Electrical Generator, Construction and Working:

Electrical Generator :
An electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, generally
using electromagnetic induction. The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or
turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion
engine, a WIND TURBINE.
, a hand crank, or any other source of mechanical energy.

In 1831-1832 Michael Faraday discovered that a potential difference is generated between the
ends of an electrical conductor that moves perpendicular to a magnetic field.
. He also built the first electromagnetic generator called the 'Faraday disc', a type of homopolar
generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a
small DC voltage, and large amounts of current.

The Dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The
dynamo uses electromagnetic principles to convert mechanical rotation into an alternating
electric current. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure which generates a strong
magnetic
field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On small machines the magnetic
field may be provided by a permanent magnet; larger machines have the magnetic field created
by electromagnets.

The energy conversion in generator is based on the principle of the production of dynamically
induced e.m.f. Whenever a conductor cuts magneticic flux , dynamically induced e.m.f is
produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic induction.This e.m.f causes a
current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical
generator are (i) a magnetic field and (ii) a conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut
the flux.

Simple loop Generator construction :

To see the construction and working of a simple loop generator
Simple loop generator is having a single-turn rectangular copper coil rotating about its own axis
in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnet or electro magnets.In case of without
commutator the two ends of the coil are joined to slip rings which are insulated from each other
and from the central shaft.Two collecting brushes ( of carbon or copper) press against the slip
rings.Their function is to collect the current induced in the coil. In this case the current waveform
we obtain is alternating current ( you can see in fig). In case of with commutator the slip rings
are replaced by split rings.In this case the current is unidirectional (observe in fig).

Generator working :
In figure see the case when the coil is rotating in anticlock-wise direction with out commutator.
As the coil assumes successive positions in the field, the flux linked with it changes.Hence, an
e.m.f is induced in it which is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages (e=-N dΦ/dt).

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When the plane of the coil is at right angles to lines of flux then flux linked with the coil is
maximum but rate of change of flux linkages is minimum.

It is so because in this position, the coil sides do not cut or shear the flux, rather they slide along
them i.e they move parallel to them.Hence,there is no induced e.m.f in the coil.Generaly this no
e.m.f is taken as the starting position i.e zero degrees position.The angle of rotation or time wil
be measured from this position.

As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence induced
e.m.f in it ) increases till the coil rotates 90° from its startinig position. Here the coil plane is
vertical (see in fig) i.e parallel to the lines of flux.As seen, the flux linked with the coil is
minimum but rate of change of flux linkages is maximum. Hence , maximum e.m.f is induced in
the coil when in this position.

In the next quarter revolution i.e from 90° to 180°,the flux linked with the coil gradually
increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases.Hence,induced e.m.f decreases
gradually till it becomes zero.

So,we find that in the first half revolution of the coil, no e.m.f is induced in it at 0°, maximum
when the coil is at 90° position anno e.m.f when coil is at 180°.The direction of this induced
e.m.f can be found by applying Fleming's Right hand rule.

In the next half revolution i.e from 180° to 360°, the variations in the magnitude of e.m.f are
similar to those in the first half revolution.Its value is maximum when coil is at 270° and
minimum when the coil is at 360° position.But it wil be found that th direction of induced
current is reverse of the previous direction of flow.

Therefore,we find that the current which we obtain from such a simple generator reverses its
direction after every half revolution.Such a current undergoing periodic reversals is known as
alternating current.It should be noted that alterating current not only reverses its direction, it does
not even keep its magnitude constant while flowing in any one direction.The two half- cycles
may be called positive and negative half-cycles respectively.

Now see when the coil is rotating with commutator.In this case the slip rings are replaced by split
rings.The split rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is cut into two halves or
segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica or some other insulating material
(you can see in fig). As before, the coil ends are joined to these segments on which rest the
carbon or copper brushes.

In case of split rings, the positions of the segments of split rings have also reversed when the
current induced in the coil reverses i.e when the curent direction reverses the brushes also comes
in contact with reverse segments as that of positive half-cycle.Hence, this current is
unidirectional.It should be noted that the position of the brushes is so arranged that the change
over of segments from one brush to other takes place when the plane of the rotating coil is at
right angles to the plane of the lines of flux.It is so because in that position, the induced e.m.f in
the coil is zero.You can observe this in two cases by pausing the waveform.
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Another important point is that now the current induced in the coil is alternating as before.It is
only due to the rectifying action of the split
split-rings
rings (also called commutator) that it becomes
unidirectional in the external circuit.

To better understand the operation of generator

Fleming's Right hand Rule

Fleming's right hand rule (for generators) shows the direction of induced current flow when a
conductor moves in a magnetic field.

The right hand is held

ld with the thumb, first finger and second finger mutually at right angles, as
shown in the diagram .

• The Thumb represents the direction of Motion of the conductor

conductor.
• The First finger represents the direction of the Field
Field.
• The Second finger represents the direction of the induced or generated Current (in the
classical direction, from positive to negative).

GENERATOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AND MAIN PARTS:

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Equivalent circuit :

The equivalent circuit of a generator and load is shown in the diagram to the right. To determine
the generator's VG and RG parameters, follow this procedure:

• Before starting the generator, measure the resistance across its terminals using an
ohmmeter. This is its DC internal resistance RGDC.
• Start the generator. Before connecting the load RL, measure the voltage across the
generator's terminals. This is the open-circuit voltage VG.
• Connect the load as shown in the diagram, and measure the voltage across it with the
generator running. This is the on-load voltage VL.
• Measure the load resistance RL, if you don't already know it.
• Calculate the generator's AC internal resistance RGAC from the formula

Note 1:The AC internal resistance of the generator when running is generally slightly higher than
its DC resistance when idle. The above procedure allows you to measure both values. For rough
calculations, you can omit the measurement of RGAC and assume that RGAC and RGDC are
equal.
Note 2: If the generator is an AC type (distinctly not a dynamo), use an AC voltmeter for the
voltage measurements.

Maximum power :
The maximum power theorem applies to generators as it does to any source of electrical energy.
This theorem states that the maximum power can be obtained from the generator by making the
resistance of the load equal to that of the generator. However, under this condition the power
transfer efficiency is only 50%, which means that half the power generated is wasted as heat and
Lorentz force or back emf inside the generator. For this reason, practical generators are not
usually designed to operate at maximum power output, but at a lower power output where
efficiency is greater.
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Terminology:
The parts of a dynamo or related equipment can be expressed in either mechanical terms or
electrical terms. Although distinctly separate, these two sets of terminology are frequently used
interchangeably or in combinations that include one mechanical term and one electrical term.
This causeses great confusion when working with compound machines such as a brushless
alternator or when conversing with people who are used to working on a machine that is
configured differently than the machines that the speaker is used to.

Mechanical

• Rotor: The rotating

otating part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.
• Stator:: The stationary part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.

Electrical

• Armature: The power-producing

producing component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or
motor. The armature can be on ei either the rotor or the stator.
• Field:: The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. The
field can be on either the rotor or the stator and can be either an electromagnet or a
permanent magnet.

Main Parts of Generator :

Actual generator consists of the following essential parts
1. Magnetic frame or Yoke 2.. Pole
Pole-cores and Pole-Shoes 3.Field Poles 4.. Field Coils 5. Armature
Core 6.. Armature Windings or Conductors 7.Commutator 8.. Brushes and Bearings

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 In the above figure,views A through E, shows
the component parts of dc generators.

Yoke
Yoke is a outer frame. It serves two purposes.
(i) It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine and
(ii) It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.

In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main consideration, yokes are
made of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed.The
modern process of forming the yoke consists of rolling a steel slab round a cylndrical mandrel
and then welding it at the bottom. The feet and the terminal box etc, are welded to the frame
afterwards.Such yokes possess sufficient mechanical strength and have high permeability.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

The field magnet consist of pole ores and pole shoes. The pole shoes have two purposes
(i) they spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being larger cross section,reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path
(ii) they support the exciting coils (field coils)

Field Poles
The pole cores can be made from solid steel castings or from laminations. At the air gap, the pole
usually fans out into what is known as a pole head or pole shoe. This is done to reduce the
reluctance of the air gap. Normally the field coils are formed and placed on the pole cores and
then the whole assembly is mounted to the yoke.

Field Coils
The field coils are those windings, which are located on the poles and set up the magnetic fields
in the machine. They also usually consist of copper wire are insulated from the poles. The field
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coils may be either shunt windings (in parallel with the arma
armature
ture winding) or series windings (in
series with the armature winding) or a combination of both.

Armature Core or Stack

The armature stack is made up thin magnetic steel laminations stamped from sheet steel with a
blanking die. Slots are punched in the lam
lamination
ination with a slot die. Sometimes these two operations
are done as one. The laminations are welded, riveted, bolted or bonded together.

It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the magnetic
flux of the field magnets.In
ts.In addition to this its most important function is to provide a path of
low reluctance to the flux through the armature from a N N-pole to a S-pole.It
pole.It is cylindrical or
drum shaped and is built up of usually circular sheet stee discs or laminations approx
approximtely 5mm
thick.It is keyed to the shaft.

Armature Windings
The armature windings are usually former
former-wound.
wound. These are first wound in the form of a flat
rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller.Various conductors of
thee coil are insulated rom each other.The conductors are placed in the armature slots which are
lined with tough insulating material.This slot insulation is folded over above the armature
conductors placed in the slot and is secured in place by special hard wood or fibre wedges.

Commutator
A commutator is an electrical switch that periodically reverses the current in an electric motor or
electrical generator.It converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into

unidirectional current in the external load circuit.

It typically consists of a set of copper contacts, fixed around the circumference of the rotating
part of the machine (the rotor),), and a set of spring
spring-loaded
loaded carbon brushes fixed to the stationary
part of the machine (the stator)) that complete the electrical circuit from the rotor's windings to

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the outside of the machine. Friction between the copper contacts and the brushes eventually
causes wear to both surfaces. The carbon brushes, being made of a softer material, wear faster
and
nd are designed to be replaced easily without dismantling the machine. The copper contacts are
usually inaccessible and, on small motors, are not designed to be repaired. On large motors the
commutator may be re-surfaced
surfaced with abrasives. Each segment of the commutator is insulated
from the adjacent segments; a large motor may contain hundreds of segments.

Brushes and Bearings

The brushes whose function is to collect currnet from commutator,are usually made of carbon or
graphite and are in the shape of a rect
rectangular
angular block. These brushes are housed in brush-holders
brush
usually of the box type variety.

bearings are frequently employed,though for heavy duties,roller

Because of their reliability, ball-bearings
bearings are preferable.The ball and rollers are generally packed iinn hard oil for quieter operation
and for reduced bearing wear,sleeve bearings are used which are lubricated by ring oilers fed
from oil reservoir in the bearing bracket.

Armature and its Windings:

Windings:-
Armature :
Gramme -Ring armature
The old Gramme-RingRing armature,now obselete is shown in figure view A. Each coil is connected
to two commutator segments as shown. One end of coil 1 goes to segment A, and the other end
of coil 1 goes to segment B. One end of coil 2 goes to segment C, and th
thee other end of coil 2
goes to segment B. The rest of the coils are connected in a like manner, in series, around the
armature. To complete the series arrangement, coil 8 connects to segment A. Therefore, each coil
is in series with every other coil.

View
w B shows a composite view of a Gramme
Gramme-ring
ring armature. It illustrates more graphically the
physical relationship of the coils and commutator locations.

The windings of a Gramme-ring

ring armature are placed on an iron ring. A disadvantage of this
arrangement is that the windings located on the inner side of the iron ring cut few lines of flux.

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Therefore, they have little, if any, voltage induced in them. For this reason, the Gramme
Gramme-ring
armature is not widely used.

Drum-type armature :
own in figure.The armature windings are placed in slots cut in a
A drum-type armature is shown
drum-shaped
shaped iron core. Each winding completely surrounds the core so that the entire length of
the conductor cuts the main magnetic field. Therefore, the total voltage induced in the armature
is greater than in the Gramme-ring.
ring. You can see that the drum
drum-type
type armature is much more
efficient than the Gramme-ring.
ring. This accounts for the almost universal use of the drum
drum-type
armature in modern dc generators.

Armature Windings :
Drum-type armatures es are wound with either of two types of windings - the Lap Winding or the
Wave Winding. The difference beween the two is merely due to the different arrangement of the
end connections at the front or commutator end of armature.Each winding can be arranged
progressively or retrogressively and connected in simplex,duplex and triplex.The following
rules,however,apply to both types of the windings:

The front and back pitch are each approximately equal to the pole
(i)The pole-pitch
pitch i.e windings should be
full-pitched.This
his results in increased e.m.f round the coils.For special purposes,fractional
purposes,fractional-pitched
windings are deliberately used.
Both pitches should be odd, otherwise it would be difficult to place the coils properly on the
(ii)Both
armature.For example if YB and YF were both even,then all the coil sides and conductors would
lie either in the upper half of slots or in the lower half.Hence, it would become impossible for
one side of the coil to lie in the upper half of one slot and the other side of the same coil to lie in
the lower half of some other slot.
(iii) The number of commutator segments is equa to the number of slots or coils because the
front ends of conductors are joined to the segments in pairs.
(iv) The winding must close upon itself i.e if we start from agive
agivenn point and move from one coil
to another,then all conuctors should be traversed and we should reach the same point again
without a break or discontinuty in betwen.

Lap Winding :
View A This type of winding is used in dc generators designed for high
high-current applications.The
applications.
windings are connected to provide several parallel paths for current in the armature. For this
reason, lap-wound
wound armatures used in dc generators require several pairs of poles and brushes.

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In lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment and to the
starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole an so on,till all the coils have been
connected.This type of winding derive
derivess its name from the fact it doubles or laps back with its
succeding coils.Following points regarding simplex lap winding should be noted:

1. The back and front pitches are odd and of opposite sign.But they can't be equal. They
differ by 2 or some multiple th
thereof.
2. Both YB and YF shpuld be nearly equal to a pole pitch.
3. The average pitch YA = (YB + YF)/2.It equals pole pitch = Z/P.
4. Commutator pitch YC = ±1.
5. Resultant pitch YR is even, being the arithmetical difference of two odd numbers i.e YR =
YB - YF.
6. The number of slots for a 22-layer
layer winding is equal to the number of coils.The number of
commutator segments is also the same.
7. The number of parallel paths in the armature = mP where 'm' is the multiplicity of the
winding and 'P' the number of poles.Taking the first condition, we have YB = YF ± 2m
where m=1 fo simplex lap and m =2 for duplex winding etc.

• If YB > YF i.e YB = YF + 2, then we get a progressive or right

right-handed
handed winding i.e a
winding which progresses in the clockwise direction as seen from the comutat
comutator end.In
this case YC = +1.
• If YB < size="1">F i.e YB = YF - 2,then we get a retrogressive or left-handed
handed winding i.e
one which advances in the anti
anti-clockwise
clockwise direction when seen from the commutator
side.In this case YC = -1.
• Hence, it is obvious that for

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The figures below shows the simplex lap winding in circular form and in development form.

Wave Winding
View B,, shows a wave winding on a drum
drum-type
type armature. This type of winding is used in dc
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generators employed in high-voltage applications. Notice that the two ends of each coil are
connected to commutator segments separated by the distance between poles. This configuration
allows the series addition of the voltages in all the windings between brushes. This type of
winding only requires one pair of brushes. In practice, a practical generator may have several
pairs to improve commutation.

When the end connections of the coils are spread apart as shown in Figure a wave or s

eries winding is formed. In a wave winding there are only two paths
regardless of the number of poles. Therefore, this type winding requires only two brushes but can
use as many brushes as poles. Because the winding progresses in one direction round the
armature in a series of 'waves' it is know as wave winding.If, after passing once round the
armature,the winding falls in a slot to the left of its starting point then winding is said to be
retrogressive.If, however, it falls one slot to the right, then it is progressive.

The figures below shows the simplex wave winding in circular form and in development form.

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Points to note in case of Wave winding :

1. Both pitches YB and YF are odd and of the same sign.

2. Back and front pitches are nearly equal to the pole pitch and may be equal or differ by 2,
in which case, they are respectively one more or one less than the average pitch.
3. Resultant pitch YR = YF + YB.
4. Commutator pitch, YC = YA (in lap winding YC = ±1 ). Also YC = (No.of commutator
bars ± 1 ) / No.of pair of poles.
5. The average pitch which must be an integer is given by YA = (Z ± 2)/P = (No.of
commutator bars ± 1)/No.of pair of poles.
6. The number of coils i.e NC can be found from the relation NC = (PYA ± 2)/2.
7. It is obvious from 5 that for a wave winding, the number of armature conductors with 2
either
er added or subtracted must be a multiple of the number of poles of the generator.This
restriction eliminates many even numbers which are unsuitable for this winding.
8. The number of armature parallel paths = 2m where 'm' is the multiplicity of the winding.

Commutation in a D.C.Generator:
D.C.Generator:-

Commutation
Commutation is the positioning of the DC generator brushes so that the commutator
segments change brushes at the same time the armature current changes direction. More
simply stated,commutation is the mech
mechanical
anical conversion from AC to DC at the brushes of a
DC machine, as shown in Figure

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 Commutation is the process by which a dc
voltage output is taken from an armature that has an ac voltage induced in it. You should
remember from our discussion of the eleme
elementary
ntary dc generator that the commutator
mechanically reverses the armature loop connections to the external circuit. This occurs at
the same instant that the voltage polarity in the armature loop reverses. A dc voltage is
applied to the load because the out
output
put connections are reversed as each commutator segment
passes under a brush. The segments are insulated from each other.

In figure , commutation occurs simultaneously in the two coils that are briefly short
short-circuited
by the brushes. Coil B is short
short-circuited
ited by the negative brush. Coil Y, the opposite coil, is
short-circuited
circuited by the positive brush. The brushes are positioned on the commutator so that
each coil is short-circuited
circuited as it moves through its own electrical neutral plane. As you have
seen previously,
usly, there is no voltage generated in the coil at that time. Therefore, no sparking
can occur between the commutator and the brush. Sparking between the brushes and the
commutator is an indication of improper commutation. Improper brush placement is the m main

cause of improper commutation. This

entire commutation is done by the commutator in D.C Generators. Now we will see how the
commutator performs commutation.

Commutator Action
The commutator converts the AC voltage generated in the rotating loop int

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 o a DC voltage. It also serves as a means
of connecting the brushes to the rotating loop. The purpose of the brushes is to connect the
generated voltage to an external circuit. In order to do this, each brush must make contact
with one of the ends of the loo
loop.
p. Since the loop or armature rotates, a direct connection is
impractical. Instead, the brushes are connected to the ends of the loop through the
commutator.

loop generator, the commutator is made up of two semicylindrical pieces of a

In a simple one-loop
smoothh conducting material, usually copper, separated by an insulating material, as shown in
Figure . Each half of the commutator segments is permanently attached to one end of the
rotating loop, and the commutator rotates with the loop. The brushes, usually ma
made of
carbon, rest against the commutator and slide along the commutator as it rotates. This is the
means by which the brushes make contact with each end of the loop.

Each brush slides along one half of the commutator and then along the other half. The
brushes
shes are positioned on opposite sides of the commutator; they will pass from one
commutator half to the other at the instant the loop reaches the point of rotation, at which
point the voltage that was induced reverses the polarity. Every time the ends of tthe loop
reverse polarity, the brushes switch from one commutator segment to the next. This means
that one brush is always positive with respect to another. The voltage between the brushes
fluctuates in amplitude (size or magnitude) between zero and some ma maximum
ximum value, but is
always of the same polarity (Figure). In this manner, commutation is accomplished in a DC
generator.

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 One important point to note is that, as the brushes pass from one segment to the other, there
is an instant when the brushes contact both segments at the same time. The induced voltage
at this point is zero. If the induced voltage at this point were not zero, extremely high
currents would be produced due to the brushes shorting the ends of the loop together. The
point at which the brushes contact both commutator segments, when the induced voltage is
zero, is called the "neutral plane."

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E.M.F Equation of Generator:-
Let
Φ = flux/pole in weber
Z = total number of armture conductors
= No.of slots x No.of conductors/slot
P = No.of generator poles
A = No.of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r.p.m)
E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e E.
Average e.m.f geneated /conductor = dΦ/dt volt (n=1)
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution dΦ = ΦP Wb
No.of revolutions/second = N/60
Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
Hence, according to Faraday's Laws of Electroagnetic Induction,
E.M.F generated/conductor is

For a simplex wave-wound generator

No.of parallel paths = 2
No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/2
E.M.F. generated/path is

For a simplex lap-wound generator

No.of parallel paths = P
No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P
E.M.F.generated/path

In general generated e.m.f

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where A = 2 - for simplex wave
wave-winding
= P - for simplex lap-winding
winding

Terminal Voltage
DC generator output voltage is dependent on three factors : (1) the

number of conductor loops in

series in the armature, (2) armatu
armature
re speed, and (3) magnetic field
strength. In order to change the generator output, one of these three
factors must be varied. The number of conductors in the armature can
not be changed in a normally operating generator, and it is usually
impractical to change
hange the speed at which the armature rotates. The
strength of the magnetic field, however, can be changed quite easily by
varying the current through the field winding. This is the most widely
used method for regulating the output voltage of a DC generato
generator.

DC Generator Ratings
A DC generator contains four ratings.
Voltage: Voltage rating of a machine is based on the insulation type and
design of
the machine.
Current: The current rating is based on the size of the conductor and the

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amount of
heat that can be dissipated in the generator.
Power: The power rating is based on the mechanical limitations of the
device that is used to turn the generator and on the thermal limits of
conductors,bearings , and other components of the generator.
Speed: Speed rating, at the upper limit, is determined by the speed at
which mechanical damage is done to the machine. The lower speed
rating is based on the limit for field current (as speed increases, a higher
field current is necessary to produce the same voltage).

Classification of Generators; (Series,Shunt,Compound):-

Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited.The field
windings provide the excitation necessary to set up the magnetic fields in the machine. There are
various types of field windings that can be used in the generator or motor circuit. In addition to
the following field winding types, permanent magnet fields are used on some smaller DC
products.Generators may be divided in to (a) Separately-excited generators and (b) Self-excited
generators.
(a) Separately-excited generators are those whoe field magnets are energised from an
independent external source of DC current.
(b) Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energused by the current produced
by the generators themselves.Due to residual magnetism, there is always present someflux in the
poles.When the armature is rotated, some e.m.f and hence some induced current is produced
which is partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the residual pole
flux.

Self-excited generators are classed according to the type of field connection they use. There are
three general types of field connections — SERIES-WOUND, SHUNT-WOUND (parallel), and
COMPOUND-WOUND. Compound-wound generators are further classified as cumulative-
compound and differential-compound.

Series-wound generator
In the series-wound generator, shown in figure, the field windings are connected in series with
the armature. Current that flows in the armature flows through the external circuit and through
the field windings. The external circuit connected to the generator is called the load circuit

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A series-wound generator uses very low resistance field coils, which consist of a few turns of
large diameter wire.

The voltage output increases as the load circuit starts drawing more current. Under low-load
current conditions, the current that flows in the load and through the generator is small. Since
small current means that a small magnetic field is set up by the field poles, only a small voltage
is induced in the armature. If the resistance of the load decreases, the load current increases.
Under this condition, more current flows through the field. This increases the magnetic field and
increases the output voltage. A series-wound dc generator has the characteristic that the output
voltage varies with load current. This is undesirable in most applications. For this reason, this
type of generator is rarely used in everyday practice.

Shunt wound
In this field winding is connected in parallel with the armature conductors and have the full
voltage of the generator applied across them.The field coils consist of many turns of small wire.
They are connected in parallel with the load. In other words, they are connected across the output

voltage of the armature.

Current in the field windings of a shunt-wound generator is independent of the load current
(currents in parallel branches are independent of each other). Since field current, and therefore
field strength, is not affected by load current, the output voltage remains more nearly constant
than does the output voltage of the series-wound generator.

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In actual use, the output voltage in a dc shunt-wound generator varies inversely as load current
varies. The output voltage decreases as load current increases because the voltage drop across the
armature resistance increases (E = IR).

In a series-wound generator, output voltage varies directly with load current. In the shunt-wound
generator, output voltage varies inversely with load current. A combination of the two types can
overcome the disadvantages of both. This combination of windings is called the compound-
wound dc generator.

Compound-wound generator :
Compound-wound generators have a series-field winding in addition to a shu

nt-field winding, as shown in figure. The shunt and

series windings are wound on the same pole pieces. They can be either short-shunt or long-shunt
as shown in figures. In a comound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series
field.When series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively-
compounded.On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field,the generator is said to be
differentially compounded.

In the compound-wound generator when load current increases, the armature voltage decreases
just as in the shunt-wound generator. This causes the voltage applied to the shunt-field winding

to decrease, which results in a decrease in the magnetic

field. This same increase in load current, since it flows through the series winding, causes an

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increase in the magnetic field produced by that winding.

By proportioning the two fields so that the decrease in the shunt field is just compensated by the
increase in the series field, the output voltage remains constant. This is shown in figure, which
shows the voltage characteristics of the series-, shunt-, and compound-wound generators. As you
can see, by proportioning the effects of the two fields (series and shunt), a compound-wound
generator provides a constant output voltage under varying load conditions. Actual curves are

seldom, if ever, as perfect as shown.

Generator Losses:-
Generator Losses
In dc generators

, as in most electrical devices, certain forces act to decrease the efficiency. These forces, as they
affect the armature, are considered as losses and may be defined as follows:
1. Copper loss in the winding 2. Magnetic Losses 3. Mechanical Losses

Copper loss
The power lost in the form of heat in the armature winding of a generator is known as Copper
loss. Heat is generated any time current flows in a conductor.
loss is the Copper loss, which increases as current increases. The amount of heat
generated is also proportional to the resistance of the conductor. The resistance of the conductor
varies directly with its length and inversely with its cross- sectional area. Copper loss is
minimized in armature windings by using large diameter wire.Copper loss is again divided as

(i) Armature copper loss

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 = Armature copper loss. Where Ra =resistance of armature and interpoles and series
field winding etc. This loss is about 30 to 40% of full -load losses.

(ii)Field copper loss : It is the loss in series or shunt field of generator.

is the field copper loss in case of series generators, where Rse is the resistance of the series field
widing.

is the field copper loss in case of shunt generators.

This loss is about 20 to 30% of F.L losses.

(iii) The loss due to brsh contact resistance.It is usually inluded in the armture copper loss.

Magnetic Losses (also known as iron or core losses)

(i) Hysteresis loss (Wh)
Hysteresis loss is a heat loss caused by the magnetic properties of the armature. When an
armature core is in magnetic field, the magnetic particles of the core tend to line up with the
magnetic field. When the armature core is rotating, its magnetic field keeps changing direction.
The continuous movement of the magnetic particles, as they try to align themselves with the
magnetic field, produces molecular friction. This, in turn, produces heat. This heat is transmitted
to the armature windings. The heat causes armature resistances to increase. To compensate for
hysteresis losses, heat-treated silicon steel laminations are used in most dc generator armatures.
After the steel has been formed to the proper shape, the laminations are heated and allowed to
cool. This annealing process reduces the hysteresis loss to a low value.

(ii) Eddy Current Loss (We)

The core of a generator armature is made from soft iron, which is a conducting material with
desirable magnetic characteristics. Any conductor will have currents induced in it when it is
rotated in a magnetic field. These currents that are induced in the generator armature core are
called EDDY CURRENTS. The power dissipated in the form of heat, as a result of the eddy
currents, is considered a loss.

Eddy currents, just like any other electrical currents, are affected by the resistance of the material
in which the currents flow. The resistance of any material is inversely proportional to its cross-
sectional area. Figure, view A, shows the eddy currents induced in an armature core that is a
solid piece of soft iron. Figure, view B, shows a soft iron core of the same size, but made up of
several small pieces insulated from each other. This process is called lamination. The currents in
each piece of the laminated core are considerably less than in the solid core because the
resistance of the pieces is much higher. (Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional
area.) The currents in the individual pieces of the laminated core are so small that the sum of the
individual currents is much less than the total of eddy currents in the solid iron core.
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 As you can see, eddy current losses are kept
low when the core material is made up of many thin sheets of metal.Laminations in a small
generator armature may be as thin as 1/64 inch. The laminations are insulated from each other by
a thin coat of lacquer or, in some instances, simply by the oxidation of the surfaces. Oxidation is
caused by contact with the air while the laminations are being annealed. The insulation value
need not be high because the voltages induced are very small.

Most generators use armatures with laminated cores to reduce eddy current losses.

These magnetic losses are practically constant for shunt and compound-wound generators,
because in their case, field current is constant.

Mechanical or Rotational Losses

There are no sources in the current document.i
These consist of
(i) friction loss at bearings and comutator.
(ii) air-friction or windage loss of rotating armature
These are about 10 to 20% of F.L losses.

Careful maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction to a minimum. Clean

bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the reduction of bearing friction.Brush friction is
reduced by assuring proper brush seating, using proper brushes, and maintaining proper brush
tension. A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction of brush friction.

Usually, magnetic and mechanical losses are collectively known as Stray Losses. These are also
known as rotational losses for obvious reasons.

As said above, field Cu loss is constant for shunt and compound generators.Hence, stray losses
and shunt Cu loss are constant in their case.These losses are together known as standing or
constant losses Wc.
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Hence, for shunt and compound generators,
Total loss = armature copper loss + Wc
Armature Cu loss is known as variable loss because it varies with the load current.
Total loss = Variable loss + constant losses Wc

Source: Internet

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