ARCHITECTURAL

ACOUSTICS
UNITS 1 -4

UNIT 1
A sound wave, like any other wave, is introduced into a medium by a vibrating object. The
vibrating object is the source of the disturbance that moves through the medium. The
vibrating object that creates the disturbance could be the vocal
cords of a person, the vibrating string and sound board of a guitar
or violin, the vibrating tines of a tuning fork, or the vibrating
diaphragm of a radio speaker.
The frequency of a wave refers to how often the particles of the medium vibrate when a wave
passes through the medium. The frequency of a wave is measured as the number of complete
back-and-forth vibrations of a particle of the medium per unit of time. If a particle of air
undergoes 1000 longitudinal vibrations in 2 seconds, then the frequency of the wave would
be 500 vibrations per second. A commonly used unit for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated
Hz), where
1 Hertz = 1 vibration/second
The period of a sound wave can be found by measuring the time between successive high
pressure points (corresponding to the compressions) or the time between successive low
pressure points (corresponding to the rarefactions). A sound wave with a high frequency
would correspond to a pressure time plot with a small period. Conversely, a sound wave with
a low frequency would correspond to a pressure time plot with a large period - that is, a plot
corresponding to a large amount of time between successive high pressure points. The
diagram below shows two pressure-time plots, one corresponding to a high frequency and the
other to a low frequency.

Frequency, Pitch and Human Perception

The ears of a human (and other animals) are sensitive detectors capable of detecting the
fluctuations in air pressure that impinge upon the eardrum. The human ear is capable of
detecting sound waves with a wide range of frequencies, ranging between approximately 20

Hz to 20 000 Hz. Any sound with a frequency below the audible range of hearing (i.e., less
than 20 Hz) is known as an infrasound and any sound with a frequency above the audible
range of hearing (i.e., more than 20 000 Hz) is known as an ultrasound. Humans are not
alone in their ability to detect a wide range of frequencies. Dogs can detect frequencies as
low as approximately 50 Hz and as high as 45 000 Hz. Cats can detect frequencies as low as
approximately 45 Hz and as high as 85 000 Hz. Bats, being nocturnal creature, must rely on
sound echolocation for navigation and hunting. Bats can detect frequencies as high as 120
000 Hz. Dolphins can detect frequencies as high as 200 000 Hz. While dogs, cats, bats, and
dolphins have an unusual ability to detect ultrasound, an elephant possesses the unusual
ability to detect infrasound, having an audible range from approximately 5 Hz to
approximately 10 000 Hz.

The sensation of a frequency is commonly referred to as the pitch of a sound. A high pitch
sound corresponds to a high frequency sound wave and a low pitch sound corresponds to a
low frequency sound wave.
The ability of humans to perceive pitch is associated with the frequency of the sound wave
that impinges upon the ear. Because sound waves traveling through air are longitudinal waves
that produce high- and low-pressure disturbances of the particles of the air at a given
frequency, the ear has an ability to detect such frequencies and associate them with the pitch
of the sound. But pitch is not the only property of a sound wave detectable by the human ear.

Intensity
Sound waves are introduced into a medium by the vibration of an object. For example, a
vibrating guitar string forces surrounding air molecules to be compressed and expanded,
creating a pressure disturbance consisting of an
alternating pattern of compressions and rarefactions. The
disturbance then travels from particle to particle through
the medium, transporting energy as it moves. The energy
that is carried by the disturbance was originally imparted
to the medium by the vibrating string. The amount of
energy that is transferred to the medium is dependent
upon the amplitude of vibrations of the guitar string. If
more energy is put into the plucking of the string (that is,
more work is done to displace the string a greater amount from its rest position), then the
string vibrates with a greater amplitude. The greater amplitude of vibration of the guitar
string thus imparts more energy to the medium, causing air particles to be displaced a greater
distance from their rest position. Subsequently, the amplitude of vibration of the particles of
the medium is increased, corresponding to an increased amount of energy being carried by
the particles.

Sound Intensity and Distance

The amount of energy that is transported past a given area of the medium per unit of time is
known as the intensity of the sound wave. The greater the amplitude of vibrations of the

particles of the medium, the greater the rate at which energy is transported through it, and the
more intense that the sound wave is.
Intensity is the energy/time/area; and since the energy/time ratio is equivalent to the quantity
power, intensity is simply the power/area.

Typical units for expressing the intensity of a sound wave are Watts/meter 2.
The intensity varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source. So if the
distance from the source is doubled (increased by a factor of 2), then the intensity is quartered
(decreased by a factor of 4). Similarly, if the distance from the source is quadrupled, then the
intensity is decreased by a factor of 16. And since the intensity-distance relationship is an
inverse square relationship, whatever factor by which the distance is increased, the intensity
is decreased by a factor equal to the square of the distance change factor. The sample data in
the table below illustrate the inverse square relationship between power and distance.

Distance
1m

Intensity
160 units

2m

40 units

3m

17.8 units

4m

10 units

The Threshold of Hearing and the Decibel Scale

Humans are equipped with very sensitive ears capable of detecting sound waves of extremely
low intensity. The faintest sound that the typical human ear can detect has an intensity of
1*10-12 W/m2. This faintest sound that a human ear can detect is known as the threshold of
hearing (TOH). The most intense sound that the ear can safely detect without suffering any
physical damage is more than one billion times more intense than the threshold of hearing.
Since the range of intensities that the human ear can detect is so large, the scale that is
frequently used by physicists to measure intensity is a scale based on powers of 10. This type
of scale is sometimes referred to as a logarithmic scale. The scale for measuring intensity is
the decibel scale. The threshold of hearing is assigned a sound level of 0 decibels
(abbreviated 0 dB); this sound corresponds to an intensity of 1*10 -12 W/m2. A sound that is
10 times more intense ( 1*10-11 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 10 dB. The table below
lists some common sounds with an estimate of their intensity and decibel level.
Source

Intensity

Intensity Level

# of Times
Greater Than TOH

Threshold of Hearing (TOH)

1*10-12 W/m2

0 dB

100

Rustling Leaves

1*10-11 W/m2

10 dB

101

Whisper

1*10-10 W/m2

20 dB

102

Normal Conversation

1*10-6 W/m2

60 dB

106

Busy Street Traffic

1*10-5 W/m2

70 dB

107

Vacuum Cleaner

1*10-4 W/m2

80 dB

108

Large Orchestra

6.3*10-3 W/m2

98 dB

109.8

Walkman at Maximum Level

1*10-2 W/m2

100 dB

1010

Front Rows of Rock Concert

1*10-1 W/m2

110 dB

1011

Threshold of Pain

1*101 W/m2

130 dB

1013

Military Jet Takeoff

1*102 W/m2

140 dB

1014

Instant Perforation of Eardrum

1*104 W/m2

160 dB

1016

The Human Ear

The ear consists of three basic parts - the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Each
part of the ear serves a specific purpose in the task of detecting and interpreting sound. The
outer ear serves to collect and channel sound to the middle ear. The middle ear serves to
transform the energy of a sound wave into the internal vibrations of the bone structure of the
middle ear and ultimately transform these vibrations into a compressional wave in the inner
ear. The inner ear serves to transform the energy of a compressional wave within the inner
ear fluid into nerve impulses that can be transmitted to the brain. The three parts of the ear are
shown below.

The Outer Ear

The outer ear consists of an earflap and an approximately 2-cm long ear canal. The earflap
provides protection for the middle ear in order to prevent damage to the eardrum. The outer
ear also channels sound waves that reach the ear through the ear canal to the eardrum of the
middle ear. Because of the length of the ear canal, it is capable of amplifying sounds with
frequencies of approximately 3000 Hz. As sound travels through the outer ear, the sound is
still in the form of a pressure wave, with an alternating pattern of high and low pressure
regions. It is not until the sound reaches the eardrum at the interface of the outer and the
middle ear that the energy of the mechanical wave becomes converted into vibrations of the
inner bone structure of the ear.

The Middle Ear

The middle ear is an air-filled cavity that consists of an eardrum and three tiny,
interconnected bones - the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The eardrum is a very durable and
tightly stretched membrane that vibrates as the incoming pressure waves reach it. As shown
below, a compression forces the eardrum inward and a rarefaction forces the eardrum
outward, thus vibrating the eardrum at the same frequency of the sound wave.
Being connected to the hammer, the movements of the eardrum will set the hammer, anvil,
and stirrup into motion at the same frequency of the sound wave. The stirrup is connected to
the inner ear; and thus the vibrations of the stirrup are transmitted to the fluid of the inner ear
and create a compression wave within the fluid. The three tiny bones of the middle ear act as
levers to amplify the vibrations of the sound wave. Due to a mechanical advantage, the
displacements of the stirrup are greater than that of the hammer. Furthermore, since the
pressure wave striking the large area of the eardrum is concentrated into the smaller area of
the stirrup, the force of the vibrating stirrup is nearly 15 times larger than that of the eardrum.
This feature enhances our ability of hear the faintest of sounds. The middle ear is an air-filled
cavity that is connected by the Eustachian tube to the mouth. This connection allows for the
equalization of pressure within the air-filled cavities of the ear. When this tube becomes
clogged during a cold, the ear cavity is unable to equalize its pressure; this will often lead to
earaches and other pains.

The Inner Ear

The inner ear consists of a cochlea, the semicircular canals, and the auditory nerve. The
cochlea and the semicircular canals are filled with a water-like fluid. The fluid and nerve cells
of the semicircular canals provide no role in the task of hearing; they merely serve as
accelerometers for detecting accelerated movements and assisting in the task of maintaining
balance. The cochlea is a snail-shaped organ that would stretch to approximately 3 cm. In
addition to being filled with fluid, the inner surface of the cochlea is lined with over 20 000
hair-like nerve cells that perform one of the most critical roles in our ability to hear. These
nerve cells differ in length by minuscule amounts; they also have different degrees of
resiliency to the fluid that passes over them. As a compressional wave moves from the
interface between the hammer of the middle ear and the oval window of the inner ear through
the cochlea, the small hair-like nerve cells will be set in motion. Each hair cell has a natural
sensitivity to a particular frequency of vibration. When the frequency of the compressional
wave matches the natural frequency of the nerve cell, that nerve cell will resonate with a

larger amplitude of vibration. This increased vibrational amplitude induces the cell to release
an electrical impulse that passes along the auditory nerve towards the brain. In a process that
is not clearly understood, the brain is capable of interpreting the qualities of the sound upon
reception of these electric nerve impulses.
*******
Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling
along the same medium. The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape that
results from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium. If
two upward displaced pulses having the same shape meet up with one another while traveling
in opposite directions along a medium, the medium will take on the shape of an upward
displaced pulse with twice the amplitude of the two interfering pulses. This type of
interference is known as constructive interference. If an upward displaced pulse and a
downward displaced pulse having the same shape meet up with one another while traveling in
opposite directions along a medium, the two pulses will cancel each other's effect upon the
displacement of the medium and the medium will assume the equilibrium position. This type
of interference is known as destructive interference.

Destructive interference of sound waves becomes an important issue in the design of concert
halls and auditoriums. The rooms must be designed in such as way as to reduce the amount of
destructive interference. Interference can occur as the result of sound from two speakers
meeting at the same location as well as the result of sound from a speaker meeting with sound
reflected off the walls and ceilings. If the sound arrives at a given location such that
compressions meet rarefactions, then destructive interference will occur resulting in a
reduction in the loudness of the sound at that location. One means of reducing the severity of
destructive interference is by the design of walls, ceilings, and baffles that serve to absorb
sound rather than reflect it.
The destructive interference of sound waves can also be used advantageously in noise
reduction systems. Earphones have been produced that can be used by factory and
construction workers to reduce the noise levels on their jobs. Such earphones capture sound
from the environment and use computer technology to produce a second sound wave that
one-half cycle out of phase. The combination of these two sound waves within the headset
will result in destructive interference and thus reduce a worker's exposure to loud noise.

Reflection and Transmission of Sound

When a wave reaches the boundary between one medium another medium, a portion of the
wave undergoes reflection and a portion of the wave undergoes transmission across the

boundary. The amount of reflection is dependent upon the dissimilarity of the two media. For
this reason, acoustically minded builders of auditoriums and concert halls avoid the use of
hard, smooth materials in the construction of their inside halls. A hard material such as
concrete is as dissimilar as can be to the air through which the sound moves; subsequently,
most of the sound wave is reflected by the walls and little is absorbed. Walls and ceilings of
concert halls are made softer materials such as fiberglass and acoustic tiles. These materials
are more similar to air than concrete and thus have a greater ability to absorb sound. This
gives the room more pleasing acoustic properties.
Reflection of sound waves off of surfaces can lead to one of two phenomena - an echo or a
reverberation. A reverberation often occurs in a small room with height, width, and length
dimensions of approximately 17 meters or less. Why the magical 17 meters? The effect of a
particular sound wave upon the brain endures for more than a tiny fraction of a second; the
human brain keeps a sound in memory for up to 0.1 seconds. If a reflected sound wave
reaches the ear within 0.1 seconds of the initial sound, then it seems to the person that the
sound is prolonged. The reception of multiple reflections off of walls and ceilings within 0.1
seconds of each other causes reverberations - the prolonging of a sound. Since sound waves
travel at about 340 m/s at room temperature, it will take approximately 0.1 s for a sound to
travel the length of a 17 meter room and back, thus causing a reverberation (recall from
Lesson 2, t = v/d = (340 m/s)/(34 m) = 0.1 s). This is why reverberations are common in
rooms with dimensions of approximately 17 meters or less. Perhaps you have observed
reverberations when talking in an empty room, when honking the horn while driving through
a highway tunnel or underpass, or when singing in the shower. In auditoriums and concert
halls, reverberations occasionally occur and lead to the displeasing garbling of a sound.
But reflection of sound waves in auditoriums and concert halls do not always lead to
displeasing results, especially if the reflections are designed right. Smooth walls have a
tendency to direct sound waves in a specific direction. Subsequently the use of smooth walls
in an auditorium will cause spectators to receive a large amount of sound from one location
along the wall; there would be only one possible path by which sound waves could travel
from the speakers to the listener. The auditorium would not seem to be as lively and full of
sound. Rough walls tend to diffuse sound, reflecting it in a variety of directions. This allows a
spectator to perceive sounds from every part of the room, making it seem lively and full. For
this reason, auditorium and concert hall designers prefer construction materials that are rough
rather than smooth.

Reflection of sound waves also leads to echoes. Echoes are different than reverberations.
Echoes occur when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear more than 0.1 seconds after the

original sound wave was heard. If the elapsed time between the arrivals of the two sound
waves is more than 0.1 seconds, then the sensation of the first sound will have died out. In
this case, the arrival of the second sound wave will be perceived as a second sound rather
than the prolonging of the first sound. There will be an echo instead of a reverberation.
Reflection of sound waves off of surfaces is also affected by the shape of the surface. Flat or
plane surfaces reflect sound waves in such a way that the angle at which the wave approaches
the surface equals the angle at which the wave leaves the surface.
Reflection of sound waves off of curved surfaces leads to a more interesting phenomenon.
Curved surfaces with a parabolic shape have the habit of focusing sound waves to a point.
Sound waves reflecting off of parabolic surfaces concentrate all their energy to a single point
in space; at that point, the sound is amplified. Perhaps you have seen a museum exhibit that
utilizes a parabolic-shaped disk to collect a large amount of sound and focus it at a focal
point. If you place your ear at the focal point, you can hear even the faintest whisper of a
friend standing across the room.
The reflection of sound also becomes important to the design of concert halls and
auditoriums. The acoustics of sound must be considered in the design of such buildings. The
most important considerations include destructive interference and reverberations, both of
which are the result of reflections of sound off the walls and ceilings. Designers attempt to
reduce the severity of these problems by using building materials that reduce the amount of
reflection and enhance the amount of transmission (or absorption) into the walls and ceilings.
The most reflective materials are those that are smooth and hard; such materials are very
dissimilar to air and thus reduce the amount of transmission and increase the amount of
reflection. The best materials to use in the design of concert halls and auditoriums are those
materials that are soft. For this reason, fiberglass and acoustic tile are used in such buildings
rather than cement and brick.

Diffraction of Sound Waves

Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or
around a barrier in their path. The amount of diffraction (the sharpness of the bending)
increases with increasing wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength. In fact,
when the wavelength of the wave is smaller than the obstacle or opening, no noticeable
diffraction occurs.
Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we notice sound
diffracting around corners or through door openings, allowing us to hear
others who are speaking to us from adjacent rooms. Many forest-dwelling
birds take advantage of the diffractive ability of long-wavelength sound
waves. Owls for instance are able to communicate across long distances
due to the fact that their long-wavelength hoots are able to diffract around
forest trees and carry farther than the short-wavelength tweets of
songbirds. Low-pitched (long wavelength) sounds always carry further than high-pitched
(short wavelength) sounds.

As the wavelength of a wave becomes smaller than the obstacle that it encounters, the wave
is no longer able to diffract around the obstacle, instead the wave reflects off the obstacle.
Bats use ultrasonic waves with wavelengths smaller than the dimensions of their prey. These
sound waves will encounter the prey, and instead of diffracting around the prey, will reflect
off the prey and allow the bat to hunt by means of echolocation. The wavelength of a 50 000
Hz sound wave in air (speed of approximately 340 m/s) can be calculated as follows
wavelength = speed/frequency
wavelength = (340 m/s)/(50 000 Hz)
wavelength = 0.0068 m

Refraction of Sound Waves

Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one
medium to another. Refraction, or bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied by a
change in speed and wavelength of the waves. So if the media (or its properties) are changed,
the speed of the wave is changed. Thus, waves passing from one medium to another will
undergo refraction. Refraction of sound waves is most evident in situations in which the
sound wave passes through a medium with gradually varying properties. For example, sound
waves are known to refract when traveling over water. Even
though the sound wave is not exactly changing media, it is
traveling through a medium with varying properties; thus, the
wave will encounter refraction and change its direction. Since
water has a moderating effect upon the temperature of air, the
air directly above the water tends to be cooler than the air far above the water. Sound waves
travel slower in cooler air than they do in warmer air. For this reason, the portion of the
wavefront directly above the water is slowed down, while the portion of the wavefronts far
above the water speeds ahead. Subsequently, the direction of the wave changes, refracting
downwards towards the water. This is depicted in the diagram at the right.

Boundary Behavior
As a sound wave travels through a medium, it will often reach the end of the medium and
encounter an obstacle or perhaps another medium through which it could travel. When one
medium ends, another medium begins; the interface of the two media is referred to as the
boundary and the behavior of a wave at that boundary is described as its boundary behavior.
The behavior of a wave (or pulse) upon reaching the end of a medium is referred to as
boundary behavior. There are essentially four possible behaviors that a wave could exhibit
at a boundary: reflection (the bouncing off of the boundary), diffraction (the bending around
the obstacle without crossing over the boundary), transmission (the crossing of the boundary
into the new material or obstacle), and refraction (occurs along with transmission and is
characterized by the subsequent change in speed and direction).

Natural Frequency
The frequency or frequencies at which an object tends to vibrate with when hit, struck,
plucked, strummed or somehow disturbed is known as the natural frequency of the object. If
the amplitudes of the vibrations are large enough and if natural frequency is within the human
frequency range, then the vibrating object will produce sound waves that are audible.
All objects have a natural frequency or set of frequencies at which they vibrate. The quality
or timbre of the sound produced by a vibrating object is dependent upon the natural
frequencies of the sound waves produced by the objects. Some objects tend to vibrate at a
single frequency and they are often said to produce a pure tone.

Factors Affecting the Natural Frequency

The actual frequency at which an object will vibrate at is determined by a variety of factors.
Each of these factors will either affect the wavelength or the speed of the object. Since
frequency = speed/wavelength

an alteration in either speed or wavelength will result in an alteration of the natural frequency.

Resonance
When one object vibrating at the same natural frequency of a second object forces that
second object into vibrational motion, then the phenomenon is termed as resonance.
The result of resonance is always a large vibration. Regardless of the vibrating system, if
resonance occurs, a large vibration results.

UNIT 2
MAXIMUM NOISE LEVELS
Maximum background noise levels are specified for buildings to allow for satisfactory speech
communication, listening to music, sleep or for any other activity. For example, a maximum noise level
of 35 dB(A) may be permitted for a private office.
When a building is designed, the noise levels that will be acceptable within the building must be
known. A suitable level depends primarily on the activity planned for a space.
Recommended maximum noise levels permitted for various activities are:

dBA
Broadcasting studios (music)
Broadcasting studios (drama)
Concert halls, theatres
Bedrooms, large conference halls
Living rooms, churches
Hospital wards, hotel lounges, lecture rooms
Drawing offices, reception areas, class rooms
Cafeterias, canteens, supermarkets

15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50

MINIMUM BACKGROUND NOISE LEVELS

A minimum limit on background noise is specified for a room (i.e. to not have the room too
quiet) to attain:

speech privacy, i.e. to prevent persons in one room from overhearing conversation by
other persons in the same room.
minimum distraction caused by the ingress of interfering noise from adjacent areas.
The background noise masks the incoming sounds.

SPEECH PRIVACY
Speech privacy is an important design criterion for noise control in buildings for the
following reasons:
1.

Confidential conversations should not be overheard.

2.

Conversations heard by persons not involved in them can be distracting and

disturbing.
The above problems occur when:

sound is transmitted from one room to another; or

in the case of open plan offices.

SONOMETER
A sonometer is an apparatus made of a hollow box having two holes. A string is attached to it
by which the transverse vibrations of strings can be studied. It is also called the monochord
because it often has only one string. On the wooden rectangular box are two fixed bridges,
near the ends, and at one end is a pulley. A string,wire is fastened at one end, run over the
bridges and the pulley, and attached to a weight holder hanging below the pulley. Weights
can be added to the holder to produce tension in the wire, and a third, movable bridge, can be
placed under it to change the length of the vibrating section of the string . It is commonly
used in Melde's experiment. A sonometer demonstrates the relationship between the
frequency of the sound produced by a plucked string, and the tension, length and mass per
unit length of the string.

Sound absorption
When a sound wave strikes one of the surfaces of a room, some of the sound energy is reflected
back into the room and some penetrates the surface. Parts of the sound wave energy are absorbed
by conversion to heat energy in the material, while the rest is transmitted through. The level of
energy converted to heat energy depends on the sound absorbing properties of the material.
A material's sound absorbing properties are expressed by the sound absorption coefficient, , (alpha),
as a function of the frequency. ranges from 0 (total reflection) to 1.00 (total absorption).

1. Transmitted energy
2. Converted energy
3. Incident energy
4. Reflected energy
* absorption coefficient

Reverberation
Reverberation is the collection of reflected sounds from the surfaces in an enclosure like an
auditorium. It is a desirable property of auditoriums to the extent that it helps to overcome the
inverse square law dropoff of sound intensity in the enclosure. However, if it is excessive, it
makes the sounds run together with loss of articulation - the sound becomes muddy, garbled.
To quantitatively characterize the reverberation, the paramater called the reverberation time is
used.

Reverberant sound is the

collection of all the reflected
sounds in an auditorium.

Reflection of sound waves off of barriers result in some observable behaviors which you have
likely experienced. Suppose you are in a canyon and you give a holler. Shortly after the
holler, you would hear the echo of the holler - a faint sound resembling the original sound.
This echo results from the reflection of sound off the distant canyon walls and its ultimate
return to your ear. If the canyon wall is more than approximately 17 meters away from where
you are standing, then the sound wave will take more than 0.1 seconds to reflect and return to
you. Since the perception of a sound usually endures in memory for only 0.1 seconds, there
will be a small time delay between the perception of the original sound and the perception of
the reflected sound. Thus, we call the perception of the reflected sound wave an echo.
A reverberation is perceived when the reflected sound wave reaches your ear in less than 0.1
second after the original sound wave. Since the original sound wave is still held in memory,
there is no time delay between the perception of the reflected sound wave and the original
sound wave. The two sound waves tend to combine as one very prolonged sound wave.

UNIT 3
Noise can be defined as "disagreeable or undesired sound" or other disturbance. From the
acoustics point of view, sound and noise constitute the same phenomenon of atmospheric
pressure fluctuations about the mean atmospheric pressure; the differentiation is greatly
subjective.

Types of Noise
Noise may be classified as steady, non-steady or impulsive, depending upon the temporal
variations in sound pressure level.
Steady noise is a noise with negligibly small fluctuations of sound pressure level within the
period of observation. If a slightly more precise single-number description is needed,
assessment by NR (Noise Rating) curves may be used.
A noise is called non-steady when its sound pressure levels shift significantly during the
period of observation. This type of noise can be divided into intermittent noise and
fluctuatingnoise.
Fluctuating noise is a noise for which the level changes continuously and to a great extent
during the period of observation.
Tonal noise may be either continuous or fluctuating and is characterised by one or two single
frequencies. This type of noise is much more annoying than broadband noise characterised by
energy at many different frequencies and of the same sound pressure level as the tonal noise.
Intermittent noise is noise for which the level drops to the level of the background noise
several times during the period of observation. The time during which the level remains at a
constant value different from that of the ambient background noise must be one second or
more.
This type of noise can be described by
_ the ambient noise level
_ the level of the intermittent noise
_ the average duration of the on and off period.
In general, however, both levels are varying more or less with time and the intermittence rate
is changing, so that this type of noise is usually assimilated to a fluctuating noise as described
below, and the same indices are used.
Impulsive noise consists of one or more bursts of sound energy, each of a duration less than
about 1s . Impulses are usually classified as type A and type B according to the time history
of instantaneous sound pressure. Type Acharacterises typically gun shot types of impulses,
while type B is the one most often found in industry (e.g., punch press impulses).

Noise Transmission
Acoustic transmission in building design refers to a number of processes by which sound
can be transferred from one part of a building to another. Typically these are:
1. Airborne transmission - a noise source in one room sends air pressure waves which induce
vibration to one side of a wall or element of structure setting it moving such that the other
face of the wall vibrates in an adjacent room. Structural isolation therefore becomes an
important consideration in the acoustic design of buildings. Highly sensitive areas of
buildings, for example recording studios, may be almost entirely isolated from the rest of a
structure by constructing the studios as effective boxes supported by springs. Air tightness
also becomes an important control technique. A tightly sealed door might have reasonable
sound reduction properties, but if it is left open only a few millimeters its effectiveness is
reduced to practically nothing. The most important acoustic control method is adding mass
into the structure, such as a heavy dividing wall, which will usually reduce airborne sound
transmission better than a light one.
2. Impact transmission - a noise source in one room results from an impact of an object onto a
separating surface, such as a floor and transmits the sound to an adjacent room. A typical
example would be the sound of footsteps in a room being heard in a room below. Acoustic
control measures usually include attempts to isolate the source of the impact, or cushioning
it. For example carpets will perform significantly better than hard floors.
3. Flanking transmission - a more complex form of noise transmission, where the resultant
vibrations from a noise source are transmitted to other rooms of the building usually by
elements of structure within the building. For example, in a steel framed building, once the
frame itself is set into motion the effective transmission can be pronounced.

Transmission Loss:
It is the factor that determine how much the sound's received level is reduced from its source level

Sound is absorbed, scattered, and spread as it moves outward from its source. Researchers
look at all of these as factors in "transmission loss," or the reduction in the sound level as it
travels. The received level at any given distance is the source level, less transmission loss.
In the simplest models, assuming cylindrical or spherical spreading, the received level
decreases simply by virtue of the sound energy being spread over a larger and larger surface
area the farther from the source it is. In both spreading models, there is a relatively rapid
decrease in the received dB level at close range, followed by a leveling off of the dB value
out to many tens or hundreds of kilometers. High frequency sounds quickly fall victim to
transmission loss (especially absorption and scattering), while low frequencies can travel vast
distances at still-audible levels (see Section 2.3.2 below); in the ideal situation, the
transmission loss of a 100Hz sound will nearly level off at about 100dB, so that an airgun
noise (over 200dB at the source) will remain over 100dB a thousand kilometers or more away
.

Noise Control
Spectrum band analysis.
The application of acoustical finish materials or the design of a floor/ceiling assembly will
depend on the frequencies needing to be controlled.

A-weighting (dBA).
In the measurement of loudness, an A-weighting filter on the sound meter is commonly used
to emphasize frequencies from 1000 to 8000 Hz where the human ear is most sensitive, while
attenuating very high and very low frequencies to which the ear is less sensitive. The aim is
to ensure that measured loudness corresponds with subjectively perceived loudness.

Noise criteria (NC)

NC curves establish the desirable background sound levels. Because higher frequencies are
heard as louder than lower frequencies of the same dB level, NC curves allow higher dB
levels at lower and lower frequencies. As an example, a private office space would require a
lower NC rating than a lobby area.

Achieving sound control

In order to select the most effective sound control building system and materials, design
professionals are well served by consulting an acoustical engineer whenever acoustic
performance is highly important to the project. Addressing the issue during the design stage,
yields the most economical and effective solutions.
The key areas for achieving sound control include:
* Finishing Treatment and Surface Shaping within Rooms.

Absorption
Reflection
Diffusion

* Sound isolation between rooms

Airborne: speech, music, noisy HVAC equipment, air traffic are some examples.
Structure-borne: footfalls, carts or furniture moving on floor, fitness activity &
equipment on floor, adjacent railway or parking garage.

It should be noted that for A/V systems or electronic sound reinforcement to be effective, the
room should first have the required sound control treatment.

Finishing Treatment and Surface Shaping within Rooms

Adding absorption reduces reverberation and unwanted sound reflections. Adding absorption
reduces in room noise levels.
Adding reflection and diffusion redirects and scatters sound in order to enhance the listening
experience.
Sound absorption
Materials that control reverberation time include absorptive panels, absorptive baffles, carpet,
upholsteryand people.
Panels and baffles are the most effective broadband absorbers. Thicker panels better absorb
low frequency sound. There are also acoustical panels on the market that are designed for
improved low frequency absorption.
Since people absorb higher frequencies, the number of people occupying a space at different
times must be factored into the acoustic design.
Traditional acoustic wall panels. With its variety of shaped edges and panel thicknesses, the
traditional acoustical wall panel offers design versatility and a solution for controlling
reverberant noise while also controlling sound reflections in the room. Fiberglass core
acoustical panels faced in fabric or vinyl can be placed on the walls or ceiling. Typically they
are fabricated from 6-7 PCF fiberglass board with edges chemically hardened for durability.
Maximum panel sizes are typically 4 ft. x 10 ft. Angled or contoured perimeter cut custom
shapes can be specified. A 2 in. thick panel typically has an NRC value of 1.00.
Applications include any interior surfaces where superior acoustical performance is required,
such as conference rooms, auditoriums, churches, media rooms and office spaces.
Cloud system. For enhanced reverberant noise absorption, an acoustical cloud system of
acoustical panels can be used in spaces where ceilings are too low for vertical baffle
installations. Cloud panels can be located to not interfere with sprinkler or lighting and can be
backlit with low voltage lighting.

High impact acoustical wall panel. For applications where acoustical performance must be
teamed with greater durability, such as in gymnasiums, a high impact panel can be specified.
A typical two-part panel has a 6-7 PCF density core with a 1/8 in. thick, high density impact
resistant skin laminated on the core face.
Corrosion-resistant aluminum or galvanized steel panels. These are suited for controlling
reverberant noise problems in gymnasiums, natatoriums, and recreation centers. Some
manufacturers fill panels with a 2-in.-thick, glass fiber sound absorber encapsulated in a heat
sealed poly vinyl bag.
Wood-faced absorption panels. One typical panel is made with a -inch-thick MDF core
with a laminated hardwood veneer facing that is perforated. Designers can select from
different perforation patterns and wood types Each panel is backed with an acoustically
transparent black fabric to visually cover the sound batting, furring, and attachment hardware,
which make up the substrate behind each panel.

Specular sound reflections off of flat wall and ceiling surfaces often produce
inconsistent poor acoustic quality throughout the listening space;

Reflective design in an auditorium or lecture hall. Ceiling and wall shaping directs
sound to mid and rear seating areas.

Curved acoustical reflectors direct and diffuse sound to the seating area of the
auditorium.

In a diffuse sound field sound level is uniform in all locations and from all directions.

For high level performance spaces, quadratic diffusers are designed with variable well
depths based on a mathematical sequence
Diffusion. A diffuse sound field is designed to create uniform sound levels in all locations
and from all directions. With adequate sound diffusion, each listener has the feeling of being
enveloped in sound.

A tuned absorber/diffuser panel acoustically optimizes the hole pattern in the laminate while maintaining the
desired overall open versus reflective area in the panel surface.

Compared to a reflective surface, which will cause most of the energy to be reflected off at an
angle equal to the angle of incidence, a diffuser will cause the sound energy to be radiated in
many directions, hence leading to a more diffusive acoustic space.
Over the years, manufacturers have developed many different diffusers for high performance
facilities. They also offer panels that provide both absorption and diffusion:
Geometric-shaped diffusers break up direct sound reflections and disburse them more
evenly throughout the listening space.
Quadratic residue diffusers invented in the 1970s by Dr. Manfred Schroedor diffuse sound
in a predictable manner. Made from strips of wood material with different depths placed in
sequence, their ability to diffuse sound evenly has long been tested and documented.
Adding reflection and diffusion Wall and ceiling panels are available that provide both
absorption and diffusion where low and mid-frequency absorption is desired in conjunction
with increasing reflectivity and diffusion in higher frequencies. A typical assembly is a sound
absorptive fibrous core covered with a variable impedance laminate. Openings in the
laminate are sized and spaced to optimize the absorption in lower frequencies while creating
random mid and high frequency reflective surfaces between openings.
Sound isolation between rooms
Airborne and structure-born sounds between rooms can be managed by specifying
architectural sound isolation assemblies that utilize three principles:
Mass of construction materials such as concrete slabs or plywood subfloors.
Airspace between construction components.
Resilient isolation element used to integrate mass and airspace.
Sound Transmission Class (STC) and Impact Insulation Class (IIC) are two performance
values associated with sound isolation between rooms.

Sound Transmission Class (STC) is a numerical rating of how well a building partition
attenuates airborne sound. In the USA, it is widely used to rate interior partitions,
ceilings/floors, doors, windows and exterior wall configurations (see ASTM International
Classification E413 and E90.) The measurement is heavily weighted in the 1000 to 4000Hz
frequency. Normal speech can be clearly understood through a wall with an STC of 30. At
STC 40 speech can be heard with some effort. At STC 60 loud speech is inaudible but loud
music can still be heard, especially loud bass notes. The Uniform Building Code (UBC) states
that hotels and multi-family units are required to have an STC of 50.

UNIT 4
Sound isolation floors
Footsteps and impact noise can be intrusive to occupants in spaces below. Construction that
calls for hard floor surfaces such as hardwood flooring, ceramic tile, quarry tile, marble,
wood parquet, and vinyl tile are all areas where impact noise is of concern.
With no additional sound isolation system, a 6-inch concrete slab has an STC of 53 and an
IIC of 27. With hard floor surfaces on the concrete, the floor system falls well below the
UBC requirement of IIC 50 for multi-family type buildings. Adding properly engineered
resilient materials in the middle of the floor/ceiling sandwich will increase STC and IIC.
Roll-out isolation material. One typical roll-out isolation system creates an airspace of one
to four inches with resilient isolators spaced according to design criteria. The roll-out
isolation material can be installed beneath a floated concrete slab or other built up floor
system utilizing cross-laid plywood sheathing. Installed between concrete slabs, the assembly
STC and IIC can be 72 and 62 respectively. These values surpass the performance of
continuous underlayments due to the airspace and lower natural frequency created by the
isolators. Applications include high performance noise control spaces such as dance studios,
rooftops where flyover noise is an issue, noisy mechanical equipment rooms over classrooms,
and more (see Galaxy Lanes Case Study). Any room where high levels of airborne or
structure borne noise are created over an occupied space would be a candidate for this type of
systems.
Low profile underlayment. While having lower STC and IIC values than 1-to 4-inch-thick
pads and batting, low profile resilient underlayments are a lower cost material primarily
designed to improve the impact noise rating (IIC).
Recycled rubber.One environmentally friendly noise control low profile floor underlayment
is 98 percent post-consumer and post-industrial recycled rubber. A 3 mm underlayment
beneath hard flooring and on top of a 6 in. concrete slab can achieve STC and IIC values of
50 each.

Sound isolation ceilings

Resilient isolation hangers that suspend drywall ceilings greatly improve STC and IIC.
Isolation clips. Designers wanting low-cost, space saving ceilings and walls that provide
noise control have the option of using sound isolation clips. These attach to ceiling joists,
wall studs, or masonry and secure the drywall furring channel. One or more layers of gypsum
board are then hung to the furring channel.
Spring isolation hangers. These are best for low frequency sound or vibration. Secured to
wood-frame construction (e.g., joists, trusses), a typical hanger incorporates a one-inch-rated

deflection spring in series with a neoprene cup, and will resiliently support one or more layers
of gypsum board.
Leaf spring hanger. Developed by one manufacturer the leaf spring hanger out-performs
resilient channel and sound clips with or without gypsum concrete.
Fiberglass or neoprene hangers are lower cost, labor saving and effective in many
applications.
Super-compact ceiling hanger. This low profile isolated hanger assembly may be specified
when minimizing ceiling drop in an occupied space. It uses less than 3-1/2 in. of space and is
often used in renovation projects.

Compared with staggered stud construction, double stud wall design provides
a higher STC value. Adding an isolation clip and gypsum board layers to a
single stud wall increases STC.

Wall isolation clips

increase STC.

SOURCES
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound
http://www.ancc.co.za/Info%20sheet_4%20Frames%20Page.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonometer
http://ecophon.com/en/Acoustics/Room-Acoustic-Design/Sound-absorption/
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/acoustic/reverb.html
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/waves/er.cfm
http://continuingeducation.construction.com/article.php?L=320&C=934&P=2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_transmission
http://www.acousticecology.org/oatransmissionloss.html