PowerPoint Lecture Slides

prepared by
Barbara Heard,
Atlantic Cape Community
College

C H AP T E R

Cells: The
Living Units:
Part A
Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images

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Cell Theory
Cell - structural and functional unit of life
Organismal functions depend on individual
and collective cell functions
Biochemical activities of cells dictated by
their shapes or forms, and specific
subcellular structures
Continuity of life has cellular basis

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Figure 3.1 Cell diversity.

Erythrocytes
Fibroblasts

Epithelial cells
Cells that connect body parts, form linings, or transport
gases

Skeletal
muscle
cell

Smooth
muscle cells

Cells that move organs and body parts

Macrophage
Fat cell

Cell that stores nutrients

Cell that fights disease

Nerve cell

Cell that gathers information and controls body functions

Sperm
Cell of reproduction

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Generalized Cell
All cells have some common structures
and functions
Human cells have three basic parts:
Plasma membraneflexible outer boundary
Cytoplasmintracellular fluid containing
organelles
Nucleuscontrol center

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Figure 3.2 Structure of the generalized cell.

Nuclear envelope

Chromatin
Nucleolus

Nucleus
Plasma
membrane

Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Cytosol
Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Centrioles

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

Centrosome
matrix

Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus

Cytoskeletal
elements
Microtubule
Intermediate
filaments
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Secretion being released

from cell by exocytosis

Peroxisome

Figure 3.3 The plasma membrane.

Extracellular fluid
(watery environment
outside cell)
Polar head of
phospholipid
molecule
Nonpolar tail
of phospholipid
molecule

Cholesterol Glycolipid

Glycocalyx
(carbohydrates)
Lipid bilayer
containing
proteins
Outward-facing
layer of
phospholipids
Inward-facing
layer of
phospholipids
Cytoplasm
(watery environment
inside cell)

Integral Filament of Peripheral

proteins cytoskeleton proteins

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Glycoprotein

Membrane Proteins

Allow communication with environment

mass of plasma membrane
Most specialized membrane functions
Some float freely
Some tethered to intracellular structures
Two types:
Integral proteins; peripheral proteins

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Figure 3.3 The plasma membrane.

Extracellular fluid
(watery environment
outside cell)
Polar head of
phospholipid
molecule
Nonpolar tail
of phospholipid
molecule

Cholesterol Glycolipid

Glycocalyx
(carbohydrates)
Lipid bilayer
containing
proteins
Outward-facing
layer of
phospholipids
Inward-facing
layer of
phospholipids
Cytoplasm
(watery environment
inside cell)

Integral Filament of Peripheral

proteins cytoskeleton proteins

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Glycoprotein

Plasma Membrane
Cells surrounded by interstitial fluid (IF)
Contains thousands of substances, e.g.,
amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, vitamins,
hormones, salts, waste products

Plasma membrane allows cell to

Obtain from IF exactly what it needs, exactly
when it is needed
Keep out what it does not need

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Membrane Transport
Plasma membranes selectively
permeable
Some molecules pass through easily; some
do not

Two ways substances cross membrane

Passive processes
Active processes

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Types of Membrane Transport

Passive processes
No cellular energy (ATP) required
Substance moves down its concentration
gradient

Active processes
Energy (ATP) required
Occurs only in living cell membranes

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Passive Processes
Two types of passive transport
Diffusion
Simple diffusion
Carrier- and channel-mediated facilitated diffusion
Osmosis

Filtration
Usually across capillary walls

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Passive Processes: Diffusion

Collisions cause molecules to move down
or with their concentration gradient
Difference in concentration between two
areas

Speed influenced by molecule size and

temperature

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Passive Processes
Molecule will passively diffuse through
membrane if
It is lipid soluble, or
Small enough to pass through membrane
channels, or
Assisted by carrier molecule

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Passive Processes: Simple Diffusion

Nonpolar lipid-soluble (hydrophobic)
substances diffuse directly through
phospholipid bilayer
E.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide, fat-soluble
vitamins

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Figure 3.7a Diffusion through the plasma membrane.

Extracellular fluid
Lipidsoluble
solutes

Cytoplasm

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Simple diffusion of
fat-soluble molecules
directly through the
phospholipid bilayer

Passive Processes: Facilitated Diffusion

Certain lipophobic molecules (e.g.,
glucose, amino acids, and ions)
transported passively by
Binding to protein carriers
Moving through water-filled channels

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Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion

Transmembrane integral proteins are
carriers
Transport specific polar molecules (e.g.,
sugars and amino acids) too large for
channels
Binding of substrate causes shape change
in carrier then passage across membrane
Limited by number of carriers present
Carriers saturated when all engaged
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Figure 3.7b Diffusion through the plasma membrane.

Lipid-insoluble solutes
(such as sugars or
amino acids)

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Carrier-mediated facilitated
Diffusion via protein carrier specific
for one chemical; binding of substrate
causes transport protein to change
shape

Active Transport
Requires carrier proteins (solute pumps)
Bind specifically and reversibly with substance

Moves solutes against concentration

gradient
Requires energy

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Active Transport: Two Types

Primary active transport
Required energy directly from ATP hydrolysis

Secondary active transport

Required energy indirectly from ionic
gradients created by primary active transport

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Primary Active Transport

Energy from hydrolysis of ATP causes
shape change in transport protein that
"pumps" solutes (ions) across membrane
E.g., calcium, hydrogen, Na+-K+ pumps

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Primary Active Transport

Sodium-potassium pump
Most well-studied
Carrier (pump) called Na+-K+ ATPase
Located in all plasma membranes
Involved in primary and secondary active
transport of nutrients and ions

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Sodium-Potassium Pump
Na+ and K+ channels allow slow leakage
down concentration gradients
Na+-K+ pump works as antiporter
Pumps against Na+ and K+ gradients to
maintain high intracellular K+ concentration
and high extracellular Na+ concentration
Maintains electrochemical gradients essential for
functions of muscle and nerve tissues
Allows all cells to maintain fluid volume

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Figure 3.10 Primary active transport is the process in which solutes are moved across cell
membranes against electrochemical gradients using energy supplied directly by ATP.
Extracellular fluid

Na+

Na+K+ pump

K+

ATP-binding site

Na+ bound

Cytoplasm
1 Three cytoplasmic Na+ bind to pump
protein.

K+ released

2 Na+ binding promotes hydrolysis of ATP.

The energy released during this reaction
phosphorylates the pump.

6 Pump protein binds ATP; releases K+ to

the inside, and Na+ sites are ready to bind
Na+ again. The cycle repeats.

Na+ released
K+ bound

P
Pi

K+

5 K+ binding triggers release of the

phosphate. The dephosphorylated pump
resumes its original conformation.

3 Phosphorylation causes the pump to

change shape, expelling Na+ to the outside.
P

4 Two extracellular K+ bind to pump.

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Slide 1

Table 3.1 Passive Membrane Transport Processes

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Vesicular Transport
Functions:
Exocytosistransport out of cell
Endocytosistransport into cell
Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated
endocytosis

Transcytosistransport into, across, and

then out of cell
Vesicular traffickingtransport from one
area or organelle in cell to another

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Endocytosis and Transcytosis

Involve formation of protein-coated
vesicles
Often receptor mediated, therefore very
selective
Some pathogens also hijack for transport
into cell
Once vesicle is inside cell it may
Fuse with lysosome
Undergo transcytosis
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Figure 3.12 Events of endocytosis mediated by protein-coated pits.

1 Coated pit ingests

substance.
Protein coat
(typically
clathrin)
2 Protein-coated
vesicle detaches.

Extracellular
fluid

Slide 1

Plasma
membrane

Cytoplasm

3 Coat proteins are

recycled to plasma
membrane.
Transport
vesicle

Uncoated endocytic
vesicle

Endosome

4 Uncoated vesicle
fuses with a sorting
vesicle called an
endosome.
Lysosome

5 Transport
vesicle containing
membrane compone
-nts moves to the plasma
membrane for recycling.

6 Fused vesicle may (a)

fuse with lysosome for
digestion of its contents,
or (b) deliver its contents
to the plasma membrane
on the opposite side of
the cell (transcytosis).
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Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pseudopods engulf solids and bring them into
cell's interior
Form vesicle called phagosome

Used by macrophages and some white

blood cells
Move by amoeboid motion
Cytoplasm flows into temporary extensions
Allows creeping

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Figure 3.13a Comparison of three types of endocytosis.

Receptors
Phagosome

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Phagocytosis
The cell engulfs a large particle
by forming projecting pseudopods
("false feet") around it and enclosing
it within a membrane sac called a
phagosome. The phagosome is
combined with a lysosome.
Undigested contents remain in
the vesicle (now called a residual
body) or are ejected by exocytosis.
Vesicle may or may not be protein
coated but has receptors capable of
binding to microorganisms or solid
particles.

Macrophage eating a bunch of bacteria

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Endocytosis
Pinocytosis (fluid-phase endocytosis)
Plasma membrane infolds, bringing
extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes inside
cell
Fuses with endosome

Most cells utilize to "sample" environment

Nutrient absorption in the small intestine
Membrane components recycled back to
membrane

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Figure 3.13b Comparison of three types of endocytosis.

Pinocytosis
The cell "gulps" a drop of
extracellular fluid containing solutes
into tiny vesicles. No receptors are
used, so the process is nonspecific.
Most vesicles are protein-coated.

Vesicle

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Endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Allows specific endocytosis and transcytosis
Cells use to concentrate materials in limited supply

Clathrin-coated pits provide main route for

endocytosis and transcytosis
Uptake of enzymes, low-density lipoproteins, iron,
insulin, and, unfortunately, viruses, diphtheria, and
cholera toxins

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Figure 3.13c Comparison of three types of endocytosis.

Vesicle

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Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Extracellular substances bind to
specific receptor proteins, enabling
the cell to ingest and concentrate
specific substances (ligands) in
protein-coated vesicles. Ligands may
simply be released inside the cell, or
combined with a lysosome to digest
contents. Receptors are recycled to
the plasma membrane in vesicles.

Figure 3.14 Exocytosis.

Slide 1

The process of exocytosis

Plasma membrane
Extracellular
SNARE (t-SNARE)
fluid
Secretory
vesicle

Vesicle
SNARE
(v-SNARE)
Molecule to
be secreted
Cytoplasm

Fused
v- and
t-SNAREs

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Fusion pore formed

1 The membranebound vesicle

migrates to the
plasma membrane.

2 There, proteins at
the vesicle surface
(v-SNAREs) bind with
t-SNAREs (plasma
membrane proteins).

3 The vesicle
and plasma
membrane
fuse and a pore
opens up.

4 Vesicle
contents are
released to the
cell exterior.

Cytoplasm
Located between plasma membrane and
nucleus
Composed of
Cytosol
Water with solutes (protein, salts, sugars, etc.)

Organelles
Metabolic machinery of cell; each with specialized
function; either membranous or nonmembranous

Inclusions
Vary with cell type; e.g., glycogen granules, pigments,
lipid droplets, vacuoles, crystals

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Cytoplasmic Organelles
Membranous
Mitochondria
Peroxisomes
Lysosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus

Nonmembranous
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Ribosomes

Membranes allow crucial compartmentalization

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Mitochondria- Power station

Double-membrane structure with inner
shelflike cristae
Provide most of cell's ATP via aerobic
cellular respiration
Requires oxygen

Contain their own DNA, RNA, ribosomes

Similar to bacteria; capable of cell division
called fission

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Figure 3.17 Mitochondrion.

Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
Ribosome

Mitochondrial
DNA
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
Cristae
Matrix

Enzymes

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Ribosomes Factory Worker

Granules containing protein and rRNA
Site of protein synthesis
Free ribosomes synthesize soluble
proteins that function in cytosol or other
organelles
Membrane-bound ribosomes (forming
rough ER) synthesize proteins to be
incorporated into membranes, lysosomes,
or exported from cell
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Factory

Interconnected tubes and parallel
membranes enclosing cisterns
Continuous with outer nuclear membrane
Two varieties:
Rough ER Makes proteins.
Smooth ER- makes fats

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Figure 3.18 The endoplasmic reticulum.

Nucleus

Smooth ER

Nuclear
envelope

Rough ER

Ribosomes

Diagrammatic view of smooth and rough ER

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Electron micrograph of smooth and rough

ER (25,000x)

Golgi Apparatus- Post Office sorter

Stacked and flattened membranous sacs
Modifies, concentrates, and packages
proteins and lipids from rough ER
Transport vessels from ER fuse with
convex cis face; proteins modified, tagged
for delivery, sorted, packaged in vesicles
Think about the Golgi as the post-office

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Golgi Apparatus
Three types of vesicles bud from concave
trans face
Secretory vesicles (granules)
To trans face; release export proteins by
exocytosis

Vesicles of lipids and transmembrane proteins

for plasma membrane or organelles
Lysosomes containing digestive enzymes;
remain in cell

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Figure 3.19a Golgi apparatus.

Transport vesicle
from rough ER

Cis face
receiving side of
Golgi apparatus
Cisterns

New vesicles
forming
Transport
vesicle
from
trans face

Secretory
vesicle

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Trans face
shipping side of
Golgi apparatus

Many vesicles in the process of pinching off

from the Golgi apparatus.

Figure 3.20 The sequence of events from protein synthesis on the rough ER to the final distribution
of those proteins.

1 Protein-conta- Rough ER
ining vesicles
pinch off rough
ER and migrate
to fuse with
membranes of
Golgi apparatus.

Phagosome
ER
membrane
Proteins in
cisterns

2 Proteins are
modified within
the Golgi
compartments.
3 Proteins are
then packaged
within different
vesicle types,
depending on
their ultimate
destination.

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Vesicle
becomes
lysosome

Golgi
apparatus
Pathway A:
Vesicle contents
destined for
exocytosis

Secretory
vesicle

Secretion by
exocytosis

Slide 4

Plasma
membrane
Pathway C:
Lysosome
containing acid
hydrolase
enzymes

Pathway B:
Vesicle membrane
to be incorporated
into plasma
membrane
Extracellular fluid

Figure 3.22 The endomembrane system.

Nucleus

Nuclear
envelope

Smooth ER

Rough ER

Golgi
apparatus

Secretory
vesicle
Plasma
membrane
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Transport
vesicle
Lysosome

Lysosome-Recycling Center

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Peroxisomes-Detox center!

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Cytoskeleton Frame for the cell.

Elaborate series of rods throughout
cytosol; proteins link rods to other cell
structures
Three types
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules

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Microfilaments

Thinnest of cytoskeletal elements

Dynamic strands of protein actin
Each cell-unique arrangement of strands
Dense web attached to cytoplasmic side
of plasma membrane-terminal web
Gives strength, compression resistance

Involved in cell motility, change in shape,

endocytosis and exocytosis

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Figure 3.23a Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

Microfilaments
Strands made of spherical protein
subunits called actins

Actin subunit
7 nm

Microfilaments form the blue network

surrounding the pink nucleus
in this photo.
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Intermediate Filaments
Tough, insoluble, ropelike protein fibers
Composed of tetramer fibrils
Resist pulling forces on cell; attach to
desmosomes
E.g., neurofilaments in nerve cells; keratin
filaments in epithelial cells

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Figure 3.23b Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

Intermediate filaments
Tough, insoluble protein fibers
constructed like woven ropes
composed of tetramer (4) fibrils
Tetramer subunits
10 nm

Intermediate filaments form the purple

batlike network in this photo.
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Microtubules
Largest of cytoskeletal elements; dynamic
hollow tubes; most radiate from
centrosome
Composed of protein subunits called
tubulins
Determine overall shape of cell and
distribution of organelles
Mitochondria, lysosomes, secretory
vesicles attach to microtubules; moved
throughout cell by motor proteins
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Figure 3.23c Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

Microtubules
Hollow tubes of spherical protein
subunits called tubulins
Tubulin subunits

25 nm

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Microtubules appear as gold networks

surrounding the cells pink nuclei in
this photo.

Centrosome and Centrioles

"Cell center" near nucleus
Generates microtubules; organizes mitotic
spindle
Contains paired centrioles
Organelles; small tubes formed by
microtubules

Centrioles form basis of cilia and flagella

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Figure 3.25a Centrioles.

Centrosome matrix
Centrioles

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Microtubules

Figure 3.25b Centrioles.

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Cellular Extensions
Cilia and flagella
Whiplike, motile extensions on surfaces of
certain cells
Contain microtubules and motor molecules
Cilia move substances across cell surfaces
Longer flagella propel whole cells (tail of
sperm)

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Figure 3.27 Ciliary function.

Power, or
propulsive, stroke

Recovery stroke, when cilium

is returning to its initial position

Phases of ciliary motion.

Layer of mucus

Cell surface

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Traveling wave created by the activity of

many cilia acting together propels mucus
across cell surfaces.

Cellular Extensions
Microvilli
Minute, fingerlike extensions of plasma
membrane
Increase surface area for absorption
Core of actin filaments for stiffening

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Figure 3.28 Microvilli.

Microvillus

Actin
filaments
Terminal
web
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Nucleus
Largest organelle; genetic library with
blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins
Responds to signals; dictates kinds and
amounts of proteins synthesized
Most cells uninucleate; skeletal muscle
cells, bone destruction cells, and some
liver cells are multinucleate; red blood
cells are anucleate
Three regions/structures
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Figure 3.29a The nucleus.

Nuclear
envelope
Chromatin
(condensed)
Nucleolus

Cisterns of
rough ER
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Nuclear
pores
Nucleus

The Nuclear Envelope

Double-membrane barrier; encloses
nucleoplasm
Outer layer continuous with rough ER and bears
ribosomes
Inner lining (nuclear lamina) maintains shape of
nucleus; scaffold to organize DNA
Pores allow substances to pass; nuclear pore
complex line pores; regulates transport of large
molecules into and out of nucleus

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Figure 3.29b The nucleus.

Surface of nuclear envelope.

Fracture
line of outer
membrane
Nuclear
pores
Nucleus

Nuclear pore complexes. Each

pore is ringed by protein particles.

Nuclear lamina. The netlike lamina

composed of intermediate filaments
formed by lamins lines the inner surface
of the nuclear envelope.
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Nucleoli
Dark-staining spherical bodies within
nucleus
Involved in rRNA synthesis and ribosome
subunit assembly
Associated with nucleolar organizer
regions
Contains DNA coding for rRNA

Usually one or two per cell

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The Nuclear Envelope

Double-membrane barrier; encloses
nucleoplasm
Outer layer continuous with rough ER and bears
ribosomes
Inner lining (nuclear lamina) maintains shape of
nucleus; scaffold to organize DNA
Pores allow substances to pass; nuclear pore
complex line pores; regulates transport of large
molecules into and out of nucleus

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Chromatin
Threadlike strands of DNA (30%), histone
proteins (60%), and RNA (10%)
Arranged in fundamental units called
nucleosomes
Histones pack long DNA molecules;
involved in gene regulation
Condense into barlike bodies called
chromosomes when cell starts to divide

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Figure 3.30 Chromatin and chromosome structure.

1 DNA
double
helix (2-nm
diameter)
Histones
2 Chromatin
(beads on a string)
structure with
nucleosomes

Linker DNA
Nucleosome (10-nm diameter;
eight histone proteins wrapped
by two winds of the DNA double
helix)

3 Tight helical fiber

(30-nm diameter) 4 Looped domain
structure (300-nm
5 Chromatid diameter)
(700-nm diameter)
6 Metaphase
chromosome
(at midpoint
of cell division)
consists of two
sister
chromatids
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Questions!
Cell Theory
Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Centrosomes and centrioles
Cilia and flagella
Microvilli

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Stop Here.
Quiz on Wednesday!

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Cell Cycle
Defines changes from formation of cell
until it reproduces
Includes:
Interphase
Cell grows and carries out functions

Cell division (mitotic phase)

Divides into two cells

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Figure 3.31 The cell cycle.

G1 checkpoint
(restriction point)
S
Growth and DNA
synthesis
G1
Growth

se
ha
ap
et
M
se
pha
Ana

Telopha
se
Cy
t
o
ki
n
e
si
s

G2
Growth and final
preparations for
division
Pr
op
ha
se

G2 checkpoint

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Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (1 of 6)

Interphase

Centrosomes (each
has 2 centrioles)

Plasma
membrane

Nucleolus

Chromatin
Nuclear
envelope

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Prophase
Chromosomes become visible, each with
two chromatids joined at centromere
Centrosomes separate and migrate
toward opposite poles
Mitotic spindles and asters form

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Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (2 of 6)

Early Prophase

Early mitotic
spindle
Aster

Chromosome
consisting of two
sister chromatids

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Centromere

Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (3 of 6)

Late Prophase

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Spindle pole

Polar microtubule
Fragments
of nuclear
envelope

Kinetochore

Kinetochore
microtubule

Metaphase
Centromeres of chromosomes aligned at
equator
Plane midway between poles called
metaphase plate

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Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (4 of 6)

Metaphase

Spindle

Metaphase
plate

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Anaphase
Shortest phase
Centromeres of chromosomes split
simultaneouslyeach chromatid becomes
a chromosome
Chromosomes (V shaped) pulled toward
poles by motor proteins of kinetochores
Polar microtubules continue forcing poles
apart

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Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (5 of 6)

Anaphase

Daughter
chromosomes

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Telophase
Begins when chromosome movement
stops
Two sets of chromosomes uncoil to form
chromatin
New nuclear membrane forms around
each chromatin mass
Nucleoli reappear
Spindle disappears

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Cytokinesis
Begins during late anaphase
Ring of actin microfilaments contracts to
form cleavage furrow
Two daughter cells pinched apart, each
containing nucleus identical to original

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Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (6 of 6)

Telophase

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Cytokinesis

Nuclear
envelope
forming

Nucleolus forming

Contractile
ring at
cleavage
furrow

The cell cycle is regulated by a molecular

control system

checksforcellsize,nutrients
inextracellularenvironment,
DNAdamage&growth
factors

Cancer and cancer drugs

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Extracellular Materials
Body fluids-interstitial fluid, blood plasma,
and cerebrospinal fluid
Cellular secretions-intestinal and gastric
fluids, saliva, mucus, and serous fluids
Extracellular matrixmost abundant
extracellular material
Jellylike mesh of proteins and
polysaccharides secreted by cells; acts as
"glue" to hold cells together
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Developmental Aspects of Cells

All cells of body contain same DNA but
cells not identical
Chemical signals in embryo channel cells
into specific developmental pathways by
turning some genes on and others off
Development of specific and distinctive
features in cells called cell differentiation

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Apoptosis and Modified Rates of Cell

Division
During development more cells than
needed produced (e.g., in nervous
system)
Eliminated later by programmed cell death
(apoptosis)
Mitochondrial membranes leak chemicals that
activate caspases DNA, cytoskeleton
degradation cell death
Dead cell shrinks and is phagocytized

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Apoptosis and Modified Rates of Cell

Division
Organs well formed and functional before
birth
Cell division in adults to replace short-lived
cells and repair wounds
Hyperplasia increases cell numbers when
needed
Atrophy (decreased size) results from
loss of stimulation or use

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Theories of Cell Aging

Wear and tear theory-Little chemical insults and
free radicals have cumulative effects
Mitochondrial theory of agingfree radicals in
mitochondria diminish energy production
Immune system disorders-autoimmune
responses; progressive weakening of immune
response; C-reactive protein of acute
inflammation causes cell aging

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Theories of Cell Aging

Most widely accepted theory
Genetic theory-cessation of mitosis and cell
aging programmed into genes
Telomeres (strings of nucleotides protecting ends
of chromosomes) may determine number of times
a cell can divide
Telomerase lengthens telomeres
Found in germ cells; ~ absent in adult cells

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The basic functional unit of living

organisms is the __________.

element
organism
cell
organ

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The basic functional unit of living

organisms is the __________.

element
organism
cell
organ

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The three main components of all cells

include the plasma membrane, the nucleus,
and the __________.

DNA
cytoplasm
organelle
cell wall

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The three main components of all cells

include the plasma membrane, the nucleus,
and the __________.

DNA
cytoplasm
organelle
cell wall

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Phospholipids orient themselves in

aqueous solutions such that __________.

the polar heads are pointed toward the center of the

membrane
the nonpolar tails are oriented toward the interior of
the cell, next to the cytoplasm
the polar heads and nonpolar tails alternate facing
inward
the polar heads face the interior and exterior of the
cell with the tails forming the center of the membrane

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Phospholipids orient themselves in

aqueous solutions such that __________.

the polar heads are pointed toward the center of the

membrane
the nonpolar tails are oriented toward the interior of
the cell, next to the cytoplasm
the polar heads and nonpolar tails alternate facing
inward
the polar heads face the interior and exterior of
the cell with the tails forming the center of the
membrane
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Which of the following is not an example of

simple diffusion?

Gas exchange in our lungs

A dissolving sugar cube
Popcorn odor permeating the room
A white blood cell engulfing a bacterium

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Which of the following is not an example of

simple diffusion?

Gas exchange in our lungs

A dissolving sugar cube
Popcorn odor permeating the room
A white blood cell engulfing a bacterium

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

You would expect that cells that expend a

great deal of energy, such as skeletal
muscle cells, would have increased
quantities of ___________.

ribosomes
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
peroxisomes
mitochondria

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

You would expect that cells that expend a

great deal of energy, such as skeletal
muscle cells, would have increased
quantities of ___________.

ribosomes
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
peroxisomes
mitochondria

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Intensely biosynthetic secretory cells such

as neurons would be expected to have
greater amounts of _________ than other
cells.

centrioles
lysosomes
rough endoplasmic reticulum
peroxisomes

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Intensely biosynthetic secretory cells such

as neurons would be expected to have
greater amounts of _________ than other
cells.

centrioles
lysosomes
rough endoplasmic reticulum
peroxisomes

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

During which stage of the cell's life cycle is

DNA replicated?

G1
S
G2
M

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

During which stage of the cell's life cycle is

DNA replicated?

G1
S
G2
M

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

During which stage of the cell's life cycle is

DNA replicated?

G1
S
G2
M

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The main function of DNA is to dictate

___________ production.

protein
carbohydrate
lipid
nucleic acid

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The main function of DNA is to dictate

___________ production.

protein
carbohydrate
lipid
nucleic acid

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

____________ is the process whereby

protein is made.

DNA replication
Translation
Transcription
mRNA editing

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

____________ is the process whereby

protein is made.

DNA replication
Translation
Transcription
mRNA editing

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Apoptosis, or "programmed cell death," is

_________.

abnormal
responsible for removing unnecessary tissue
dangerous
responsible for creating twins

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Apoptosis, or "programmed cell death," is

_________.

abnormal
responsible for removing unnecessary tissue
dangerous
responsible for creating twins

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Microscopes

Why use microscopes?

Most microbes are so small that they are measured in
micrometers or nanometers.

Types of microscopes

Simple
Compound
Stereoscopic
Electron

http://www.microscope-microscope.org/basic/microscope-images/digital-microscope-420tc.jpg

Simple Microscope
Similar to a magnifying glass and has only
one lense.

http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/ucomp1/ucomp1_01.jpg

Compound Microscope

Lets light pass through an

object and then through two
or more lenses.
most widely used
Can magnify up to 2000x

http://www.labessentials.com/Rev3.jpg

Stereoscopic Microscope
Gives a three dimensional view of an
object. (Examples: insects and leaves)

http://www.tedpella.com/mscope_html/2282-14L.jpg

Electron Microscope

Uses a magnetic field to

bend beams of electrons;
instead of using lenses to
bend beams of light.
Used to observe
VERY small objects:
viruses, DNA, parts of
cells
Much more powerful

http://www.astbury.leeds.ac.uk/facil/ElectronMicro/F20microscope.jpg

Dark-field microscope

http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/5/1263.full

Phase contrast microscope

http://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/java/phasedicmorph/index.html

Confocal microscope (Fluorescent)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tetrachimena_Beta_Tubulin.png

Parts of a microscope
Body Tube

Ocular lens
(Eyepiece)

Nosepiece
Objectives

Arm

Stage
Stage Clips

Coarse Adjustment

Diaphragm
Light

Fine Adjustment
Base

Always carry a microscope with one hand holding

the arm and one hand under the base.

A Lens
Enlarges an image and bends the light
toward your eye.

Whats my power?
To calculate the power of magnification, multiply the power of the ocular lens by
the power of the objective.

What are the powers of

magnification for each of
the objectives we have on
our microscopes?

Comparing Powers of Magnification

We can see better details with higher the powers of
magnification, but we cannot see as much of the
image.

Which of these images would

be viewed at a higher power
of magnification?

Resolution is the ability to see

two objects as separate,
discreet entities.kind of like
the ability to see railroad
tracks as being separate
tracks
GOOD resolution is being able
to distinguish the two tracks
as separate once the two
tracks merge into one, the
resolution is poor!!!

http://www.edupic.net/Images/Math/railroad_tracks418.JPG

Refraction is the bending of

light as it passes from one
medium to another of
different density.
An example would be
when one looks at objects
just below the surface of
water in a pond or other
body of water..the
objects become refracted
or distorted from the true
image.
chemicalparadigms.wikispaces.com

Preparation of specimens: wet

mounts

Wet mounts are used to

view living organisms.
The hanging drop
technique is a special type
of wet mount, often used to
determine whether
organisms are motile.

http://www.indmedica.com/journals/images/ijpd/ijpd6_leprosy_fig6.jpg

Preparation of specimens: smears or heat fixed

Smears of appropriate
thickness are allowed to air-dry
completely and are then passed
through an open flame.
This process, called heat
fixation, kills the organisms,
causing them to adhere to the
slide and more readily accept
stains.

http://www.indmedica.com/journals/images/ijpd/ijpd6_leprosy_fig6.jpg