=
t
8l
V
t
0
42'1 rEmh
98
42'2 rEmh
l%uh
flaYsl k<h m<uq j fidah yhsfv%dlaihs djKfhka o" fo jkq j ;kql yhsfv%dlaf,dala
w,fhka o" wjidkfha c,fhka o" fydka fidaod .kak' 42'1 rEmfha oelafjk wdldrhg th rn
k<hlska ksh; iam%S;= f,j,hla Nd;fhka mSvk WmlrKhg inkaO fldg k<h ;sria f,i
wdOdrlhg i lrkak' flaYsl k<fha jD; fl<jr wi,ska lmq kQ,a lene,a,la .eg .id lrduh
wer flaYsl k<fhka c,h fifuka jEiafik whqka ksh; mSvk WmlrKh ilia lrkak' rdu
Trf,daiqj ls%hd;aul lrkjd;a iu`. u k<fha jD; fl<jr hka kq irdj ;nkak' m%udKj;a
c, m%udKhla kd 3la muK ksYa; ld,hla ;=< kq irdf tl;= jQ miq c, mudj igyka
lr .kak' ksh; mud WmlrKfha c, ugu;a" flaYsl k<h;a w;r isria Wi ^h& gr fldaj
Nd; lr ukskak' mSvk ysfiys msysu fjkia lrka h ys w.hka lsysmhla i|yd by; i|yka
l< wdldrhg mdGdxl ,nd f.k 42'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak'
A
FT
gr fldaj Nd; lr" flaYsl k<fha uq . ukskak' p, wKalaIh Nd; lr tlsfklg ,nl
Yd folla Tiafia flaYsl k<fha wNHka;r IalNh ukskak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
42'1 j.=j
V (cm)3
V/t (m3s-1)
h (cm)
= ----- s
flaYsl k<fha uq . (l)
= -----cm
flaYsl k<fha IalNh (d1)
= -----cm
l,ska Ydjg ,n Ydjla Tiafia flaYsl k<fha IalNh
uOHkH IalNh

c,h .,d .sh ld,h (t)
(d2 )
= ----- cm
d1 + d2
2

= ----- cm

flaYsl k<fha uOHkH wrh (r&
= -----cm

isoaOdka;fha i|yka lr we;s iQ;%h Nd;fhka c,fha iai%d;d ix.=Klh .Kkh lrkak'

ks.ukh
.Kkfhka ,nd .;a w.h wkqj c,fha iai%d;d ix.=Klh ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
wod< WIaK;ajfha c,fha iai%d;d ix.=Klfha iu; w.h mlaIKfhka ,nd .;a m%;sM, yd
ii|kak' m%;sY; fodaIh fidhkak'
99
igyk
flaYsl k<fha wNHka;r wrh fif th ;=<g . rih fmdgla we;= lr tys . p,
wKalaIfhka uek we;= l< rifhys nr f;o`vq ;=,djla wdOdrfhka fidhd wrh .Kkh lsfuka
jvd ksje/ w.hla ,nd .; yels h'
m%ldYkfhays r4 wvx.= jk fyhska o" r ys w.h oYu ixLHdjla jk fyhska o" fuu mlaIKfha
jvd;a ksje/ j ,nd .; hq;= w.h r f'
h ys by< w.hka i|yd h g t j V/t m%ia;drh jl%ldr f k" th jfha m%f.h" wj m%f.h
blauu ksid is jk wdl+, m%jdyh f,i ks.ukh l< yels h' tu ksid m%ia;drfha wkql%uKh
fiu i|yd ir, fh fldgi fhdod .; hq;= f'
A
FT
flaYsl k<fha fl<jfrys lmq kQ, fhdojd we;af;a c,h bj;g .e,Su j<ld,Sug;a" c, mDIaGhla
iE mDIaGl wd;;sh ksid mSvk fjkila we;s u j<ld,Sug;a h'
100
mK wxl
wKalaI lodjla Nd;fhka c,fha mDIal wd;;sh fiu
43
jH yd WmlrK
wKa
a laI lodjla " fm ishla" is o`vq$ridhksl ;=,djla" jZkshr le,smrhla" l lene,s lsym
s hla"
;kql fidah yhsfv%dlaihs djKhla" ;kql yhsfv%dlaf,dala w, djKhla" uhsfl%dagr
bial=remamq wdudkhla
43'1 rEmh
A
FT
isoaOdka;h
43'2 rEmh
;=,dfjka t,a l|dj c, mDIaGfha hdka;ka iamI jk g tys my< m;sh flfrys
lsh
% d;aul jk mDIal wd;;s n,h ;=,kh lrkq ,nk Ndrh mg o" c,fha mDIal wd;;sh
T o" lodfjys . yd >klu ms<sfj<ska a iy b o" k"
2(a + b)T = mg
l%uh
wkaalaI lodjla f.k th m<uq j fidah yhsfv%dlaihs jKfhka o" B <`.g yhsfv%dlaf,dala
w, djKfhka o" wjidkfha c,fhka o" fydka fidaod msis lr .kak' bkamiq weuqKq la,sm
iy kQ,a Nd; lr th isria j msysgk fia 43'1 rEmfhys oelafjk m t,ajd ;=,dj ix;=,kh lr
.kak' oeka c, lrh fifuka Tijd wkalaI lodj c, mDIaGfha hka;ka iamY jk fia 43'2
rEmfhys oelafjk m ilia lr .kak' t g ;=,df ix;=,kh hhs' kej; ix;=,kh ,nd
.ekSu i|yd wur; j fhh hq;= Ndrh fidhd .kak' lodj bj;g f.k tys . jZkshr le,smrh
Nd;fhka o" >klu uhsfl%dagr bial=remamq wdudkh Nd;fhka o" wjia:d ;=kl ne.ska uek
.kak'
101
mdGdxl yd .Kkh

lodf >klu ûOHkH& b
= ----- cm
lodf . ûOHkH&
= ----- cm

fh wu;r Ndrh

= ----- g

c,fha mDIal wd;;sh T isoaOdka;hg wkqj .Kkh lrkak'
ks.ukh
.Kkfhka ,enqKq m%;sM, weiqfrka c,fha mDIal wd;;sh ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
c,fha mDIal wd;;sfha iu; w.h iu`. ii|ka Tf m%;sM,h .ek idlPd lrkak'
A
FT
igyk
c,fha mDIal wd;;sh WIaK;ajh iu`. p,kh jk neka mlaIKh is lrk wjia:df
c,fha WIaK;ajh igyka lr f.k wod< WIaK;ajhg wkqj ks.ukh lsu jvd W; h'
re c,fhka f;;ukh jk nj Wml,amkh lr we;' tk c, re uqyqK; i|yd iamI
fldaKh Y+kH nj h'
re l|dj c, mDIaGfha hdka;ka iamI jk wjia:dj ,nd.ekSug j. n,d .; hq;= h' tfia
fkdjQ g re l|dj u; jfhka we;s jk Wvql=re f;rmqfuka we;s jk n, o ie,ls,a,g .;
hq;= h'
l|j wjid; fiau i|yd wdi%e; c,h Nd; fkdl< hq;= h' ula ksid o h;a wdi%e; c,h ksIamdo
l%shdj,sfha .%Sia jeks jH Nd; jk fyhska wdi%e; c,fha whksl jH fkdue;s jqj o f;,a
l=Kq mej;sh yels neks' f i|yd gema c,h Nd; lsu jvd fhda.H h'
102
mK wxl
l rduqjla Nd;fhka inka mg,hl mDIal wd;;sh ksKh lsu
44
jH yd WmlrK
isyk
s a ;U l lene,a,la" lmq kQ,a fmdgla" fm ishla iso`vq $ ridhksl ;=,djla" p, wkalaIhla"
;kql fidah yhsfv%dlaihs djKhla" ;kql yhsfv%dlaf,dala w,h djKhla
isoaOdka;h
2Tl = mg
A
FT
l rduqf ;sria fldgfia . l o" jfha mDIal wd;;sh T o" j mg,h ksid my<g
we;s jQ mDIaGsl wd;;s n,h ;=,kh lsug fh wu;r n,h mg o k"
44'1 rEmh
l%uh
os. 5 cm muK jQ;a" m<, 0'5 cm muK jQ;a" iDcqfldaKdi%hl tla os. mdohla o" fl mdo folla
o" iEfok fia ;U lh ;=kg kukak' 44'1 rEmfha oelafjk wdldrhg ABC lmq kQ,a lene,a,la
A ys ;a" C ys ;a" l rduqf fo fl<jrg .eg .ikak' ;kql fidah yhsfv%dlaihs ;kql
yhsfv%dlaf,dala w,h yd c,h Nd; lr l rduqj fydka fidaod .kak' fu fia msis l<
hq;af;a f;,a l=Kq wmjH ;snqK fyd;a mDIal wd;;sh fjkia jk neks'
kQf,a y ueka jQ ,laIHh (B) fmkajd we;s m fldlaflka t,a,kak' 41'1 rEmfha olajd we;s
wp, ;eh u; inka djKh iys; fm ish ;nkak' l rduqf AC mdoh ;sria lr th inka
djKh hdka;ka fkd .efgk fia iSreudre lr ;=,df mdGdxlh ,nd .kak' wp, ;eh Tijd
my;a lsfuka rduqf inka mg,hla ;kd .kak' rduqf AC ndyqj u; mg,fhka we;s lrk mDIal
wd;;s n,h ksid ix;=,kh hhs' mg,h fkd f|k fia oKav ix;=,kh lsu i|yd kej;;a
;=,djg iqiq wu;r Ndrh fhdod tys w.h igyka lr .kak' oeka rduqj bj;g f.k tys fl mdo
fol w;r we;=<; . p, wKalaIh Nd;fhka ,nd .kak'
103
m%;sM, fufia igyka lr .kak'

mdGdxl yd .Kkh

l rduqj inka djKfha .s,aug fmr ;=,df mdGdxlh
(m1)
= ----- g

mg,h iys; l rduqj ;=,kh lsfuka miq (m2)
----- g
(m2 - m1)
inkaa mg,fha mDIal wd;;sh ksid my<g we;s jQ wu;r n,h
= ----- g

(l)
rduqf .
= ----- cm
A
FT

inka djKfha WIaK;ajh =
0
----- C

isoaOdka;hg wkqj mdGdxl weiqka inka djKfha mDIal wd;;sh (T) .Kkh lrkak'

ks.ukh
.Kkfhka ,enQ w.h wkqj c,fha mDIal wd;;sh ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
m%;sM,j, ksrjoH;dj je lr .ekSug wod< fhdackd idlPd lrkak'
igyk
msis lr .;a miqj l rduqj w;ska fkdwe,a,sh hq;= w;r ta i|yd veys w~qjla Nd; l< hq;= h'
isria l M, c,fha .s,S we;s m%udKh mG,h idod .ekSug fmr yd miqj iudk h hq;= h" tajd
u; l%shd lrk Wvql=re f;rmqu iudk u i|yd
rduqj u; idod.kakd mG,h yels ;r l=vd h hq;= h' tu.ska mG,fha nr ksid we;s jk fodaIh
wju f'
mlaIK wxl 43 Nd; lr mDIal wd;;sh fif iamI fldaKh Y+kH jk >k $ j uqyqK;a
fhdod .ekSug ie,ls,su;a h hq;= h' kuq;a mlaIK wxl 44 l rduqj ;=< we;s mg,hla fhdod
.kakd neka iamI fldaKh Y+kH fkdjk >k $ j uqyqK;la i|yd jqjo myiqfjka mDIal
wd;;sh fih yel'
104
mK wxl
flaYsl Woa.uk l%ufhka c,fha mDIal wd;;sh fiu
45
jH yd WmlrK
15cm muK .e;s flaYsl k<hla" p, wkalaIhla" lrhla" Wia my;a l< yels wdOdrlhla"
iDcqfldaKsj kjk ,o we,afmka;;la fyda oYlhla " msis c,h" ;kql fidah yhsfv%dlaishs
iy ;kql yhsfv%dlaf,dala w, djK iaj,amh ne.ska" wdOrlhla ;=kS rn mqvq'
isoaOdka;h
2 T cos
= hg
r
A
FT
>k;ajh iy mDIal wd;;skh T jQ jhla re iu. idok

iamY fldaKh k" re flaYsl k<hla ;=< by< ke`.s j
lf|a Wi h o" flaYsl k<fha wNHka;r wrh r o k"
2T
r
= hg
tg"

msis c,h mssis re iu. idok iamY fldaKh Y+kHh

f,i i,lkq ,ef'
45'1 rEmh
l%uh
flaYsl k<h m<uqj fidah yhsf%vdlaihs djKfhka o fojkqj ;kql yhsfv%dlaf,dala w,
jKhka o fidaod wk;=rej lsysmjrla msis c,fhka fidaod h<d .kak'
c,h iys; lrh Wi fjkia l, yels nxl=j u; ;nd kjk ,o we,afmfk;a; fyda oYlh
rn mqvq u.ska ilr .;a flaYsl k<h 45'1 rEmfha oelafjk whqre isria j isk fia o" k<fha
my< fl<jr lrfha we;s c,h ;=< iaj,am jYfhka .sf,k fia o wdOdrlh u.ska i lr .kak'
lrfha j mDIaGh kjd.;a we,afmk;a;s ;=v ^fyda oYlfha ;=v& iu. iamY jk fia nxl=f
Wi ilikak' oeka flaYsl k<h ;=< c,fha Woa.ukh imQK jQ g by< ke.s c, lf|ys udjl
p, wkalaIh ;=<ska kslaIKh lrka ^fuu m%;snh hl=re jkq we;& th yd kdNs .; lr
udjlfha m;=, ;sria lh iamY jk fia wKalaIh ilid wod< mdGdxlh (H1) wkaalaIfha isria
mudKfhka ,nd .kak.
105
wk;=rej c, lrh bj;a fldg" p, wkalaIh isria mudKh Tiafia my;a fldg oYlfha ;=vg
th kdNs.; lr oYlfha ;=v ;sria lh iamY jkfia wKalaIh ilid wod< mdGdxlh (H2)
wKalaIfha isria mudKfhka ,nd .kak'
flaYsl k<fha YalNh fiu i|yd p, wkalaIfha yria l 45'2 rEmfha oelafjk m imd;
lrka tlsfklg ,n jQ IalN folla i|yd mdGdxl (X1, X2 yd Y1 ,Y2) , ,nd f.k igyka lr
.kak'
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
A
FT
45'2 rEmh
H1 = ----- H2 = ---- X1 = ----- X2 = ---- Y1 = ----- Y2 = -----
flaYsl Woa.ukh [ H1 - H2 ]
flaYsl k<fha wrh
[ ]
d
2
( X2 - X1 ) + ( Y2 - Y1 )
2
flaYsl k<fha uOHkH IalNh
ks.ukh
isoaOdka;hg wkqj T ys w.h .Kkh lrkak'
.Kkfhka T i|yd ,enQ w.h c,fha mDIal wd;;sh f,i ks.ukh lrkak'
idlPdj
m%;sM,j, ksrjoH;dj je lr.ekSug wod< fhdackd idlPd lrkak'
igyk
flaYsl k<h c, lrh ;=< .s,ajk m%udK fjkia lsfuka k<fha ia:dk lsysmhl flaYsl Woa.
ukh uek mDIal wd;;sh .Kkh lr tu w.hkaf.a uOHkH ,nd .ekSfuka flaYsl isr taldldr
fkd fuka isjk fodaIh wju flf'
106
mK wxl
f. l%ufhka jhl mDIal wd;;sh fiu
46
jH yd WmlrK
f. WmlrK lg,h" lrhla" mDIal wd;;sh fih hq;= jh" N+f;,a iaj,amhla" p,
wkalaIh" ,S l=hla ^fyda Wi fjkia l< yels nxl=jla& wdOdrl folla'
isoaOdka;h
A
FT
mDIal wd;;sh fih hq;= jfha mDIal wd;;sh T o" >k;ajh 1 o uefkdagrhg
fhdod we;s N+ f;,aj, >k;ajh 2 o" WmlrKfha flaYsl k<fha wrh r o" uefkdagrfha
j l|ka w;r Wfiys Wmu fjki h2 o" flaYsl k<fha fl<jrg j ugf isg we;s
.eUqr h1 o" jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh o k "

nqnq, ;=< msvkh = + h2 2 g
nqnqf,ka msg; mSvkh =
w;sla; mSvkh = 1 2
+ h1 1 g
=
( h2 2 h1 1 ) g
46'1 rEmh
107
l%uh
46'1 rEmfha olajd we;s m f. WmlrK lg,fha Wmdx. i lr .kak' uefkda grhg N=f;,a
^2& m%udKj;a ;r fhdokak' WmlrKfha we;s flaYsl k<h isriaj mj;sk fia wdOdrlhla u.ska
ilr .kak' mDIal wd;;sh fih hq;= jh l=vd lrhg oud 46'1 rEmfha whqre flaYsl k<fha
my< fl<jr tu jh ;=< .s,S mj;sk whqre ,S l=hla ^fyda Wi fjkia l< yels nxl=jla&
wdOdrfhka ilia lr .kak' kjd.;a w,afmfk;af;a fyda oYlfha ;=v j mDIaGh iamY jk m
flaYsl k<fha msg;ska ilr .kak' oeka Yd, ma,dial=jg c,h l%ufhka .,d tk m T1 lrduh
jD; lrkak' tg ma,dial=f we;s jd;fha mSvkh l%ufhka je flaYsl k<fha jh ;=< .s,S
we;s fl<jka jdhq nqnq,la we;s fifuka jdhq nqnq jYfhka msgjk wjia:dj ,nd .kak'
A
FT
uefkda grfha A yd B ndyqj, j udjl w;r Wfiys Wmu fjki h2 ,nd .ekSu i|yd m<uqj
A ndyqfjys j udjl p, wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lrka tys by< u msysf p, wKalaIh
j udjlfha m;=< fj; kdNs.; lr" p, wKalaIfha isria mudKfha mdGdxlh H1 ,nd .kak' ta
wdldrfhka u B ndyqf j udjlfha m;=f,a msysf p, wKalaIfha mdGdxlh H2 ,nd .kak'
mdGdxl my; we;s 46'1 j.=f igyka lr .kak' bkamiq lrh bj;a lr flaYsl k<hg il<
w,afmfk;af;a fyda oYlfha ;=v p, wKaalaIh ;=<ska kslaIKh lr" tys ;=v ;sria lh iamY
jk fia yria lh u; kdNs .; lr .kak' wod< mdGdxlh H3 ,nd .kak' tfia u flaYsl k<fha
my< fl<jrg p, wKaalaIlfhka kdNs.; lr wod< mdGxlh H4 ,nd .kak'
oeka flaYsl k<h ;sriaj wdOdrlhla u.ska ilr tys wNHka;r IalNh fiu i|yd wjYH
p, wKaalaI mdGdxl ^46'2 rEmfha olajd we;s m& Y1 " Y2 yd X1 , X2 ,nd .kak' mdGdxl my; 46'1
j.=f igyka lr.ak'
46'2 rEmh
mdGdxl yd .Kkh
46'1 j.=j
H1
H2
h1 = ( H3 H4 )
h2 = ( H1 H2 )
H3
flaYsl k<fha IalNh =
H4
Y1
Y2
( Y2 Y1 ) + ( X2 X1 )
2
X1
X2
1 yd 2 w.hhka o" h1 h2 yd k<fha wrh r ys w.hhka o wdfoaY lr isoaOdka;hg wkqj T .Kkh

lrkak'
108
ks.ukh
Tf .Kkfhka T i|yd ,enQ w.h jfha mDIal wd;;sh f,i ks.ukh lrkak'
igyk
jH ;=< iEfok nqnqf,a wrh jejk g mQks,fhka jefgk c, xj, YS>%;dj T1 lrduh Nd;
lr l%ufhka wvq lrkak' nqnq, .e, hk fudfydf;a uefkdagrfha j ugj, fjki Wmu
jk wjia:dj lsysm jdrhla kslaIKh lr tu Wmu wjia:d H1 yd H2 mdGdxl ,nd .kak'
A
FT
lrh ;=< we;s jH O WIaK;ajj,g r;a lr WIaK;ajh ksh;j ;ndf.k mlaIKh lsfuka
WIaK;ajh wkqj jfha mdIal wd;;sh p,kh wOHhkh l< yels f'
109

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tu mrud:h bgq lsfuys,d fuu

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jksudkh Nd; lr we lhl ixLHd;h iy lmk

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