Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
(www.mathguy.us)
Trigonometry
Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version2.0
January1,2016
Copyright20122016,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.AllRightsReserved
NotetoStudents
ThisTrigonometryHandbookwasdevelopedprimarilythroughworkwithanumberofHigh
SchoolandCollegeTrigonometryclasses.Inaddition,anumberofmoreadvancedtopicshave
beenaddedtothehandbooktowhetthestudentsappetiteforhigherlevelstudy.
OneofthemainreasonswhyIwrotethishandbookwastoencouragethestudenttowonder;
toaskwhataboutorwhatif.Ifindthatstudentsaresobusytodaythattheydont
havethetime,ordonttakethetime,toseekoutthebeautyandmajestythatexistsin
Mathematics.And,itisthere,justbelowthesurface.Sobecuriousandgofindit.
Theanswerstomostofthequestionsbelowareinsidethishandbook,butareseldomtaught.
IsthereamethodIcanlearnthatwillhelpmerecallthekeypointsonaunitcircle
withoutmemorizingtheunitcircle?
WhatsthefastestwaytographaTrigfunction?
CanIconvertthesumoftwotrigfunctionstoaproductoftrigfunctions?Howabout
theotherwayaround,changingaproducttoasum?
IsthereaneasywaytocalculatetheareaofatriangleifIamgivenitsverticesaspoints
onaCartesianplane?
DontsomeofthePolargraphsinChapter9lookliketheyhavebeendrawnwitha
Spirograph?Whyisthat?
Acycloidisbothabrachistochroneandatautochrone.Whataretheseandwhyare
theyimportant?(youwillhavetolookthisoneup,butitiswellworthyourtime)
Whatisavectorcrossproductandhowisitused?
Howdothepropertiesofvectorsextendto3dimensions,wheretheyreallymatter?
Additionally,askyourself:
WhattrigidentitiescanIcreatethatIhavenotyetseen?
WhatPolargraphscanIcreatebymessingwithtrigfunctions?Whatmakesapretty
graphinsteadofonethatjustlooksmessedup?
CanIcomeupwithasimplermethodofdoingthingsthanIambeingtaught?
WhatproblemscanIcomeupwithtostumpmyfriends?
Thosewhoapproachmathinthismannerwillbetomorrowsleaders.Areyouoneofthem?
Pleasefeelfreetocontactmeatearl@mathguy.comifyouhaveanyquestionsorcomments.
Thankyouandbestwishes!
Earl
Version 2.0
Page 2 of 109
January 1, 2016
Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page
Description
8
9
9
9
9
9
10
11
11
11
12
13
14
Chapter1:FunctionsandSpecialAngles
Introduction
AngleDefinitions
FunctionDefinitionsonthex andy Axes
PythagoreanIdentities
SineCosineRelationship
KeyAnglesinRadiansandDegrees
Cofunctions
UnitCircle
FunctionDefinitionsinaRightTriangle
SOHCAHTOA
TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
ProblemsInvolvingTrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
ProblemsInvolvingAnglesofDepressionandInclination
15
17
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
Chapter2:GraphsofTrigFunctions
BasicTrigFunctions
CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
TableofTrigonometricFunctionCharacteristics
SineFunction
CosineFunction
TangentFunction
CotangentFunction
SecantFunction
CosecantFunction
Application:SimpleHarmonicMotion
33
33
34
35
Chapter3:InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Definitions
PrincipalValuesandRanges
GraphsofInverseTrigFunctions
ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page
Description
37
38
41
41
41
42
Chapter4:KeyAngleFormulas
AngleAddition,DoubleAngle,HalfAngleFormulas
Examples
PowerReducingFormulas
ProducttoSumFormulas
SumtoProductFormulas
Examples
43
44
47
48
Chapter5:TrigonometricIdentitiesandEquations
VerifyingIdentities
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques
SolvingTrigonmeticEquations
SolvingTrigonmeticEquationsExamples
51
52
53
54
56
57
59
60
Chapter6:SolvinganObliqueTriangle
SummaryofMethods
LawsofSinesandCosines
LawsofSinesandCosinesExamples
TheAmbiguousCase
FlowchartfortheAmbiguousCase
AmbiguousCaseExamples
Bearings
BearingsExamples
61
61
62
62
63
Chapter7:AreaofaTriangle
GeometryFormula
Heron'sFormula
TrigonometricFormulas
CoordinateGeometryFormula
Examples
64
64
65
65
67
68
Chapter8:PolarCoordinates
Introduction
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
DeMoivre'sTheorem
DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
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Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page
Description
69
69
70
70
71
74
75
76
77
Chapter9:PolarFunctions
PartsofthePolarGraph
Symmetry
GraphingMethods
GraphingwiththeTI84PlusCalculator
GraphTypes(Circles,Roses,Limaons,Lemniscates,Spirals)
Rose
Cardioid
ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
ParametricEquations
79
79
79
80
81
83
84
86
86
86
87
90
92
Chapter10:Vectors
Introduction
SpecialUnitVectors
VectorComponents
VectorProperties
VectorPropertiesExamples
DotProduct
DotProductExamples
VectorProjection
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
Work
ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
VectorCrossProduct
VectorTripleProducts
93
103
105
Appendices
AppendixASummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
AppendixBSolvingTheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod
AppendixCSummaryofPolarandRectangularForms
106
Index
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Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
UsefulWebsites
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,based
ontheauthor'sextensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandin
mathtutoring.Containsfreedownloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
http://www.mathguy.us/
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissite
containsdefinitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
KhanAcademySuppliesafreeonlinecollectionofthousandsofmicrolecturesviaYouTube
onnumeroustopics.It'smathandsciencelibrariesareextensive.
www.khanacademy.org
AnalyzeMathTrigonometryContainsfreeTrigonometrytutorialsandproblems.UsesJava
appletstoexploreimportanttopicsinteractively.
http://www.analyzemath.com/Trigonometry.html
SchaumsOutline
AnimportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolorcollegemathstudentisaSchaums
Outline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthevarioustopicsinthecourseand
asubstantialnumberofproblemsforthestudenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworked
outinthebook,sothestudentcanseeexamplesofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandotherbooksellers.
Version 2.0
Page 6 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
FunctionsandSpecialAngles
Introduction
WhatisTrigonometry?
ThewordTrigonometrycomesfromtheGreektrigonon(meaningtriangle)
andmetron(meaningmeasure).So,simplyput,Trigonometryisthestudyof
themeasuresoftriangles.Thisincludesthelengthsofthesides,themeasures
oftheanglesandtherelationshipsbetweenthesidesandangles.
ThemodernapproachtoTrigonometryalsodealswithhowrighttrianglesinteractwithcircles,
especiallytheUnitCircle,i.e.,acircleofradius1.Althoughthebasicconceptsaresimple,the
applicationsofTrigonometryarefarreaching,fromcuttingtherequiredanglesinkitchentilesto
determiningtheoptimaltrajectoryforarockettoreachtheouterplanets.
RadiansandDegrees
AnglesinTrigonometrycanbemeasuredineitherradiansordegrees:
).Sincethediameterisdoublethe
radius,thecircumferenceis2 timestheradius(i.e.,
2 ).One
radianisthemeasureoftheanglemadefromwrappingtheradiusofa
circlealongthecirclesexterior.
r
1 rad
MeasureofanArc
OneofthesimplestandmostbasicformulasinTrigonometryprovidesthemeasureofanarcinterms
oftheradiusofthecircle, ,andthearcscentralangle,expressedinradians.Theformulaiseasily
derivedfromtheportionofthecircumferencesubtendedby.
Sincethereare2 radiansinonefullrotationaroundthecircle,themeasure
ofanarcwithcentralangle,expressedinradians,is:
so
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Chapter1
FunctionsandSpecialAngles
AngleDefinitions
BasicDefinitions
AfewdefinitionsrelatingtoanglesareusefulwhenbeginningthestudyofTrigonometry.
Angle:Ameasureofthespacebetweenrayswithacommonendpoint.Anangleistypically
measuredbytheamountofrotationrequiredtogetfromitsinitial
sidetoitsterminalside.
InitialSide:Thesideofananglefromwhichitsrotational
measurebegins.
TerminalSide:Thesideofanangleatwhichitsrotational
measureends.
Vertex:Thevertexofanangleisthecommonendpointofthetworaysthatdefinetheangle.
DefinitionsintheCartesian(
)Plane
Whenanglesaregraphedonacoordinate
system(RectangularorPolar),anumberof
additionaltermsareuseful.
StandardPosition:Anangleisinstandard
positionifitsvertexistheorigin(i.e.,the
point 0, 0 )anditsinitialsideisthe
positive axis.
PolarAxis:ThePolarAxisisthepositive axis.Itistheinitialsideofallanglesinstandardposition.
PolarAngle:Foranangleinstandardposition,itspolarangleistheanglemeasuredfromthepolar
axistoitsterminalside.Ifmeasuredinacounterclockwisedirection,thepolarangleispositive;if
measuredinaclockwisedirection,thepolarangleisnegative.
ReferenceAngle:Foranangleinstandardposition,itsreferenceangleistheanglebetween0and
90measuredfromthe axis(positiveornegative)toitsterminalside.Thereferenceanglecanbe
0;itcanbe90;itisnevernegative.
CoterminalAngle:Twoanglesarecoterminaliftheyareinstandardpositionandhavethesame
terminalside.Forexample,anglesofmeasure50and410arecoterminalbecause410isonefull
rotationaroundthecircle(i.e.,360),plus50,sotheyhavethesameterminalside.
QuadrantalAngle:Anangleinstandardpositionisaquadrantalangleifitsterminalsidelieson
eitherthe axisorthe axis.
Version 2.0
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Chapter1
FunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctions
TrigonometricFunctions
(onthe and axes)
PythagoreanIdentities
(foranyangle)
sin cos
1
sec
1 tan
csc
cot
csc
sin
sin
cos
cos
sec
tan
tan
1
tan
cot
sin
cos
cot
cot
1
cot
tan
cos
sin
sec
sec
cos
csc
csc
sin
SineCosineRelationship
sin
sin
cos
KeyAngles
(
cos
30
60
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
Version 2.0
cos
90
cot
csc
sin
tan
sec
6
4
3
2
radians
radians
radians
radians
Page 9 of 109
0 radians
45
Cofunctions(inQuadrantI)
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
FunctionsandSpecialAngles
TheUnitCircle
Version 2.0
Page 10 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
FunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)
SOHCAHTOA
sin
cos
tan
SpecialAngles
Radians
sin
cos
cos
tan
tan
TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles( )
Degrees
0
45
60
90
30
sin
undefined
Notethepatternsintheabovetable:Inthesinecolumn,thenumbers0to4occurinsequence
undertheradical!Thecosinecolumnisthesinecolumnreversed.Tangent sine cosine.
Version 2.0
Page 11 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
FunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
InquadrantsotherthanQuadrantI,trigonometricvaluesforanglesarecalculatedinthefollowing
manner:
DrawtheangleontheCartesianPlane.
Calculatethemeasureofthereferenceangle
fromthe axisto.
Findthevalueofthetrigonometricfunctionof
theangleinthepreviousstep.
Assigna or signtothetrigonometric
valuebasedonthefunctionusedandthe
quadrantisin(fromthetableatright).
Examples:
inQuadrantIICalculate: 180
120,thereferenceangleis180
For
sin 60
,so:
120
60
inQuadrantIIICalculate:
180
For
210,thereferenceangleis210
cos 30 ,so:
180
30
inQuadrantIVCalculate: 360
For
tan 45
315,thereferenceangleis360
1,so:
Version 2.0
315
45
Page 12 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
FunctionsandSpecialAngles
ProblemsInvolvingTrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
AtypicalprobleminTrigonometryistofindthevalueofoneormoreTrigfunctionsbasedonasetof
constraints.Often,theconstraintsinvolvethevalueofanotherTrigfunctionandthesignofyeta
thirdTrigFunction.Thekeytosolvingthistypeofproblemistodrawthecorrecttriangleinthe
correctquadrant.
Acoupleofexampleswillillustratethisprocess.
Example1.1:sin
, tan
0.Findthevaluesofsec andcot .
0 , tan
Noticethatsin
In 3, isnegative; isalwayspositive.Sincesin
2,
,welet
3.
UsingthePythagoreanTheorem,wecalculatethelengthofthehorizontal
legofthetriangle: 3
5.Sincetheangleisin 3, is
5.
negative,sowemusthave
Then,sec
And,cot
Example1.2:cot
, cos
Noticethatcot
0.Findthevalueofcsc andcos .
0 , cos
In 2, isnegative,and ispositive.Sincecot
,welet
9,
4.
UsingthePythagoreanTheorem,wecancalculatethelengthofthe
9
hypotenuseofthetriangle:
Then,csc
And,cos
Version 2.0
97.
Page 13 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
FunctionsandSpecialAngles
ProblemsInvolvingAnglesofDepressionandInclination
AcommonprobleminTrigonometrydealswithanglesofdepressionorinclination.Anangleof
depressionisananglebelowthehorizontalatwhichanobservermustlooktoseeanobject.An
angleofinclinationisanangleabovethehorizontalatwhichanobservermustlooktoseeanobject.
Example1.3:Abuilding185feettallcastsa60footlongshadow.Ifapersonlooksdownfromthe
topofthebuilding,whatisthemeasureoftheangleofdepression?Assumetheperson'seyesare5
feetabovethetopofthebuilding.
Thetotalheightfromwhichthepersonlooksdownupontheshadowis:185 5
beginbydrawingthediagrambelow,thenconsiderthetrigonometryinvolved.
tan x
60
190
0.3158
0.3158
tan
190ft.We
17.5
Theangleofdepressionisthecomplementof .
90
17.5
72.5
Example1.4:Ashipis300metersfromaverticalcliff.Thenavigatorusesasextanttodeterminethe
angleofinclinationfromthedeckoftheshiptothetopoftheclifftobe62.4.Howfarabovethe
deckoftheshipisthetopofthecliff?Whatisthedistancefromthedecktothetopofthecliff?
Webeginbydrawingthediagrambelow,thenconsiderthetrigonometryinvolved.
a) Tofindhowfarabovethedeckthetopofthecliffis( ):
tan 62.4
300
573.8meters
b) Tofindthedistancefromthedecktothetopofthecliff( ):
300
cos 62.4
647.5meters
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions
Thesineandcosecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
sin
1
csc
and
csc
sin
Thecosineandsecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
cos
1
sec
and
sec
cos
Thetangentandcotangentfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
tan
Version 2.0
1
cot
and
cot
Page 15 of 109
tan
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions
Itisinstructivetoviewtheparenttrigonometricfunctionsonthesameaxesastheirreciprocals.
Identifyingpatternsbetweenthetwofunctionscanbehelpfulingraphingthem.
Lookingatthesineandcosecantfunctions,
weseethattheyintersectattheirmaximum
andminimumvalues(i.e.,when
1).The
verticalasymptotes(notshown)ofthe
cosecantfunctionoccurwhenthesine
functioniszero.
Lookingatthecosineandsecantfunctions,
weseethattheyintersectattheirmaximum
andminimumvalues(i.e.,when
1).The
verticalasymptotes(notshown)ofthesecant
functionoccurwhenthecosinefunctionis
zero.
Lookingatthetangentandcotangent
functions,weseethattheyintersectwhen
sin
cos (i.e.,at
, an
integer).Theverticalasymptotes(not
shown)oftheeachfunctionoccurwhenthe
otherfunctioniszero.
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
Alltrigonometricfunctionsareperiodic,meaningthattheyrepeatthepatternofthecurve(calleda
cycle)onaregularbasis.Thekeycharacteristicsofeachcurve,alongwithknowledgeoftheparent
curvesaresufficienttographmanytrigonometricfunctions.Letsconsiderthegeneralfunction:
A
whereA, B, CandDareconstantsand
tangent,cotangent,secant,cosecant).
isanyofthesixtrigonometricfunctions(sine,cosine,
Amplitude
Amplitudeisthemeasureofthedistanceofpeaksandtroughs
fromthemidline(i.e.,center)ofasineorcosinefunction;
amplitudeisalwayspositive.Theotherfourfunctionsdonot
havepeaksandtroughs,sotheydonothaveamplitudes.For
thegeneralfunction,
, definedabove,amplitude |A|.
Period
Periodisthehorizontalwidthofasinglecycleorwave,i.e.,thedistanceittravelsbeforeitrepeats.
Everytrigonometricfunctionhasaperiod.Theperiodsoftheparentfunctionsareasfollows:for
sine,cosine,secantandcosecant,period 2;fortangentandcotangent,period .
Forthegeneralfunction,
period
, definedabove,
Frequency
Frequencyismostusefulwhenusedwiththesineand
cosinefunctions.Itisthereciprocaloftheperiod,i.e.,
frequency
Frequencyistypicallydiscussedinrelationtothesineandcosinefunctionswhenconsidering
harmonicmotionorwaves.InPhysics,frequencyistypicallymeasuredinHertz,i.e.,cyclesper
second.1Hz 1cyclepersecond.
Forthegeneralsineorcosinefunction,
Version 2.0
, definedabove,frequency
Page 17 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
PhaseShift
Phaseshiftishowfarhasthefunctionbeenshiftedhorizontally
(leftorright)fromitsparentfunction.Forthegeneralfunction,
, definedabove,
phase shift
Apositivephaseshiftindicatesashifttotherightrelativetothe
graphoftheparentfunction;anegativephaseshiftindicatesashift
totheleftrelativetothegraphoftheparentfunction.
Atrickforcalculatingthephaseshiftistosettheargumentofthetrigonometricfunctionequalto
zero: B
C
0,andsolvefor .Theresultingvalueof isthephaseshiftofthefunction.
VerticalShift
Verticalshiftistheverticaldistancethatthemidlineofacurvelies
aboveorbelowthemidlineofitsparentfunction(i.e.,the axis).
Forthegeneralfunction,
, definedabove,vertical shift D.
ThevalueofDmaybepositive,indicatingashiftupward,or
negative,indicatingashiftdownwardrelativetothegraphofthe
parentfunction.
PuttingitAllTogether
Theillustrationbelowshowshowalloftheitemsdescribedabovecombineinasinglegraph.
Version 2.0
Page 18 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
SummaryofCharacteristicsandKeyPointsTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
Sine
Function:
Cosine
Tangent
Cotangent
Secant
Cosecant
ParentFunction
sin
Domain
cos
tan
, except
none
,where
none
Range
1, 1
1, 1
Period
,where isanInteger
intercepts
(1)
OddorEvenFunction
OddFunction
,where
isodd
EvenFunction
, except
,where
, except ,
where isanInteger
isodd
, 1 1,
,where isan
Integer
, 1 1,
csc
where isodd
,where isan
Integer
isodd
sec
, except ,
where isanInteger
where isodd
VerticalAsymptotes
cot
midwaybetween
asymptotes
midwaybetween
asymptotes
none
none
OddFunction
OddFunction
EvenFunction
OddFunction
sin
GeneralForm
Amplitude/Stretch,Period,
PhaseShift,VerticalShift
when
(2)
cos
| |,
when
when
when
when
| |,
tan
| |,
Notes:
(1) Anoddfunctionissymmetricabouttheorigin,i.e.
| |,
| |,
verticalasymptote
csc
| |,
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
.Anevenfunctionissymmetricaboutthe axis,i.e.,
Page 19 of 109
sec
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
Version 2.0
cot
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
0).
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphofaGeneralSineFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasinefunctionis:
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
| |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
Amplitude:
functionfromitsparentfunction:
sin .
Period:
.Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof
sin .
PhaseShift:
.Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift:
.Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
.
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
Example2.1:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Forthisexample:
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 2.0
Page 20 of 109
| |
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphingaSineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthesinefunctionhasthreezeropoints(pointsonthexaxis)
atthebeginningoftheperiod,attheendoftheperiod,andhalfwayinbetween.
Example:
.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof
theOrigin.
Step2:Period:
.
,
Thepointis:
.Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe
point unitstotherightof
wherethewavebegins.
waveendsatthepoint:
Step3:Thethirdzeropoint
islocatedhalfwaybetween
thefirsttwo.
The pointis:
Step4:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
leftandcenterzeropointsis
" ".
The pointis:
Step5:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
centerandrightzeropoints
The pointis:
is .
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey
points.
Thiswillproducethegraph
ofonewaveofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 2.0
Note:If
0,allpoints
onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
Page 21 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphofaGeneralCosineFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosinefunctionis:
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
| |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
Amplitude:
functionfromitsparentfunction:
cos .
Period:
.Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof
cos .
PhaseShift:
.Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift:
.Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
.
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
Example2.2:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Forthisexample:
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 2.0
Page 22 of 109
| |
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphingaCosineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthecosinefunctionhastwomaxima(orminimaif
0)
oneatthebeginningoftheperiodandoneattheendoftheperiodanda
minimum(ormaximumif
0)halfwayinbetween.
Example:
.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof
thepoint , .
Step2:Period:
,
,
Thepointis:
.Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe
point unitstotherightof
wherethewavebegins.
waveendsatthepoint:
Step3:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthose
inthetwostepsaboveis
"
".
Thepointis:
Step4:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
leftandcenterextremais
" ".
Thepointis:
Step5:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
centerandrightextremais
" ".
Thepointis:
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey
points.
Thiswillproducethegraph
ofonewaveofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 2.0
Note:If
0,allpoints
onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
Page 23 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphofaGeneralTangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofatangentfunctionis:
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Period:
.Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof
tan .
PhaseShift:
.Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift:
.Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.
Example2.3:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Notethat,forthe
tangentcurve,we
typicallygraphhalf
oftheprincipal
cycleatthepoint
ofthephaseshift,
andthenfillinthe
otherhalfofthe
cycletotheleft
(seenextpage).
Version 2.0
Forthisexample:
;
ScaleFactor:| |
Period:
| |
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Page 24 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphingaTangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthetangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin
between.Itflowsupwardtotherightif
0anddownwardtotherightif
Example:
0.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Thefirstcyclebeginsatthe
zeropoint unitstothe
rightoftheOrigin.
Step2:Period:
.
,
Thepointis:
Placeaverticalasymptote
beginningofthecycle.
Step3:Placeavertical
Theleftasymptoteisat:
unitstothe
leftofthebeginningofthe
cycle.
Step4:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
zeropointandtheright
asymptoteis" ".
The pointis:
Step5:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
leftasymptoteandthezero
pointis"
".
The pointis:
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey
points,approachingthe
asymptotesoneachside.
Thiswillproducethegraph
ofonecycleofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 2.0
Therightasymptoteisat:
unitstotherightofthe
asymptote
Note:If
0,allpoints
onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
Page 25 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphofaGeneralCotangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacotangentfunctionis:
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Period:
.Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof
cot .
PhaseShift:
.Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift:
.Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.
Example2.4:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Notethat,forthe
cotangentcurve,
wetypicallygraph
theasymptotes
first,andthen
graphthecurve
betweenthem(see
nextpage).
Version 2.0
Forthisexample:
;
ScaleFactor:| |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Page 26 of 109
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January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphingaCotangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthecotangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin
between.Itflowsdownwardtotherightif
0andupwardtotherightif
0.
Example:
.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Placeaverticalasymptote
unitstotherightofthe
axis.
Step2:Period:
.Theleft
asymptoteisat:
Placeanothervertical
asymptote unitstothe
rightofthefirstone.
Therightasymptoteisat:
Step3:Azeropointexists
halfwaybetweenthetwo
asymptotes.
Thepointis:
,
Step4:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
leftasymptoteandthezero
pointis" ".
The pointis:
Step5:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
zeropointandtheright
asymptoteis"
".
The pointis:
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey
points,approachingthe
asymptotesoneachside.
Thiswillproducethegraph
ofonecycleofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 2.0
Note:If
0,allpoints
onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
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January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphofaGeneralSecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasecantfunctionis:
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Period:
.Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof
sec .
PhaseShift:
.Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift:
.Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
.
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
Example2.5:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
OnecycleofthesecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one
openingupandoneopeningdown.
Forthisexample:
;
ScaleFactor:| |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
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January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphingaSecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthesecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingcosinefunctionbecausesec
Thecosinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthesecantfunction.
Maximaforthecosinefunctionproduceminimaforthesecantfunction.
Minimaforthecosinefunctionproducemaximaforthesecantfunction.
SecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown.
Theequationofthe
correspondingcosine
functionfortheexampleis:
Step1:Graphonewaveof
thecorrespondingcosine
function.
Example:
Step2:Asymptotesforthe
secantfunctionoccuratthe
zeropointsofthecosine
function.
Thezeropointsoccurat:
Step3:Eachmaximumof
thecosinefunction
representsaminimumfor
thesecantfunction.
Cosinemaximaand,
therefore,secantminimaare
Step4:Eachminimumof
thecosinefunction
representsamaximumfor
thesecantfunction.
Thecosineminimum and,
therefore,thesecant
Secantasymptotesare:
at:
and
, 4 and
maximumisat:
Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach
keypoint,approachingthe
asymptotesoneachside.
,4
, 4
Thiswillproducethegraph
ofonecycleofthefunction.
Step6:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas
desired.Erasethecosine
functionifnecessary.
, 0
, 0 and
Note:If
0,allpoints
onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
Version 2.0
Page 29 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphofaGeneralCosecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosecantfunctionis:
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Period:
.Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof
csc .
PhaseShift:
.Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift:
.Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
.
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
Example2.6:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
OnecycleofthecosecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one
openingupandoneopeningdown.
Forthisexample:
;
ScaleFactor:| |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphingaCosecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthecosecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingsinefunctionbecausecsc
Thesinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthecosecantfunction.
Maximaforthesinefunctionproduceminimaforthecosecantfunction.
Minimaforthesinefunctionproducemaximaforthecosecantfunction.
CosecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown.
Theequationofthe
correspondingsinefunction
fortheexampleis:
Step1:Graphonewaveof
thecorrespondingsine
function.
Example:
Step2:Asymptotesforthe
cosecantfunctionoccurat
thezeropointsofthesine
function.
Thezeropointsoccurat:
,0 ,
,0 ,
,0
Cosecantasymptotesare:
Step3:Eachmaximumof
thesinefunctionrepresents
aminimumforthecosecant
function.
Thesinemaximumand,
therefore,thecosecant
minimumisat: , 4
Step4:Eachminimumof
thesinefunctionrepresents
amaximumforthecosecant
function.
Thesineminimumand,
therefore,thecosecant
maximumisat:
Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach
keypoint,approachingthe
asymptotesoneachside.
Thiswillproducethegraph
ofonecycleofthefunction.
Step6:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas
desired.Erasethesine
functionifnecessary.
, 4
Note:If
0,allpoints
onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
SimpleHarmonicMotion
InPhysics,SimpleHarmonicMotionisanoscillatingmotion(think:repeatingupanddownmotion)
wheretheforceappliedtoanobjectisproportionaltoandintheoppositedirectionofits
displacement.Acommonexampleistheactionofacoiledspring,whichoscillatesupanddown
whenreleased.Suchmotioncanbemodeledbythesineandcosinefunctions,usingthefollowing
equations(note: isthelowercaseGreekletteromega,nottheEnglishletterw):
cos
Harmonicmotionequations:
Period:
sin
or
Frequency:
or
with
Situationsinwhichanobjectstartsatrestatthecenterofitsoscillation,oratrest,usethesine
function(becausesin 0 0);situationsinwhichanobjectstartsinanupordownpositionpriortoits
releaseusethecosinefunction(becausecos 0 1).
Example2.7:Anobjectisattachedtoacoiledspring.Theobjectispulledupandthenreleased.If
theamplitudeis5cmandtheperiodis7seconds,writeanequationforthedistanceoftheobject
fromitsstartingpositionafter seconds.
Thespringwillstartata valueof 5(sinceitispulledup),andoscillatebetween 5and 5
(absentanyotherforce)overtime.Agoodrepresentationofthiswouldbeacosinecurvewith
leadcoefficient
5.
Theperiodofthefunctionis7seconds.So,weget:
1
period
1
and
7
1
2
7
5 cos
Theresultingequation,then,is:
Example2.8:Anobjectinsimpleharmonicmotionhasafrequencyof1.5oscillationspersecondand
anamplitudeof13cm.Writeanequationforthedistanceoftheobjectfromitsrestpositionafter
seconds.
Assumingthatdistance 0attime
0,itmakessensetouseasinefunctionforthis
problem.Sincetheamplitudeis13cm,agoodrepresentationofthiswouldbeasinecurvewith
leadcoefficient
13.Notethataleadcoefficient
13wouldworkaswell.
Recallingthat
,with
1.5 weget:
Theresultingequations,then,are:
Version 2.0
13 sin 3
Page 32 of 109
2 1.5
or
3 .
13 sin 3
January 1, 2016
Chapter3
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Inversetrigonometricfunctionsareshownwitha" 1"exponentoranarcprefix.So,theinverse
sineof maybeshownassin
orarcsin .Inversetrigonometricfunctionsaskthequestion:
whichangle hasafunctionvalueof ?Forexample:
sin
0.5 askswhichanglehasasinevalueof0.5.Itisequivalentto:sin
arctan 1 askswhichanglehasatangentvalueof1.Itisequivalentto:tan
0.5.
1.
PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Thereareaninfinitenumberofanglesthatanswertheabove
questions,sotheinversetrigonometricfunctionsarereferredtoas
multivaluedfunctions.Becauseofthis,mathematicianshavedefined
aprincipalsolutionforproblemsinvolvinginversetrigonometric
functions.Theanglewhichistheprincipalsolution(orprincipalvalue)
isdefinedtobethesolutionthatliesinthequadrantsidentifiedinthe
figureatright.Forexample:
sin
Thesolutionstotheequation
intervals
0.5areall valuesinthe
.Thatis,thesetofall
solutionstothisequationcontainsthetwosolutionsintheinterval
0, 2 ,aswellasallanglesthatareintegermultiplesof2 less
thanorgreaterthanthosetwoangles.Giventheconfusionthiscancreate,mathematicianshave
definedaprincipalvalueforthesolutiontothesekindsofequations.
Theprincipalvalueof forwhich
0.5liesinQ1because0.5ispositive,andis
sin
RangesofInverseTrigonometric
Functions
RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Therangesofinversetrigonometricfunctions
aregenerallydefinedtobetherangesofthe
principalvaluesofthosefunctions.Atable
summarizingtheseisprovidedatright.
Function
AnglesinQ4areexpressedasnegativeangles.
sin
cos
tan
Range
2
0
2
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
Chapter3
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
GraphsofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Principalvaluesareshowningreen.
Version 2.0
Page 34 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter3
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Itistemptingtobelieve,forexample,thatsin sin
or
tan tan
.Thetwofunctionsare,afterallinverses.However,
thisisnotalwaysthecasebecausetheinversefunctionvaluedesired
istypicallyitsprincipalvalue,whichthestudentwillrecallisdefined
onlyincertainquadrants(seethetableatright).
Letslookatacoupleofproblemstoseehowtheyaresolved.
Example3.1:Calculatetheprincipalvalueoftan
tan
Beginbynoticingthattan andtanareinversefunctions,sothe
solutiontothisproblemisrelatedtotheanglegiven:
.This
angleisinQ2,buttheinversetangentfunctionisdefinedonlyin
Q1andQ4,ontheinterval
WeseektheangleinQ1orQ4thathasthesametangentvalueas
Sincethetangentfunctionhasperiod ,wecancalculate:
tan
tan
(inQ4)asoursolution.
Example3.2:Calculatetheprincipalvalueofsin
cos
Wearelookingfortheanglewhosesinevalueiscos
Method1:sin
cos
sin
Method2:Recall:sin
intheinterval
sincesinevaluesarenegativeinQ4.
cos .Then,cos
Then,sin
cos
sin
sin
becausecos
sin
sin
because
sin
sin
and
sin
sin
isintheinterval
becauseinversefunctionsworknicelyinquadrantsinwhichthe
principalvaluesoftheinversefunctionsaredefined.
Version 2.0
Page 35 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter3
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Whentheinversetrigonometricfunctionistheinnerfunctioninacompositionoffunctions,itwill
usuallybenecessarytodrawatriangletosolvetheproblem.Inthesecases,drawthetriangle
definedbytheinner(inversetrig)function.Thenderivethevalueoftheouter(trig)function.
Example3.3:Calculatethevalueofcot sin
Recallthattheargumentofthesin function,
.Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetriangleshorizontalleg:
61
561
661.
Basedonthediagram,then,
cot sin
561
61
661
561
6
5
Example3.4:Calculatethevalueoftan cos
Recallthattheargumentofthecos function,
.Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetrianglesverticalleg:
2.
Basedonthediagram,then,
2
2
tan cos
2
2
Example3.5:Calculateanalgebraicexpressionforsin sec
Recallthattheargumentofthesec
function,
.Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetrianglesverticalleg:
Basedonthediagram,then,
sin sec
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
KeyAngleFormulas
AngleAdditionFormulas
sin
sin
cos
cos
cos cos
cos cos
tan
cos 2
sin sin
sin sin
DoubleAngleFormulas
tan 2
cos
sin
1 2 sin
2 cos
1
HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle
sin
cos
formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich
theangle resides.Seechartbelow.
SignsofTrigFunctions
ByQuadrant
tan
sin+
sin+
cos
cos+
tan
tan+
x
sin
sin
cos
cos+
tan+
tan
Version 2.0
Page 37 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
KeyAngleFormulasExamples
cos cos
sin sin
cos 175
55
cos 120
cos 60 ConvertingtoanangleinQ1
tan 315
60
AnglesinQ4andQ1
ConvertingtoQ1angles
sin 60
45
Note:bothanglesareinQ1,whichmakesthingseasier.
or
Version 2.0
Page 38 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
Example4.4:sin
, liesinquadrantII,andcos
, liesinquadrantI.Findcos
Constructtrianglesforthetwoangles,beingcarefultoconsiderthesignsofthevaluesineach
quadrant:
Then,cos
cos
cos
sin
sin
Example4.5:Giventhediagramatright,find:tan 2
tan 2
7
2 24
7
1 24
7
12
527
576
Example4.6: tan
Drawthetrianglebelow,thenapplytheappropriateformulas.
Version 2.0
sin 2
2 sin cos
15
17
cos 2
cos
8
17
tan 2
sin 2
cos 2
sin
Page 39 of 109
8
17
15
17
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
Example4.7:Findtheexactvalueof:cos
Notethat
cos
5
12
isinQ1,sothevalueof cos
5
6
cos
Recall:cos
5
ispositive.
12
Usingthehalfangleformulaabove
ConvertingtoanangleinQ1
2 3
4, liesinquadrantIV.Findsin .
Example4.8:csc
Recall:sin
sin
cos
sin
so,sin
sin
1 cos
15
Note:cosineispositiveinQ4
Usingthehalfangleformulaabove
8 215
Version 2.0
Page 40 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
KeyAngleFormulas
PowerReducingFormulas
sin
tan
cos
ProducttoSumFormulas
SumtoProductFormulas
Version 2.0
Page 41 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
KeyAngleFormulasExamples
Example4.9:Converttoasumformula:sin 8 cos 5
Use:
sin 8 cos 5
sin 8
sin 8
cos
Example4.10:Converttoasumformula:cos
Use:
cos
cos
cos
cos
Example4.11:Converttoaproductformula:sin 8
Use:
sin 8
sin 2
2 sin
sin 2
cos
Example4.12:Converttoaproductformula:cos 8
Use:
cos 8
cos 2
2 sin
cos 2
sin
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Page 42 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
IdentitiesandEquations
VerifyingIdentities
AsignificantportionofanytrigonometrycoursedealswithverifyingTrigonometricIdentities,i.e.,
statementsthatarealwaystrue(assumingthetrigonometricvaluesinvolvedexist).Thissection
dealswithhowthestudentmayapproachverificationofidentitiessuchas:
1
tan
sin
InverifyingaTrigonometricIdentity,thestudentisaskedtoworkwithonlyonesideoftheidentity
and,usingthestandardrulesofmathematicalmanipulation,derivetheotherside.Thestudentmay
workwitheithersideoftheidentity,sogenerallyitisbesttoworkonthesidethatismostcomplex.
Thestepsbelowpresentastrategythatmaybeusefulinverifyingidentities.
VerificationSteps
1. Identifywhichsideyouwanttoworkon.LetscallthisSideA.Letscallthesideyouarenot
workingonSideB.So,youwillbeworkingonSideAtomakeitlooklikeSideB.
a. Ifonesidehasamultipleofanangle(e.g.,tan 3 )andtheothersidedoesnot(e.g.,
cos ),workwiththesidethathasthemultipleofanangle.
b. Ifonesidehasonlysinesandcosinesandtheotherdoesnot,workwiththesidethat
doesnothaveonlysinesandcosines.
c. Ifyougetpartwaythroughtheexerciseandrealizeyoushouldhavestartedwiththe
otherside,startoverandworkwiththeotherside.
2. Ifnecessary,investigateSideBbyworkingonitalittle.Thisisnotaviolationoftherulesas
longas,inyourverification,youcompletelymanipulateSideAtolooklikeSideB.Ifyou
choosetoinvestigateSideB,moveyourworkoffalittletothesidesoitisclearyouare
investigatingandnotactuallyworkingsideB.
3. SimplifySideAasmuchaspossible,butremembertolookattheothersidetomakesureyou
aremovinginthatdirection.Dothisalsoateachstepalongtheway,aslongasitmakesSide
AlookmorelikeSideB.
a. UsethePythagoreanIdentitiestosimplify,e.g.,ifonesidecontains 1 sin
and
withcos .
theothersidecontainscosinesbutnotsines,replace 1 sin
b. Changeanymultiplesofangles,halfangles,etc.toexpressionswithsingleangles(e.g.,
replacesin 2 with2 sin cos ).
c. Lookfor1s.Oftenchanginga1intosin
cos (orviceversa)willbehelpful.
4. RewriteSideAintermsofsinesandcosines.
5. Factorwherepossible.
6. SeparateorcombinefractionstomakeSideAlookmorelikeSideB.
Thefollowingpagesillustrateanumberoftechniquesthatcanbeusedtoverifyidentities.
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
Chapter5
IdentitiesandEquations
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques
Technique:InvestigateOneorBothSides
Often,whenlookingatanidentity,itisnotimmediatelyobvioushowtoproceed.Inmanycases,
investigatingbothsideswillprovidethenecessaryhintstoproceed.
Example5.1:
1
1
sin
cos
1
1
sin
cos
cot
cot
Yuk!Thisidentitylooksdifficulttodealwiththerearelotsoffractions.Letsinvestigateitby
convertingtherightsidetosinesandcosines.Notethatontheright,wemovethenewfraction
offtothesidetoindicateweareinvestigatingonly.Wedothisbecausewemustverifyan
identitybyworkingononlyonesideuntilwegettheotherside.
1
1
sin cos
1
1
sin
cos
cot
cot
1
1
cos
cos
sin cos
cos
cos
sin
cos
Inmanipulatingtherightside,wechangedeach1inthegreenexpressionto
becausewe
wantsomethingthatlooksmoreliketheexpressionontheleft.
Noticethattheorangeexpressionlooksalotliketheexpressionontheleft,exceptthatevery
placewehavea1intheexpressionontheleftwehavecos intheorangeexpression.
Whatisournextstep?Weneedtochangeallthe1sintheexpressiononthelefttocos .We
candothisbymultiplyingtheexpressionontheleftby
,asfollows:
1
1
sin
cos
cos
1
1
cos
sin
cos
cot
cot
Noticethatthismatchestheorangeexpressionabove.
1
1
cot
cot
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January 1, 2016
Chapter5
IdentitiesandEquations
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:BreakaFractionintoPieces
Whenafractioncontainsmultipletermsinthenumerator,itissometimesusefultobreakitinto
separateterms.Thisworksespeciallywellwhentheresultingnumeratorhasthesamenumberof
termsasexistontheothersideoftheequalsign.
Example5.2:
cos
cos cos
tan tan
withcos cos
First,itsagoodideatoreplacecos
sin sin :
cos cos
sin sin
cos cos
Next,breakthefractionintotwopieces:
cos cos
sin sin
cos cos
cos cos
Finally,simplifytheexpression:
1
sin
cos
sin
cos
tan tan
tan tan
Version 2.0
Page 45 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
IdentitiesandEquations
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:GetaCommonDenominatoronOneSide
Ifitlookslikeyouwouldbenefitfromgettingacommondenominatorforthetwosidesofanidentity,
tryconvertingonesidesothatithasthatdenominator.Inmanycases,thiswillresultinan
expressionthatwillsimplifyintoamoreusefulform.
Example5.3:
cos
1 sin
sin
cos
Ifweweretosolvethislikeanequation,wemightcreateacommondenominator.Remember,
however,thatwecanonlyworkononeside,sowewillobtainthecommondenominatorononly
oneside.Inthisexample,thecommondenominatorwouldbe:cos 1 sin .
cos
cos
cos
1 sin
cos
cos 1
sin
Oncewehavemanipulatedonesideoftheidentitytohavethecommondenominator,therestof
theexpressionshouldsimplify.Tokeepthecos inthedenominatoroftheexpressiononthe
left,weneedtoworkwiththenumerator.Acommonsubstitutionistoconvertbetweensin
cos
1.
andcos usingthePythagoreanidentitysin
1 sin
cos 1 sin
Noticethatthenumeratorisadifferenceofsquares.Letsfactorit.
1
sin
1 sin
cos 1 sin
Finally,wesimplifybyeliminatingthecommonfactorinthenumeratoranddenominator.
sin
cos
sin
cos
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Chapter5
IdentitiesandEquations
SolvingTrigonometricEquations
Solvingtrigonometricequationsinvolvesmanyofthesameskillsassolvingequationsingeneral.
Somespecificthingstowatchforinsolvingtrigonometricequationsarethefollowing:
Arrangement.Itisoftenagoodideatogetarrangetheequationsothatalltermsareonone
sideoftheequalsign,andzeroisontheother.Forexample,tan sin
tan canbe
rearrangedtobecometan sin
tan
0.
Quadratics.Lookforquadraticequations.AnytimeanequationcontainsasingleTrig
functionwithmultipleexponents,theremaybeawaytofactoritlikeaquadraticequation.
Forexample,cos
2 cos
1
cos
1 .
Factoring.Lookforwaystofactortheequationandsolvetheindividualtermsseparately.For
example,tan sin
tan
tan
sin
1 .
TermswithNoSolution.Afterfactoring,sometermswillhavenosolutionandcanbe
discarded.Forexample,sin
2 0requiressin
2,whichhasnosolutionsincethe
sinefunctionnevertakesonavalueof2.
Replacement.HavingtermswithdifferentTrigfunctionsinthesameequationisnota
problemifyouareabletofactortheequationsothatthedifferentTrigfunctionsarein
differentfactors.Whenthisisnotpossible,lookforwaystoreplaceoneormoreTrig
functionswithothersthatarealsointheequation.ThePythagoreanIdentitiesare
particularlyusefulforthispurpose.Forexample,intheequationcos
sin
1 0,
cos canbereplacedby1 sin ,resultinginanequationcontainingonlyoneTrig
function.
ExtraneousSolutions.Checkeachsolutiontomakesureitworksintheoriginalequation.A
solutionofonefactorofanequationmayfailasasolutionoverallbecausetheoriginal
functiondoesnotexistatthatvalue.SeeExample5.6below.
InfiniteNumberofSolutions.Trigonometricequationsoftenhaveaninfinitenumberof
solutionsbecauseoftheirperiodicnature.Insuchcases,weappend 2 oranotherterm
tothesolutionstoindicatethis.SeeExample5.9below.
SolutionsinanInterval.Becarefulwhensolutionsaresoughtinaspecificinterval.Forthe
interval 0, 2 ,therearetypicallytwosolutionsforeachfactorcontainingaTrigfunctionas
longasthevariableinthefunctionhasleadcoefficientof1(e.g., or).Ifthelead
coefficientisotherthan1(e.g.,5 or5),thenumberofsolutionswilltypicallybetwo
multipliedbytheleadcoefficient(e.g.,10solutionsintheinterval 0, 2 foraterminvolving
5 ).SeeExample5.5below,whichhas8solutionsontheinterval 0, 2 .
Anumberofthesetechniquesareillustratedintheexamplesthatfollow.
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Chapter5
IdentitiesandEquations
SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples
Example5.4:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2
2 cos
:cos
Thetrickonthisproblemistorecognizetheexpressionasaquadraticequation.Replacethe
trigonometricfunction,inthiscase,cos ,withavariable,like ,thatwillmakeiteasiertosee
howtofactortheexpression.Ifyoucanseehowtofactortheexpressionwithoutthetrick,byall
meansproceedwithoutit.
Let
cos ,andourequationbecomes:
Thisequationfactorstoget:
Andfinally:
0.
cos
cos
Theonlysolutionforthisontheinterval 0, 2
Example5.5:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2
0 cos
is:
:sin 4
Whenworkingwithaproblemintheinterval 0, 2 thatinvolvesafunctionof
expandtheintervalto 0, 2
forthefirststepsofthesolution.
Inthisproblem,
4,sowewantallsolutionstosin
,itisusefulto
4 isanangleinthe
where
interval 0, 8 .Notethat,beyondthetwosolutionssuggestedbythediagram,additional
solutionsareobtainedbyaddingmultiplesof2 tothosetwosolutions.
Usingthediagramatleft,wegetthefollowingsolutions:
Then,dividingby4,weget:
2 7 8 13 14 19 20
,
,
,
,
,
,
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
2 7 8 13 14 19 20
,
,
,
,
,
,
3 3 3 3 3
3
3
3
Notethatthereare8solutions
becausetheusualnumberof
solutions(i.e.,2)isincreased
byafactorof
4.
Andsimplifying,weget:
,
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Chapter5
IdentitiesandEquations
SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples
Example5.6:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2
sin
tan
tan
tan
sin
tan
or
:tan
sin
tan
0
0
0,
sin
sin
While
sin
1,tan isundefinedat
so isnotasolutiontothisequation.
isasolutiontotheequation
,
Example5.7:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2
cos 1
2 sin
:cos
2 cos sin
:cos
cos
cos
0or
,
1
sin
2 sin
Example5.8:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2
Use:cos
cos
cos cos
cos
cos cos
3
2 cos cos
cos cos
sin sin
sin sin
3
2 cos
1
2
cos
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Chapter5
IdentitiesandEquations
SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples
Example5.9:Solveforallsolutionsof :2 sin
2 sin
Thedrawingatleftillustratesthetwo
anglesin 0, 2
3
2
sin
forwhichsin
.To
getallsolutions,weneedtoaddall
integermultiplesof2 tothesesolutions.
So,
2 tan
tan sec
tan
0 or sec
0
sec
cos
Collectingthevarioussolutions,
sec
2 tan
2
or
Note:thesolutioninvolvingthetangentfunctionhastwoanswersintheinterval 0, 2 .
However,theyare radiansapart,asmostsolutionsinvolvingthetangentfunctionare.
Therefore,wecansimplifytheanswersbyshowingonlyonebaseanswerandadding ,instead
ofshowingtwobaseanswersthatare apart,andadding2 toeach.
Forexample,thefollowingtwosolutionsfortan
givenabove:
0
, 4 , 2 , 0, 2 , 4 ,
, 3 ,
, ,3 ,5
0aretelescopedintothesinglesolution
, 2 ,
, 0, , 2 ,
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Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
Severalmethodsexisttosolveanobliquetriangle,i.e.,atrianglewithnorightangle.Theappropriate
methoddependsontheinformationavailableforthetriangle.Allmethodsrequirethatthelengthof
atleastonesidebeprovided.Inaddition,oneortwoanglemeasuresmaybeprovided.Notethatif
twoanglemeasuresareprovided,themeasureofthethirdisdetermined(becausethesumofall
threeanglemeasuresmustbe180).Themethodsusedforeachsituationaresummarizedbelow.
GivenThreeSidesandnoAngles(SSS)
Giventhreesegmentlengthsandnoanglemeasures,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethemeasureofoneangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
GivenTwoSidesandtheAnglebetweenThem(SAS)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandthemeasureoftheanglethatisbetweenthem,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethelengthoftheremainingleg.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
GivenOneSideandTwoAngles(ASAorAAS)
Givenonesegmentlengthandthemeasuresoftwoangles,dothefollowing:
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethelengthsofthetworemaininglegs.
GivenTwoSidesandanAnglenotbetweenThem(SSA)
ThisistheAmbiguousCase.Severalpossibilitiesexist,dependingonthelengthsofthesidesandthe
measureoftheangle.Thepossibilitiesarediscussedonthenextseveralpages.
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Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
LawsofSinesandCosines
A
c
Thetriangleabovecanbeorientedinanymanner.Itdoesnotmatterwhichangleis , or .
However,
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .
LawofSines(seeaboveillustration)
LawofCosines(seeaboveillustration)
cos
cos
cos
Thelawofcosinescanbedescribedinwordsasfollow:Thesquareofanysideisthesumof
thesquaresoftheothertwosidesminustwicetheproductofthosetwosidesandthecosine
oftheanglebetweenthem.
ItlooksalotlikethePythagoreanTheorem,withtheminustermappended.
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Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
LawsofSinesandCosinesExamples
38, B
Example6.1:Solvethetriangle,given:A
32, a
42.1.
Tosolve:findthethirdangle,andthenusetheLawofSines.
180
38
32
110
ThenusetheLawofSinestofindthelengthsofthetwo
remainingsides.
42.1
sin 38
42.1
sin 38
42.1 sin 32
sin 38
sin 32
sin 110
36.2
64.3
Example6.2:Solvethetriangle,given:a
6, c
12, B
124.
First,drawthetrianglefromtheinformationyouaregiven.Thiswillhelpyougetanideaof
whetherthevaluesyoucalculateinthisproblemarereasonable.
Next,findthelengthofthe3rdsideofthetriangleusingthe
LawofCosines: 2 cos
6
12
2 6 12 cos 124
236.52378
236.52378
16.14075 ~ 16.1
UsetheLawofSinestofindthemeasureofoneoftheremainingangles.
sin
sin
sin
6
sin
0.3082
16.14075
sin
sin 124
0.3082
18
ThemeasureoftheremaininganglecanbecalculatedeitherfromtheLawofSinesorfrom
knowledgethatthesumofthethreeanglesinsideatriangleis180.
180
124
18
38
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Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,itisnotclearwhetheratriangleis
defined.Itispossiblethatthegiveninformationwilldefineasingletriangle,twotriangles,orevenno
triangle.Becausetherearemultiplepossibilitiesinthissituation,itiscalledtheambiguouscase.
Herearethepossibilities:
Therearethreecasesinwhich
Case1:
Producesnotrianglebecause isnotlongenoughtoreachthebase.
Case2:
Producesone(right)trianglebecause isexactlylongenoughtoreachthe
base. formsarightanglewiththebase,andistheheightofthetriangle.
Case3:
Producestwotrianglesbecause istherightsizetoreachthebaseintwo
places.Theanglefromwhich swingsfromitsapextomeetthebasecantaketwovalues.
Thereisonecaseinwhich
Case4:
location.
Producesonetrianglebecause istoolongtoreachthebaseinmorethanone
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Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCase
Howdoyousolveatriangle(ortwo)intheambiguouscase?Assumetheinformationgivenisthe
lengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:
Step1:Calculatetheheightofthetriangle(inthisdevelopment,
).
Step2:Compare totheheightofthetriangle, :
If
If
,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.
,then
90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
If
,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.ProceedtotheStep3todeterminewhich.
Step3:Compare to .
If
,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculate
usingtheLawofSines.Find
thetwoanglesintheinterval 0, 180 withthissinevalue;eachofthese sproducesa
separatetriangle.ProceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeach.
If
,thenwehaveCase4onetriangle.Find usingtheLawofSines.Proceedto
Step4.
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Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCasecontd
Step4:Calculate .Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasuresofAngles
and .IfwearedealingwithCase3twotriangles,wemustperformSteps4and5foreachtriangle.
Step4istocalculatethemeasureofAngle asfollows:
180
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
AmbiguousCaseFlowchart
Start Here
Compare
to
Compare to
Two triangles
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January 1, 2016
Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
AmbiguousCaseExamples
Example6.3:Determinewhetherthefollowingmeasurementsproduceonetriangle,twotriangles,
ornotriangle:
35, a 18.7, c 16.1.Solveanytrianglesthatresult.
Sincewearegiventwosidesandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,thisistheambiguouscase.
Wedrawthissituationwith ontheleftand hangingdown,asshownbelow.
Step1:Calculate
18.7 sin 35
10.725
Step2:Compare to .
16.1
10.725.
Step3:Compare to .
16.1
18.7,sowehaveCase3twotriangles.
Calculatesin usingtheLawofSines:
sin
sin
18.7
sin
16.1
sin
sin 35
0.6662
sin
0.6662
42or
180
42
138
Sincewewillhavetwotriangles,wemustsolveeach.
Triangle2 Startwith:
Triangle1Startwith:
18.7,
16.1
35,
138
18.7,
16.1
35,
42
Step4:
Step4:
180
42
103
sin
180
35
138
Step5:
Step5:
35
sin
sin 103
16.1
sin 35
sin
sin 7
16.1
sin 35
3.4
27.4
sin
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Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
AmbiguousCaseExamples
Example6.4:Determinewhetherthefollowingmeasurementsproduceonetriangle,twotriangles,
ornotriangle: B 88, b 2, a 23.Solveanytrianglesthatresult.
Sincewearegiventwosidesandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,thisistheambiguouscase.
Wedrawthissituationwith ontheleftand hangingdown,asshownbelow.
Step1:Calculate
Step2:Compare to .
23 sin 88
.
2
22.986
22.986.
Stop.WehaveCase1notriangle.
AlternativeMethod
Calculatethemeasureofangle usingtheLawofSines:
sin
sin
sin
23
sin
2
sin
sin 88
11.493
11.493
11.493isnotavalidsinevalue(recallthatsinevaluesrangefrom 1to1).Therefore,thegiven
valuesdonotdefineatriangle.
Note:TheAlternativeMethodfordealingwiththeambiguouscaseislaidoutindetailin
AppendixB.
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Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
Bearings
BearingsaredescribeddifferentlyfromotheranglesinTrigonometry.Abearingisaclockwiseor
counterclockwiseanglewhoseinitialsideiseitherduenorthorduesouth.Thestudentwillneedto
translatetheseintoreferenceanglesand/orpolaranglestosolveproblemsinvolvingbearings.
Somebearings,alongwiththekeyassociatedanglesareshownintheillustrationsbelow.Thebearing
angleisshownas ,thereferenceangleisshownas ,andthepolarangleisshownas .
Bearing:
50
BearingAngle:
ReferenceAngle:
ReferenceAngle:
PolarAngle:
Version 2.0
40
30
60
ReferenceAngle:
60
PolarAngle:
BearingAngle:
BearingAngle:
140
PolarAngle:
Bearing:
Bearing:
Bearing:
60
BearingAngle:
30
ReferenceAngle:
210
PolarAngle:
Page 59 of 109
70
20
340
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
BearingsExamples
Example6.5:Twotrackingstationsareontheequator127milesapart.Aweatherballoonislocated
onabearingofN 36 EfromthewesternstationandonabearingofN 13 Wfromtheeastern
station.Howfaristheballoonfromthewesternstation?
Thebearinganglesgivenarethoseshowninorangeinthe
diagramatright.Thefirststepistocalculatethereference
anglesshowninmagentainthediagram.
90
36
54
90
13
77
180
54
77
49
Then,usetheLawofSines,asfollows:
127
sin 49
sin 77
164.0 miles
Example6.6:TwosailboatsleaveaharborintheBahamasatthesametime.Thefirstsailsat25mph
inadirectionS 50 E.Thesecondsailsat30mphinadirectionS 70 W.Assumingthatbothboats
maintainspeedandheading,after4hours,howfarapartaretheboats?
Letsdrawadiagramtoillustratethissituation.Thelengthsoftwosidesofatrianglearebased
onthedistancestheboatstravelinfourhours.Thebearinganglesgivenareusedtocalculate
thereferenceshowninorangeinthediagrambelow.
Boat1travels:25 mph 4 hours 100 milesata
headingofS 50 E.Thisgivesareferenceangleof
90 50 40 belowthepositive axis.
Boat2travels:30 mph 4 hours 120 mi.ata
headingofS 70 W.Thisgivesareferenceangleof
90 70 20 belowthenegative axis.
UsingtheLawofCosines,wecancalculate:
100
120
36,400
190.8 miles
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Chapter7
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle
Thereareanumberofformulasfortheareaofatriangle,dependingonwhatinformation
aboutthetriangleisavailable.
GeometryFormula:Thisformula,learnedinElementaryGeometry,isprobablymostfamiliar
tothestudent.Itcanbeusedwhenthebaseandheightofatriangleareeitherknownorcan
bedetermined.
where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.
Note:Thebasecanbeanysideofthetriangle.Theheightisthelengthofthealtitudeof
whicheversideisselectedasthebase.So,youcanuse:
or
or
HeronsFormula:Heronsformulafortheareaofatrianglecanbeusedwhenthelengthsof
allofthesidesareknown.Sometimesthisformula,thoughlessappealing,canbeveryuseful.
where,
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
Note: iscalledthesemiperimeterofthetrianglebecauseitishalfofthetrianglesperimeter.
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Chapter7
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle(contd)
TrigonometricFormulas
ThefollowingformulasfortheareaofatrianglecanbederivedfromtheGeometryformula,
,usingTrigonometry.Whichonetousedependsontheinformationavailable:
Twoanglesandoneside:
Twosidesandtheanglebetweenthem:
CoordinateGeometryFormula
Ifthethreeverticesofatrianglearedisplayedinacoordinateplane,theformulabelow,usinga
determinant,willgivetheareaofatriangle.
,
Letverticesofatriangleinthecoordinateplanebe:
areaofthetriangleis:
.Then,the
Example7.1:Forthetriangleinthefigureatright,theareais:
Version 2.0
2
3
3
4
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
| 2 3
2
1
1
1
4
6
3 1
3 1
1
3 |
3
3
2
1
1
27
2
Page 62 of 109
27
2
January 1, 2016
Chapter7
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangleExamples
Example7.2:Findtheareaofthetriangleif:C=120,a=4yards,b=5yards.
1
2
sin
1
4 5 sin 120
2
3
2
10
8.66yards2
10yards,
Example7.3:Findtheareaofthetriangleif:
11yards,
15yards.
Tosolvethisproblem,wewilluseHeronsformula:
1
2
1
10
2
Firstcalculate:
11
15
18
Then,
18 18
10 18
18 8 7 3
11 18
1221
15
54.99yards2
Example7.4:FindtheareaofthetriangleinthefigurebelowusingCoordinateGeometry:
1
2
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
5 1
2
1
| 1
2
1
1 1
1
1
7
2
6
7
6
1
1
1 29 |
1 1
1 1
5 1
1
7
6
1
5
1
24
2
12
Note:Itiseasytoseethatthistrianglehasabaseoflength6andaheightof4,sofrom
ElementaryGeometry,theareaofthetriangleis:
64
12(sameanswer).
Thestudentmaywishtotesttheothermethodsforcalculatingareathatarepresentedin
thischaptertoseeiftheyproducethesameresult.(Hint:theydo.)
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Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
PolarCoordinates
PolarcoordinatesareanalternativemethodofdescribingapointinaCartesianplanebasedonthe
distanceofthepointfromtheoriginandthepolaranglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.
Letstakealookattherelationshipbetweenapointsrectangularcoordinates ,
coordinates , .
Themagnitude,r, isthedistanceofthepointfromtheorigin:
anditspolar
Theangle,,isthepolaranglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.Generally,thisangleis
expressedinradians,notdegrees:
tan
so
tan
,adjustedtobeintheappropriatequadrant.
Conversionfrompolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinatesisstraightforward:
cos and
sin
Example8.1:Expresstherectangularform 4, 4 inpolar
coordinates:
Given:
4
4
4
tan
so
42
tan
tan
1 inQuadrantII,
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
Rectangularcoordinates:
4, 4
Example8.2:Expressthepolarform 42,
Given:
42
cos
42 cos
42
sin
42 sin
42
PolarCoordinates: 42,
inrectangularcoordinates:
4
4
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
PolarCoordinates: 42,
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Rectangularcoordinates:
4, 4
January 1, 2016
Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
PolarFormofComplexNumbers
ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
AcomplexnumbercanberepresentedaspointintheCartesianPlane,usingthehorizontalaxisfor
therealcomponentofthenumberandtheverticalaxisfortheimaginarycomponentofthenumber.
Ifweexpressacomplexnumberinrectangularcoordinatesas
,wecanalsoexpressitin
polarcoordinatesas
cos
sin ,with 0, 2 .Then,theequivalencesbetweenthe
twoformsfor are:
ConvertRectangulartoPolar
Magnitude:| |
tan
Angle:
ConvertPolartoRectangular
Since willgenerallyhavetwovalueson 0, 2
quadrantinwhich
resides.
xcoordinate:
cos
ycoordinate:
sin
,weneedtobecarefultoselecttheangleinthe
OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
Around1740,LeonhardEulerprovedthat:
cos
complexnumberasanexponentialformof .Thatis:
cos
sin .Asaresult,wecanexpressany
sin
,thefollowingrulesregarding
Thinkingofeachcomplexnumberasbeingintheform
operationsoncomplexnumberscanbeeasilyderivedbasedonthepropertiesofexponents.
Let:
cos
Multiplication:
sin
cos
cos
sin
sin
.Then,
So,tomultiplycomplexnumbers,youmultiplytheirmagnitudesandaddtheirangles.
Division:
cos
sin
So,todividecomplexnumbers,youdividetheirmagnitudesandsubtracttheirangles.
Powers:
cos
sin
Thisresultsdirectlyfromthemultiplicationrule.
Roots:
cos
sin
also,seeDeMoivresTheorembelow
Thisresultsdirectlyfromthepowerruleiftheexponentisafraction.
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Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
OperationsonComplexNumbersExamples
Example8.3:Findtheproduct:
3 cos
sin
shorthandis:
3 cis
6 cos
sin
shorthandis:
6 cis
Tomultiplytwonumbersinpolarform,multiplythe valuesandaddtheangles.
7
4
3 6 cis
32 cis 4
32 cis 0
32 because cis 0
1.
Note:multiplicationmaybeeasiertounderstandinexponentialform,sinceexponentsareadded
whenvalueswiththesamebasearemultiplied:
3
3 6
32
32
32
Example8.4:Findthequotient:
3 cos
sin
shorthandis:
3 cis
6 cos
sin
shorthandis:
6 cis
Todividetwonumbersinpolarform,dividethe valuesandsubtracttheangles.
3
6
1
2
cis
cis
7
4
4
2
cis
2
3
2
cis
2
2
3
2
because cis
2
2
i.
Note:divisionmaybeeasiertounderstandinexponentialform,sinceexponentsaresubtracted
whenvalueswiththesamebasearedivided:
3
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
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January 1, 2016
Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
DeMoivresTheorem
AbrahamdeMoivre(16671754)wasaFrenchmathematicianwhodevelopedaveryusefulTheorem
fordealingwithoperationsoncomplexnumbers.
cos
Ifwelet
page:
sin
,DeMoivresTheoremgivesusthepowerruleexpressedontheprior
cos
Example8.5:Find
,wehave
3and
tan
And,
First,since
Then,
sin
4;
7.
4,096
138.590inQ2
831.542 ~ 111.542
6
So,
3
1,504.0
sin 111.542
3,809.9
Example8.6:Find
First,since
5and
,wehave
2
Then,
And,
tan
3;
2.
243
221.810inQ3
1,109.052 ~ 29.052
So,
5
sin 29.052
118.0
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Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
DeMoivresTheoremforRoots
cos
Let
sin
equidistantfromeachotheronacircleofradius .Letscalltheroots: , , , ,
theserootscanbecalculatedasfollows
0, 1, 2, ,
1 :
2
cos
sin
.Then,
cis
Theformulacouldalsoberestatedwith2 replacedby360ifthishelpsinthecalculation.
Example8.7:Findthefifthrootsof
First,since
3
13;
tan
And,
2and
,wehave
2
Then,
.
3.
13 ~ 1.2924
56.310;
11.262inQ4
Theincrementalangleforsuccessiverootsis:360
5 roots
72.
Thencreateachartlikethis:
Fifthrootsof
Angle(
11.262
1.2675
0.2524
11.262
72
60.738
0.6317
1.1275
60.738
72
132.738
0.8771
0.9492
132.738
72
204.738
1.1738
0.5408
204.738
72
276.738
0.1516
1.2835
Noticethatifweaddanother72,weget348.738,whichisequivalenttoourfirstangle,
11.262because 348.738 360
11.262.Thisisagoodthingtocheck.Thenext
anglewillalwaysbeequivalenttothefirstangle!Ifitisnt,gobackandcheckyourwork.
Rootsfitonacircle:Noticethat,sincealloftherootsof
have
thesamemagnitude,andtheiranglesare72apartfromeachother,
theyoccupyequidistantpositionsonacirclewithcenter 0, 0 and
radius
13 ~ 1.2924.
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
PolarGraphs
Typically,PolarGraphswillbeplottedonpolargraphpapersuchasthat
illustratedatright.Onthisgraph,apoint , canbeconsideredtobethe
intersectionofthecircleofradius andtheterminalsideoftheangle (see
theillustrationbelow).Note:afreePCappthatcanbeusedtodesignand
printyourownpolargraphpaperisavailableatwww.mathguy.us.
PartsofthePolarGraph
Theillustrationbelowshowsthekeypartsofapolargraph,alongwithapoint, 4,
ThePoleisthepoint 0, 0 (i.e.,theorigin).
ThePolarAxisisthepositive axis.
TheLine:
isthepositive axis.
Manyequationsthatcontainthecosine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.
Manyequationsthatcontainthesine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.
PolarEquationsSymmetry
Followingarethethreemaintypesofsymmetryexhibitedinmanypolarequationgraphs:
Symmetryabout:
SymmetryTest(1)
Opposite(IandIIIorIIandIV)
axis
Lefthemisphere(IIandIII) or
righthemisphere(IandIV)
axis
Upperhemisphere(IandII)or
lowerhemisphere(IIIandIV)
Replace ,
equation
Pole
(1)
QuadrantsContainingSymmetry
with
inthe
Ifperformingtheindicatedreplacementresultsinanequivalentequation,theequationpasses
thesymmetrytestandtheindicatedsymmetryexists.Iftheequationfailsthesymmetrytest,
symmetrymayormaynotexist.
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphsofPolarEquations
GraphingMethods
Method1:Pointplotting
Method2:Calculator
UsingaTI84PlusCalculatororitsequivalent,dothefollowing:
Makesureyourcalculatorissettoradiansandpolarfunctions.HittheMODE
key;selectRADIANSinrow4andPOLARinrow5.Afteryoudothis,hitting
CLEARwillgetyoubacktothemainscreen.
HitY=andentertheequationintheform
.UsetheX,T, ,nkeyto
,youmay
enterintotheequation.Ifyourequationisoftheform
needtoentertwofunctions,
and
,andplotboth.
HitGRAPHtoplotthefunctionorfunctionsyouenteredinthepreviousstep.
Ifnecessary,hitWINDOWtoadjusttheparametersoftheplot.
o Ifyoucannotseethewholefunction,adjusttheXandYvariables(oruseZOOM).
o Ifthecurveisnotsmooth,reducethevalueofthe stepvariable.Thiswillplotmore
pointsonthescreen.Notethatsmallervaluesof steprequiremoretimetoplotthe
curve,sochooseavaluethatplotsthecurvewellinareasonableamountoftime.
o Iftheentirecurveisnotplotted,adjustthevaluesofthe minand maxvariablesuntil
youseewhatappearstobetheentireplot.
Note:Youcanviewthetableofpointsusedtographthepolarfunctionbyhitting2NDTABLE.
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphofPolarEquations
Circle
Equation:
sin
Equation:
cos
Location:
above axisif
below axisif
0
0
Location:
rightof axisif
leftof axisif
Radius: /2
Radius: /2
Symmetry: axis
Symmetry: axis
Equation:
0
0
Location:
CenteredonthePole
Radius:
Symmetry:Pole, axis,
axis
Rose
Characteristicsofroses:
Equation:
sin
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Equation:
cos
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Containedwithinacircleofradius
If isodd,therosehas petals.
If iseventherosehas2 petals.
Notethatacircleisarosewithonepetal(i.e,
1).
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphsofPolarEquations
LimaonofPascal
sin
Equation:
Location:bulbabove axisif
bulbbelow axisif
Symmetry: axis
cos
Equation:
0
0
Location:bulbrightof axisif
bulbleftof axisif
Symmetry: axis
Cardioid
0
0
FourLimaonShapes
Innerloop
Dimple
Nodimple
FourLimaonOrientations(usingtheCardioidasanexample)
sinefunction
sinefunction
cosinefunction cosinefunction
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphofPolarEquations
LemniscateofBernoulli
Thelemniscateisthesetofallpoints
forwhichtheproductofthe
distancesfromtwopoints(i.e.,foci)
whichare2 apartis .
Characteristicsoflemniscates:
Equation:
sin 2
o Symmetricabouttheline
Equation:
cos 2
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Containedwithinacircleofradius
Spirals
HyperbolicSpiral
ArchimedesSpiralFermatsSpiral
Lituus
Characteristicsofspirals:
Equation:
,
0
o DistancefromthePoleincreaseswith
Equation:
o HyperbolicSpiral
o Lituus
0
1 :asymptotictotheline unitsfromthe axis
2 :asymptotictothe axis
Notcontainedwithinanycircle
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphingPolarEquationsTheRose
Example9.1:
Thisfunctionisarose.Considertheforms
sin
and
cos
Thenumberofpetalsontherosedependsonthevalueof .
If isaneveninteger,therosewillhave2 petals.
If isanoddinteger,itwillhave petals.
Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:
/12
7/12
/6
3.464
2/3
3.464
/4
3/4
/3
3.464
5 /6
3.464
11 /12
5 /12
/2
Becausethisfunctioninvolvesan
argumentof2 ,wewanttostartby
lookingatvaluesofin 0, 2
2
0, .Youcouldplotmore
points,butthisintervalissufficient
toestablishthenatureofthecurve;
soyoucangraphtheresteasily.
Oncesymmetryis
established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
Thevaluesinthetable
generatethepointsinthe
Bluepointsonthegraph
correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
twopetalsrightofthe axis.
Knowingthatthecurveisa
roseallowsustographthe
Orangepointsonthe
graphcorrespondto
orangevaluesinthetable.
othertwopetalswithout
calculatingmorepoints.
ThefourRoseforms:
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphingPolarEquationsTheCardioid
Example9.2:
Thiscardioidisalsoalimaonofform
sin with
.Theuseofthesinefunction
indicatesthatthelargeloopwillbesymmetricaboutthe axis.The signindicatesthatthelarge
loopwillbeabovethe axis.Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:
/6
7/6
/3
3.732
4/3
0.268
/2
3/2
2 /3
3.732
5 /3
0.268
5 /6
11 /6
Generally,youwanttolookat
valuesof in 0, 2 .However,
somefunctionsrequirelarger
intervals.Thesizeoftheinterval
dependslargelyonthenatureofthe
functionandthecoefficientof .
Oncesymmetryis
established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
Theportionofthegraph
abovethe axisresults
Bluepointsonthegraph
correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
from inQ1andQ2,
wherethesinefunctionis
positive.
Similarly,theportionof
Orangepointsonthe
graphcorrespondto
orangevaluesinthetable.
thegraphbelowthexaxis
resultsfrom inQ3and
Q4,wherethesine
functionisnegative.
ThefourCardioidforms:
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
RectangulartoPolar
ToconvertanequationfromRectangularFormtoPolarForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos Substitute cos for
sin Substitute sin for
Substitute for
3
Example9.3:Convert8
StartingEquation:
10
Factorout :
Divideby 8 cos
0toapolarequationoftheform
cos and
Substitute
3 sin
sin :
8 cos
8 cos
10
3 sin
10
3 sin
10
PolartoRectangular
ToconvertanequationfromPolarFormtoRectangularForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos
sin
for
, sin
Substitutecos
Multiplyby :
Completethesquare:
Substitute
Subtract8
:
9 :
r = 8 cos + 9 sin
8
8
8
8
9
8
Simplifytostandardformforacircle:
16
9
9
9
0
16
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
ParametricEquations
Onewaytodefineacurveisbymaking and (or and )functionsofathirdvariable,often (for
time).ThethirdvariableiscalledtheParameter,andfunctionsdefinedinthismanneraresaidtobe
inParametricForm.TheequationsthatdefinethedesiredfunctionarecalledParametricEquations.
InParametricEquations,theparameteristheindependentvariable.Eachoftheothertwo(ormore)
variablesisdependentonthevalueoftheparameter.Astheparameterchanges,theothervariables
change,generatingthepointsofthefunction.
Example9.5:Arelativelysimpleexampleisacircle,whichwecandefineasfollows:
Circle:
cos
sin
Cartesianform:
Polarform:
16
4
4 cos
Parametricform:
4 sin
FamiliarCurves
Manycurveswithwhichthestudentmaybefamiliarhaveparametricforms.Amongthosearethe
following:
Curve
CartesianForm
Parabolawithhorizontal
directrix
PolarForm
Ellipsewithhorizontal
majoraxis
Hyperbolawithhorizontal
transverseaxis
1
0
1
sin
cos
ParametricForm
2
sin
1
cos
1
cos
sec
tan
Ascanbeseenfromthischart,sometimestheparametricformofafunctionisitssimplest.Infact,
parametricequationsoftenallowustographcurvesthatwouldbeverydifficulttographineither
PolarformorCartesianform.Someoftheseareillustratedonthenextpage.
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Chapter9
PolarFunctions
SomeFunctionsDefinedbyParametricEquations
(StarWarsfans:arethesetheoidsyouarelookingfor?)
Thegraphsbelowareexamplesoffunctionsdefinedbyparametricequations.Theequationsanda
briefdescriptionofthecurveareprovidedforeachfunction.
Deltoid
Nephroid
Astroid
Parametricequations:
Parametricequations:
Parametricequations:
2 cos
cos 2
3 cos
cos 3
cos
2 sin
sin 2
3 sin
sin 3
sin
Thedeltoidisthepathofa
pointonthecircumference
ofacircleasitmakesthree
completerevolutionsonthe
insideofalargercircle.
Theastroidisthepathofa
pointonthecircumference
ofacircleasitmakesfour
completerevolutionsonthe
insideofalargercircle.
Thenephroidisthepathofa
pointonthecircumference
ofacircleasitmakestwo
completerevolutionsonthe
outsideofalargercircle.
Cycloid
Parametricequations:
sin
Version 2.0
cos
Thecycloidisthepathofapointonthecircumferenceofacircleasthe
circlerollsalongaflatsurface(think:thepathofapointontheoutside
ofabicycletireasyourideonthesidewalk).Thecycloidisbotha
brachistochroneandatautochrone(looktheseupifyouareinterested).
Page 78 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
Vectors
Avectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Anexamplewouldbewind
blowingtowardtheeastat30milesperhour.Anotherexamplewouldbetheforceofa10kg
weightbeingpulledtowardtheearth(aforceyoucanfeelifyouareholdingtheweight).
SpecialUnitVectors
Wedefineunitvectorstobevectorsoflength1.Unitvectorshavingthedirectionofthe
positiveaxesareveryuseful.Theyaredescribedinthechartandgraphicbelow.
UnitVector
Direction
positive axis
positive axis
positive axis
Graphical
representationof
unitvectors andj
intwodimensions.
VectorComponents
Thelengthofavector, ,iscalleditsmagnitudeandisrepresentedbythesymbol .Ifa
vectorsinitialpoint(startingposition)is , , ,anditsterminalpoint(endingposition)is
, , ,thenthevectordisplaces
inthe direction,
inthe
direction,and
inthe direction.Wecan,then,representthevectorasfollows:
Themagnitudeofthevector, ,iscalculatedas:
Ifthislooksfamiliar,itshould.Themagnitudeofavectorinthree
dimesnsionsisdeterminedasthelengthofthespacediagonalofa
rectangularprismwithsides , and .
Intwodimensions,theseconceptscontracttothefollowing:
Intwodimensions,themagnitudeofthevectoristhelengthofthehypotenuseofaright
trianglewithsides and .
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Chapter10
Vectors
VectorProperties
Vectorshaveanumberofnicepropertiesthatmakeworkingwiththembothusefuland
relativelysimple.Let and bescalars,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
If
If
and
If
,then
Define tobethezerovector(i.e.,ithaszerolength,sothat
zerovectorisalsocalledthenullvector.
cos and
,then
sin
,then
0).Note:the
, .Thisnotationis
Note:
canalsobeshownwiththefollowingnotation:
usefulincalculatingdotproductsandperformingoperationswithvectors.
PropertiesofVectors
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
DistributiveProperty
MultiplicativeIdentity
MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof
CommutativeProperty
AdditiveInverse
AssociativeProperty
AdditiveIdentity
Also,notethat:
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January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
VectorPropertiesExamples
Example10.1:u=3i6j,v=6i+8j;Findu+v.
Analternativenotationforavectorintheform
is , .Usingthisalternative
notationmakesmanyvectoroperationsmucheasiertoworkwith.
Toaddvectors,simplylinethemup
verticallyandadd:
3, 6
6, 8
3 6, 6
3, 2
8
2
Example10.2:u=2i7jandv=4i21j;Find
4, 21
2, 7
Subtracting isthesameasadding
Toget ,simplychangethesignofeach
elementof .Ifyoufinditeasiertoadd
thantosubtract,youmaywanttoadopt
thisapproachtosubtractingvectors.
2, 14
200
100 2
14
102
Example10.3:Findtheunitvectorthathasthesamedirectionasthevectorv=5i12j.
Aunitvectorhasmagnitude1.Togetaunitvectorinthesamedirectionastheoriginal
vector,dividethevectorbyitsmagnitude.
Theunitvectoris:
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Chapter10
Vectors
VectorPropertiesExamples
Example10.4:Writethevectorvintermsofiandjif =10anddirectionangle=120.
Ithelpstographthevectoridentifiedintheproblem.
Theunitvectorinthedirection
cos 120, sin 120
Multiplythisby
10
1
2
120is:
1 3
,
2 2
1
2
toget :
3
2
53
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Chapter10
Vectors
VectorDotProduct
TheDotProductoftwovectors,
follows:
and
,isdefinedas
Itisimportanttonotethatthedotproductisascalar(i.e.,anumber),notavector.Itdescribes
somethingabouttherelationshipbetweentwovectors,butisnotavectoritself.Auseful
approachtocalculatingthedotproductoftwovectorsisillustratedhere:
,
alternative
vector
notation
Intheexampleatrightthevectorsarelinedupvertically.
Thenumbersintheeachcolumnaremultipliedandthe
resultsareaddedtogetthedotproduct.Intheexample,
4, 3, 2 2, 2, 5 8 6 10 24.
General
,
Example
4, 3, 2
2, 2, 5
10
24
PropertiesoftheDotProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
Moreproperties:
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother.
DistributiveProperty
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
If
Ifthereisascalar suchthat
Version 2.0
0and
and
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January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
VectorDotProductExamples
Example10.5:u=5i+3j,v=5i6j,w=3i+12j;Finduw+vw.
Thealternatenotationforvectorscomesinespeciallyhandyindoingthesetypesof
problems.Also,notethat:(uw)+(vw)=(u+v) w.Letscalculate(u+v)w.
5, 3
5, 6
0, 3
3, 12
v w
Usingthedistributivepropertyfordot
productsresultsinaneasierproblem
withfewercalculations.
3 12
36
36
Example10.6:Findtheanglebetweenthegivenvectors:u=ij,v=4i+5j.
cos
180
1, 1
4, 5
14
1
5
cos
2
41
cos
1 5
96.3
82
Example10.7:Arethefollowingvectorsparallel,orthogonal,orneither?v=4i+3j,w=3i4j
Ifvectorsareparallel,oneisamultipleoftheother;also
Ifvectorsareperpendicular,theirdotproductiszero.
Calculatethedotproduct.
4, 3
3, 4
43
12
12
0So,thevectorsareorthogonal.
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Chapter10
Vectors
VectorDotProductExamples
Example10.8:Arethevectorsareparallel,orthogonal,orneither.v=3i+4j,w=6i+8j
VectorMultipleApproach
Itisclearlyeasiertocheckwhetherone
vectorisamultipleoftheotherthanto
usethedotproductmethod.The
studentmayuseeither,unlessinstructed
touseaparticularmethod.
3, 4
6, 8
Clearly,
Thevectorsareparallel.
DotProductApproach
Todetermineiftwovectorsareparallelusingthedotproduct,wechecktoseeif:
3, 4
6, 8
18
10
32
50
5 10
50
Thevectorsareparallel.
CrossProductApproach(seeCrossProductbelow)
Todetermineiftwovectorsareparallelusingthecrossproduct,wechecktoseeif:
x
v
w
3
6
v
w
4
8
v w
38
46
v w
0
Thevectorsareparallel.
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Chapter10
Vectors
ApplicationsoftheVectorDotProduct
VectorProjection
Theprojectionofavector, ,ontoanothervector ,isobtainedusingthedotproduct.The
formulausedtodeterminetheprojectionvectoris:
proj
Noticethat
isascalar,andthatproj
Inthediagramatright,v1
proj
isavector.
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector(Decomposition)
Avector, ,canbeexpressedasthesumoftwoorthogonalvectors and ,asshowninthe
abovediagram.Theresultingvectorsare:
isparallelto
proj
and
isorthogonalto
Work
Workisascalarquantityinphysicsthatmeasurestheforceexertedonanobjectovera
particulardistance.Itisdefinedusingvectors,asshownbelow.Let:
Fbetheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .
bethevectorfrom to .
betheanglebetweenFand
Then,wedefineworkas:
cos
Magnitude
ofForce
Version 2.0
Distance
Traveled
Bothoftheseformulasareuseful.
Whichonetouseinaparticular
situationdependsonwhat
informationisavailable.
Anglebetween
Vectors
Page 86 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
Example10.9:Themagnitudeanddirectionoftwoforcesactingonanobjectare60pounds,
N 40 E,and70pounds,N 40 W,respectively.Findthemagnitudeandthedirectionangleof
theresultantforce.
Thisproblemrequirestheadditionoftwovectors.Theapproachusedhereis:
1) Converteachvectorintoits iandjcomponents,callthem and ,
2) Addtheresulting and valuesforthetwovectors,and
3) Convertthesumtoitspolarform.
Keepadditionalaccuracythroughoutandroundattheend.Thiswillpreventerror
compoundingandwillpreservetherequiredaccuracyofyourfinalsolutions.
Step1:Converteachvectorintoits iandjcomponents
Let beaforceof60lbs.atbearing:N 40 E
Fromthediagramatright,
90
40
50
60 cos 50
38.5673
60 sin 50
45.9627
Let beaforceof70lbs.atbearing:N 40 W
Fromthediagramatright,
90
40
50
70 cos 50
70 sin 50
44.9951
53.6231
Step2:Addtheresultsforthetwovectors
38.5673, 45.9627
44.9951, 53.6231
6.4278, 99.5858
Step3:Convertthesumtoitspolarform
DirectionAngle
Magnitude
Version 2.0
tan
6.4278
.
.
93.7
99.5858
Page 87 of 109
99.79lbs.
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
Example10.10:Oneropepullsabargedirectlyeastwithaforceof79newtons,andanother
ropepullsthebargedirectlynorthwithaforceof87newtons.Findthemagnitudeand
directionangleoftheresultingforceactingonthebarge.
Theprocessofaddingtwovectorswhoseheadingsarenorth,east,
westorsouth(NEWS)isverysimilartoconvertingasetofrectangular
coordinatestopolarcoordinates.So,ifthisprocessseemsfamiliar,
thatsbecauseitis.
79
Magnitude
DirectionAngle
87
tan
117.52 newtons
47.8
Example10.11:AforceisgivenbythevectorF=5i+2j.Theforcemovesanobjectalonga
straightlinefromthepoint(5,7)tothepoint(18,13).Findtheworkdoneifthedistanceis
measured
infeetandtheforceismeasuredinpounds.
Forthisproblemitissufficienttousetheworkformula,
5, 2.
Wearegiven
Wecancalculate
asthedifferencebetweenthetwogivenpoints.
18, 13
5, 7
13, 6
Then,calculate
5, 2
13, 6
Notethatthedifferencebetweentwopointsisavector.
5 13
26
77footpounds
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Chapter10
Vectors
ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
Example10.12:Decompose intotwovectors and ,where isparalleltowand is
orthogonaltow. =i4j, =2i+j
Theformulasforthisare:
proj
Letsdothecalculations.
1, 4
2, 1
12
41
Then,
proj
2, 1
And,
1, 4
4 2
,
5 5
9 18
,
5 5
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Chapter10
Vectors
VectorCrossProduct
CrossProduct
Inthreedimensions,
u
Let:
and
Then,theCrossProductisgivenby:
u
v
u
v
u
v
sin
u v
u v
u v
u v
u v
u v
Explanation:Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsinthreedimensionsproducesathird
vectorthatisorthogonaltoeachofthefirsttwo.Thisresultingvector x is,therefore,
normaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors(assuming and arenotparallel).Inthe
secondformulaabove, istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors.
Itsorientation(direction)isdeterminedusingtherighthandrule.
RightHandRule
x
Usingyourrighthand:
Pointyourforefingerinthedirectionof ,and
Pointyourmiddlefingerinthedirectionof .
Then:
Yourthumbwillpointinthedirectionof x .
Intwodimensions,
Let:
Then, x
u and
u
v
u
v
v
u v
v
u v whichisascalar(intwodimensions).
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsintwodimensionsiszeroifthevectorsareparallel.
Thatis,vectors and areparallelif x 0.
Theareaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:
sin .
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Chapter10
Vectors
VectorCrossProduct
PropertiesoftheCrossProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
, x
, x
, x
, x
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother
Reverseorientationorthogonality
Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
AnticommutativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
DistributiveProperty
x m
ScalarMultiplication
Moreproperties:
If x
AngleBetweenTwoVectors
Noticethesimilaritiesintheformulasfortheanglebetweentwovectorsusingthedotproduct
andthecrossproduct:
cos
Version 2.0
sin
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Chapter10
Vectors
VectorTripleProducts
ScalarTripleProduct
u
Let:
Thenthetripleproduct x givesascalarrepresentingthevolumeofaparallelepiped
(a3Dparallelogram)with , ,and asedges:
u
v
w
u
v
w
u
v
w
0.
OtherTripleProducts
x x
Duplicatingavectorresultsinaproductof
x x
NoAssociativeProperty
Theassociativepropertyofrealnumbersdoesnottranslatetotripleproducts.Inparticular,
x x
Noassociativepropertyofdotproducts/multiplication
x x Noassociativepropertyofcrossproducts
Version 2.0
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AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
Appendix A
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
TrigonometricFunctions
( and axes)
PythagoreanIdentities
(foranyangle)
sin cos
1
sec
1 tan
1
csc
cot
sin
sin
csc
cos
cos
sec
tan
tan
1
tan
cot
sin
cos
cot
cot
1
cot
tan
cos
sin
sec
sec
cos
csc
csc
sin
SineCosineRelationship
sin
sin
cos
KeyAngles
(
cos
30
45
60
Cofunctions(inQuadrantI)
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
Version 2.0
cos
cot
csc
sin
tan
sec
90
2
Page 93 of 109
)
0 radians
6
4
3
2
radians
radians
radians
radians
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)
SOHCAHTOA
sin
cos
tan
sin
sin
cos
cos
tan
tan
LawsofSinesandCosines(ObliqueTriangle)
LawofSines(seeillustrationbelow)
Version 2.0
cos
cos
cos
LawofCosines(seeillustrationbelow)
Page 94 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
AngleAdditionFormulas
sin
sin
cos
cos
cos cos
cos cos
tan
cos 2
sin sin
sin sin
DoubleAngleFormulas
tan 2
cos
sin
1 2 sin
2 cos
1
HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle
sin
cos
formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich
theangle resides.Seechartbelow.
SignsofTrigFunctions
ByQuadrant
tan
sin+
sin+
cos
cos+
tan
tan+
x
sin
sin
cos
cos+
tan+
tan
Version 2.0
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AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
PowerReducingFormulas
sin
cos
tan
ProducttoSumFormulas
SumtoProductFormulas
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
TriangleAreaFormulas
Geometry
where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.
HeronsFormula
where,
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
UsingBothLengthsandAngles
CoordinateGeometry
Letthreeverticesofatriangleinthecoordinateplanebe:
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
ComplexNumbersinPolarForm
cos
sin
cis
cos
sin
cis
Operations
Let:
cos
sin
cos
sin
Multiplication:
cos
sin
cos
sin
Division:
Powers:
cos
Roots:
sin
cos
variesfrom0to
sin
Version 2.0
Page 98 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
Vectors
, , aretheunitvectorsinthe , , directionsrespectively.
2dimensions
3dimensions
AdditiveIdentity
AdditiveInverse
Properties
AssociativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
DistributiveProperty
MultiplicativeIdentity
MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof
| |
CommutativeProperty
Version 2.0
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January 1, 2016
AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
VectorDotProduct
Let:
and
Properties
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother.
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
cos
DistributiveProperty
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
istheanglebetween and
VectorProjection
proj
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
proj
and
Work
Fistheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .
Version 2.0
cos
isanglebetweenFand
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
VectorCrossProduct
2Dimensions
u
Let:
u and
u
v
u
v
Then, x
u v
u v
3Dimensions
u
Let:
u
u
v
u
v
u
v
sin
and
u v
u v
v
u v
u v
u v
u v
istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectorswithorientation
determinedusingtherighthandrule.
Properties
x
, x
, x
, x
sin
, x
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother
Reverseorientationorthogonality
Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
AnticommutativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
DistributiveProperty
x m
ScalarMultiplication
Version 2.0
istheanglebetween and
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
VectorTripleProducts
u
Let:
ScalarTripleProduct
u
v
w
u
v
w
u
v
w
OtherTripleProducts
x x
x x
NoAssociativeProperty
x x
x x
Version 2.0
January 1, 2016
AppendixB
SolvingtheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod
AppendixB
SolvingtheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod
Howdoyousolveatriangle(ortwo)intheambiguouscase?Assumetheinformationgivenisthe
lengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:
Step1:Calculatethesineofthemissingangle(inthisdevelopment,angle ).
Step2:Considerthevalueof
If
If
1,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.
1,then
Step1:Use
sin
sin
90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
If
1,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.Proceedtothenextsteptodeterminewhich.
Step3:Compare and .
If
,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculatethevaluesofeachangle ,usingthe
LawofSines.Then,proceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeachtriangle.
If
,thenwehavecase4onetriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
Version 2.0
January 1, 2016
AppendixB
SolvingtheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod
Step4istocalculatethemeasureofAngle asfollows:
sin
sin
sin
or
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
AmbiguousCase(AlternativeMethod)Flowchart
Start Here
Value of
sin
Is
yes
no
Two triangles
Version 2.0
January 1, 2016
AppendixC
SummaryofRectangularandPolarForms
Appendix C
SummaryofRectangularandPolarForms
Coordinates
Form
Conversion
RectangularForm
PolarForm
cos
sin
Complex
Numbers
Form
tan
cos
Form
or
cos
sin
Vectors
sin
Conversion
tan
magnitude
directionangle
Conversion
cos
sin
tan
Version 2.0
January 1, 2016
Trigonometry Handbook
Index
Page
54,103
56,104
Subject
AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTriangles
AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTrianglesFlowchart
17
8
37
14
14
Amplitude
Angle
AngleAdditionFormulas
AngleofDepression
AngleofDepression
ArcMeasure
AreaofaTriangle
GeometryFormula
Heron'sFormula
TrigonometricFormulas
CoordinateGeometryFormula
Astroid
61
61
62
62
78
72,75
17
71
9
65,105
65
65
79
65,105
64,105
76
105
11
11
11
8
90
78
Version 2.0
Cardioid
CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
Circles
Cofunctions
ComplexNumbers
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
OperationsinPolarForm
PolarForm
ComponentsofVectors
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
ComplexNumbers
Coordinates
Equations
Vectors
CosecantFunction
CosineFunction
CotangentFunction
CoterminalAngle
CrossProduct
Cycloid
January 1, 2016
Trigonometry Handbook
Index
Page
Subject
11
9
DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(RightTriangle)
DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(xandyaxes)
7
78
67
68
14
Degrees
Deltoid
DeMoivre'sTheorem
DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
Depression,Angleof
83
37
77
DotProduct
DoubleAngleFormulas
Ellipse
Equations
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
SolvingTrigonometricEquations
76
47
17
15
75
30
22
26
34
72
69
74
28
20
24
19
Frequency
Graphs
BasicTrigFunctions
Cardioid
CosecantFunction
CosineFunction
CotangentFunction
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
LimaonofPascal
PolarFunctions
Rose
SecantFunction
SineFunction
TangentFunction
TrigFunctionCharacteristics(Table)
37
32
HalfAngleFormulas
HarmonicMotion
61
77
Heron'sFormula
Hyperbola
IdentitiesVerification
Steps
Techniques
43
44
Version 2.0
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Trigonometry Handbook
Index
Page
Subject
14
8
Inclination,Angleof
InitialSideofanAngle
33
34
33
33
52
52
73
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Definitions
Graphs
PrincipalValues
Ranges
LawofCosines
LawofSines
LemniscateofBernoulli
72
78
51
65
LimaonofPascal
Nephroid
ObliqueTriangleMethodstoSolve
OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
86
77
17
18
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
Parabola
Period
PhaseShift
8
8,69
64,105
65,105
PolarAngle
PolarAxis
PolarCoordinates
PolarFormofComplexNumbers
71
64,105
41
33
41
86
PolarGraphTypes
PolartoRectangularCoordinateConversion
PowerReducingFormulas
PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
ProducttoSumFormulas
ProjectionofOneVectorontoAnother
80
9
8
7,9
64,80
Version 2.0
PropertiesofVectors
PythagoreanIdentities
QuadrantalAngle
Radians
RectangulartoPolarCoordinateConversion
January 1, 2016
Trigonometry Handbook
Index
Page
8
71,74
Subject
ReferenceAngle
Rose
11
32
11
9
11
SecantFunction
SimpleHarmonicMotion
SineFunction
SineCosineRelationship
SOHCAHTOA
73
8
41
11
Spirals
StandardPosition
SumtoProductFormulas
TangentFunction
8
12
11
92
TerminalSideofanAngle
TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
TripleProducts
10
79
79
79
105
90
83
86
86
80
86
92
8
18
86
UnitCircle
UnitVectorsiandj
Vectors
Components
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
CrossProduct
DotProduct
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
Projection
Properties
SpecialUnitVectorsiandj
TripleProducts
VertexofanAngle
VerticalShift
Work
Version 2.0
January 1, 2016