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WILEY
TOPPAN
PRINCIPLES
OF
REFRIGERATION
ROY
J.
W
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
NEW YORK and LONDON
TOPPAN COMPANY,
TOKYO, JAPAN
LTD.
Wiley
&
Sons, Inc.,
Copyright
1961
by John Wiley
No
ft
part of this
Sons, Inc.
book may
which
it
is
is
Toppan
Number:
61-15396
Preface
This textbook has been written especially for use in programs where a full
curriculum in refrigeration is offered. However, the material covered and the
method of presentation are such that the text is also suitable for adult evening
classes
and
material
is
and
self-instruction.
is
Furthermore, the
readily adaptable
of the calculus
motors and control circuits as they apply to refrigeraThis material is presented from the viewpoint
of practical application, the more mathematical approach being left to companion
Chapter 21
tion
and
treats electric
electrical courses.
Throughout
this
refrigeration system,
to the whole.
textbook emphasis
is
Too, care
is
is
carefully
examined
in relation
through the use of manufacturer's catalog data and many sample problems.
this end, certain pertinent catalog data are included.
Roy
July, 1961
J.
Dossat
To
Acknowledgments
is
Ingersoll-Rand Company
Kennard Division, American Air Filter
Company, Inc.
publications of the
American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers and of the following equipment manufacturers
Carrier Corporation
Controls Company of America
Dean Products, Inc.
Detroit Controls Division, American
Radiator & Standard Sanitary
Corporation
Detroit Ice Machine Company
Dole Refrigerating Company
Dunham-Bush,
Association, Inc.
Inc.
vi
Contents
1.
Pressure,
2.
3.
Thermodynamic Processes
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
24
43
57
71
89
107
121
144
10.
11.
Evaporators
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Refrigerants
17.
164
203
225
244
284
298
vii
viii
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
18.
19.
20.
334
365
Installations
21. Electric
Index 535
407
where P
Measurement of Pressure. As
indi-
Pressure,
Work,
Power, Energy
l-l.
Force.
pull.
It is
force
may
body. That
is,
the body
may be
It may be described as a
measure of the intensity of a force at any given
is
(a)
2x3
= 6sqft
= 432 lb
on the contact
Applying Equation
1-1,
432
^
=
(b)
surface
is
Applymg Equation
72psf
24 x 36
= 864 sq in.
= 432 lb
1-1).
point
Solution
twisted, bent,
Example l-l.
rectangular tank, measuring 2 ft by 3 ft at the base, is filled with water.
If the total weight of the water is 432 lb, determine the pressure exerted by the water on the
bottom of the tank in
(a) pounds per square foot
(b) pounds per square inch
1-1,
432
864
= 0.5 psi
The problem described
in
Example
1-1
is
foot
is
equivalent
to
the
downward force
column of water
having a cross section of one square foot, whereas the pressure in pounds per square inch
equivalent to the
downward
force exerted
is
by a
sq
ft,
the
the
force
This relationship
expressed by the following equation
is
applied.
'-h
is
(1-1)
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
cross section will be less
altitude of
when taken
taken at sea
level
Therefore,
level.
it
at
an
than when
follows that
Barometers.
-Spring scale
Pointer -
closed end.
the atmosphere
column
in the tube
is
is read in inches
of mercury column (abbreviated in. Hg). The
normal pressure of the atmosphere at sea level
(14.696 psi) pressing down on the dish of mercury
Weight
will
lb.
The pressure
known as atmos-
is
pheric pressure.
cross
atmosphere.
Actually,
the
pressure
of the
and
Fig. 1-2.
Of the
total
the pressure
in
pressure
in
in
the
ft
area
is
PRESSURE,
mercury 29.921
in.
high
column of
then, a measure of a
is,
By
dividing
psi
Example
in.
(1-2)
atmosphere in psi
in.
Hg x
What
1-2.
if
0.491
(1-3)
Solution.
Applying Equation
P=
Example
1-3.
In Fig.
1-3,
1-3,
how
high will
the atmos-
when
is
raised
by an equal amount
Applying Equation
1-2,
0.491
30.2 x 0.491
14.83 psi
is
Hg?
1-6.
tube.
psi
Hg =
0.491
and
29.53 in.
Pressure Gages.
Hg
is
in.
Pressure gages
commonly used
and
1-7.
(2)
bourdon
two types:
a closed
vessel.
in the refriger(1)
manometer
tube.
Manometers.
utilizes
column indicating
The liquid used
Scale (inches)
when water
is
manometer or water
gage.
is
is
a water
instrument.
A simple
column.
is cali-
Dish of mercury
Fig. 1-3.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
Atmospheric
/pressure \
as the measuring
measuring very
small pressures. Because of the difference in the
density of mercury
slight that they will
not visibly
mercury column
of a
will
produce easily
Atmospheric
pressure
30
in.
Hg
-
Vessel
pressure
26
in.
Hg
Atmospheric
pressure
30
in.
Hg
Fig.
l-4c
pressure
is
Manometer
4
pressure of 30
Fig.
manometer
-4b. Simple
indicates
that
in.
in.
Hg
indicates
less
that the
vessel
Hg.
the
by 4
in.
Hg.
in.
Hg
(1.96
psi).
in.
is
in.
Hg
(1.96 psi)
below
(less
"vacuum"
pressures
and may
PRESSURE,
pressure of only 0.036 psi
a column of water
of water column
Table
to support
Hence, 1 in.
is sufficient
high.
in.
single gages,
is
1-1 gives
Because of the
measurement of
(a)
relatively small
Vacuum
gage,
(c)
Compound
pheric pressure.
is
Any change
pressures
atmospheric
will
above or below
Those designed to
either
pressure.
usually calibrated in
gage. (Courtesy
decreases.
cases,
gages, are
is
tube
many
(c)
In
"compound"
(b)
<)
limited to the
as
known
When
is
greater
to
pressure
is less
and,
when the
fluid
Example
1-4.
pressure
gage
on
What
a
is
condenser?
Solution.
given,
it
is
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Gage
Absolute
pressure
pressure
45-
59.7
40
54.7
35-
49.7
30
-44.7
25-
39.7
Initial pressure
Pressures above
atmospheric in psi
34.7
15-
29.7
10-
24.7
5-
19.7
29.92
29.92
in.
-Pressures below-
15-
- atmospheric in
20
25
(14.7 psi)
in.
Hg
(14.7 psi)
5-
in.
Hg
Work. Work
W=Fx
between absolute and gage
F=
where
=120
Gage
pressure in psi
Atmospheric pressure in psi
14.696
Absolute pressure of
refrigerant
134.696 psi
compound gage on
the
suction side of a vapor compressor reads
5 in. Hg, whereas a barometer nearby reads
29.6 in. Hg. Determine the absolute pressure
of the vapor entering the compressor.
1-5.
pheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure in
Hg
pressure in
in.
Hg
acts in
force
=
=
29.6
Hg
24.6 in. Hg
24.6 x 0.491
12.08 psi
Absolute pressure
linear unit
and
linear
measure
Example
315 lb
work
is
is
done?
Solution.
Equation
By
applying
weight of
1-4, the
the fan
Distance through
the fan is hoisted
5.0
I
-I I.
Power.
Power
315 lb
200 ft
315 x 200
63,000
which
Work done
Absolute pressure in
in.
any
Gage
(1-4)
in.
psi
acting
pressures.
Example
4.91 psi
=125
Hg~~
0.491
= 129.91 psi
Total increase in pressure
Absolute pressure in psi is abbreviated psia,
whereas gage pressure in psi is abbreviated psig.
1-10.
10
Hg
atmospheric
Atmospheric pressure
in.
atmospheric
20-
10
Initial
is
the
rate
ft-lb
of doing
PRESSURE,
is
the horsepower.
Example
tions:
3500 lb
(1 " 5)
^-TSMTT,
where
may be found by
where JT
Hp = the horsepower
W = the work done in foot-pounds
t
is its
is
An
1-9.
moving
automobile
at the rate of 30
5280 ft/mi x 30 mi
Solution. Velocity
in fps
3600sec/hr
= 44 fps
3500 lb x (44 fps)*
2 x 32.174 ft/sec2
Applying Equa-
Hp =
t
550 x
weighing
mph. What
kinetic energy?
or
where
energy AT
105,302 ft-lb
1-14.
Potential Energy.
Potential energy is
work done
Time required to do the
work
condition
Example
1-8.
=63,000
Solution. Total
ft-lb
min
63,000
33,000 x 5
0.382 hp
when it has
Hence, energy is
described as the ability to do work. The
amount of energy required to do a given amount
of work is always equal to the amount of work
done and the amount of energy a body possesses
is equal to the amount of work a body can do
body
is
in passing
its
energy.
J
Horsepower required
position or configuration.
raised to
piling.
some
when
piling.
A compressed steel
band possesses
Both the
steel spring and the rubber band have the
ability to do work because of their tendency to
return to their normal condition.
The potential energy of a body may be evaluated by the following equation:
spring or a stretched rubber
P
where P
= the
=M xZ
(1-8)
another.
Z = the
vertical
datum or
distance above
some
reference
potential.
1-13. Kinetic Energy.
Kinetic energy is the
energy a body possesses as a result of its motion
or velocity. For instance, a hammer swinging
through an arc, a bullet speeding toward a
Mx
The
weight of the
water in pounds
Applying
Equation 1-8,
the potential
energy
83,300 lb x 250
20,825,000 ft-lb
ft
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
devices.
is
is
readily converted
and
from one form to another.
Electrical
energy
mechanical energy in
is
electric
converted
into
motors, solenoids,
and other
position, or configuration.
1200
1-16.
ft-lb
of work on the
Total
do
external energy of a
kinetic
and
potential energies.
Example
l-l I.
2 x 32.174 ft/sec*
30,086,436 ft-lb
3.
10,000 lb x 6000
60,000,000 ft-lb
ft
90,086,436 ft-lb
Law of Conservation
First
Law
of Energy.
However, energy
appear in any one of a number of different
forms, such as mechanical energy, electrical
may
What is
A
A
The
classified as
inch?
4.
1-17.
that the
2. If the
Adding, the
total external
energy
level
Applying
Equation 1-8, the
potential energy P
PROBLEMS
piling.
PRESSURE,
(a)
(b)
9.
sea level?
11.
What
is
a mean
ground?
distance
of
(6)
Compute
so that
Matter, Internal
Energy, Heat,
atoms
is
Heat.
Heat
is
a form of energy.
This
Because of
is almost unavoidable at times.
On the other hand, from a strictly thermodynamic point of view, heat is denned as energy
in transition from one body to another as a
result of a difference in temperature between the
this, referring
accepted.
internal energy
two
bodies.
Under
this
concept,
all
other
not be atoms of
salt,
the original
is
certain
in
assumed to be in a
state of
they possess.
2-3. Internal
smaller particles
Energy.
will
molecule of oxygen.
hereafter in this
neutrons, etc.
is
Temperature
2-1.
it
is
been
pre-
required to do
work
It
is
has
behavior.
10
of
solid, liquid,
its
position, or configuration in
velocity,
relation to
some
reference condition,
internal energy as
it
also has
U =K +P
where
(2-1)
is
in molecular velocity is
is,
in a sense,
a measure of the
is
their
movement
is
the
di-
will
be
decreased.
is
or a vapor or gas.
which
a vapor or gas.
exist as ice,
is
2-6.
The
For example,
liquid,
is
Effect of
Aggregation.
of matter.
that the
energy
The increase
water
2-4.
increased.
2-5.
is
the inter-
When
its
gether, internal
in order to
the
amount of
internal
energy.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
12
has no
effect
on molecular
velocity (internal
kinetic energy);
is
erty of matter.
It is
affected.
2-8.
Temperature.
The Solid
State.
potential energy.
amount of
internal
is
said to be hot.
indicates
pressure
2-12.
solid
is
The Liquid
its
temperature
is
Because
shape.
M.
to expand or contract as
of alcohol.
that
is
The molecules of a
material in the liquid state have more energy
than those of a material in the solid state and
they are not so closely bound together. Their
greater energy allows them to overcome each
other's attractive forces to some extent and to
have more freedom to move about. They are
free to move over and about one another in
such a way that the material is said to "flow."
Although a liquid is noncompressible and will
However, mercury thermometers have the disadvantage of being more expensive and more
difficult to read. Alcohol is cheaper and can be
vessel.
is
retain
2-10.
State.
its size,
The
State.
by the force of
fly
about at high
gravity.
bound
Consequently, they
Two
visibility.
The Fahrenheit
today.
speaking countries,
scale
is
whereas
common
use
used in English
the
Centigrade
European countries as
Centigrade Scale.
The point
at
which
grade
scale,
designated as 100.
Fahrenheit Scale.
Although there
is
section.
On
the
container.
described
neither
its size
pressible
regardless of size.
Further,
if
it
the gas
is
will escape
not
from
ing
air.
freezes
is
in
marked
as 32,
212*
13
100*
ammonium
Temperature
on one
ature readings
scale
32*
0*
-17.8*
Scales coincide
-40"
F =
C =
It
C + 32
5/9( F - 32)
9/5
0*
-40*
(2-2)
(2-3)
Fahrenheit scale
is
on the
is
degrees
degrees.
that 1
5/9
This
Since 0
in Fig. 2-1.
on
is
shown
graphically
Absolute zero
-460*
-273'
is
Fig. 2-1.
temperature
scales.
wise,
grade.
Example
2-1.
ing of 50 C
temperature.
equivalent
Fahrenheit
Applying
Solution.
Equation
to
2-2,
=
Example
2-2.
9/5(50
122 F
Q + 32
Solution.
in
room
Applying Formula
room temperature
Example
2-3.
thermometer
desired to
know
2-3, the
it is
been shown,
5/9(86-32)
30
indicates
mately -460
or -273
Centigrade degrees.
the
grade degrees.
C (Fig.
2-1).
Temperature readings in reference to Absolute Zero are designated as absolute temperatures and may be in either Fahrenheit or
Fahrenheit
A temperature reading on
scale
can be converted to
Temperature
Temperature
rise in
rise in
F
= 45F
C 5/9(45 F)
= 25C
Absolute Temperature.
Temperature readings taken from either the Fahrenheit
2-16.
in degrees
Rankine
R).
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
14
In converting to and from absolute temperatures, the following equations will apply:
T=
t+460
= r-460
T / + 273
/
where
T=
(2-5)
(2-7)
temperature
degrees
in
Rankine or Kelvin
t
temperature
Example
2-4.
of an air compressor indicates that the temperature of the air in the tank is 95 F. Determine
the absolute temperature in degrees Rankine.
Solution.
Equation
Applying
T=
2-4,
Example
2-5.
95 F
555
460
The temperature of
the
Equation
Applying
T = -20 F +
= 440R
2-4,
Example 24.
100 C, what
460
If the temperature
is its
of a gas
temperature in degrees
Kelvin?
Applying
T=
=
2-6,
Example
2-7.
100
373
C+
273
leaving a boiler is 610 R. What is the temperature of the steam on the Fahrenheit scale?
Solution.
Equation
Applying
2-5,
=
=
610
150
R - 460
F
Since heat
is
heat
to
if
is
The
2-18.
fer of heat
in three ways:
and
The trans-
(3) radiation.
2-19.
duction occurs
direct contact
similar to that
balls
on a
billiard table,
wherein
all
moment
or some
is
trans-
rod
heated over a
the heated
end of the rod will flow by conduction from
molecule to molecule through the rod to the
is
Solution.
Equation
no
flame,
is
is
scale
mitted at the
Solution.
being cooled.
in degrees Fahrenheit
or Centigrade
Equations 2-4 and 2-5 apply to the Rankine and
Fahrenheit scales, whereas Equations 2-6 and
Hereafter in this
is
- T - 273
absolute
two bodies
transfer of heat.
(2-4)
ture of the
jacent to them.
IS
the air
gas^fgje^*- ^^
The energy
communicate
molecules.
previously stated,
is
and
When any
pands and
increases.
portion of a fluid
fluid.
to conduct heat
is
known
as
its
conductivity.
which are poor conductors have a low conductivity and are used as heat insulators.
In general, solids are better conductors of
heat than liquids, and liquids are better conductors than gases. This is accounted for by
the difference in the molecular structure. Since
the molecules of a gas are widely separated, the
transfer of heat
by conduction, that
molecule to molecule,
is,
from
is difficult.
2-20.
Convection.
Heat
transfer
heated,
it
ex-
is
cork, offer considerable resistance to the conduction of heat. Therefore, for any given tem-
Heat is conducted
from flame to
water through
bottom of vessel
Flame
water
is
top and
is
replaced by cooler,
more
heat
is
2-21. Radiation.
Heat
transfer
by radiation
PRINCIPLES
16
OF REFRIGERATION
the energy exchange is in equilibrium and
body neither gains nor loses energy.
Heat transfer through a vacuum is impossible
by either conduction or convection, since these
processes by their very nature require that
exists,
the
Room
Fig. 2-3.
coils'
is
intervening matter.
the
When
its
internal
molecular energy.
the
air.
tively
The
substantial.
visible heat
than
its
it
it
absorbs.
Therefore,
surroundings and
its
it
by radiation
loses energy to
body is below
that of its surroundings, it absorbs more radiant
energy than it loses and its internal energy
increases.
When no temperature difference
* Ether
the
name
is
waves
(light).
When
may
pass through
it
absorbed by
to
it,
or they
beyond.
is either
aluminum
is, its
mirror, reflect a
maximum
of radiant energy,
whereas materials having rough, dull, dark
maximum amount
of
material 1 F.
brass
Btu
17
pound of
specific
the
heat of
is
is
pound of aluminum
radiant energy.
Btu
pound of brass 1 F. Note that by the definiBtu the specific heat of water is 1
Btu per pound per degree Fahrenheit.
The specific heat of any material, like that of
water, varies somewhat throughout the temperature scale. Here again, the variation is so
2-22. British
size, etc.
Likewise, if
lb of water,
1F.
The
temperature of
stant amount.
It varies slightly
lb of water 1
is not a conwith the temperature range at which the change occurs. For
is
tion of the
slight that
it
is identified
as the
following equation:
Q,
where Q,
If the
t0
(2-8)
in
pounds
- MC(tt -
M = the
"mean Btu"
be
is
this reason,
freezing
is sufficiently
Example
2-8.
Twenty pounds of water at
temperature of 76 F are heated until
the temperature is increased to 180 F. How
much heat must be supplied?
an
initial
all practical
purposes
Solution.
it is
sufficiently
of water is changed
removal of 1 Btu.
2-23. Specific
material
is
Heat.
lb
Applying
Equation
Q,
2-8,
20 lb x 1 x (180
2080 Btu
76)
by the addition or
The
specific heat
of a
Example 2-9.
how much
gallon,
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
18
Solution.
Weight of
water in
pounds
Applying
Equation
Q,
2-8,
=
=
=
=
heat of a material is
given in terms of Btu/lb/ F, the weight of the
material must be determined before Equation
specific
this particular
less
Example 2-10.
Solution.
By
Q,
iron,
By rearranging and
applying Equation 2-8
to determine the final
temperature of the
water after absorbing
the heat given up by
the cast iron,
Heat Divided
Categories.
thermometer.
2-27.
Latent Heat.
by a
to or rejected
15 lb
378.75 Btu
x 0.101
x 250
MC +
name
is
known
is
as latent heat.
The
latent,
is
on the temperature of
Many
the material.
materials progressing
the liquid
is
first,
liquid phase
2-28. Sensible
When
the
Heat of a
Solid.
To
obtain a
378.75
25 x
'i
+ 78F
= 15.15 +78
= 93F
into
Two
(Absolute Zero).
Kinds or
state of a material
its
categories,
it
added
no
rest.
solid becomes.
city
its
it.
heat, either
vaporization.
effects
When
It
temperature. Heat
applied to
is
known
applying Equation
2-8 to compute the
total quantity of heat
given up by the cast
2-25.
sensible
perature
identified as
The term
Where
is
sensible heat.
The
The
total
temperature of the solid from the original condition of Absolute Zero to the melting or fusion
temperature
is
known as
Upon
the
It is
19
which the
is,
the temperature
same as
phase
the
that at
of the solid
state.
It is
is
exactly
first
attraction
fusion temperature.
On
or rejected during
on molecular
is
the
same
perature.*
that
is
absorbed by a
normal
The
For
pressure.
instance, at
32 F.
QL =
where
2-30.
is
overcome
another.
and becomes
fluid.
It
can no longer
is
considerable
is
and a
relatively
required to overcome
that attraction.
to
Ql =
M=
h it =
Mxh
it
(2-9)
pound
Apply-
of
ice
12 lb x 144 Btu/lb
1728 Btu
have
indefinite fusion
is
assumed to remain
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
20
Solution.
2-9,
Sensible
2-31.
Heat of the
material passes
= _G
rearranging
from the
_
~
-
is
When a
The temperature of
perature.
144 Btu/lb
41.66 lb
the liquid
may
Any
up
in the liquid as
an increase in the
Molecular velocity
increases and the temperature of the liquid rises.
internal
kinetic
energy.
cannot be further
it
in-
temperature above
its
vaporizing temperature
vaporizing temperature,
if
is
The total
as
its
temperature
is
no change
therefore,
in
Hence,
at
is
As
energy to overcome
sufficient
all
restraining
The
amount of energy required to do the internal
work necessary to overcome these restraining
forces is very great. For this reason, the capacity
including the force of gravity.
forces,
The
lb of
a liquid
to
Any
h if
6000 Btu
Liquid.
2-33.
called
the
known
is
The
each material. It
both the latent heat
value and the saturation temperature of any
particular liquid vary with the pressure over the
liquid.
any
value decreases.
is
2-8,
2-32.
Saturation Temperature.
The tem-
temperature,
will
different for
is
be shown
When
later that
and the
latent heat
to vaporize
any
perature
The
is,
QL
where
the tern'
is
few of these
are ammonia, oxygen, and helium, which boil
at temperatures of -28 F, -295 F, and
452 F, respectively.
(2-10)
fa
at
=M xh
in
Btu/lb
Example
2-13.
zation of water
*
is
amount of
effect
When
on
the
work
pressure
is
done
is
External
constant, the
work
is
external
3 gal of water
at the saturation temperature of 212 F?
weight of water
3 gal
QL
8.33 lb/gal
25 lb
25 lb x 970 Btu/lb
24,250 Btu
Applying Equation
2-10,
water at
1200 Btu.
it
Example
content of
-460
Applying Equation
2-16.
Compute the
lb of steam at 212 F.
F to
200
(6)
some portion of
x
x
12
(c)
100 Btu
1.135 lb or
0.136 gal
(e)
into water?
5000 Btu
M = 970
Btu/lb
the
Superheat
Vapor. Once a
Sensible
liquid has
1 x 144
144 Btu
32
(212
32)
x 180
180 Btu
To
vaporize 1 lb of water,
applying Equation 2-10,
QL =
=
1 x 970
970 Btu
Summation:
=
=
=
=
246 Btu
144 Btu
180 Btu
970 Btu
1540 Btu
5.15 lb
Heat of a
been vaporized,
QL =
=
2-10,
into water at
from
2-34.
970
lb of ice at 32
=
=
1100
If
applying Equation
(d)
2-15.
melt
0.5
to 212 F,
1200 - 100
1100 Btu
the
(-460)]
1 x 0.5 x 492
246 Btu
2-8,
water
Example
To
[32
heat
total
32 F,
=
=
=
8.33 lb
to
initial
32 F,
2-8,
2-8,
water from
212 F, 0,
from an
to that condition
Solution.
sum
applying Equation
Weight of
the
to bring
Solution. Total
is
21
2-36. Mechanical
Energy
Equivalent.
Normally the external energy of a body is ex-
pressed in mechanical
as
"enthalpy,"
than from
22
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
.8
J'S E
m
=Ss"
8.
#I~
3~
C/5
300
r
Constant temperature
212
200
100
Constant temperature
32
A
-400
-460
F
J
100
200
300
400
500
600
L
700
800
900
_L
1000 1100
1200
J_
1600 1700
analysis of the
relationship
of heat content to
the temperature
and state of a
material.
in transition
is
when
blow
hammer
make up
stored in the
the nail head are jarred and agiby the blow of the hammer, their motion
or velocity is increased and the temperature of
the nail head increases. If a wire is bent rapidly
back and forth, the bent portion of the wire
becomes hot because of the agitation of the
instances,
molecules.
in another section.
is brought about
of two surfaces rubbing together.
Often the external energy of a body is converted to internal energy and vice versa. For
example, a bullet speeding toward a target has
that
tated
Also, everyone
is
by the
friction
At
its
mass and
velocity.
loses
is
each
is
increased.
in
is
PROBLEMS
1.
is
useful.
23
What
It
become
where
W
- -7
W = Q xJ
and
Q =
Ans. 440
Rankine?
5. Thirty gallons
to
180 F.
required?
of
36,000
Q = 778
= 46.3 Btu
ice at 32 F.
Solution. Applying
Equation 2-12,
cooling.
tion2-ll,
Ans. 500
(2-12)
of heat
Solution.
F
is
3.
(2-11)
pounds
Ans. 194
heit.
is
relationships
2.
x 778
= 9336 ft-lb
W= 12
10.
ft-lb
that,
of water are
mean
distance
ice.
3-2.
Thermodynamic
ture
Processes
solid or a liquid
is
increased,
is
it
will
many
earlier,
rise.
As
stated
The
Effects of
expansion
The
of expansion.
coefficient
3-1.
is
coefficient
of
and
confined so that
when heat
this is
which
is
likely to
restraining bodies,
to
vessel
rupture,
Volume.
3-3. Specific
or other restraining
material itself
taining
restrained or
sometimes
with
explosive force.
vessels.
However,
is
Space must
be allowed for the normal expansion. Otherwise the tremendous expansive forces generated
by a temperature increase will cause the con-
be
will
a solid or a liquid
accompanied by still
further expansion. In fact, 1 cu ft of water will
freeze into approximately 1.085 cu ft of ice.
This accounts for the tremendous expansive
force created during solidification which is
solidification
pressible, if
of a material
is
mass of the
material.
The
specific
volume
lb
The unusual
0.01608 cu
24
ft.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
3-4.
The
Density.
density of a material
weight in pounds of
cu
ft
the
is
of the material.
the specific
3-5.
25
Pressure-Temperature-Volume Rela-
tionships of Gases.
tables.
absolute
For example,
direction.
of water
at 40 F, the density
volume are
and
as
is
density
and
specific
(3-1)
~v
V=M
(3-2)
= the
x v
(3-3)
(3-4)
(lb/cu ft)
Solution.
Applying
Temperature-Volume Relationship at
a Constant Pressure.
its
at 32
basin?
its
heated
is
pressure
is
for each 1
Likewise,
if
a gas
kept
of
its
increase in
its
is
cooled at a
temperature.
ft
volume
a gas
If
fined in
26.80
0.0373 lb/cu
Example 3-2.
ft
initial
temperature.
3-1 .
measuring 5
it
a gas always
volume
Equation
series
constant,
Rankine.
stant.
(cu ft/lb)
density in
degrees
dition in such
in
from some
M= V x P
where v
temperatures
easily
1
liquid.
p=
solid or
piston
frictionless
(Fig.
perfectly
3-la).
The
is
is
that
free to
move up
or
down
in the
The
total
volume
ft
x 4 ft
x 1ft
= 20 cu ft
Applying Equation
total weight of water
3-4, the
20 X 26.8
536 lb
As
the gas
is
cooled,
its
temperature
and volume decrease and the piston moves downward in the cylinder. In either case, the pressure
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
26
[tttl
I
Pistoh||
Hi
Perfectly fitting
ft?
frictionless
'.
'Of/^'"""-"-"^
?<
1
Volume
Volu
change
chai
piston
Piston
JL
P = 100 psia
fr = 500*R
if
P = 100 psia $
$v;T=1000*R
J&
4.
&V=Icuft
fTTT
(a)
Heat
Heat
added
removed
(b)
(c)
temperature.
Process.
when
the pressure
volume
is
kept constant,
its
illustrated
in
Figs.
3-5.
perature
is
3-3.
520
Rankine.
Solution. By rearranging and
applying Equation 3-5, the final
temperature of the gas T2
520 x 10
is
as follows:
When
the
kept constant,
TrVt =
T^
3-16 and
3-lc.
pressure
Equation
will also
relationship
is
1040
Example 3-4.
gas, having an initial
temperature of 80 F, is cooled at a constant
pressure until its temperature is 40 F. If the
initial volume of the gas is 8 cu ft, what is its
final
volume?
(3-5)
degrees Rankine
Equation
degrees Rankine
Solution.
where
T =
r2 =
Vx
the
the
initial
initial
in
cubic feet
volume
3-5.
V2
^i^i
500 x 8
Tt
540
7.4074 cu
ft
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
Pressure-Volume Relationship at a
Constant Temperature. When the volume
of a gas
a given
3-8.
is
27
is
the
pressure.
unchanged,
remains
perature
absolute
its
expanded
when a gas
Similarly,
a constant temperature,
at
its
is
abso-
is
upon
increase in volume.
The
This
is
a statement of
and
is illustrated
and
3-2c.
has been previously stated that the molecules of a gas are flying about at random and at
high velocities and that the molecules of the
It
by the gas
collisions.
cules,
is
second. It is this incessant molecular bombardment which produces the pressure that a gas
exerts upon the walls of its container. The
magnitude of the pressure exerted depends upon
the force and frequency of the molecular impacts upon a given area. The greater the force
Fig. 3-2.
(a) Initial
When
a gas
is
compressed at a constant
The
when
is
process.
L
mi: piston: mi
volume
change is
inversely proportional to the
change in absolute pressure.
1
i
!!
-,
1
I-'
'::
"^:'l
ture constant,
(c)
Constant
temperature compression
volume change is inversely
proportional to the change
absolute pressure.
be
condi-
Constant temperature
expansion
The higher
Constant tempera-
ture process,
tion, (b)
greater the
is
removed
in
'
'
;'.:.
l:---'v
V=lcuft
P * 50
.
psi
V2cuft
HI|liPiston:i||
iP m 200
psi<2
IV = 0.5cuft1
com!
-__-l-L_
miipiswiiu
<p=ibopsi |
Heat must
during
II
T=70*F
T=70*F
!J>.70*F
constant.
ft 'If
Heat idded
(c>>
(1
H'l ii
Heat
re
moved
U)
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
28
Volume
Pressure
cu
Volume =
ft
cu
@>
ft
= 200
Pressure
100 psia
Volume
Pressure
psia
cu
50
Temperature
Temperature= 1000 R
Temperatures 500 R,
ft
psia
250'
TTT
TT
Heat added
Heat removed
(b)
(c)
(a)
Constant volume process, (a) Initial condition, (b) The absolute pressure increases in direct
proportion to the increase in absolute temperature, (c) The absolute pressure decreases in direct proportion
to the decrease in absolute temperature.
Fig. 3-3.
is
the temperature
is
PiVi
=
Pa =
Vx =
K2 =
where Px
the
if
constant,
initial
= P*r*
(3-6)
Solution.
absolute pressure
the
3-6,
Pt
3000 x 10
initial
the final
PiVi
By rearranging
4
7500 psfa
7500
Dividing by 144
144
Example
pressure
P2
20 x 5
10
10 psia
=
=
=
52.08 psia
14.7
52.08
37.38 psig
Relationship
Pressure-Temperature
at a Constant Volume. Assume that a gas
is confined in a closed cylinder so that its
volume cannot change as it is heated or cooled
(Fig. 3-3a). When the temperature of a gas is
3-9.
Example
Four cubic
of gas are
allowed to expand at a constant temperature
from an initial pressure of 1500 psfa to a final
Determine the final
pressure of 900 psfa.
volume of the gas.
3-6.
feet
applying
final
By rearranging and
Equation
volume
Vz
3-6,
_ PiVi
molecules) of a gas
P*
the
Example 3-7.
1500 x 4
6.67 cu
is
volume
(velocity of the
900
initial
is
cular impacts
Likewise,
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
diminish and the pressure of the gas will be
less
is
used, then
v,
and Equation
for
3-8
may be
equation:
when
the volume
is
the same,
Tx =
the
initial
the final
where
R=
(3-7)
temperature in degrees
PMv = MRT
but since
then
PV = MRT
where
pounds per
Example
3-8.
80
F and an
an
initial
initial
Fahrenheit?
Solution. By rearranging and applying Equa-
T,
T, xi.
Pi
(80
tion 3-7,
460)
R
-
322
compreswith air
at a temperature of 100 F. If a gage on the
tank reads 151.1 psi, what is the weight of the
air in the tank?
Example
460
Combining
equation:
is
782
Equation 3-8
is
is
782
sor has a
0-8)
3-9.
The tank of an
volume of 5 cu
Solution.
Table
-P= -P
Equation 3-10
and
x(50
(30
+ 14.7)
+ 14.7)
Converting Rankine to
Fahrenheit
(3-10)
temperature of
3-11.
produces
pounds per
Mv = V
temperature in degrees
P2 =
tables.
Rankine
Px =
(3-9)
Rankine
r2 =
written:
Vi = Vi
where
may be
Pv
velocity.
Charles' law
29
3-1,
and
air
is filled
From
for air
By rearranging
and applying Equation 3-10, the weight
of air
53.3
(151.1
_
=
ft
14.7)
x 144x5
x (100 + 460)
165.8 x 144 x 5
53.3 x 560
4 lb
53.3
PRINCIPLES
30
From
Solution.
Table
3-1,
OF REFRIGERATION
for air
rearranging
and applying Equation 3-10, the temperature of the air
MR
2 x 53.3
150 x 144 x 3
2 x 53.3
Fahrenheit,
607.9
607.9
- 460
147.9
by the material.
work
If the
is
As
the gas
upward
it
distance(Fig. 3-1A).*
its
expands, moving
Work
is
in the
all
some combination of
and
(3) as external
energy equation
this
a mathematical statement of
concept and may be written:
is
done
is
AQ = AK + AP + AW
in
where
3-lZ>,
AQ =
is
required
(3-11)
AK =
AP =
That
is,
AW =
amount equal to
amount of energy required to do the work.
When a gas is compressed (its volume decreased), a certain amount of work must be done
on the gas in order to compress it. And, an
amount of energy equal to the amount of work
done will be imparted to the molecules of the
(temperature) decreases in an
the
of the transferred
that fraction
energy which
as the gas
in
It is
is
and
with a
filled
compressor,
to
air
material in Btu
own
being
moved through a
its
tire
etc.
expense of
compressed is a
be noted by
is
heated,
is
stem of a
14.7)
x 144x3
R,
Converting to
is
(135.3
=
=
=
T- PV
By
in
53.3
external
The Greek
letter,
term in an equation
condition.
For
is
utilized
to
do
work
(delta),
used in front of a
a change of
identifies
instance,
where
AK
represents
represents the
When
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
the increase in volume and the external work
done is so slight that the portion of the transferred energy
work
which
is
utilized to
do
external
For
is negligible.
all
practical purposes,
it
can
the material as
is
None leaves
set
up
an
as
In
both
AP
and
AW
of Equation
equal to
AQ
is
AK
When
effects
The
set
up
as
potential energy.
an increase
Therefore,
AQ
is
by the melting
in the internal
AK
AW are
and
equal to AP.
The
vapor as
an increase in the internal potential energy. In
only
AK is
AQ is equal to AP plus
3-15.
is set
up
in the
AW.
diminishes,
is
heated and
its
many
nitrogen,
which may
result
no consequence
for
all
practical
purposes.
"perfect"
that
ideal are of
The various
same as
forces are
the
is
is
is
solid
Many
energy.
31
Although
it is
refrigeration understand
*
vapor is sometimes defined as a gas at a
condition close enough to the saturation curve so
that it does not follow the ideal gas laws even
approximately.
PRINCIPLES
32
OF REFRIGERATION
and therefore the use of the gas laws to determine the pressure-volume-temperature relationships of such vapors will result in considerable
inaccuracy. In working with vapors, it is usually
necessary to use values which have been determined experimentally and are tabulated in
saturated and superheated vapor tables. These
tables are included as a part of this textbook
None
of the energy
When
that
should be noted
It
AQ represents heat
AK represents an in-
Equation 3-12,
in
heat
is
Likewise,
work done by
given up by the
if
decreases,
the gas.
gas,
AQ
and
AW
Therefore,
is
negative.
Hence,
in
(1)
and
(5) polytropic
processes.
energy.
by an
any
effect
on the internal
potential
heat absorbed
is
cooled, both
law
(Fig.
3-1).
increased.
same time
that
work
its
is
done by
internal energy
will
it
will
AQ = AK + AW
gas
is
it
is
When
so confined that
1I
may be written
+AW
(3-14)
lb of a gas 1
its
AW
Mv
AQP =AK
For a
by the
*Qv -
identified
(3-12)
(3-13)
at
a constant volume.
The reason
for this
is
easily explained.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
increases the internal kinetic energy.
However,
and a
rise
work
is
done.
amount of
certain
work
Therefore, during a
0.169
is
Btu per pound. For the constant pressure process, the additional 0.068S Btu per pound
(0.2375 0.169) is the energy required to do
the work resulting from the volume increase
accompanying the temperature rise.
The specific heat of a gas may take any value
depending upon the
amount of work that the gas does as it expands.
3-20. The Change in
Internal Kinetic
Energy. During any process in which the
temperature of the gas changes, there will be a
change in the internal kinetic energy of the gas.
Regardless of the process, when the temperature of a given weight of gas is increased or
either positive or negative,
Solution.
Apply-
where
AK =
fj
(3-15)
Cv =
tt =
fx =
Note.
AQV = AKV
then
will
Example
3-13.
If, in Example 3-11, the gas
heated while its volume is kept constant,
what is the quantity of heat transferred to the
gas during the process ?
Solution.
AQV =
Apply-
=
=
to the gas,
Solution. Applying
Equation 3-15, the in-
energy
AK
=5
=
=
x 0.169
x (140 - 75)
x 0.169 x 65
5
54.9 Btu
x 0.169
x (140 - 75)
5 x 0.169 x 65
54.9 Btu
5
Alternate Solution.
From Example
AKV =
54.9 Btu
AQV =
54.9 Btu
Since
AQ V = AKV
air is
3-14.
cooled while
If,
its
Example
Since
From
AKV =
AQV
3-12,
AQ = AKV
-46.67 Btu
46.67 Btu
Example
of air
(3-16)
is
Solution.
in either
-46.64 Btu
process, since
air
temperature
x (72 - 95)
x 0.169 x (-23)
what
initial
12
3-21.
=
=
pounds
constant volume specific heat
in
12 x 0.169
Example
energy in Btu
M = the weight
AK
3-12,
AK = MCv(tt -
33
kinetic energy,
negative,
AQV
indicating
AKV
is
heat
is
transferred
W'PiVt-VJ
(3-17)
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
34
where
Assume
area of
an
Then, the
P pounds
is
PA
R =
70
530
to
=
T2
"
_
596"
done. Hence,
W = P xA
70
to
Applying
is
Con-
Solution.
verting
Equation
and work
AW
Charles' law,
AKP
degrees Rankine,
F = P xA
the distance
of
per square
on the top of
pounds, or
sum
and
9 the heat energy equivalent of
the work of expansion.
the
energy,
3-5,
Applying Equa-
AA:
A x
3-15
W = P(V -VJ
and
3-16,
Applying Equa-
3-15.
tion 3-14,
One pound of
air
having
an
Solution. Applying
Equation 3-17, the work in
foot-pounds
In Equation 3-12,
By
energy units.
= 2117 x
(15 - 13.34)
= 2117 x 1.66
= 3514 ft-lb
Example
3-16.
Example 3-15
Solution.
in foot-
W in Btu.
also the
AQ P - MCp (t 2 -
tj)
(3-20)
AQ V =
Applying Equation
3-20,
3-24.
(3-19)
3514
4.52 Btu
778
rise
Applying Equation
in Btu
work
is
1 x 0.2375
x (596 - 530)
1 x 0.2375
x 66
15.67 Btu
(3-18)
work
AQ
pound but
The
3-23.
3-14,
is
W
AW =
W = AW xJ
3-18, the
CP
vx
530 x 15
From Example
= (Vs - VJ
then
Example
*1 X ^1
x 0.169
x (596 - 530)
1 x 0.169 x 66
11.154 Btu
=
=
kinetic energy,
but since
460
13.34
is
equal to
Pressure-Volume
(PV)
Diagram.
Equation 3-8 is a statement that the thermodynamic state of a gas is adequately described
by any two properties of the gas. Hence, using
any two properties of the gas as mathematical
coordinates, the thermodynamic state of a gas
at any given instant may be shown as a point
on a chart. Furthermore, when the conditions
under which a gas passes from some initial state
to
some
process follows
on the
chart.
may be made
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
The
35
4000
cycle
called
is
in the analysis
work
volume, when
Since
which
cycle
is
Final
condition
When
volume.
To
13
12
diagram.
illustrate the
use of the
PV
Example
3- IS is
Fig.
shown
in Fig. 3-4.
v2
Volume (cubic
16
14
*i
diagram, a
Pressure-volume
3-4.
pressure
feet)
diagram
Crosshatched
process.
of
area
constant
between
process.
feet is
gas
is
origin
two dimensions. In
1-2-Kg-^
rectangle,
(crosshatched),
P(Vt VJ
Draw a
through
chart.
Next,
The
inter-
is
the external
its
base
(Kg
is
the
Fj).
is
evident then
and
establishes
is
is
PV
diagram of a constant
Assume
volume
volume
volume
increases to
fall
line
on
of constant
The
exact point
is
process.
4 cu
The
is
that
the
initial
is
ft.
4000
psfa.
gas
The process
takes place
initial
show
state
is
2 the
initial state 1
air passes
to the final
through a number of
all of which
that
no work
volume process.
is
That
is,
is
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
36
shown
4500
^~
P*
in Fig. 3-6.
4000
3500
pounds
3000
The
32500
is
area,
of the process,
Px
| 2000
condition
Initial
tion
fF
1500
where
500
II
4
Pressure-volume
3-5.
volume
to a
of
constant
= P1 K1 xln-^
3-18.
certain
volume
volume of 4 cu
Determine:
of the gas in psfa
the work done in heat energy units.
ft.
(b)
Solution
By applying Boyle's
law, Equation 3-6,
the final pressure Pa
PiVx
(a)
expanded.
Since the gas will do work as it expands, if
the temperature is to remain constant, energy
with which to do the work must be absorbed
from an external source (Fig. 3-26). However,
since
temperature
the
is
of the
gas remains
of the energy absorbed by the gas
during the process leaves the gas as work;
constant,
none
is
ail
When
a gas
is
(b)
1250 psfa
=
=
=
=
2500 x 2 x lnf
2500 x 2 x In 2
2500 x 2 x 0.693
3465 ft-Ib
3465
By applying Equa-
tion
3-22,
ternal
the ex-
work of the
process in foot-
pounds
compressed, work
Vi
2500 x 2
internal energy.
weight of gas
initial
is
(3-22)
initial
process.
Example
feet)
diagram
In
having an
Volume (cubic
Fig.
In a constant temperature
Final condition
~ 778
= 4.45
Btu
done on
not cooled during ihe
is
if the gas is
compression, the internal energy of the gas will
be increased by an amount equal to the work of
compression. Therefore,
the gas
is
if
the temperature of
must
reject to
comsome external
the amount of
Final
condition
(Fig. 3-2c).
There
is
no change
AQ =
f
3-26.
PV
Work
AW
(3-21)
of an Isothermal Process.
Fig. 3-6.
Pressure-volume diagram of constant
temperature process. Crosshatched area represents
is
the
work
of the process.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
Example
having an
3-19.
initial
37
From Example
Solution.
AW = 4.45 Btu
3-18,
AW
process,
equals
AQ
AQ =
t,
4.45 Btu
work done by
Solution
By applying
Boyle's law,
PiVi
Equation
1250 x 4
(a)
Example
2500 psfa
process
= 2500 x 2 x
= 2500 x 2 x
= 2500 x 2 x
= -3465 ft-lb
foot-
in
pounds
is
In
work in heat
AW
energy units
-0.693
3-18.
Notice
-4.45 Btu
AQ =
-4.45 Btu
up by
is
the
Where
also
that
the gas
is
changes
reversed.
AW =
actually given
is
778
-4.45 Btu
the process in
conditions
amount
-3465
Example
t,
AQ
In 0.5
By applying
the
equals
this
cess
Equation 3-18,
By Applying Equa-
3-19,
Since A
^2
(b)
From
Solution.
3-6,
its
from or to an external
body during the process. Furthermore, the
pressure, volume, and temperature of the gas all
vary during an adiabatic process, none of them
remaining constant.
When a
work and
do the work. In the
energy
is
required to
source.
own
Since, during
energy.
An
adiabatic expansion
is
always
its
own
internal
change
3-27.
process,
there
kinetic energy
an isothermal
is
no change
in
and
AK equals
zero.
the internal
According
work done
in Btu.
is
gas,
exactly
transferred to the
done by the
is
During an
work
that
is
compression heat
is
transferred
that the internal energy of the gas is not increased by the performance of work on the gas.
Example
3-20.
gas
is
compressed adiabatically,
is
transferred to or
When a
3-7).
is
AKa
written as follows:
+AW =0
a
(3-23)
Therefore,
AW. = -AK.
and
AKa - -AWa
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
38
Example 3-23.
gas having an initial
pressure of 945 psfa and an initial volume of
4 cu
Solution.
Example
From
k for
3-22,
Final
1.406
air
condition
the
work done
pounds
(945 x 4)
(2500 x 2)
in foot-
1.406
3780
5000
0.406
-1220
Fig.
Pressure-volume
3-7.
An
process.
isothermal
diagram
curve
is
of
adiabatic
drawn
0.406
for
in
comparison.
Work
3-29.
of an Adiabatic Process.
The
where k
P1 V1 -P2 V2
k - 1
(3-24)
gas in question,
Example
3-22.
CJCV
gas having an
and an
initial
volume of
expanded adiabatically to a volume
initial
2 cu ft is
of 4 cu ft. If the final pressure is 945 psfa,
determine the external work done in heat
energy units.
=
=
The
heats,
air
ratio
of the
specific
On
c,
expansion there
is
no
0.169
1.406
amount equal
(2500 x 2)
5000
(945
1406
0.406
=
Applying Equation 3-18,
in heat energy
3005
ft-lb
3005
~
=
778
3.86 Btu
to the
3780
0.406
1220
A Wa
work
778
-3.86 Btu
process.
units
heat energy
0.2375 Btu/lb
0.169 Btu/lb
0.2375
the
in
A(C.
ft-lb
Solution
C for
work
units
-3005
-3005
pressing
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
39
On
Therefore, an
Polytropic
N>
and
<K
amount of energy
increases
accordingly.
3-34.
The Polytropic
Process.
way of denning a
simplest
Perhaps the
polytropic process
is
in
itself will
fall
known
as a polytropic process.
If during
polytropic' expansion
the
Fig. 3-8.
drawn
comparison.
and volume
Charles'
The
relationship
Tt = Tx
H'
F(*-l)
This
(3-25)
(3-26)
When
temperature constant, the compression is polytropic. The greater the loss of heat, the closer
the polytropic process
thermal.'
The
approaches the
p*=Pi
iso-
-P
becomes
(3-27)
'*W
(3-28)
adiabatic.
(3-29)
compression. This
pression
is
Water
to the surroundings.
jacketing of the cylinder will usually increase the
cylinder walls
Example
cally
v, .
(3>r
(3-30)
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
40
4 cu
ft.
what
psfa,
From
Solution.
Table
3-1,
is
for air
1.406
24,000 x
=
=
=
,1.406
Applying Equation
3-27, the final pressure
Usually, the
value of must be determined by actual test of
the machine in which the expansion or compression occurs. In some instances average
'
lated.
Example
batically
3-25.
of 4 cu ft. If the
is 600 R, what
is
Table
3-1,
Example
=
=
for air
(2) .406-1)
(4)(1.406-
T2
ture
1.406
600x
= 600x
(2)0.406
(4)0.408
= 600x
= 600 x
= 453"
Example
1.325
1.756
0.755
Solution.
Table
3-26.
from an
3-1,
initial
From
k
Applying
Equation 3-26,
the final tempera-
=
=
=
=
(3-31)
logC^/^)
having
an
initial
Solution
(a)
From Table
3-1,
R for air
Rearranging and
applying Equation
3-10, the weight of
53.3
RT
_ 24,000
53.3
x 2
x 600
1.5 lb
1.406
1.406-1
T9
ture
(Pj/Pj,)
3-27." Air,
for
log
-^
determine:
(a) The weight of the air in pounds
(6) The final pressure in psfa
(c) The final temperature in degrees Rankine
(d) The work done by the gas in Btu
(e) The increase in internal energy
(/) The heat transferred to the gas.
air
air
Air
is
expanded adiapressure of 24,000 psfa
to a final pressure of 9072 psfa. If the initial
temperature is 600 R, what is the final temperature?
batically
and
calcu-
pressure of 24,000 psfa and an initial temperature of 600 R, is expanded polytropically from
From
Applying Equation
initial
may be
degrees Rankine?
Solution.
The
of n
the relationship:
initial
is
If the values of
600 x
io
\ **
/ 9072 \
124 000/
\24,000/
600 x (0.378)< 0M
600 x 0.755
453
and
A:.
Broadly- defined,
is
substituted for k.
The exponent n
somewhere between
will
1
particular
a path
adiabatic processes.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
(b)
Applying Equation
pressure
Pa
- 24,000 xg)"
= 24,000 x (0.SY*
- 24,000 x 0.435
= 10,440 psfa
Applying Equation
ture
Tt
(2)U.-i)
600 *
x
"""
(4)<i.-i)
-0x3K
(4)
o.
1.149
,
= 600
x
1.32
= 522R
(d)
Applying Equation
3-24, the
done
(24,000
work
(4
2)
x 10,440)
-1
- 41,760
1.2
_ 48,000
tainer is cooled
150
is
5.
work
in
BtuAW
ft-lb
31,200
Applying Equation
3-18, the
31,200
Am.
(c)
778
40.10 Btu
(e)
From Table
C for
3-1,
= 0.169 Btu/lb
air
Applying Equation
1.5
1.5
in internal energy
x 0.169 x
(522
AK
=
- 600)
x 0.169 x
(-78)
-19.77 Btu
AJSr
(a)
The weight of
(c)
The volume of
(e)
Rankine.
PROBLEMS
air in degrees
Am.
Am.
0.843 Btu
Am. None
(/)
The energy
the compression.
Assume
Compute:
(a) The final temperature of the
air in degrees
Rankine.
1.
530
is
amount.
0.01 lb
(b)
40.10
this
initial
Am.
19 Btu
by the
energy by
an
psia, determine:
+ AfF
= -19.77 +
= 20.33 Btu
13.52 Btu
volume of 0.1334 cu ft and an initial temperature of 70 F is drawn into the suction side of
an air compressor. If the air enters the cylinder
at standard atmospheric pressure and is com-
start
the
Am.
7.
is
Am. 60.6 lb
In Problem 4, determine:
(a) The work done by the air during the
heating.
Am. 4254.8 ft-lb or 5.47 Btu
(b) The increase in the internal kinetic energy.
6.
0.2
ft.
0.2
6240
(c)
41
Am. 1038
the air at the end of the
compression stroke.
Am. 0.0256 cu ft
(c) The work of compression in Btu.
(b)
The volume of
Am.
0.86 Btu
PRINCIPLES
42
(d)
OF REFRIGERATION
(c)
(b)
0.86 Btu
transferred to or from
the gas during the compression.
Ans. None
Assuming that the air in Problem 7 is compressed polytropically rather than isothermally.
If n equals 1.2, compute:
() The final temperature of the air in degrees
Ans. 119 A"
Rankine.
(c)
(d)
9.
(e)
The volume of
10.
Compare
and 9.
the results
of Problems
7,
8,
For example,
vessel
is
saturated and
burner.
the water
is
is
supplied by the
condenser.
F as
vaporizing at 212
is
As
it
reaches the
up
it
Saturated and
Superheated
Vapors
steam,
4-3.
is
Superheated Vapor.
vapor at any
temperature
is
heated so that
its
is
vapor
is
said to
be superheated.
it is
necessary to
shown in Fig.
4-2.
it will be saturated.
because any heat added to a liquidvapor mixture will merely vaporize more liquid
4-2.
and no superheating
is
called the
and 2-32).
Saturated Vapor. The vapor ensuing
from a vaporizing liquid is called a saturated
vapor as long as the temperature and pressure
of the vapor are the same as those of the saturated liquid from which it came. A saturated
vapor
may be
It is
is
will occur.
temperature.
vapor to decrease
ture
is
reached.
removal of heat
At
will
this
point,
any further
condense.
important
4-4.
Subcooled Liquid.
tion,
liquid
This
liquid.
4-5.
The
Effect of Pressure
tion Temperature.
The
on the Satura-
saturation tempera-
pres-
For
saturation temperature
tarily.
43
44
PRINCIPLES
212 F.
OF REFRIGERATION
the water at atmospheric pressure
creased from
from 212
point,
if
the heating
begin to vaporize.
is
Condenser
water out""^
is
212 F,
is
and condenses
into water
Cold water
in
Saturated steam
at212"F
-*
.{
condenser-212F
Heat added
Fig. 4VI.
graphical
representation
Saturated vapor.
of the relationship
in the vessel
and two
-^j^~ -
r- iOiA-.t!j>.^.
:
^Ls
45
^Steam superheated
Jt.i-^x4j^ ^.j
in
superheater
Saturated steam
/T7-X
5
TfT"/
H
eat
Fig. 4-2.
Superheated vapor.
added
"
Superheated
steam
tint
Heat added
is
partially
from the
vessel is
Under
impeded somewhat.
liquid
that
is, its
ture
is
allowed to
and the
and raising
it is
is
at 212 F.
is
is,
is
is
DUU
500
-.400
re
'3
o.
Is
a.
4-3.
Variation
in
the
300
Fig.
200
saturation temperature of
water with changes in pressure.
100
14.7
50
100
150
200|
250
300
350
212
Saturation temperature (*F)
400
450
500
PRINCIPLES
46
OF REFRIGERATION
Valve
xtt v'
/S^
wit,e
Steam
P en
<'>
Density-0.0373 Ib/cu
^i'-'i-
psia
Steam
Density-0.0498 Ib/cu
ft
20
ft
212'F
>228'F
Zz_Water_ H>:
>^^
(a)
<b)
Fig. 4-4.
Fig. 4-46.
By comparing
it
will
is
and saturation
temperature. Furthermore,
pressure
it is
the rate
the liquid.
vessel
is
sufficient to
allow
and
an increase
in the
be lower.
Assume now
container
density
is
vapor
is
will decrease
again equal to
its
changed.
and
result
in
temperature.
an increase
The reason
in
the saturation
any increase
in the rate of vaporization will necessitate the
is
that
fixed
by the
result
and
(2)
by
ebullition or "boiling."
47
S" of liquid
and become
vapor molecules
The
by evaporation occurs
only at the free surface of the liquid and may
take place at any temperature below the satura-
vaporization of a liquid
tion temperature.
Water
Fig. 4-5. Evaporation
from surface of a
liquid.
considered.
4-7.
Evaporation.
place
continually
Evaporation
and the
fact
is
taking
that
water
to the
temperature, will
atmosphere, regardless of
gradually evaporate and be diffused into the
its
air.
rate.
factors.
increases
velocities being
the liquid.
The
molecules.
(Fig.
4-5).
become vapor
The molecules so
air to
4-9.
The Cooling
Effect of Evaporation.
it is
is thereby
reduced and the temperature of the mass
lowered. Whenever any portion of a liquid
vaporizes,
latent
mass
is
reduced to a point
slightly
below that of
liquid.
The energy
lost
vaporization
is
48
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
by
is
air
Molecules cannot
away
escape-fall back
so that evaporation
continuous
those leaving
Vapor pressure
Water temperature
slightly
below
air
0.74
>.
in.
Hg
Saturated vapor
Absolute density
>
temperature
0.001148 Ib/cu
ft
70 F
Saturated liquid
(a)
(b)
Vapor pressure1.13
in.
Vapor pressure
Hg
0.52
Absolute density-
0.001570 Ib/cu
in.
Hg
Absolute density
ft
60' F
Saturated vapor
/ 0.000828
Saturated vapor
60 F
Saturated liquid
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4-6.
of the liquid
is
evaporated.
However,
if
saturated,
occur.
will cease.
If,
(Fig. 4-66).
when
and evaporation
Equilibrium will have again been
49
4-12. Condensation.
Condensation of a
vapor may be accomplished in several ways: (1)
by extracting heat from a saturated vapor, (2)
by compressing the vapor while its temperature
remains constant, or (3) by some combination
of these two methods.
4-13.
will cease.
established.
vapor
The
density
will
4-6c).
cooler surrounding
air.
As
the liquid-vapor
At
this
new
be less than before, the saturation temperaand since a part of the vapor
condensed into liquid, there will be more liquid
and less vapor comprising the mixture than at
come
the vapor
is
saturation temperature.
If,
as in a vapor
condenser (Fig. 4-1), more vapor is entering
the vessel as the vapor condenses and drains
from the vessel as a liquid, the density, pressure,
and saturation temperature of the vapor will
remain constant and condensation will continue
will
as long as heat
the vapor.
4-11.
is
4-14.
The
satura-
is
reached where
maximum
become vapor
molecules.
will
structure
of
the
liquid
state.
Thereafter,
condensation will continue as long as compression continues so that the density and
pressure of the remaining vapor cannot be
If the temperature of the
further increased.
PRINCIPLES
50
OF REFRIGERATION
is
temperature
A careful analysis
They must be
calculated
4-18.
same.
cally, the
follows.
Enthalpy.
Enthalpy
is
calculated
whereupon
ture corresponding to its
the continued removal of heat causes a part of
enthalpy.
enthalpy of
vapor
at
is
a constant pressure
pressure,
pressure
is
vapor.
4-15. Critical
ture of a gas
that
it
The tempera-
Temperature.
may be
at
any
enthalpy
specified
Whereas the
h
is
total enthalpy
M pounds,
the enthalpy of
1 lb.
H represents the
Since
it is
usually the
Since
little is
lb.
the other properties of materials at low temperatures, it is not possible to determine absolute
values for the calculated properties.
reason,
For
this
temperature of any gas is the highest temperature the gas can have and still be condensible
by the application of pressure. The critical
temperature is different for every gas. Some
the
amount of pressure
critical
applied.
The
critical
temperature.
and
Pressure, temperature,
and entropy.
volume are called measurable properties be-
is
defined as
Pv
(4-1)
51
Pressure-volume
diagram showing the external
work done by fluid expansion
as
lb of water is vaporized
s- Final condition
Fig. 4-7.
atmospheric
at
pressur
approximately 59,000
S
a.
ft-lb.
Specific
1 lb
26.8 cu
Volume cubic
=
=
P=
v =
J =
where h
this
the specific
some part or
all
cases,
4-19.
condition
from the
initial
Furthermore,
work energy
is
many
In
fluid as
the
in the
fluid passes
to
an increase
even
though
the
fluid,
condition.
of
(latent heat
F is 970.4 Btu. Of
It
all
ft/lb
feet
volume of
of steam at 212
F under atmos-
Entropy.
is
A PV diagram of
shown
in Fig. 4-7.
is
The entropy S
condition
transferred to the material per degree of absolute temperature to bring the material to that
condition from
some
initial
condition taken as
Since
it
is
The zero
points of entropy
is
taken as water at 32 F.
it is
lb of
makes
this possible.
trans-
PRINCIPLES
52
OF REFRIGERATION
672*R(212'F + 460)
Fig.
44
Specific entropy of
saturated steam at 212 F
g]/
1.7566 Btu/lb/R
Entropy (Btu/lb/'R)
is
equations:
AQ =
a
As x
(4-2)
(4-3)
itself
However, the
entropy of a fluid is not affected by external
work done either by or on the fluid. Thus in a
as a result of internal friction.
frictionless (occurring
A <2
*
T =
lm
Tm
may
or external
friction), adiabatic
AC
(4-4)
As
fluid will
where
AQ =
As
pound per
Tm =
molecular
inR
Similarly,
(temperature
plotted
against
the
entropy),
is
the product
represents
the heat
transferred
of
is
when
If there is
either to or
*
is
forces
exist
between
the
Therefore, internal
friction is present
saturated
treatment
not required in the study of refrigeration and is beyond the scope of this book, it is
important to note that according to Equation
entropy
which
heat
is
no
no change
in the
may
occur
transfer
it
4-21.
vapor tables
liquids
Saturated
(3)
(specific),
and
specific
(5)
(1)
temperature, (2)
(4) enthalpy
volume,
entropy
(specific).
Normally,
is listed
in the
is
and
list
fifth
columns, respectively.
Some
tables
Steam
Properties of Saturated
Absolute Pressure
Temp.,
"F,
t
Specific
Volume
In.
Hg,
liquid,
Entropy
Enthalpy
Sat.
Sat.
Psi,
53
Sat.
Sat.
Sat.
Sat.
Vg
h,
hfg
(7)
(8)
A.
s,
St,
s.
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
200
202
204
206
208
11.526
23.467
0.01663
33.62
33.64
167.99 977.9
12.011
24.455
0.01665
32.35
32.37
170.00 976.6
12.512
25.475
0.01666
31.14
31.15
172.02 975.4
13.031
26.531
0.01667
29.97
29.99
174.03 974.2
13.568
27.625
0.01669
28.86
28.88
176.04 972.9
210
212
214
216
218
14.123
28.755
27.82
178.05 971.6
29.922
0.01670
0.01672
27.80
14.696
26.78
26.80
180.07 970.3
15.289
31.129
0.01673
25.81
25.83
182.08 969.0
15.901
32.375
0.01674
24.88
24.90
184.10 967.8
16.533
33.662
0.01676
23.99
24.01
186.11 966.5
220
222
224
226
228
17.186
34.992
0.01677
23.13
23.15
188.13 965.2
17.861
36.365
0.01679
22.31
22.33
190.15 963.9
18.557
37.782
0.01680
21.53
21.55
192.17 962.6
19.275
39.244
0.01682
20.78
20.79
194.18 961.3
C2O.O160
40.753
0.01683
20.06
20.07
196.20 960.1
20.780
42.308
0.01684
24.969
50.837
0.01692
29.825
60.725
0.01700
35.429
72.134
0.01709
41.858
85.225
0.01717
230
240
250
260
270
Fig. 4-9.
Properties of Steam
specific
volume.
and
(Section 3-4).
pressure
and the
volume
specific
of enthalpy to the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure of the liquid; (2) the
is
the
Two
and
s g , the
entropy
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
54
Dichlorodifluoromethane (Refrigerant-12)
Properties of Superheated Vapor
Abs. Pressure 36
lb/in. s
Abs. Pressure 38
Abs. Pressure 40
lb/in.*
lb/in. 2
Abs. Pressure 42
lb/in. 2
Temp. Gage Pressure 21.3 lb/in. 8 Gage Pressure 23.3 lb/in. 8 Gage Pressure 25.3 lb/in. 8 Gage Pressure 27.3 lb/in. 8
F
(Sat. Temp. 23.2 F)
(Sat. Temp. 28.5 F)
(Sat. Temp. 20.4 F)
(Sat. Temp. 25.9 F)
(at
sat'n)
30
40
1.140
1.168
81.90
83.35
0.17227
0.17518
1.076
1.103
81.82
83.27
0.17126
0.17418
50
1.196
1.223
1.250
1.278
1.305
84.81
86.27
87.74
0.17806
0.18089
0.18369
0.18647
0.18921
1.129
1.156
1.182
1.208
1.234
84.72
86.19
87.67
89.16
90.66
0.17706
0.17991
0.18272
0.18551
0.18826
1.070
1.095
1.120
1.144
1.169
84.65
86.11
87.60
89.09
90.58
0.19096
0.19365
0.19631
0.19895
0.20157
1.194
1.218
1.242
1.267
1.291
60
70
80
90
100
89.22
90.71
0.967
0.991
81.65 0.16939
83.10 0.17231
0.17612
0.17896
0.18178
0.18455
0.18731
1.016
1.040
1.063
1.087
1.110
84.56 0.17521
86.03 0.17806
87.51 0.18086
89.00 0.18365
90.50 0.18640
92.09
93.62
95.15
96.70
98.26
0.19004
0.19272
0.19538
0.19803
0.20066
1.134
1.158
1.181
1.204
1.227
92.01
93.54
95.09
96.64
1.332
1.359
1.386
1.412
1.439
92.22
110
120
130
140
93.75
95.28
96.82
98.37
0.19193
0.19462
0.19729
0.19991
0.20254
1.260
1.285
1.310
1.336
1.361
92.17
93.69
95.22
96.76
98.32
ISO
160
170
180
190
1.465
1.492
1.518
1.545
1.571
99.93
101.51
103.11
104.72
106.34
0.20512
0.20770
0.21024
0.21278
0.21528
1.387
1.412
1.437
1.462
1.487
99.89
101.47
103.07
104.67
106.29
0.20416
0.20673
0.20929
0.21183
0.21433
1.315
1.340
1.364
1.388
1.412
99.83
101.42
103.02
104.63
106.25
0.20325
0.20583
0.20838
0.21092
0.21343
1.250
1.274
1.297
1.320
1.343
99.77
101.36
102.96
104.57
106.19
0.20237
0.20496
0.20751
0.21005
0.21256
200
210
220
230
240
1.597
1.623
1.650
1.676
1.702
107.97
109.61
111.27
112.94
114.62
0.21778
0.22024
0.22270
0.22513
0.22756
1.512
1.537
1.562
1.587
1.612
107.93
109.57
111.22
112.89
114.58
0.21681
0.21928
0.22176
0.22419
0.22662
1.435
1.459
1.482
1.506
0.21592
0.21840
0.22085
0.22329
0.22572
1.365
1.388
1.411
1.434
1.530
107.88
109.52
111.17
112.84
114.52
1.457
107.82
109.47
111.12
112.80
114.49
0.21505
0.21754
0.22000
0.22244
0.22486
250
260
270
280
290
1.728
1.754
1.780
1.807
1.833
116.31
118.02
119.74
121.47
123.22
0.22996
0.23235
0.23472
0.23708
0.23942
1.637
1.662
1.687
1.712
1.737
116.28
117.99
119.71
121.45
123.20
0.22903
0.23142
0.23379
0.23616
0.23850
1.554
1.577
1.601
1.625
1.649
116.21
117.92
119.65
121.40
123.15
0.22813
0.23052
0.23289
0.23526
0.23760
1.480
1.502
1.524
1.547
1.570
116.19 0.22728
117.90 0.22967
119.62 0.23204
121.36 0.23441
123.11 0.23675
1.762
124.95
0.24083
1.673
124.92
0.23994
1.592
124.87
300
Fig. 4-10.
Copyright by
It
E.
I.
0.18913
0.19184
0.19451
0.19714
98.20 0.19979
0.23909
Inc.
when any two of its properties are known. Howa saturated liquid or vapor at any one
is only one temperature that the
can have and still satisfy the conditions of
Reprinted by permission.
ever, for
obtained.
pressure, there
4-22.
fluid
A super-
properties
table,
it
is
its
pressure.
The
temperature.
The change
(e)
vapor in
in
superheating
(/)
The change
heating
Solution
From
(a)
the head of
temperature
tion
to
corresponding
25.9
1.009 cu ft/lb
81.16 Btu/lb
0.16914 Btu/lb/
The enthalpy
The entropy
=
=
=
84.65 Btu/lb
0.17612 Btu/lb/
The superheated
temperature
50.0
25.9
40 psia
From
the
body of
the table
reading,
(first
itali-
cized),thespecific
volume
of the
vapor at satura-
of the properties
in the
Btu
specific
(d)
tion
is
tion
The entropy of
table.
the
vapor at satura-
In addition to the properties of the superheated vapor at various temperatures above the
saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure, superheated vapor tables usually list
some or all of the properties of the vapor at the
saturation temperature. For example, in Fig.
4-10, the absolute and gage pressures, along
The
first
table (italicized)
lists
tion
From
(b)
the
Example
4-1.
body
heavy
lines in Fig.
4-10)
the specific
(offset
by
volume
1.070 cu ft/lb
enthalpy,
(c)
55
(c)
The temperature at
saturation
vapor
= 24.1F
84.65 Btu/lb
81.16 Btu/lb
3.49 Btu/lb
The
amount
of
superheat in the
vapor in Btu
PRINCIPLES
56
OF REFRIGERATION
(e)
0.17612 Btu/lb/R
The
=
change
1.070 cu ft/lb
1.009 cu ft/lb
0.061 cu ft/lb
in
entropy during
the superheating
vapor at saturation
tion
The change
in vol-
ume
0.00698 Btu/lb/
during the
superheating
air
of the air, and varies inversely with the barometric pressure and directly with the absolute
temperature. Air very nearly approaches the
condition of an ideal gas and will follow the gas
laws with sufficient accuracy for all practical
Psych rometric
Properties of Air
y_
Rearranging
Solution.
5-1.
Composition of Air.
=
Example
Solution. Applying
Equation 3-10,
V=
Example 5-3.
Example
air in
and with the weather conSince the water vapor in the air results
primarily from the evaporation of water from
particular locality
is
ditions.
certain
amount
is
V=
Nevertheless, the
is
where
quantities
x 144
K=
x 53.3 x
(100
+ 460)
14.7
x 144
14.10 cu
ft
arid regions.
460)
The
Hereafter in this
15.57 cu ft
53.3
100 F.
Solution. Applying
Equation 3-10,
all air in
x
(70
more
ft
the surface of various bodies of water, atmospheric humidity (water vapor content) is
in the
x 144
12.6
is less
14.7
13.34 cu
position
Since
+ 460)
12.6 psia.
water and
53.3
(70
5-2.
Example
air in
P
1
it
MxR
Mxv
(5-2)
M = the weight of
V=
(5-1)
V
=air in
the volume of
pounds
M pounds of
air in
cubic feet
v
= the
specific
volume of the
air in
Example
5-4.
Air at a temperature of
circulated over a cooling coil at the
rate of 2000 cu ft/min (cfm). If the specific
95
is
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
58
volume of the
2000
M _ 14.38
Solution. Applying
Equation 5-2, the weight
of air passing over the
cooling coil
M-
Multiplying by 60 min
139.2 lb/min
partial
x 60
8346 lb/hr
exerted
by
the
individual
and the
139.1
pressures
gases or vapors.
Since psychrometry
partial
exerted by
Standard Air. Because of the difference the individual
dry
gases are unimportant and, for all practical
in the volume of any given weight of air at
-purposes, the total barometric pressure may be
various temperatures and pressures, an air
the
pressures
5-3.
Example 5-1).
Vs =
where
Va =
given condition
v a =* the specific
volume of the
air at the
given condition
v,
Example
Example 5-4,
determine the equivalent volume of standard
5-5.
For the
air in
considered to be the
sum
and
vapor.
5-5.
Dew
Point Temperature.
It
is
im-
the air
this
is the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure. Since all of the components in a gaseous mixture are at the same
temperature, it follows that when air is at any
temperature above the saturation temperature
temperature
dew
is
saturated
dew
is
known
air.
Ob-
air.
always the saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressure exerted by the
water vapor. Hence, when the partial pressure
exerted by the water vapor is known, the dew
point temperature of the air can be determined
air is
Solution.
Equation
alent
Applying
airK,
5-4.
2000 x 14.38
2155 cfm
volume of standard
Dalton's
Law
of
13.34
Partial
Pressure.
tables.
Likewise,
when
the
dew
if it
occupied
gaseous mixture
is
equal to the
sum of
the
Example
5-6.
Assume that a certain quanhas a temperature of 80 F and that
the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor
in the air is 0.17811 psia. Determine the dew
point temperature of the air.
tity
of
air
Example 5-7.
certain quantity of air has
a temperature of 80 F and a dew point temperature of 40 F. Determine the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor in the air.
Solution.
From Table 4-1, the saturation
pressure corresponding to 40 F is 0.12170 psia
and therefore 0.12170 psia is the partial pressure
will
be saturated.
It is
59
greater
the
is
maximum
content.
5-7.
Absolute Humidity.
in the air
is
called humidity.
humidity of the
lib).
The Psychrometric
Tables.
was
pressure
5-8.
shown
Content.
that can
maximum
Since
the
is
corresponding to
contain the
its
maximum
is
is
computed.
The absolute humidity of
readily
air.
At
this condition
dew point
temperature will be one and the same and the air
the temperature of the air and the
is listed
dew
in Tables 5-1
5-2.
column (3).
Relative Humidity. Relative humidity
(RH), expressed in percent, is the ratio of the
actual weight of water vapor per cubic foot of
air relative to the weight of water vapor contained in a cubic foot of saturated air at the
5-9.
air at various
and
The dew point temperatures are listed in
column (1) of the tables, and the absolute
humidity corresponding to each of the dew
point temperatures is given in columns (4) and
The values given in column (4) are in
(5).
point temperatures
when
It
Relative humidity
J
= ...
-z
Weight of water
vapor in 1 cu ft of
saturated air at the
same temperature
100
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
60
For
instance, if air at
a certain temperature
water vapor per
much
temperature
if it
relative
Air at a temperature of
80 F has a dew point temperature of 50 F.
Determine the relative humidity.
5-8.
From
4.106 grains/cu
ft
4.106
ft
x 1/MV
100
37.1
Determine the
relative
From Table
humidity
corresponding to dew
point of 50 F
and vapor
vapor
humidity,
is
relative
with
and
is,
is
usually stated in
is
a function of
air.
From Table
Solution.
pound corresponding to
a 50 F dew point temperature (Column 7)
saturated
(Column
53.38 grains/lb
humidity of
Specific
air
at
80
F
155.50 grains/lb
7)
Percentage humidity
53.38
x 100
155.50
34.3%
dew
same
5.795 grains/cu ft
air.
saturate completely
4.106
Percentage
is
air to the
=
_
= 70.8%
Humidity.
Percentage
For
ity is
air.
it
4.106 grains/cu ft
5.795
the air
volume
dry
has been
Absolute humidity of
is listed
It
hu-
5-2, absolute
tuies
and
increases.
humidity
5-1
5-11.
11,04
5-10. Specific
easily explained.
saturated air at 60
is
shown (Examples
Solution.
Applying Equation
5-4, the relative humidity of the air
5-9.
any given
as the total
air at
Example
at
Absolute humidity
80
Example
Solution.
Note. Compare
this value
61
tures.
the
Swivel
connection
effects
of direct radiation.
The wet bulb (WB) temperature of the air is
the temperature as measured by a wet bulb ther-
is
.Dry bulb
"thermometer
Wet bulb
thermometer
Wetted wick
whirled rapidly in
depression.
Whereas a dry bulb thermometer, being unby humidity, measures only the actual
is easily
explained.
affected
air.
by the moisture
PRINCIPLES
62
bulb temperature
OF REFRIGERATION
is
known.
Too,
it
will
be
and the
sum
any
condition
tion.
wick
is
of the
water
air,
is
the water
itself.
temperatures
is
is
taken
in
Example
Therefore, as water
air.
5-1
Using Table
1.
5-2,
determine
progressively so that
vaporization heat
less is
When
is
the
is
reduced to
temperature difference
Through
it
is
is
the
of
of
air at 80
lb
The quantity of
removed
in
sensible
=
=
=
19.19 Btu/lb
10 x 19.19
191 .9 Btu
heat
added or
specific heat
is
0.24
Equation
10 x 0.24
x (80 - 0)
192 Btu
Applying
2-8,
Qs
Alternate Solution.
From
For
lb of air,
amount of heat
From Table
Solution.
differential is established
air,
ture of the
and
the
is
For 10
Qa
lb of air,
19.19 Btu/lb
lb of
Q,
=
=
=
=
=
Btu/lb
19.19
-0
19.19 Btu/lb
10 x 19.19
191.9 Btu
Air.
of
Since all the components of dry air are noncondensable at normal temperatures and pressures, for all practical purposes the only latent
heat in the air is the latent heat of the water
vapor in the air. Therefore, the amount of
latent heat in
upon
upon
pound of dry
50
air at
F DP
dew
the
is
a function of
As long as the
dew
63
= 0.007626 x
= 8.25 Btu/lb
= 10 x 8.25
= 82.5 Btu
and
total heat
is
the
of the
in
the
sum of the
sum of the
computed
is
1081.7
air in
Example
5-12,
and the
latent heat
computed
in
Example
air,
as
5-13, viz:
remains unchanged.
The total heat content of water vapor at
various temperatures as computed from 32 F is
given in Btu per pound in Column 1 1 of Tables
and
5-1
5-2.
Column
is
water vapor
The
common
From
F DP (Column 6)
(Column
11)
0.007626 lb
1081.7 Btu/lb
Although the
dition
is
the
sum
from Example
5-12
191.9 Btu
82.5
+ 82.5
274.4 Btu
5-14.
Btu
191.9
of Total Heat. It has been shown in preceding sections that the sensible heat of the air
(the heat content of the dry air) is a function of
the dry bulb temperature and that the latent heat
of the air (the heat content of the water vapor
mixed with the dry air) is a function of the dew
point temperature. Since, for any given combination of dry bulb and dew point temperatures,
the wet bulb temperature of the air can have only
one value, it is evident that the wet bulb temperature is an index of the total heat content of the
air. However, it is important to recognize that
although there is only one wet bulb temperature
that will satisfy any given combination of dry
bulb and dew point temperatures, there are
many combinations of dry bulb and dew point
temperatures which will have the same wet bulb
temperature (see Fig. 5-2). This means in effect
that different samples of air having the same wet
*
The
is
the
same
assuming
is not included in the total heat. Howboth of these values are very small, the
error incurred by neglecting them has no practical
heat
significance.
paratively small,
is
70 F) which
ever, since
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
64
Temperature,
Dry
Dew
Wet
Bulb
Point
Bulb
Sensible
Latent
Total
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
14.39
15.59
16.79
17.99
19.19
11.98
10.78
9.58
8.38
7.18
5.98
4.78
26.37
26.37
26.37
26.37
26.37
26.37
26.37
60
60
57
65
70
75
80
85
53.5
50
45.5
40.5
34.5
90
20.39
21.59
where va
The
Column
ture shown.
vd
vs
8)
samples of
air,
same wet
of
lb of
WB (Column 12)
Specific
For 1001b of
the
air,
removed,
5-15. Specific
(Column
= 63.05 - 26.37
= 36.68 Btu/lb
- 100 x 36.68
= 366.8 Btu
=
=
13.97
14.38 cu ft/lb
3.97
cu
ft/lb
9)
Applying Equation
5-5, va
14.79 cu ft/lb
+ [(14.79
- 13.97) x 0.5]
upon the
shows the
relationship between four fundamental properties of air: (1) dry bulb temperature,
(2) dew
point temperature, (3) wet bulb temperature, and
(4) relative humidity. When any two of these
four properties are known, the other two can be
It
Volume of Air.
vol-
volume of
has already
been shown that the volume occupied by a given
weight of air depends upon the temperature of
the air and
partially
matical calculation.
= 26.37 Btu/lb
12)
total heat
volume of
(5-5)
volume of
F (Column
saturated air at 95
WB
Q
%RH]
63.05 Btu/lb
pound of air,
specific
vd )
If
From Table
From Table
However, since
values given in
Solution.
Solution.
5-2, specific
dry air at 95
all
Example
the
temperatures in
v*
saturated air
Fig. 5-2
volume of
perties.
temperatures in
Column
9.
When
the relative
Notice that the lines of dry bulb temperature are vertical while the lines of dew point
as
do
The curved
the line of
(b)
Values of specific
humidity are given along
volume and
relative
ity, respectively.
illustrate the
Example 5-16.
vapor pressure,
heat,
and
(4) specific
volume,
(5) total
Solution.
Dew
70
5-5, viz:
Specific humidity
=110
Vapor pressure
Specific volume
= 0.37 psia
= 14.33 cu ft/lb
= 40.5 Btu/lb
= 45 %
Total heat
Relative humidity
Example 5-17.
determine:
air
and
grains/lb
Solution,
(a)
From Table
thalpy of
at 95 F
5-2,
en-
lb of dry air
DB, Q,
per
Example 5-18.
If the air in
Example 5-16 is
cooled to 75 F, determine:
(a) The final dew point temperature
(b) The final wet bulb temperature
(c) The final relative humidity
(d) The final total heat per pound
below the
point temperature, no moisture is
removed from the air. Therefore, the specific
humidity, dew point temperature, and latent
heat of the air remain unchanged. Hence, the
initial dew point temperature and the new dry
bulb temperature can be used as coordinates to
locate the new condition of the air on the
psychrometric chart (point
in Fig. 5-6). The
following properties of the air at the new condition are taken from the psychrometric chart
as indicated in Fig. 5-6:
(a) Wet bulb temperature
= 71.4 F
= 85
(b) Relative humidity
(c) Total heat per pound
= 35.69 Btu/lb
Solution. Since the air is not cooled
dew
initial
(a)
air.
= 40.50 Btu/lb
= Qt - Q,
= 40.50 - 22.80
= 17.7 Btu/lb
&
5-16,
pound of
that
air,
called
From Example
65
= 22.80 Btu/lb
Solution.
(a)
From Example
air total
heat at
5-16,
= 40.50 Btu/lb
The
pound
per
total heat
cooling
in
air
35.69 Btu/lb
removed
of
air
from
toB
= 40.50 - 35.69
= 4.81 Btu/lb
the
air,
per
pound of air.
Example
5-20.
Assume
that
the air in
66
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
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OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
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69
PRINCIPLES
70
OF REFRIGERATION
dew
From
(a)
the psychromet-
heat
of the air at the initial
condition (point A)
The
=15.19 Btu/lb
removed
40.50
the
heat
sensible
per
The
latent
removed
per
heat
5.
Compute
Compute the quantity of sensible heat required to raise the temperature of 10 lb of air
from a temperature of 35 F to a temperature of
100 F.
Ans. 156 Btu
6.
25.31 Btu/lb
= Q - Q,
= 25.31 13.20
re-
pound
=12.11 Btu/lb
of air
15.19
x 0.24
x (95 40)
=13.2 Btu/lb
re-
pound of
air
(c)
moved
(a")
9.
Assume that
75
PROBLEMS
if
3.
if
is
120 F.
Ans. 14.60 cu
is
58%
cooled to
F and
determine:
dew point temperature Ans. 72.3 F
Ans. 73 F
(b) the final wet bulb temperature
Ans. 92
(c) the final relative humidity
id) the final total heat per pound of air
Ans. 36.6 Btu/lb
10.
Assume
to 55
ft
Problem 8
is
cooled
F and
determine:
(a) the total heat removed per
pound of air
4.
2.
If the specific
ft/lb,
80 lb of air having an initial wet bulb temperature of 80 F are cooled to a final wet bulb
temperature of 65 F, determine the total heat
removed from the air during the cooling process.
Ans. 1085.6 Btu
40.50 Btu/lb
air
per pound
(b)
(cfm).
14.10 cu
7. If
min
is
sum of the
is
the
frigerated space
Refrigeration
and by motors,
lights,
and other
electrical
Methods of
Compression
System
6-4.
The
Refrigerating Agent.
is
called the
refrigerant.
may be
classified as
When
upon
the refrigerant.
In general, refrigeration
Refrigeration.
6-1.
process
is
surroundings.
To
roundings.
To
refrigerated region to
it is
its
some
lb of water at
ever, for
sur-
practical
F (Fig. 6-1).
F space
temperature of the space will decrease. Howeach one Btu of heat that the water
absorbs from the space, the temperature of the
water will increase 1 F, so that as the tempera-
warmer
70
assume that
is
the 70
distin-
Need
illustrate,
32
minimum,
from
below the
material.
6-3. The Heat Load.
The rate at which heat
must be removed from the refrigerated space or
71
PRINCIPLES
72
OF REFRIGERATION
by heat conducted to
Insulation
As the
warmed
it
from these
materials.
it
ice acts as
To
decreases.
be located near
with ice
be continuous
until all
tions.
it is
Ordinarily, 32
is
the
minimum
tem-
refrigerants
and
solid
from
all
the
by convection currents
set
up
refrigerated space.
The
air in contact
with the
is
heated
Heat leaking
through insulation
Fig. 6-2. Heat flows from warm space to cold ice.
Temperature of space decreases as ice melts. Temperature of ice remains at 32 F. Heat absorbed by
ice leaves space in water going out the drain.
REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
73
6-6.
which the
absorbs heat
Liquid
Refrigerants.
liquids to absorb
enormous
The
of
ability
quantities of heat as
As refrigerants,
vapor-
izing liquids
is
directly propor-
more
and to the
effect
Heat taken
ice
is
temperature difference between the space temperature and the melting temperature of the ice,
the rate of heat absorption by the ice diminishes
as the surface area of the ice is diminished by the
when
the refriger-
is
sources,
the temperature
its
disadvantages, ice
is
preferable to
in
the space
is
the refrigerating
given up to the
ice.
of
Despite
and
by the water
increase.
etc.,
in
is,
fluids, water,
been used in
its
because of
its familiarity,
has
tain economically.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
74
v;;;;;;;m//m;//;;;;;;m/m/;;//.
I? -
Baffle
53
fs^i\
/
,1
40*
Ti
an
lists,
among
list
other
refrigerants.
These
44'
by merely allowing
refrigerator.
Heat
is
carried
from
Air circulation
is
by
gravity.
shown in
Fig.
is
vaporized.
Any container,
for
R-12 to vaporize in a
liquid
WW///////MWA
warm
and
vapor tables previously discussed and are employed in the same manner.
An in6-7. Vaporizing the Refrigerant.
Drain
Refrigerant vapor
js^v,
at atmospheric
pressure
conditions.
properties
Of all
of the fluids
now
in use as refrigerants,
all
the
frigerant is a fluorinated
hydrocarbon of the
methane
series
To
compound
is
now referred
to as Refrigerant-12.
in
the vapor
REFRIGERATION
which a refrigerant
is
one of the
essential
75
an evaporator and
parts of any mechanical
SYSTEM
refrigerant vapor
below atmospheric
refrigerating system.
Refrigerant-12 liquid
'boiling at -100"F
evaporator to
rise
of refrigerant in evaporator
reduced below atmospheric by action of a vapor
pump.
no vapor is allowed to
no temperature
differential
are required,
it
is
some pressure
Refrigerant
vapor above
atmospheric
pressure
Refrigerant-12
liquid boiling at
and no heat
refrigerant.
30*F
replenished
evaporator
if
is
the
amount of
liquid in the
to be maintained constant.
One
liquid in
the evaporator
level
The
boiling
temperature
of the
liquid
evaporator is controlled by
controlling the pressure of the vapor over the liquid
with the throttling valve in the vent.
refrigerant
in
the
from the
same rate
is
Any increase in
PRINCIPLES
76
OF REFRIGERATION
in Fig. 6-8, used to regulate the flow of liquid
High pressure
liquid
refrigerant
refrigerant
the
into
evaporator
The
control
is
an
called
is
refrigerant flow
mechanical
refrigerating system.
There are
Needle valve
~ assembly
flow controls,
extent
_ Low pressure
at
of refrigerant
all
the present
Each of
time.
liquid refrigerant
17.
The
6-8 has
float type
some
which tend to
applications.
refrigerant
these
Chapter
flow control
KaSSsiSfc''
expansion valve.
is
the
thermostatic
is
shown
in Fig. 6-9.
6-10.
Fig. 6-8. Float
liquid
level
refrigerant
valve
is
evaporator.
in
reduced
as
the
refrigerant
passes
wise,
To
liquid
When
is
and
mixture
the evaporator.
4-10).
the cylinder
Any
REFRIGERATION
Low-pressure,
low-temperature
(Fig. 6-10).
77
low-pressure,
SYSTEM
low-temperature
liquid-vapor mixture
Refrigerant control -s
/
high-temperature
ator because
from the
it
required
is
medium
is
usually supplied
medium
condensing
is
from the
The
city
main
used as a
ordinary outdoor air at
air
normal temperatures.
For heat to flow out of the refrigerant vapor
into the condensing
medium
the temperature
High-pressure,
high-tempenhii
medium
as the condensing
High-pressure,
high-temperature'
liquid-vapor mixture
High-pressure,
Mgh-temperitun! liquid
vapor.
shown
is
at
is
low, the
vapor
is
also
the condenser
At
employed.
cal
it
work
is
the vapor
is
temperature vapor
is
denser where
it
gives
it
condenser.
to the condensing
medium
in the
78
PRINCIPLES
6-11. Typical
OF REFRIGERATION
Vapor-Compression System.
system
is
shown
in Fig. 6-11.
The
Service Valves.
4-12.
The
suction
and
dis-
principal
an evaporator,
whose function it is to provide a heat transfer
surface through which heat can pass from the
manual
refrigerant;
(2)
a suction
(1)
line,
operations.
which conveys
tively.
ly
6-13. Division of
outlet.
ating system
two
consists
parts.
refriger-
The low
from the
line.
The pressure
(5)
known
is
the
refrigerant is
This pressure
is
During
service
usually measured
by installing a compound
gage on the gage port of the suction service
at the compressor
valve.
temperature.
This pressure
Refrigerant
flow control"!
Evaporator-]
<8K
j
Liquid
,ine
dj~
Suction
line
ine~V.
"SB",
valve
Suction _
service valve
Compressor
rDischargeline
Receiver
(g)
(-Condenser
is
the System.
is
J/tank
valve
VJteceiver
tank
is
REFRIGERATION
79
Receiver
tank
Compressor
Compressor
motor
shaft
to circulate
air
over condenser.
driver
the "condensing pressure," the "discharge pressure," or, more often, the "head
ing to condensing
pressure."
the condensing
called
medium used
medium
6-IS.
is
pressure vapor
It
is
the compressor,
in
is
The change
in pressure, of course,
Condensing Units.
hot gas
line,
The compressor,
is
in Fig. 6-12.
Such an
is
liquid state.
classified
accord-
an
ant
to condense the
refrigerant.
medium
is
a water-
blies.
many
will
be shown
is
It
is
The
The
refrigerant starts at
some
initial state
or
PRINCIPLES
80
OF REFRIGERATION
condition.
cycle.
ation
is
called a
processes:
To
cycle
(1)
understand
it is
complete
cycle.
Any change
A typical
Fig. 6-15.
temperature,
high-pressure
flows
from the
line
to
the
liquid
refrigerant
flow control.
The
pressure of the liquid is reduced to the evaporator pressure as the liquid passes through the
refrigerant flow control so that the saturation
refrigerant
It will
be shown
later that
REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
81
o
u
I
r
I
5
8
E
II
!i
L-
C V
I*
9-
f
2<5
i
PRINCIPLES
82
OF REFRIGERATION
Liquid-vapor mixture
30'F-28.46 psig
Subcooled
liquid
86F-120.6 psig
Liquid-vapor mixture"
30T-28.46
psig
Saturated vapor
30F-28.46 psig
Superheated vapor
Saturated vapor
132*^-120.6
psig"
102"F-120.6 psig
Superheated vapo r
70F-28.46
>->
psig~Xil(
Liquid-vapor mixture
"
102F-120.6 psig
Saturated liquid
102F-120.6 psig
Fig. 6-15. Typical refrigeration system
is
In
compressor,
the
by compression
and the high-temperature, high-pressure vapor
is discharged from the compressor into the
pressure of the vapor are raised
hot-gas
The vapor
line.
up
being drawn
it
and
temperature
the
differential
gives
either to or
pression
is
is
from the
refrigerant during
usually negligible.
com-
Therefore, com-
com-
work
its
temperature
is
temperature corresponding to
its
new
pressure
liquid
is
increased by an
amount
the
removed.
By
condenser,
all
of the vapor
is
recirculated.
is
short
resulting
from the
flow.
ture
in
direct
compression,
The
greater
the greater
is
the
work of
the increase in
is
REFRIGERATION
usually an electric motor.
It will be shown
horsepower required
to drive the compressor can be calculated from
the heat of compression.
Discharge Temperature.
SYSTEM
83
Care should
6-19.
its
pressure.
pressure
Conse-
no heat
transfer
the condenser
container,
6-20.
pumped into
vapor
is
point
sufficiently
in the evaporator
is
and suction
line,
and
in the
condense as
fast
is
as
is
pumped
the
into
compressor as a result of the work of compression. Obviously, any increase in the rate of
The
rate at
which heat
will
from the
is
refrigerant
the function
(3) the
temperature
differ-
The quantity of
from the
refrigerated space
is
known
as the
refrigerating effect.
less
Likewise,
as
it
when a
lb of ice
is
144 Btu.
it
will
absorb
of liquid refrigerant
vaporize
it;
potentially equal to
lb
its
If the temperature
PRINCIPLES
84
OF REFRIGERATION
from the
pound of
be equal to the
heat of vaporization. However, in
of refrigerant circulated
will
Since the
control
is
subcooled 16
(102
86) below
its
saturation temperature.
is
total latent
the
refrigerant
control
liquid
always
is
be
liquid at
produces useful cooling. Therefore, the refrigerating effect per pound of liquid circulated is
always less than the total latent heat of vapori-
to cool itself
first
temperature of 30
psig, the
that
from 86
pressure
From Table
With reference
of
120
psig
is
(satur-
corre-
may be
and
air,
its
is
likely to
be
fairly
is
to 30
28.46
at the instant
of hquid at
is
not
from the
pound of hquid
latent heat of
is
F and
the refrigerant
is
discharged from
is
the same as
is
of 86 F, whereas
is still
pressure
refrigerating effect.
pressure
its
the liquid line. In Fig. 6-1 5, the liquid approaches the refrigerant control at a temperature
its
F when
zation.
The
evaporator.
the
REFRIGERATION
less the
part of
From Table
is
is
12.97 Btu
refrigerant
is
(12.97/66.85
pound
x 100)
and pro-
53.88
Btu/lb).
it
85
Example 6-2. If, in Example 6-1, the temperature of the liquid entering the refrigerant
control is 60 F rather than 86 F, determine the
refrigerating effect.
vaporizing temperature.
tion of 'R-12 at 30
SYSTEM
Solution.
From
enthalpy
16-3,
Table
R-12
of
saturated vapor at 30
=81.61 Btu/lb
=
=
at 60
Refrigerating effect
21.57 Btu/lb
60.04 Btu/lb
the
16-3,
From
saturation
Table
tem-
80.49 Btu/lb
cir-
Refrigerating effect
comparison of Examples
= 27.73 Btu/lb
= 52.77 Btu/lb
6-1
and 6-2
in-
and the
pound can
Example
effect
per pound
if
27.73 Btu/lb
53.88 Btu/lb
pound
circulated depends
upon two
factors:
com-
(1)
the
frigerant control.
which it will
remove heat from the refrigerated space and is
usually stated in Btu per hour or in terms of its
ice-melting equivalent.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
86
one ton of
24 hr and
ice in
is
is,
Solution
(a)
From
pound
liquid at 100
circulated.
86 F.
If
R-12
is
circulated
tons.
Solution
(a)
From Example
6-1,
refrigerating effect
53.88 Btu/lb
Weight of refrigerant
circulated per minute
5 lb
Refrigerating capacity
in Btu per minute
=
=
269.40 x 60
16,164 Btu/hr
269.40
1.347 tons
200
6-24.
Example
6-5.
200
49.33
4.05 lb
(c)
Example 6-6.
If,
in
10 x 4.05
40.5 lb
Example
F before it
reaches the refrigerant control, calculate:
(a) the refrigerating effect
(b) the weight of refrigerant circulated per
minute per ton
subcooled from 100
is
(a)
to
80
From
Table 16-3,
enthalpy of R-12
= 5 x 53.88
= 269.40 Btu/min
in tons
Solution
Refrigerating capacity
in
31.16 Btu/lb
49.33 Btu/lb
ton
80.49 Btu/lb
Refrigerating effect
Example 6-4.
mechanical refrigerating
system is operating under conditions such that
the vaporizing temperature is 30 F while the
temperature of the liquid approaching the reis
Enthalpy of R-12
(b)
frigerant control
said to have a
system, that
The weight of
The
An R-12 system is
operating
at conditions such that the vaporizing temperature is 20 F and the condensing temperature is
100 F. If it is assumed that no subcooling of
saturated vapor at
20 F
80.49 Btu/lb
Refrigerating effect
(b)
= 26J8
= 54.21
Btu/lb
Btu/lb
200
54.21
3.69 lb
it
is
effect
pound
results
REFRIGERATION
depends upon the vaporizing temperature. The
lower the vaporizing temperature and pressure,
the greater is the volume of the vapor which is
produced. When the vaporizing temperature is
known, the specific volume of the saturated
vapor which results from the vaporization can
SYSTEM
87
and the
be unsatis-
factory.
is
equal to
the volume occupied by the weight of refrigerant which must be vaporized during the same
Solution.
From
From Example
1.121 cu ft/lb
6-5,
weight of refrigerant
circulated per minute
per ton
4.05 lb/min/ton
=
=
4.05
per ton
6-26.
1.121
4.55 cu ft/min/ton
refrigerant.
which in turn
On the other
hand,
if
refrigerating capacity.
cu
Volume of vapor
displaced per minute
remain constant,
ft
PROBLEMS
1.
The temperature of
refrigerant control
is
liquid
86
temperature 30 F. Determine:
per pound of
Ans. 53.89 Btu/lb
(6) The loss of refrigerating effect per pound.
Ans. 12.96 Btu/lb
(c) The weight of refrigerant circulated per
Ans. 3.71 lb/min/ton
minute per ton.
(d)The volume of vapor displaced per
(a)
The
refrigerating
effect
refrigerant circulated.
R-12 liquid reaches the refrigerant control at a pressure of 136 psig and the
vaporizing pressure in the evaporator is 30.07
psig, determine:
(a) The refrigerating effect per pound.
Ans. 48.18 Btu/lb
2. If saturated
PRINCIPLES
88
(*)
(c)
OF REFRIGERATION
liquid
determine:
(a)
(b)
Arts. 3.45
cu ft/min/ton
4.
70
to be displaced per
Arts. 3.13
cuft/min/ton
(c)
(c)
4.42 lb/min/ton
displaced per
Arts. 6.44 cu ft/min/ton
Arts.
vapor
The condition of
Fig. 7-1.*
the refrigerant in
Cycle Diagrams
and the Simple
Saturated Cycle
on the
curve
chart to the
is
left
At any
its pressure.
Cycle Diagrams.
is
is
in the
form of a superheated
good knowledge of
the vapor-compression cycle requires an inten-
vapor.
7-1.
that
make up
constant pressure
may be shown
graphically.
scale at the
Graphical
pressure.
at
that
is
nearly
all
shown
liquid,
is
is
refrigerant
The
of the
parallel to each
other because the latent heat of vaporization
of the refrigerant varies with the pressure at
7-2.
At any
tions.
states.
line, as
of vaporization
cycle
charts
The center
is different,
in
particular refrigerant.
89
90
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
1
2
3
o.
(eisd) ajnsssjd
<
91
Subcooled region
(Refrigerant
is in
the form of a
subcooled liquid)
(Refrigerant
is
a liquid-
vapor mixture)
liquid
>
>
Superheated region
(Refrigerant is in
the form of a
superheated vapor)
Fig. 7-2. Skeleton Mi chart Illustrating the three regions of the chart and the direction of phase changing.
superheated
and almost
liquid-vapor mixture
10%
is
is
vapor.
lines
constant enthalpy.
At the
lines
may be
is
To
entropy
interest
Ph
chart
is
based on a
lb
mass of
absolute
is
in
temperature.
PRINCIPLES
92
OF REFRIGERATION
lines, respectively.
and
zero point of 40 F.
The magnitude of the pressure in psia
left side
can be
readily determined.
is
of the
on a Ph
The system
is
chart. Temperature values in degrees Fahrenheit are found adjacent to the constant tempera-
and superheated
Cycle.
refrigerant
the
condensing
Although the
temperature
and
At point A,
in
liquid
the refrigerant
condenser
the
at
is
the
its
a saturated
condensing
properties, as
p =
pressure).
131.6 psia
31.16 Btu/lb
an actual
is
35.75 psia
(at
a saturated liquid
refrigerating cycle of
=
=
100
0.06316 Btu/lb/
= 0.0127 cu ft/lb
refrigerating
worthwhile. In such a cycle, the fundamental processes which are the basis of every
actual vapor compression refrigerating cycle are
easily identified and understood. Furthermore,
less
t,
or h
is
25
hx
ha
he
93
h e hd
temperature of 20 F
Fig. 7-4. Pressure-enthalpy diagram of a simple saturated cycle operating at a vaporizing
and a condensing temperature of 100
t,
F.
(Refrigerant- 1 2.)
or both will be
measurable.
7-4.
The Expansion
is
liquid as
frigerant control
the control.*
When
the liquid
is
expanded into
condensing temperature to the evaporating temperature by the flashing into vapor of a small
portion of the liquid.
Process
A-B is
* Process
A-B
an
and terminates at
state point B.
work.f
Since the enthalpy of the refrigerant does not
must be known.
amount of work
itself
is
through the
done by
orifice
of
process
is
not in error.
PRINCIPLES
94
OF REFRIGERATION
refrigerant at point
B is
a liquid-vapor mixture
p =
t
35.75 psia
20 F
The change
Note.
A-B
results
from a
transfer of heat
energy which takes place within the refrigerant
itself because of internal friction.
transfer of
energy which occurs entirely within the working
fluid
If the values
of s
fluid,
from point
B to
At point C the
completely vaporized and is a
is
from the Ph
is
and
pressure.
The
approximately
=
=
chart, are:
27%.
Since the refrigerant at point B is a liquidvapor mixture, only the values of p and t can be
v = 1.121 cu ft/lb
read
from
Table 16-3.
However,
because the enthalpy of the refrigerant at points
A and B is the same, the enthalpy at point B
may be read from Table 16-3 as the enthalpy
at the conditions of point A. The quality of the
vapor at point B can be determined as in Section
6-22, using enthalpy values taken either from
Table 16-3 or from the Ph chart directly.
directly
80.49 Btu/lb
0.16949 Btu/lb/F
B-C
refrigerant
increases
is
Refrigerant after
passing through
refrigerant control
In the
Point at which
vaporization
isv~~
complete
simple saturated
line
^>
to the refrigerant
control without a
change
Point at which
Discharge vapor
condensation-
'from compressor
begins
in
condition
/-S
Z)
l
Point at which
condensation is'
complete
condition
without a
change
in
AND THE
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
enthalpies of the refrigerant at points A,B,C,D,
E,
and X,
respectively, then
source)
(7-2)
ft
On
the
= 80.49 - 31.16
= 49.33 Btu/lb
the distance between
Ph diagram,
is
is
p =
h
v
Process
C-D
takes
place
in
comthe
For the
is
com-
131.6 psia
= 112 F (approximate)
= 90.6 Btu/lb (approximate)
= 0.330 cu ft/lb (approximate)
= 0.16949 Btu/lb/ F (same as at point C)
condition of point
chart.
h,
t,
Ph
and v require
The
Work
is
done on the vapor during the comC-D, and the enthalpy of the
is increased by an amount equal to
pression process,
refrigerant
equivalent of the
pression
is
pound of refrigerant
qt
compare process
adiabatic, but
entropy line intersects the hne of constant pressure corresponding to the condensing pressure.
At point D, the refrigerant is a superheated
no
effect.
The Compression
7-6.
Ag
refrigerant at point
X-C
If
(isentropic) compression.
point
^ = A. - K
as such,
(7-1)
95
itself)
qi=hc - K
When we
pression process
is
SATURATED CYCLE
SIMPLE
q2
circulated,
=ha - h
in question,
=
=
90.60
80.49
10.11 Btu/lb
(7-3)
PRINCIPLES
96
OF REFRIGERATION
w = ft x /
w = J(ha - hj
when we
As a
(7-4)
10.11
comfrom the
its
pressure.
processes
The heat
medium during
ft-lb
7-7.
point A.
saturation
x 778
7865.58
ture to the condensing temperature is the difference between the enthalpy of the refrigerant at
point
and the enthalpy at point
(ha ht).
Process E-A is the condensation of the vapor
in the condenser.
(7-5)
w =
or
The
the condenser
is
It
sum
is
the difference
D-E
up by the
refrigerant at the
where ft
Hence,
=h ~K
(7-6)
= the
In this instance,
ft
the
ture
E-A
Usually, both
place in the
process
= 90.60 - 31.16
- 59.44 Btu/lb
at the
heat rejected by the refrigerant to the condensing medium in the condenser must be exactly
process
vapor curve.
0.319 cu ft/lb
point
it left
(ft).
Therefore,
ft
- ft + ft
In this instance,
ft
=49.33 +10.11
= 59.44 Btu/lb
(7-7)
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
Where
is
SIMPLE
by combining Equations
(7-8)
hp
= 4.05 lb/min/ton
total quantity
of heat
Qa
or
ft
For the
= <fc)
= mUhi ~ A)
(7-9)
(7-10)
cycle in question,
ft
= 4.05 x 59.44
= 240.93 Btu/min/ton
Q%
is
or
ea
=/w(?8)
ft
m(fid
(7-11)
produced
Aj)
(7-17)
is
is
an expression of the
is
(7-12)
10.11
Coefficient of
40.95 Btu/min/ton
the
W=
(7-13)
rriiw)
performance
When we
substitute in
=
=
may
(7-14)
c.o.p.
r
Refrigerating effect
Heat of compression
(7-15)
(7-16)
(A,
(Ad
(7-18)
- kg)
- A)
Equation 7-15,
80.49)
31,856 ft-lb/min/ton
(ft)
7-8.
49.33
c.o.p.
cal
31,856
this
be written as
A),
W = JmUqd
W = Jm(hd - h
W = /(ft)
or
and
or
cycle efficiency
ft =4.05 x
Where
7-9. Coefficient
A,)
Substituting,
is
7-15:
discussed later.
Where
or, since
and
42.42
200
Qa is the
1-5
m(hd
in question,
Then, where
97
1x
SATURATED CYCLE
200 Btu/min
AND THE
~ 33,000 x 1
= 0.965 hp/ton
10.11
4.88
of Suction Temperature on
Cycle Efficiency. The efficiency of the vapor-
7-10. Effect
compression refrigerating cycle varies considerably with both the vaporizing and condensing
PRINCIPLES
98
OF REFRIGERATION
h c h c h e hd hd
ha
'
Fig. 7-4.
distorted).
above
(Refrigerant- 12.)
PA
(a)
chart:
For the 10
cycle,
qi
qa
fl
For the 40
F cycle,
<
The
refrigerat-
F vaporizWhen the
(he
- K) - {hc - h a)
h c ha
51.55 - 48.20
x 100
x 100
48.20
=
The
6.95%
pound of
vaporizing temperature
48.20 Btu/lb.
Btu/lb.
similar cycle
is
the
- 40 F)
is
fact that there is a smaller temperature differential between the vaporizing temperature and the
temperature
refrigerant
of the
control.
liquid
Hence,
approaching the
at
the
higher
pound
is
which must be
capacity
is less
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute
per ton for the 10 F cycle is
200
Ac
SATURATED CYCLE
SIMPLE
99
f>a
200
AND THE
48.20
= 4.151b/min
The weight of refrigerant
per ton for the 40
circulated per
F cycle is
42.42
minute
4.15
only
x (90.90
79.36)
42.42
200
For the 40
F cycle,
200
51.55
3.88 lb/min
"Kb*
is
hf)
42.42
3.88
1.13
(90.20
82.71)
42.42
0.683
3.88
x 100
4.15
6.5%
1.13
X 10
ing temperature.
for the 10
Later,
is
when
11.54
-7.49
11.54
x 100
-35.1%
Because both the work of compression per
pound and the weight of refrigerant circulated
39.5%
it
will
be shown that
(A
-0.683
1.13
be determined by comparing
two
their
coefficients
hc
ha
= 48.20
11.54
= 4.17
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
100
is
hd
>
51.55
7.49
6.88
To a
ture.
of perform-
- 4.17
- 65%
x 100
4.17
refrigerant
and
efficiency
of a
The
difference in the
volume of vapor to be
is
5.6cuft
is
ntv)
3.88
x 0.792
3.075 cu
ft
is
be further
refrigerant circulated
both
ton
is
Mha -h = 4.15
)
tt
x 59.74
247.92
A)
3.88
x 59.04
229.08 Btu
whereas, at the 40
of
ton
per
suction temperatures
minute
6.88
weight
smaller
per
circulated
ha
- h(f
hf
the
then,
Obviously,
refrigerant
pound (refrigerating
and the heat of compression per pound.
effect)
heat
per minute per ton at the higher suction temperature is only 6.5%, the decrease in the volume
of vapor handled by the compressor per minute
per ton
is
general, this
is
~^
5.6
3.075
x 100
=45%
is
usually accompanied
by an
ing
effect.
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
AND THE
SATURATED CYCLE
SIMPLE
x/**
171.8
131.6
D'
E'J
a/\iw
Z)/^137.5'F
Eh
/X
//l
B B
/lO*
29.35
'
//
101
'
fc
l!
]!
/i
IS
Si
/ >
/
Sfi'
above
iir>
Is
II
hc
'
|S?
i
cyl
id.
/mi
Aa h a
Fig. 7-7.
/tol
CO
distorted).
|o
'
'cm
l<T>
h e h e hi hi'
'
- 40 F)
(Refrigerant- 1 2.)
of Condensing Temperature on
Cycle Efficiency. Although the variations in
temperature
7-1 1. Effect
if
In general,
the
condensing temperature.
120 F. This
is
One
cycle,
for cycle
determined in
From
9!
qi
?s
=
=
In
the
Ph diagram,
is
48.20
simple
saturated
cycle
the
liquid
is
In this
reduced from
X 10
10.37%
200
4T20=
refriger-
- 43.20
and the
reduced.
48.20
two
A, B, C, D, and E, has a
condensing temperature of 100 F, whereas the
Fig. 7-7.
is
a reduction of
pound
on
as
increased, the
ture
Therefore,
is
This
is
4 631b
-
an increase of
4.63
- 4.15
4.15
x 100
11.57%
102
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is
greater at the
it
follows that
temperature is only
temperature
cal
the
cycle
is
is
As
x 13.84
42.42
temperature.
F condensing
4.63
volume of the
specific
1.13
at the 100
This
is
=L52hP
Note
temperature
is
1.351
=6.25cuft
This
is
pound, there
The
6.25
5.6
coefficient of
at the 100
x 100 = 11.57%
43.20
when
the vaporizing
temperature
is
power
13.84
11.54
Xl0= 20%
Whereas the
3.12
x 100
= 33.7%
the exact
Whereas
power
pound and
work of compression so that the
capacity per unit of power de-
ture increases.
an
is
increases the
iL54
in this instance
4.17
is
3.12
varied.
13.84
volume
5.6
occurs
higher condensing
ton.
4.63
Note
the
at
theoretical horse-
effect
per pound,
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
AND THE
SATURATED CYCLE
SIMPLE
103
Td
Fig.
Temperature-entropy
7-8.
diagram
of
on
cycle
simple
skeleton
(figure distorted).
saturated
M T*
J
I
chart
Ts
(Refrigerant-
12.)
*F)
7-12.
It
was shown
in Section 7-7
is
to
Q3
Q2
many who
prefer
To
to
acquaint
is drawn
on Ts coordinates in Fig. 7-8. The state points
A, B, C, D, and E represent the points in the
cycle as shown by the flow diagram in Fig. 7-5.
The state point X represents saturated liquid
increases.
then
with
the heat of
it
Q3
cycles in
at the 100
Btu.
The
x (43.20
13.84)
310.40
218.75
It is interesting to
310.4 Btu
100
refrigerant control.*
baric
and
evaporator.
Process
condensing
B-C
is
vaporization
C-D
is
the
the isoin
the
reversible
sa , sb, se , sd , st ,
higher
Process
isothermal
temperature,
=41-8%
of sensible heat rejected at the condenser increases considerably at the higher condensing
temperature, whereas the amount of latent heat
the
A-B is
pressor
is
><
Process
percent increase
lii
at
and
The
shown on the
The
line
A-B
is
chart represent
104
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
50
40
61.39
51.68
20
10
Psia
15.28
9.32
12.02
pound
52.62 51.55
43.54 42.34
Weight of refrigerant
circulated per minute per
ton
Specific
4.05
4.15
4.25
4.36
4.48
4.59
4.73
1.121
1.351
1.637 2.00
2.47
3.09
3.91
2.56
3.08
3.77
4.55
5.60
6.96
8.72
11.10
14.20
18.50
6.01
7.49
8.79
10.11
11.54
13.29
14.85
16.73
18.50 20.40
1.13
1.35
1.54
1.78
2.00
2.26
8.76
4.17
3.54
3.09
2.67
2.36
2.07
3.80
3.88
3.97
volume of suction
vapor
pound
Theoretical horsepower per
ton
Coefficient of performance
6.88
5.74
4.88
Fig. 7-9
20
18
16
3.5
14
12
3.0
a
E
2.5
2-0
10
20
30
40
10
1Q.
1.5
1.0
0.5
|
*
50
Suction temperature
Fig. 7-IOa. For Refrigerant- 1 2, the refrigerating effect per pound, the weight of refrigerant circulated per
minute per ton, the specific volume of the suction vapor, and the volume of vapor compressed per minute
per ton are each plotted against suction temperature. Condensing temperature
is
constant at 100
F.
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
2.6
\V
2.2
AND THE
against
suction
I
o.
tem-
ture
is
constant at 100
105
8 g
1.6
cop-P"*
Q)
SATURATED CYCLE
SIMPLE
1.2
5 S
0.8
4$
F.
i
^Horserjower
0.4
per ton
1
-40 - 30-20-10
20
10
30
40
50
Suction temperature
A-X-C-D-E-A
represents
the
heat
energy
equivalent of the
effect
per pound.
D-E-A and
As
Ph diagram,
it
can be
cycle,
it is
shown
Fig. 7-11.
effect
chart,
vs X v *r1
\
intensive study.
To
this,
the
^ *
sjfcfc?
fc^l
^"s;
>o
-^_
^jT
expenses.
of the
discharge
effect
size
10
20
-- ~.
30
40
50
Suction temperature
PRINCIPLES
106
OF REFRIGERATION
(3)
compiled for a variety of vaporizing and condensing temperatures and are given in Table 7-1
to aid the student in arriving at
end of the
(2)
chapter.
PROBLEMS
(2)
The weight of
(4)
44.56 Btu/lb
refrigerant circulated
(3)
(5)
Arts.
4.49 lb/min/ton
more accurate
C. (1)
On
Ph diagram
the
is
is
may
Actual
it
Refrigerating
Cycles
the
Ph
pressure
from point
constant temperature
line.
8-1.
for this
is
made
for
following sections
all
effect
on the cycle
is
At point
p =
v
C",
35.75 psia
1
.260 cu ft/lb
=
=
88.6 Btu/lb
-*&
20*F
35.75 psia
D
J
20* F
35.75 psia
30"F
'
70
= 0.1840 Btu/lb/ R
35.75 psia 4
C
\
studied
20* F
Saturated vapor
in detail.*
8-2.
50* F
Superheated vapor
70*F ^
35.75
XT
r^i
164* F_
131.6
psi'a
100
psia
100* F
131.6 psia
refrigerant
evaporator,
in
effect that
Chapter
it
/^\
")
100*
131.6 psia
and the
condition.
12.
(Refrigerant- 1 2.)
107
PRINCIPLES
108
OF REFRIGERATION
131.16
35.75
Superheat
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
(Refrigerant- 1 2).
Fig. 8-2. Ph diagram comparing simple saturated cycle to the superheated cycle.
At point/)',
/>
= 131.6 psia
f = 164F
- 0.380 cu ft/lb
h = 99.2 Btu/lb
j = 0.1840 Btu/lb/ R
represents the
vapor
superheated cycle
is slightly
hx
of compression
= 99.2 -
h&
88.6
is
In
F for the
cycle,
greater
hand
condenser per
is
K - 99.2
31.16
68.04 Btu/lb
pound
is
is
pound
68.04-59.44
10.11 Btu/lb
x tnn
100
ijjd ,
14.4%
Note
dissipated per
10.11
x 100
4.84%
10.11
2.
3.
hd
12
The
saturated cycle.
10.6 Btu/lb
hd
pound
is
consider-
pound
must be
superheated cycle
200
109
~K
fie
200
49.33
suction
with the temperature approximately in accordance with Charles' law.* Therefore, a pound
of superheated vapor will always occupy a
greater
the compressor, the weight of refrigerant circulated by a compressor of any given displace-
ment
will
always be
less
than
when
the suction
= 4.05 lb/min/ton
Since the weight of refrigerant circulated is the
cycles
and saturated
and since the specific volume of the vapor
at the
compressor
same
= 1.121 cu ft/lb
=m xv
= 4.05 x 1.121
= 4.55 cu ft/min/ton
vapor v e
The volume of
vapor compressed per
minute per ton V
= 1.260 cu ft/lb
=m xv
= 4.05 x 1.260
= 5.02 cu ft/min/ton
of the
Assume
first
that
the
When
superheating
same vaporizing
and condensing temperatures, and therefore the
saturated cycle operating at the
saturated cycle.
the vapor
do
Again, since the weight of refrigerant circuminute per ton is the same for both
cycles and since the heat of compression per
pound is greater for the superheated cycle than
lated per
is
it is
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
110
m(h d
cycle,
he)
42.42
4.05
200
10.11
h-
42.42
=
The
coefficient
of per-
formance
=
For the superheated
cycle, the
0.965 hp/ton
he
hd
-K
4.88
-
4.05
h C ')
10.6
42.42
1.01
hc
formance
hd
'
hp/ton
~ha
-
K-
49.33
10.60
=
In summary,
42.42
3.48 lb/min/ton
10.11
m(h d
of per-
57.44
49.33
horsepower per
coefficient
200
hn
ha
ton
The
= m x vc
=3.48 x
The volume of
vapor compressed per
minute per ton V
m{h a
all
3.48
This means that the compressor, the compressor driver, and the conden-
ser
8-4.
cooling.
cycle
is
h^
equal to
-h a =
88.60
31.16
57.44 Btu/lb
heated
is less
>
A c .)
x 10.60
42.42
1.260
42.42
saturated cycle.
4.38 cu ft/min/ton
ton
4.65
ft
0.870 hp/ton
For the superheated cycle, both the refrigerating effect per pound and the heat of compression per pound are greater than for the
saturated cycle. However, since the increase in
the refrigerating effect
is
greater proportionally
is
For the saturated cycle, the coefficient of performance is 4.69, whereas for the superheated
cycle
The
coefficient
(h c
of performance
(4r
h a)
57.44
hc
10.60
5.42
ing superheated
erated
space
is
and produces
useful
refrig-
cooling,
and the
effect
upon
whenever
is
practical.
most part
Whether or not
in any particular
line.
When
Such a
high (35
reverse
vapor
is
called a
vapor
any appreciable amount of un-
perature
pumps,
vaporized liquid
is
damage
to the compressor
may
result.
Since
relatively
will usually
is
Too,
is
at
efficiency
low.
is
of the cycle
is
degree of superheat will cause a greater reduction in cycle efficiency percentagewise than when
the suction temperature
is
high.
It
becomes
will seriously
compressor
inlet,
1.
2.
a "drier
loop")
3. In the suction piping located outside of the
refrigerated space
4. In a liquid-suction heat exchanger.
and
is
that,
even at the higher suction temperatures, insulating of the suction line is often required to prevent
frosting or sweating of the suction line. In
flowing through the suction piping, the cold
suction vapor will usually lower the temperature
desirable
the piping.
8-6.
112
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
great to a vapor as to a liquid, the capacity of the
evaporator
vapor
is
Flow diagram showing drier loop for superheating suction vapor inside refrigerated space.
Fig. 8-3.
amount of
suction piping,
is
To assure the proper operation of the refrigerant control and to prevent liquid refrigerant
from overflowing the evaporator and being
carried back to the compressor, when certain
sor. This not only provides a means of superheating the suction vapor inside the refrigerated
space so that the efficiency of the cycle is
increased without the sacrifice of expensive evaporator surface, but it actually makes possible
is
more
effective
surface.
Also, in
some
instances, particularly
is
reasonably
low, superheating of the suction vapor inside the
refrigerated space will raise the temperature of
the suction piping and prevent the formation of
the superheating.
line insulation.
the vapor
is
It
However, in spite of the increase in cycle efficiency, it must be emphasized that superheating
the suction vapor in the evaporator is not
economical and should always be limited to only
that amount which is necessary to the proper
operation of the refrigerant control. Since the
transfer of heat through the walls of the evaporator per degree of temperature difference is not as
a refrigerant,
it
vapor
may
approximately 35 F.
The Effects of Subcooling the Liquid.
On the PA diagram in Fig. 8-4, a simple saturated
8-7.
cycle is
* Although this
air is
compared to one
F to 80 F before it reaches
and
cooled cycle.
cycle,
will also
It
pound
is
be
the subcooling
is
cycle,
pound, qx
pound, qt
KK
= 80.49 -31.16
= 49.33 Btu/lb
= he h
= 80.49 - 26.28
= 54.21 Btu/lb
>
tt
200
~
=
49.33
4.05 lb
200
54.21
3.69 lb
and subcooled
same
is less
cycle,
the subcooled
simple
saturated
1.121
3.69
:
cu ft/lb
x ve
1.121
4.15 cu ft/min
Any change
which increases the
quantity of heat absorbed in the refrigerated
space without causing an increase in the energy
input to the compressor will increase the c.o.p.
of the cycle and reduce the horsepower required
the energy input to the compressor.
in the refrigerating cycle
per ton.
(Refrigerant- 1 2.)
:
1.121
to
cycle.
ft/lb
4.55 cu ft/min
comparcycle
cu
x ve
4.05 x
131.16
1.121
subcooling
the
ing
113
35.75
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
PRINCIPLES
114
OF REFRIGERATION
Liquid-vapor mixture
35.75 psia-20F
m<
Subcooled liquid
131.16
Liquid subcooled
psia-SCF
20*
illus-
surrounding
passing through
Saturated vapor
131.16
Superheated vapor
131.16
air while
psia-lOOV
in
the liquid
line.
(Refrigerant-
paa-112'F
Saturated liquid
o
Saturated vapor
12.)
131.16 psia-100 F
3575psia-20*F
cycle,
K-K
hd
mance
80.49
~
=
The horsepower per ton
90.60
subcooling
hc
31.16
80.49
m(h d
hc)
4.05
sufficient to
of the subcooler,
liquid subcooler
may be
piped either in
When
is
42A2
=
=
The
the subcooler
more than
particularly for
series
4.88
very often
is
offset
subcooler
first
10.51
0.965 hp/ton
h'
-K
hc
hd
mance
80.49 - 26.28
90.60 - 80.49
in the subcooler,
is
it
54.21
=
The horsepower per ton
5.16
m{h d
is offset
he)
When
10.51
0.914 hp/ton
-4.88
~^M~ X
10
to
some
the subcooler
is
42.42
increased
densing temperature.
42.42
3.69
is
the subcooler.
is
not affected by
series or
condenser water
pump must
by
7%
subcooled
In
far,
to the system.
8-8.
other
115
cooled
is
given
up
to
some medium
external to
When
is
subcooled is
remains in the system.
the
Ph diagram
is
liquid-suction
heat
8-9,
exchanger
in
hC
employed.
is
exchanger.
'
'
in
the
effect
refrigerating
effect,
the
refrigerating
hc
ha
80.49
25.45
is
55.04
for the heat
exchanger cycle is
in the
ha
heat exchanger is
.
which a
and points
in which the heat exchanger is used. In the cycle
latter cycle, it is assumed that the suction vapor
is superheated from 20 F to 60 F in the heat
hc
to subcooler
a simple
Points A, B, C, Z),and
cycle
Saturated liquid
compared to one
saturated cycle
from^/
condenser
used,
On
Water
-h =
c
86.20
80.49
5.71 Btu/lb
- hd =
97.60
K - hn
The
55.04
coefficient of
ated cycle
is
4.88.
11.40
is
4.91
11.40
S3
86.20
h,.-h,
75'
-4.88
x 100
tower
4.88
or city main
is
by only
=0.5%
Water-cooled
condenser
(10O*F condensing)
"^
100*
Liquid to
'subcooler
Fig. 8-4.
in series
case,
the
t/80-
116
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
20* vaporizing
temperature
Saturated
suctio n
vapor-
f
v
20'
Saturated
liquid-lOOT
Subcooled
liquid-75"F~
100* condensing
temperature
always become superheated before the compression process begins because nothing can be
done to prevent it. This is true even if no
superheating takes place either in the evaporator or in the suction line and the vapor reaches
Since the superheating in the compressor cylinder will occur before the compression process
131.16
&
35.75
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Hg. 8-. Ph diagrams comparing simple saturated cycle to cycle employing a liquid-suction heat exchanger.
The amount of subcooling is equal to the amount of superheating. (Refrigerant- 2.)
1
on
cycle
if
117
specific heat of
R-12 liquid
is
approximately
suction to
suction vapor
24
8-9.
vapor absorbs
5.71
heating from 20
F to
up by the liquid is
5.71
other.
The
greater
is
and external
(surface),
A Ph
diagram of an actual
is
cycle, illustrating
period of contact. Thus, the lower the vaporizing temperature and the higher the condensing
temperature, the greater is the possible heat
cooling
exchange.
Theoretically,
if
the
two
fluids
sufficient length
of
same temperature. In
is
not possible.
drawn
is
saturated cycle
is
in for comparison.
psi.
Whereas
is
33.08 psia, corresponding to a saturation temperature of 16 F. The average vaporizing temperature in the evaporator is 20 F, the same as
that of the saturated cycle.
* It will be
shown
later that
some advantages
perature
process.
As a
result of the
if
no drop in
pressure occurred.
118
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
38.58 psia
24* F (sat. temp.)
Average evaporating
temperature and
pressure
35.75 psia, 20 F
90 F
L
,
33.08 psia//
16* F (sat. temp.)
(sat.
temp.)
158.9 psia
(sat. temp.)
1 114"F
|TTlOF
*^\
131.6 psia
(sat. temp.)
100F
Average condensing
temperature and pressure
139 psia, 104 F
Fig. 8-10. Flow diagram illustrating the effect of pressure drop
are exaggerated for clarity. (Refrigerant- 2.)
in
is greater for the cycle experiencing the pressure drop. Too, because of the
lower pressure of the vapor leaving the evapora-
pressure.
both increased.
is
also
eration
various
parts
simple
drawn
saturated
in
(Refrigerant-
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Pressure drop
1.
2.
3. Liquid line
4. Evaporator
5.
Suction line
6.
for
1
the
of the system.
2.)
cycle
is
comparison.
This applies
good evaporator
the pressure drop across the
limits
Ordinarily,
evaporator to 2 or 3
psi. Ideally,
between
and 2
is
119
line.
psi.
of subcooling, super-
effects
simple saturated
drawn
in
for
cycle
I.
is
comparison.
(Refrigerant- 1 2).
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Pressure drop
1.
2.
3. Liquid line
Line
4. Evaporator
5. Suction line
6.
be the same.
if
effect
C-D
Notice that the vapor in the cylinder is compressed to a pressure considerably above the
average condensing pressure. It is shown later
that this is necessary in order to force the vapor
raising
discharge
the
increasing the
result-
erant at A'
is
and
liquid line.
as
its
pressure
line in order to
provide the
in
A"
lies
is
a vapor at
this point.
120
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
to 70
is
The fact
it
that
drop in pressure in
not excessive. Flashing of the liquid
the line
is
in the lines
is
and
discussed
in
more
is
compared
PROBLEMS
1.
(a)
The
pound.
The
(A)
Ans. 138.5
Ans. 9 Btu/lb
(0 The heat of compression per minute per
ton.
Ans. 33.3 Btu/min/ton
The
work of compression per minute per
(J)
ton.
Ans. 25.907 lb/min/ton
(At) The theoretical horsepower per ton.
Ans. 0.755 hp/ton
(/)The heat rejected at the condenser per
pound.
Arts. 67 .4 Btu/lb
(m) The heat rejected at the condenser per ton.
Ans. 249.38 Btu/min/ton
() The coefficient of performance.
Ans. 6
Note: Some of the properties of the refrigerant at various points in the cycle must be
determined from the Ph chart in Fig. 7-1.
with
if
mechanical
refrigerating
equipment.
Survey
known
applications
of Refrigeration
Applications
tation,
9-1.
not too
made possible
rubber, and
rials
efficient.
it is
more
it
became
unit which
cannot
boast
It
has
made
and products.
refrigeration, bakers
Because of mechanical
can get more loaves of
is
trained technical
manpower.
six
general categories:
(1)
domestic refrigeration, (2) commercial refrigeration, (3) industrial refrigeration, (4) marine and
transportation refrigeration, (5) comfort air conditioning,
part that refrigeration has played in the development of the highly technical society that
will
air conditioning. It
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
122
precisely defined
is
considerable
9-3.
number of
units
in
service
is
quite large,
these
are of the hermetically sealed type. Since
applications are familiar to everyone, they will
be described further here. However, the
not
problems encountered in the design and maintenance of these units are discussed in appropriate places in the chapters
which
follow.
Com.nercial Refrigeration.
9-4.
Commer-
cial refrigeration
is
taurants, hotels,
and
refrigeration fixtures
are described
in
more
Industrial
Refrigeration.
refrigeration is often confused with commercial
refrigeration because the division between these
Industrial
two areas
is
As a
general
size
rule, industrial applications are larger in
disthe
have
and
applications
commercial
than
etc.),
breweries, creameries,
and
Section 9-1.
9-6.
tion.
could be
listed partly
under commercial
refrig-
have grown
mention.
Marine
refrigeration,
refrigeration
all
kinds.
Transportation
refrigeration
is
concerned
shown
in Fig.
11-8.
9-7.
implies,
condition
air conditioning is concerned with the
of the air in some designated area or space. This
usually involves control not only of the space
air.
schools,
offices,
as well
for vessels transporting perishable cargo
vessels of
as refrigeration for the ship's stores on
of course, refers to
includes,
boats
for example, refrigeration for fishing
and
and in
are almost without limit both in number
of
variety. Generally speaking, the functions
control
industrial air conditioning are to; (1)
the moisture content of hydroscopic materials;
chemical and biochemical
(2) govern the rate of
reactions; (3) limit the variations in the size of
precision manufactured articles because of ther-
quality products.
9-8.
preservation of
refrigeration.
and
vegetables, are
must be stored
and preserved
made
if
they are to be
available
seasons of scarcity. It
is
man
still
These
widely used
no
123
The invention of the microscope and the subsequent discovery of microorganisms as a major
cause of food spoilage led to the development of
canning in France during the time of Napoleon.
With the invention of canning, man found a way
to preserve food of all kinds in large quantities
results.
are
they are not universally adaptable for the preservation of all types of food products. Furthermore, the keeping qualities of food preserved by
often
it is
preservation of food
and that
all
perish-
pass
PRINCIPLES
124
OF REFRIGERATION
either eliminated or effectively controlled if the
preservation of food
is
foodstuff
9-10.
its
Although their
edibility is little impaired, an undesirable change
in their appearance has been brought about
which usually requires that they be disposed of
at a reduced price. Too, since they are well on
way
fruit.
so
lactase, is
known because
cesses,
by a
series of
the foodstuff.
capable of bringing about the total destruction
of a food product, both agents are involved in
spoilage. In any event, the
activity of both of these spoilage agents must be
acts to convert
called ferments.
total loss.
it
and
yet fully
lactose (milk sugar) to lactic acid. This particular process is called lactic acid fermentation
Not
their
original fresh
state.
vegetables or overripe
Enzymes
to be adequately preserved.
is
Enzymes.
all living
pro-
all
and decomposition of
all
organic
vegetables.
dition.
the conditions of the surrounding media, particularly with regard to the temperature and the
degree of acidity or alkalinity, which provides a
practical
125
for consumption.
ing, disease,
On
many
action of microorganisms
is
greatly reduced at
low
by
stroyed
action of
known
dom
its
alkalinity
own
occurs.
More
enzymes
destructive action by enzymes
often, the natural
by microorganisms.
Microorganisms. The
secreted
9-11.
and appearance of
allowed to continue for
any length of time, will render the food unfit
alterations in the taste, odor,
if
useful
matter of
fact, if
is
indispensable to the
life cycle.
Through a process
called photo-
necessity feed
on green plants
and growth.
should the supply of
life
126
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
duction
of vinegar
Bacterial action
is
from various
alcohols.
The
rate at
linen,
are of immeasurable
Despite their
many
useful
and necessary
Hence,
enzymes,
if deterioration and
Most pathogenic
somewhat
wise,
when
living cell.
division.
On
bacterium can grow into maturity and reproduce in as little as 20 to 30 min. At this rate a
single bacterium is capable of producing as
many as 34,000,000,000,000 descendants in a
24-hr period. Fortunately, however, the life
cycle of bacteria is relatively short, being a
matter of minutes or hours, so that even under
ideal conditions they cannot multiply at any-
where near
this rate.
bacteria (those
causing infection and disease) are of the parasitic type. In the absence of a living host, some
parasitic bacteria can live as saprophytes. Likelive as parasites
The
by bacteria growth is a
Milk
in
96
168
2,400
2,100
1,850
1,400
2,500
3,600
218,000
4,200,000
1,480,000
3,100
12,000
11,600
540,000
180,000
28,000,000
127
Various Periods
Time, hours
48
24
32
39
46
50
60
86
in
1,400,000,000
Fig. 9-1. From ASRE Data Book, Applications Volume, 1956-57. Reproduced by
permission of the American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
drought almost
dormant
indefinitely,
and
(2) those
gen.
Some
which can
exist without free oxyalthough having a preference for one condition or the other, can live
in the presence of free oxygen or in the absence
of it. Those bacteria living without free oxygen
species,
compound while
carcasses.
grow
there
is
maximum and
on
For each
mum
siderably reduced
require either neutral or slightly alkaline surroundings, although some species prefer slightly
or
slightly
alkaline
surroundings,
nonacid
somewhat
yeasts reproduce
attack.
reproduction
all
bacteria.
Whereas
visible
light
only
otherwise, have
no power of
penetration, they
are effective only in controlling surface bacteria.
However,
direct sunlight),
provides
an
excellent
bacteria growth.
means of
from
drying,
controlling
larger
cells.
by fission
and
Under
is
enlarges
finally separates
cell.
ideal conditions,
formed.
Like bacteria, yeasts are agents of fermentaThey secrete enzymes that bring
about chemical changes in the food upon which
they grow. Yeasts are noted for their ability
tion and decay.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
128
and carbon
Although destructive to fresh foods,
particularly fruits
and
berries
and
their juices,
making
industries.
affinity.
In general, yeasts are not as resistant to unfavorable conditions as are bacteria, although they
come
in the air.
below.
Molds
flourish in dark,
oxygen.
still air.
fruits
others,
called
aerial
surroundings,
damp
An
abundant supply of
oxygen is essential to mold growth, although a
very few species can grow in the absence of
particularly in
to
freely at
in contact.
common
vats,
and
cause of spoilage in
fruits.
must
on
or dormant.
All types of spoilage agents are destroyed when
subjected to high temperatures over a period of
aerial
hyphae, and
time.
This principle
is
in sterilized,
recontamination.
to
prevent
level.
may
spores
processing
long
require
periods
continued
activity.
is
is
accomplished either
Pickling
is
essentially
a fermentation process,
the exhaustion of the
is
by
smoke and
129
partially
which are
products preserved in this manner are sugarcured hams, salt pork, spiced fruits, certain
beverages,
jellies,
storage
of perishables
at
low temperatures
means of preserving
tical
perishables in their
required for
and
bial
fish, are much more susceptible to microcontamination and spoilage than are living
from
all
and the
one of keeping
the food substance alive while at the same time
retarding natural enzymic activity in order to
preservation problem
fermentation
is
is chiefly
plant,
or
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
130
some of which
is
After harvesting,
fruit.
from
its
period.
life
of animal products, in
fat,
the storage
life
of beef
is
considerably
whose
much
fatty
its
and storage
F and 10 F,
10
with
retail
usually
is
where
establishments
is
normally ex-
pected.
some
products, such as
meats.
When
and
and up
more durable
onions and some smoked
months
to six or eight
such as
sensitive products,
broccoli,
for the
Some
and
fresh foods,
When
fully frozen.
less stable.
at
method
9-18.
reduced.
The
rate of oxidation
is
products in
tight-fitting,
which prevent
air (oxygen)
and vegetables
in
not practical.
packaging in gasis
Storage
mate storage
is
the storage
life
of the
product.
9-17. Refrigerated
storage
gories:
(2)
For
may be
Storage.
(1) short-term or
temporary storage,
(3)
frozen storage.
short-
chilled
Refrigerated
those
Recommended
quickly.
than
flexible
optimum
As a
The
Conditions.
closely,
particularly
is
for
long-term
to be maintained
9-19.
131
the rate of
Although the
effect
peratures generally
is
tional
sures
some
life,
and vege-
fruits
tables are particularly sensitive to storage temperature and are susceptible to so-called cold
storage diseases
when
stored at temperatures
critical
when
storage temperafrequently
fruits
citrus
stored at relatively
when
become sweet
at storage
pits
on
their surface
when
some
below 35 F.
and the
minimum
Conversely,
the product.
Humidity
storage of
all
venting dehydration
Unfortunately, these conditions are also conducive to rapid mold growth and the formation
of slime
(bacterial)
on meats.
Too,
is
somewhat
must be
less
than
sufficient
100% and
air velocities
to
circulation.
velocities
vegetables,
The
fish, fruit,
fruit
and vege-
separate storage
this is
fore, except
demand
accompanied by shriveling
and the product undergoes a
considerable loss in both weight and vitamin
In meats, cheese,
etc.,
desiccation
when
involved,
are
and
wilting
facilities
for
tables, desiccation is
content.
10-10
Motion.
Air
is
good
through 10-13.
When the product is- stored in vapor-proof
containers, space humidity and air velocity are
not critical. Some products, such as dried
fruits, tend to be hydroscopic and therefore
require storage at low relative humidities.
9-21. Mixed Storage. Although the main-
and
from
moisture
40 F.
9-20.
stored at or near 32 F.
to 32 F,
relative
low air
and stagnant
30
surface.
is
soft scald
vapor pres-
storage space
is
to
suffer
Bananas
below
air,
that a
be placed in
most products,
feasible.
There-
practical
considerations
often
common
storage.
Naturally, the
by
and heavy
causes
discoloration,
trim losses.
shrinkage)
It also increases
132
PRINCIPLES
mixed
storage.
OF REFRIGERATION
The higher
storage tempera-
and
and vegetables
temperature.
only
problem when
short
for
not ordinarily a
the products are stored
periods
is
as
in
temporary
storage.
common
Another
storage
is
storage.
Some
flavors
and
from other products held in mixed
excessive losses.
Since" a food product begins to deteriorate
very quickly after harvesting or killing, it is
imperative that preservation measures be taken
immediately.
assure
maximum
storage
life
by refrigerated transport.
9-23.
chilling is
distinguished
in that the
is
whereupon
it
is
chilling
10-13.
is
loaded into
room temperature
9-22.
age.
One
the storage
To
storage.
or nuts.
is
or retards
the natural
processes
of
it
make a high
out of one of initial poor
quality. Hence, only vegetables and fruit in
good condition should be accepted for storage.
Those that have been bruised or otherwise
deteriorated.
Neither can
quality product
It
is
very
important
equipment have
The temperatures
that
the
sufficient capacity
and are
in-
tended for use in selecting the refrigerating equipment. Actual temperatures in the chilling room
during the peak chilling period are usually 3 F to
4
F higher than
those
listed.
mineral
when
dehydration.
the product
is
vapor-proof
chilled in
relatively
unimportant.
initial
room humidity
However, during
stages of chilling,
will
room
been evaporated.
Products chilled in their natural state (unpackaged) lose moisture very rapidly, often
producing fog in the chilling room during the
early stages of chilling when the product temperature and vapor pressure are high.
and high
chilling
air
velocity
are
Rapid
desirable
oil
poultry, fish,
product
below.
The
frozen
includes
foods,
it
and
results in
not
only
those
commonly
which are
many
The
rate
of food products
and storage
product,
list
dinners.
is
Too,
packed in ice
products packed in
133
full
to be frozen
2.
The
4.
The
The
freezing
method
storage conditions.
and
However, during
when
the final
the temperature
ing
room is
air velocity
chilling.
vegetables are
As a
134
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
Fig. 9-2.
Walk-in
installation.
Suspended
blast
in
Carrier Corporation.)
Fig. 9-3.
Suspended
blast free-
air
through
(Courtesy
Carrier
blast
Corporation.)
and
storage
in
one room
another
is
mounted
blast freezers.
(Cour-
greatly
increases
the
The time
required for blanching varies with the type and
variety of the vegetable and ranges from 1 to l
min for green beans to 1 1 min for large ears of
storage life of frozen vegetables.
corn. Although
tion
is
much
many
bacteria survive.
To
it
still air.
135
The tem-
usually
upon
9-27.
and high
fruit is
to
of the
flesh.
To
be
frozen
is
However, because of consumer demand, specially prepared meats and meat products are being
frozen in increasing amounts. This is true also
of poultry and sea foods.
Because of the relative instability of their
fatty tissue, pork and fish are usually frozen as
soon
hand, beef
is
On
the other
by enzymic
activity.
With
poultry,
experiments
indicate
if
the
that
However,
24 hr tends to reduce storage
after killing.
life
without
utilizes the
air velocity to
accomplished by
is
Blast
insulated
is
tunnels,
frequently
out in
carried
particularly
where
large
be frozen (Figs.
9-5 and 9-6). In some instances, the product
and
is carried through the freezing tunnel
frozen on slow-moving, mesh conveyor belts.
quantities of product are to
is
The
dollies are
is
used to freeze
it is
particularly
nonuniform
nearly
all
types of products,
freezing
is
Contact Freezing.
Indirect
PRINCIPLES
136
OF REFRIGERATION
velocity,
15 F air
is
blasted
freezing
larger
flat,
multiplate
freezer.
The
multiplate
freezer
When
quickly frozen.
is
from
tamination
and
solution.
when
fruit is
is
entirely beneficial.
frequently
frozen by
and shrimp. Immersion is
particularly suitable for freezing fish and
shrimp at sea, since the immersion freezer is
relatively compact and space aboard ship is at
a premium. In addition, immersion freezing
produces a "glaze" (thin coating of ice) on the
surface of the product which helps to prevent
dehydration of unpackaged products during
immersion are
fish
Quick
Quick Freezing
frozen
products
vs.
Sharp Freezing.
are
nearly always
superior to those which are sharp (slow) frozen.
D. K.
freezing:
9-29.
is
The
principal
is
disadvantage of immersion
1
The ice crystals formed are much smaller,
and therefore cause much less damage to cells.
2. The freezing period being much shorter,
I
e
V
L.
&
137
138
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
contact freezing.
(Courtesy Dole
Refrigerating Company.)
The
number,
formed in the
maximum
ice-crystal formation,
formed which
tissue of
is
in the size,
ice crystals
down.
breakdown
is
greatly reduced.
Upon
thawing,
cellular
rate
is
not as
and
in fruits
of meats
and vege-
if
any, cellular
damage
This does not mean, however, that quick frozen meats are not superior
to those which are slow frozen, but only that,
when slow
frozen.
freezing
is
meats as
is
in fruits
is
and
vegetables.
For
amount
packaging.
subject
fish
139
month by dipping
spraying.
9-32.
is
provided that it is
does not fluxuate.
sufficiently
Although
not
0F
is
critical,
it
usually
When
(wholesale) storage.
realize the
burn
period.
accompanied by oxidation,
flavor changes, and loss of vitamin content.
With few exceptions, all products are packaged before being placed in frozen storage.
Although most products are packaged before
freezing, some, such as loose frozen peas and lima
beans, are packaged after the freezing process.
To
usually
is
provide
adequate
products having
should be held at 10
maximum
or below in order to
storage
life.
When
F in either
against
freezing costs.
(85
protection
dehydration
The
freezing.
Since
many packaging
Proper
essential.
stacking
of
the
product
is
also
it
product. It
offer
When
is
do not
the product
materials
From a
relatively inexpensive
it
that
processing costs.
Some packaging
aluminum
impregnated paperboard cartons, paper-board cartons overwrapped with vapor-proof wrappers, wax paper,
foil,
cellophane,
tin cans,
polyethylene,
and
other
sheet
plastics.
Frozen
an
ice glaze (a
"commercial refrigerator"
is
usually applied to
restaurants,
retail
and
stores
and markets,
institutions
for
the
and dispensing
of perishable commodities. The term is some-
refrigerated fixtures
protective covering.
purposes.
air,
the
PRINCIPLES
140
OF REFRIGERATION
tor.
Corporation.)
and
design
9-34.
all retail
of refrigerated display
consideration
product. In
is
first
many
cases, this is
not necessarily
life
of a product in a display
from
etc.
and
9-10.
of
fixtures,
all types.
such items.
9-36. Display Cases. The principal function of
any kind of display fixture is to display the
shown in
Figs. 9-9
With the advent of the supermarket, the trend has been increasingly toward
popularity.
type
obsolete.
self-service
Several of the
cases
more popular
types of
141
The design
space, others
the refrigerated fixtures discussed in the preceding sections are available in a variety of designs
in order to satisfy the specific requirements of
individual products
and
applications,
a number
more common
Some
of
As a
or
facilities
all
and/or
services:
1.
killed
meats.
2.
to freezing.
displaying
meats.
(Courtesy Tyler
Refrigeration
Corporation.)
is
to
storage
sales
Fig. 9-11. High multishelf produce
(Courtesy Tyler Refrigeration Corporation.)
PRINCIPLES
142
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig. 9-12.
4.
food
5.
freezing
is
room
storage lockers.
sausage making,
6.
7.
An
aging
room where
etc.,
some
plants.
in Fig. 9-13.
The average
size
of the
M^
v//>y////Y//////^/Y//w//y/^///,/yy/s/y/>,
143
Room
Refrigerant
temperature
temperature
Insulation
thickness, inches.
34 to 36
35
None
None
Atmospheric
room
20 to 25
Design for
below room
3 to 8
10 to 15
circulation;
room tempera-
below
culation
Aging room
34 to 36
35
Curing room
Design for
Same
as chill
room
3 to 8
Design for
Same
as chill
room
3 to 8
38 to 40
40F
Freezing
room
-20 F
-20
to
-30 F
6 to 12
Not important
-15
to
-20 F
Depends on type of
-10
to
-15 F
6 to 12
-15
to
-20 F
6 to 12
-10
(gravity
to
air circulation)
or 2
room)
Blast freezer
system used
OF
individual locker
is
6 cu
Minimum
same
refrigeration
was
Commerical
room
and
turnover
ft
is
freezer capacities
is
product
to base chilling
on the handling of 2 to 4
this area
areas.
this chapter
chiefly
9-39.
commercial
with
refrigeration,
the
equipment selection
applied to
all
applications.
Although no attempt
is
made
in this
book
it
most commercial
particularly
those
concerned
applications,
with
product
and equipment
selection
are practically
the
ture, humidity,
application,
given to
all
it is
all
be
the
10-2.
refrigerating
10
is
usually calculated
Cooling Load
Calculations
is,
in
RequiredBtu/hr
2
= Totalcoolingload)Btu/24hr
equipment
Desired running time
capacity
:
'.
(10-1)
10-1.
most
Heat
that
is
of the
late
is
motors,
lights,
electronic equipment,
Not
all
them
will
be factors in
refrigerated space.
steam
coil,
electric
the tem-
materials.
3.
When
is
out of the air drains off the coil into the condensate pan and leaves the space through the con-
direct
warm
coil.
insulated walls.
chilled to
2.
amount of
which the refrigerating effect of the
system must be stopped.
the defrosting requires a certain
time, during
144
sufficient length
of
coil.
called
is
loads
for
air
conditioning
145
and cooling
applications
are
come from
"off-cycle" defrosting.
is
and a consider-
process.
cycle defrosting
is
used, the
when
off-
maximum allowable
is
divided into a
number of
individual loads
is
(3) the
in
The variation
space temperature which would be required
defrosting
not practical.
is
in
would be detrimental
there
Some exceptions
maintained below 34 F,
automatic defrosting is
ordinarily used. In such cases the surface of the
coil is heated artificially, either with electric
heating elements, with water, or with hot gas
neglected.
space temperature
method
some
Chapter
is
of
defrosting
the
is
accom-
used.
less for
required
is
is
maximum
is
question.
time
is
is
load that
its effect is
On
negligible
and
it is
usually
20).
(see
As a
10-5.
the door
used.
of interest to note that since the temperature of the cooling coil in comfort air conditioning applications is normally around 40 F, no
It is
frost accumulates
fore,
no
For
there-
systems are
air
PRINCIPLES
146
OF REFRIGERATION
The importance of the product load in relation
On
is
by door
openings, there
is
is
purposely introduced
some
in
all
others, varies
nonexistent
it is
applications, in others
Where
cooler
refrigerated
designed
is
is
represents
it
the
product
for
is
temperature.
outside
is
quite large
is
often a
The term
ventilating load
is
when
storage
When
temperature.
temperature,
air
storage space as
temperature and
amount of
infiltration
doors.
made up of
level.
is
usually
it
will
it
warms up
to the storage
it
its
own.
In
a negative product load which could theoretibe subtracted from the total cooling load.
This is never done, however, since the refrigercally
ating
effect
produced
is
small
and
is
not
continuous in nature.
The cooling load on the refrigerating equipment resulting from product cooling may be
either intermittent
or continuous, depending
application.
temperature.
Once the product is
cooled to the storage temperature, it is no
longer a source of heat and the product load
ceases to be a part of the load on the equipment.
storage
An
and
is
product enters
below the space
absorb heat from the
such
refrigerating effect of
other words,
-10
or
temperature
at
Every
0F
to
temperature
storage fixture at
10-6.
its
must be considered
load on the cooling
applications.
infiltration load.
exception to this
is
though there
is
no
There
tion
are,
applications
moved
out of the chilling room into a storage room and
the chilling room is then reloaded with warm
to the storage temperature,
it is
usually
is
ship
is
load
is
ment
where
Q=
A
is
no
air
(10-2)
since there is
greater
Btu/hr
on the
The flow of the liquid
D = the
the
Q=A
supplies
usually
on the equipment.
Liquid chilling
147
the wall
The
ft/
F)
F)
coefficient of transmission or
"U" factor
laneous load.
is
is
no
often
air
on one
1
each
is relatively
small,
by
wall.
on the other
side for
much
it is
desirable to prevent as
good thermal
is
insulators
kept as low as
is
practical.
applications.
On
air conditioning
as separate loads
the contrary,
people and
For example, in those air conditioning applications where large numbers of people occupy the
conditioned space, such as churches, theaters,
restaurants, etc., the cooling load resulting from
Fahrenheit, that
is,
by application of Equation
10-2.
Example
10-1.
Determine the total quanof heat in Btu per hour which will pass
through a wall 10 ft by 20 ft, if the U factor
tity
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
148
ft/
and the
is
is
40 F
95 F.
from
Read
insulation.
Solution
10
=
Temperature
x 20
ft
200 sq
Btu/hr/sq
95
the
F.
ft
ft
Should
differ
ft/
be necessary, the
it
U factor for
any
type of wall construction can be readily calculated provided that either the conductivity or the
- 40
>55F
Applying Equation
200 x 0.16 x 55
wall construction
1760 Btu/hr
U in
Equation 10-2 is in
obtained from Equation
is
multiplied
by 24
hr.
Equation 10-2
is
plication, viz:
(10-3)
construction
tabular form.
available in
list
Example
10-2.
the
tile
with 4
in.
clay
of corkboard insulation.
Solution.
Turn to Table 10-1 and select the
appropriate type of wall construction (third
Air
spaces
from the
is
Q=AxUxDx24
10-9.
is
in.
sq
ft
F of temperature
is
factor
by the thickness in
homogeneous material,
factor
inches.
C=\x
Concrete
aggregate
where x
Hence, for a
(10-4)
Example
10-3.
conductance for a 5
Determine
in.
the thermal
thickness of corkboard.
Solution
From
k
Table 10-4,
factor of cork-
board
Applying
Equation 10-4,
=_
Q
C factor from
nonhomogeneous materials must be determined
by experiment.
The resistance that a wall or a material offers
several parts of the material, the
is
inversely proportional to
Example
10-4.
a wall constructed of 8
cement
149
plaster.
Solution
C=0.60
k = 0.30
Corkboard
Cement plaster
k =8.00
From Table
or conductance, viz:
10-5,4,
inside
surface
~U
ance
Thermal resistance of
an individual material
conductance
or
-l
or
ft
1-65
4.00
outside
surface
conductance
Applying
Equation 10-5,
-I+-L+-L
4
the over-all
into
thermal
resist-
T + L65
on
Therefore,
0.3
0.5
ance, 1/17
one side to the air on the other side, the resistance of the air on both sides of the wall should
be considered. Air film coefficients or surface
conductances for average wind velocities are
0.6
.
part,
it is
on the value of
little
so large
materials.
sufficiently accurate to
fi
**1
*2
kn
Jo
1
*
ft
rr
'
kx
kt
kn
difference
The
or ceiling
floor,
Note.
or roof
are
is
differential
temperatures.
is
used, 1/C
across Cold
'
is
factor.
where
it
Therefore
is
that which
PRINCIPLES
150
The
OF REFRIGERATION
on
For cold storage
taken
When
energy
is
(Table 10-6)
perature.
is
The outdoor
design temperatures
given in Table 10-6 are average outdoor temperatures and include an allowance for normal
temperature
differential
variations
air
1
in
the
conditioning loads.
0-1
ings
cooler
is
located
cooler
is
Likewise,
treated the
when
the temperature
must be corrected
Correction
effect.
inside of
air
temperature
the
increase
will
same
an inside
as
is
is
wall.
exposed
treated as
an
at angles to
through
ceiling,
all
When
outdoor
except
slab
computed
average
10-7,
factors, the
parts
is
in the value of
U is
slight
U factor
involved
example of
this
phenomenon
is
the excessive
the sun.
surface
is
The temperature of
much
the metal
10-5.
A walk-in cooler, 16 ft x
x 10 ft high is located in the southwest
corner of a store building in Dallas, Texas (Fig.
10-2). The south and west walls of the cooler
are adjacent to and a part of the south and west
walls of the store building. The store has a 14 ft
ceiling so that there is a 4 ft clearance between
the top of the cooler and the ceiling of the store.
The store is air conditioned and the temperature
Example
20
is
ft
is maintained at approximately
80 F. The inside design temperature for the
cooler is 35 F. Determine the wall gain load
for the cooler if the walls of the cooler are of the
following construction:
6
6
in.
clay
tile
corkboard
0.S cement plaster
in.
on
inside
finish
151
east
(inside walls)
1 in.
Ceiling
of 2 x 4 studs
3f in. granulated cork
Same as north and east
Floor
16
M
6
in.
walls
with 3
and
South wall
East wall
16 x 20
16 x 20
Ceiling
Floor
in.
10
| 6
in.
clay
tile
^mm
ft ceiling
of concrete
20'
Partitions
10 x 16
10 x 20
MM MIM
finished
= 160 sq ft
= 200 sq ft
= 160sqft
= 200 sq ft
= 320 sq ft
= 320 sq ft
x 16
x 20
Outside design
temperature, 92* F
Cooler 35 F
5 in. slab
Solution
Wall surface area
North wall
10
West wall
10
corkboard-'
corkboard laid on
in.
'
3|
in.
on each side
Inside temperature
80'
Ceiling 14
ft
0.045
0.079
0.066
Ceiling
Floor
From Table
10-6,
From
Outside
Inside
Normal
Design
Design
Temp.
Temp.
Wall
T.D.
F
F
35* F
35 F
35 F
35 F
92
Ceiling
Floor
Applying Equation
East wall
70
80
East wall
North wall
West wall
South wall
F
F
92 F
80 F
80 F
70 F
North wall
South wall
West wall
Floor
Table
10-6A, design
ground temperature
for Dallas
Ceiling
Fig. 10-2
92
x
x
x
x
x
x
45
63
61
45
45
35
=
=
=
=
=
=
45
57
569Btu/hr
567
439
7ll
1,137
739
4 162 Btu/hr
.
99,890 Btu/24 hr
Table 10-7
F
F
57= p
45 F
45 F
35 F
35
35
10-2,
160 x 0.079
200 x 0.045
160 x 0.045
200 x 0.079
320 x 0.079
320 x 0.066
Correction
Factor from
Design
Wall
T.D.
F
F
63 F
45 F
45 F
35 F
45
4F
6F
61
PRINCIPLES
152
OF REFRIGERATION
Solution
To
from Table
cfm x 60 x 24
300 x 60 x 24
per24hr
column of
the table, move right to the column headed by
the design wall temperature difference, and read
the wall gain factor in Btu/24 hr/sq ft. For
example, assume that the walls of a cooler are
insulation in the extreme left-hand
432,000 cu ft/24 hr
From Table
10-8.A
heat gain per cubic
feet
change) load
Example
10-14.
10-18).
to determine
When
24-hr period
resulting
is
from
air
where
W(h
- hi)
(10-6)
is listed
in
Example
10-6.
air
Btu/24 hr.
air is pur-
and
is difficult
curacy,
is
it
that, as
a general
rule, the
The
sizes.
defines average
Average
usage
includes
installations
to extreme temperatures
subject
not
and where
ate factor
cu ft/24 hr
x Btu/cu ft
432,000 x 1.86
803,520 Btu/24 hr
(lb/24 hr)
h,
1.86Btu/cuft
=
=
(see
Ventilating (air
change load in
on the
of
refrigerator,
warm
and where
large quantities
it.*
1949,
New
York, p. 327.
Example
10-7.
walk-in cooler 8
ft
Example
x 10 ft high is constructed of 4 in. of corkboard with 1 in. of wood on each side. The
outside temperature is 95 F and the humidity
is 50%. The cooler is maintained at 35 F and
the usage is average. Determine the air change
loadinBtu/24hr.
IS
ft
10-8.
153
a cooler at 55
24
of
and are
in
hr.
Solution
0.75 Btu/lb/
Applying Equation
10-7, the product load,
Btu/24 hr
1000 x 0.75
=
=
1000 x 0.75 x 20
15,000 Btu/24 hr
specific
therefore,
Inside volume
From Table
=
=
7 ft x 14 ft x 9
882 cu ft
x (55
ft
10-9A,
by interpolation, num-
=19
Inside
=
=
x air changes
882 x 19
16,758 cu ft/24 hr
Total
quantity of
air change per 24 hr
volume
From
= 2.49 Btu/cu ft
= cu ft/24 hr
x Btu/cu
ft
= 16,758 x 2.49
= 41,727 Btu/24 hr
When
Equation 10-7
When
is
the
maintained
F)
aav
Solution.
Applying
Equation 10-8, product
load, Btu/24 hr
0-8)
desired to
1000 x 0.75
x (55
35)
x 24
=
Compare
WxCx(r,-r )x24hr
J (hr)
desired cooling time n*s
Example
written:
(10-7)
Q = W x C x(Ta -Tj
where Q = the quantity of heat in Btu
W = weight of the product (pounds)
C = the specific heat above freezing
(Btu/lb/ F)
is
chill the
Tx =
Ta =
is
Table 10-8A,
heat gain per cubic
feet
35)
900cuft
this
10-8.
When a
its
result
60,000 Btu/24 hr
product
is
chilled
is
temperature.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
154
2.
To cool from
3.
off
by the product
in cool-
For parts
and
3,
Equation 10-7
is
The heat
part 2
is
Tx
1,
in
Wxh
where
x[27-(-5)]
5920 Btu
Total heat given up
by product (summation of 1,2, and 3)
= 64,000 Btu
product
Equivalent
load for 24-hrperiod
Btu/24 hr
64,000 x 24 hr
12 hr
quantity for
Q =
500 x 0.37
10-7
used to
freezing
temperature to final
storage temperature,
applying Equation
fying or freezing.
10-16. Chilling
128,000 Btu/24 hr
(10-9)
h it
the
latent
if
of the product
heat
When
summation of
24
hr.
When
less
and
freezing
of the
and
is
period,
load.
load during
when
the product
Example
10-10.
enter a chiller at 40
is
the
initial stages
load
is
at a peak.
From Table
Specific
10-12,
heat
above
0.79 Btu/lb/
=
=
0.37 Btu/lb/
Latent heat
Freezing
temperature
= 27F
heat
below
freezing
106 Btu/lb
The
Tables
10-10 through
10-13.
and on
calculations
and
will
on
The
actual
500 x 0.79
x (40
27)
5135 Btu
As an example,
test results
show
that in typical
applying
Equation 10-9
to make the average hourly cooling rate approximately equal to the hourly load at the peak
condition.
This results in the selection of
larger equipment, having sufficient capacity to
carry the load during the initial stages of chilling.
listed
To
freeze,
intro-
To
is
effect
freezing
Specific
distribution of
of chilling
500 x 106
53,000 Btu
The
show the
it
in reciprocal
shown
in the table
is
0.67
0/1.5).
is
Equation
written
Q~
W xC
xjTi-TJ
(1 " 10)
rooms
for
this
condition.
10-17.
are
still
and continue to
Respiration heat
and vegetables
is
listed in
and vegetables
and
in baskets
crates, fruit
materials in cooling
respiration heat
10-7
is
by
electric
space
is
The heat
given off
made
Electric motors
common
this value as
practice to
a safety
add
factor.
5%
to
10%
is
is
total weight
x24hr
(10-11)
to
The percentage
used depends upon the reliability of the information used in calculating the cooling load. As a
general rule
10% is
used.
equipment
is
selection.
Table 10-14.
pound
10-19.
fore,
10-18.
Where a
10-7
155
ever,
when
Howft)
are
somewhat from day to day so that it is not poscompute the product load with any real
accuracy. In such cases, a short method of load
calculation can be employed which involves the
sible to
by experience.
When
the short
method of
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
156
interior
of
vegetables
10-11)
(Table
= 0.9 Btu/lb/ F
Average respiration
heat of vegetables
(Table 10-14)
0.09 Btu/lb/hr
=
Notice that the usage factors
listed in
Table
No
safety factor is
1.69 Btu/cuft
= Mxcx(r,-r1)
= 35001b x0.9Btu/lb/F
= 31,500 Btu/24 hr
x 10 F
Respiration heat
=
x reaction heat x 24 hr
= 3500 x 0.09 Btu/lb/hr
x24hr
7,560
ft
is
in.).
temperature
is
Summation:
(10%)
Total cooling
load
=1 2,370 Btu
=
cooling
capacity
(Btu/hr)
40 F.
= 2 x 18 ft
- 360 sq ft
= 4 x 10 ft
= 400 sq ft
760 sq
x 10 ft
136,100 Btu/24 hr
x 10 ft
16 hr
8,500 Btu/hr
ft
than
17ft
x9ft x9ft
1377 cu ft
10-18) (45 F
and 4 in. insulation)
(Table
81 Btu/hr/sq
ft
tion)
24 hr
of air (Table
10-8A)(50%RH)
TD
sions are
136,100 Btu/24 hr
Required
Solution
Btu/24 hr
123,720 Btu/24 hr
Safety factor
The tempera-
23,100 Btu/24 hr
Product load:
Temperature reduction
Example
10
ft/24 hr
61,560 Btu/24 hr
foot
1.69 Btu/cuft
to the sun.
The tempera-
(Btu/hr)
= 704 sq ft
= 1676sqft
volume
Inside
(21 ft
31
x 8
ft
ft)
5208 cu
ft
=
Example
=*89F
10-6)
U factor
= 0.079Btu/hr/sqft/F
(Table 10-2)
lation)
7/24hr
.4
Btu/cu
ft
(interpolated)
Specific heat of
bananas (Table
= 0.9Btu/lb/F
10-10)
Reaction heat of
bananas (Table
= 0.5 Btu/lb/hr
10-14)
room 35 ft x
equipment.
Solution
TD
x 24 hr
Ceiling
Ceiling
704 x 0.079 x 53 x 24
(35 ft
70,740 Btu/24 hr
(35 ft
104,860 Btu/24 hr
51,000 Btu/24 hr
Product load:
Temperature reduction
C xjTj-Tj) x24hr
Chilling time (hr)
0.9
x 14 x 24
12
= 756,000 Btu/24 hr
Respiration heat
=
x reaction heat x 24 hr
= 30,000 x 0.5 x 24 = 360,000 Btu/24 hr
Summation:
x50ft)
1,750 sq ft
1,800 sq
(except
east)
ft)
ft
volume
x 49 ft x
1,342,600 Btu/24 hr
(34
ft
- 22,491 cu ft
13.5 ft)
Air changes
(Table 10-9A) (by
interpolation)
34,260 Btu
1,476,860 Btu/24 hr
3.2 per
24 hr
(Table
10-8A)(50%RH)
Specific heat
= 2.17 Btu/cu ft
of
= 0.75 Btu/lb/ F
= 0.67
Occupancy heat
gain (Table 10-16)
ft
Inside
1,750 sq
(120 ft x 15
Inside volume
30,000
Walls
x50ft)
Floor
chilling
space, is
change(Table 10-8A)
_M
and
10-13.
61,530 Btu/hr
= 20F
roofing)
1,476,860 Btu/24 hr
24 hr
Outside design
temperature for
New Orleans (Table
Wall
157
Ceiling
900 Btu/hr/person
U factor
(Table 10-3)
= 0.069 Btu/hr/sqft/F
PRINCIPLES
158
OF REFRIGERATION
Floor U factor
(Table 10-3)
Wall
U factor
= 0.065 Btu/hr/sq ft/F
(Table 10-1)
x24hr
468,700 Btu/24 hr
air
M x C x (T
0.75
- Tx)
x 24
x 65 x 24
x 0.67
= 4,850,700 Btu/24 hr
Miscellaneous:
Occupancy
= No. of people x factor x 24 hr
= 4 x900 x24
=
Lighting load
= watts x 3.4
86,400 Btu/24 hr
122,400 Btu/24 hr
5,684,200 Btu/24 hr
568,420 Btu
6,252,620 Btu/24 hr
18 hr
390,800 Btu/hr
Since there
no temperature
no gain
wall and the wall
is
and
ceiling
in.
Solution
Outside surface
area
Inside
(49
ft
5800 sq
ft
volume
x 39 ft x 9 ft)
17,200 cu
0.072 Btu/hr/sq
3.7 per
1.86 Btu/cu ft
ft
U factor
ft/
Air changes
(Table 10-9A) (by
interpolation)
is
The
(Table 10-2)
x 24 hr
Summation:
(1)
period.
Wall
1500 x 3.4 x 24
Note:
lugs per
2x4
changes x Btu/cu ft
18
are constructed of
50,000
24 hr
= 0.89 Btu/lb/ F
Respiration heat
of apples (Table
10-14) (by interpo-
lation)
0.025 Btu/lb/hr
A x U
x TD x 24 hr
5800 x 0.072 x 50 x 24
501,100 Btu/24 hr
volume x
x Btu/cu
17,000 x
air
changes
ft
3.7
1.86
11 7,000
Btu/24 hr
Product load:
Temperature reduction
_M
x (Tt
- Tx)
Apples
(200 x 59 lb) x 0.89 x 55
0.67
862,100 Btu/24 hr
Fig.
103
Lug boxes
and
= 44,300 Btu/24 hr
Respiration
=
x reaction heat x 24 hr
= (3000 x 59 lb) x 0.025 x 24
selection
Load
occurs
is
on
106,200 Btu/24 hr
1,630,700 Btu/24 hr
to the sun. The equipment room is well ventilated so that the temperature inside is approximately the outdoor design temperature for the
region. The storage room is maintained at 0 F,
10 F.
whereas the temperature in the freezer is
The
Summation
Note:
= 163,100 Btu
= 1,793,800 Btu/24 hr
_
= Total cooling load
is
Solution
Roof
(9 ft
Running time
14 ft)
=126sqft
x 14 ft)
=126sqft
Floor
1,793,800 Btu/24 hr
16 hr
112,100 Btu/24 hr
and equipment
based on maximum loading which
(9 ft
N and E partitions
(23 ft
S and
calculation
x 10 ft)
10-15.
Twenty-two
thousand
is
=230sqft
partitions
(23 ft x 10 ft)
Inside volume
=230sqft
x9ft x 13ft)
Summer outdoor
(8ft
Example
159
936 cu
92
design temperature
ft
U factors
Roof
(Table 10-3)
Floor
(Table 10-3)
N and E partitions
(Table 10-2)
S and
partitions
(Table 10-2)
=0.12
Btu/hr/sq
Roof sun
factor
(Table 10-7)
= 20F
Air changes
(Table 10-9B)
13.5 per
24 hr
3.56 Btu/cu ft
ft/
160
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
-N
-32.5*-
Lochtrs
18'
O'F
Cold
storage
Lockers
38*F
Lockers
>
Freezer
N-
Lockers
Conditioned
space, 80* F
Cold storage
x latent heat
Freezing =
Poultry = 22,000 x 106
= 2,332,000 Btu/24 hr
Miscellaneous:
Lighting: 200 watts x 3.4
Btu/watt/hr x 24 hr
= 16,300 Btu/24 hr
Summation:
3,014,100 Btu/24 hr
38"F
Safety factor
(10%)
Total cooling
load
Average hourly
load
301,400 Btu
3,315,500 Btu/24 hr
Above
3,315,500 Btu/24 hr
20 hr (running time)
(Table 10-12)
freezing
165,775 Btu/hr
= 0.79 Btu/lb/ F
Below
freezing
= 0.37 Btu/lb/ F
Latent heat of poultry
(Table 10-12)
= 106 Btu/lb
Freezing temperature
27 F
Wall gain load:
^xt7xri)x24hrs
Floor
126 x 0.035 x 102 x 24
= 10,800 Btu/24 hr
Roof
126 x 0.036 x (102
20) x 24
13,300 Btu/24 hr
19,700 Btu/24 hr
= 6,600 Btu/24 hr
Air change load:
volume x
x Btu/cu ft
- 936 x 13.5 x
Inside
with 3
3.56
Roof
(18
Floor
(18
C x(rs -TJ
Poultry
_ 22,000
ft)
ft
x 32.5
ft
585 sq
ft)
ft
0.79
(45
- 27)
partition
(50 .5
302,700 Btu/24 hr
0.25
(92
West wall
(32 .5
0)
Inside
(16
48,000 Btu/24 hr
ft
x 10
ft
ft
ft)
ft
x 10
325 sq
0.67
.
x 10 ft)
180 sq
Trucks
ft
505 sq
1,400
x 32.5
ft
585 sq
Product Load:
Temperature reduction
clay
changes
air
= 45,000 Btu/24 hr
=M
Example 10-16.
frozen food locker plant
18 ft x 32.5 ft x 10 ft, containing 353 individual lockers and an 8 ft freezing cabinet, is
located in Tulsa, Oklahoma (see Fig. 10-4).
The north and west wall are constructed of 8 in.
ft)
ft
volume
ft
30.5 ft
ft)
3904 cu
ft
Product load:
Temperature reduction
= 92F
(Table 10-6)
=M
(Table 10-6A)
Roof sun
65
- TJ
- 28)
= 5600 Btu/24 hr
(28 - 0)
x (Tt
700 x 0.4 x
= 20F
7840 Btu/24 hr
Freezing
= M x latent heat
= 700 x 100
factor
(Table 10-7)
U factors
Roof (Table
factor
(Table 10-7)
10-3)
(Table 10-1)
0.034 Btu/hr/sq
ft/
70,000 Btu/24 hr
Miscellaneous:
Lights
= 500 watts x 3.4 Btu/hr
= 40,800 Btu/24 hr
x 24 hr
Occupancy
= 3 x 1300 x 24
=
=
F
Summation:
(Table 10-1)
12.6(6.3
2)
per 24 hr
Total cooling
load
Average hourly
load
(Table 10-8B)
Above
freezing
Below
freezing
meat)
Load on
100 Btu/lb
28
1300 Btu/hr/person
10%
A x U x TD x
24
Roof
585 x 0.036
+ 20)
56,600 Btu/24 hr
585 x 0.046 x 65 x 24
= 42,000 Btu/24 hr
505 x 0.066 x 38 x 24
= 30,400 Btu/24 hr
=
West wall
11,750 Btu/24 hr
325 x 0.034
x (92 + 6) x 24
26,000 Btu/24 hr
volume x
x Btu/cu ft
Load on locker
room only
(total
load
29,240 Btu/hr
- 4,590 Btu/hr
less
24,650 Btu/hr
tion.
safety factor)
Example
x 24
91,780 Btu/24 hr
freezer
freezer load)
584,710 Btu/24 hr
= 4,590 Btu/hr
Occupancy factor
Floor
20 hr
Freezing tempera-
x (92
584,710 Btu/24 hr
(product load
only, including
Latent heat
ture (average)
= 29,240 Btu/hr
= 0.8 Btu/lb/ F
= 0.4 Btu/lb/ F
(average)
53,150 Btu
20 hr
3.0 Btu/cu ft
93,600 Btu/24 hr
531,560 Btu/24 hr
Safety factor
(10%)
Air changes
(see
161
air
changes
147,570 Btu/24 hr
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
162
Solution
Solution
Outside surface
area
Inside volume
(8 ft x 13 ft
750 cu
ft
x 7
(9
ft)
728 cu
792 cu
ft
81 Btu/sq ft/24 hr
(Table 10-18)
99 Btu/sq ft/24 hr
Usage factor
Air changes
(Table 10-9B)
50 Btu/cu ft/24 hr
(Table 10-17)
(interpolated)
16.7 per 24 hr
=3.88 Btu/cu
ft
Usage load:
Inside volume x
ft
(Table 10-18)
636 sq
ft)
ft
area
volume
ft x lift x 8
Inside
usage factor
= 792 x 50
750 x 99
74,250 Btu/24 hr
x
x Btu/cu ft
= 728 x 16.7 x
Inside volume
/ 91,100
Btu/24 hr
3.88
39,600 Btu/24 hr
91,100 Btu/24 hr
changes
air
=
=
16 hr
47,170 Btu/24 hr
Product load:
Temperature reduction
M x C(T
PROBLEMS
x 24 hr
7\)
Chilling time
(500 x
5)
0.5
x (25
20) x 24
10
135,000 Btu/24 hr
Freezing
Mx
latent heat
x 24
(500 x 5)
x 100 x 24
600,000 Btu/24 hr
Miscellaneous load:
Lighting:
300 watts x 3.4 x 24
24,480 Btu/24 hr
880,900 Btu/24 hr
88,090 Btu
968,990 Btu/24 hr
Example
10-18.
53,800 Btu/hr
A cooler 10 ft
x 12
ft
x 9
ft
is
=
Summation:
(10%)
The north
60 ft and
10
Safety factor
Freezing time
4.
5.
of 2000 cu
ft
and
is
maintained at a temperature
6.
The beef
is
163
reduced to 0
load.
8. Fifty-five
hundred
valve or
11-1).
action
by the
II
rator
that
is
it is
usually bulky
and requires a
Evaporators
Liquid refrigerant
is
For
11-2).
1 1
Types of Evaporators. As
stated pre-
liquid
many
different requirements
of the various
sizes,
classified in
and
a number
application.
Flooded and Dry-Expansion Evaporators. Evaporators fall into two general categories, flooded and dry expansion, according to
their operating condition. The flooded type is
1
1-2.
always completely
filled
which the
upon
viously,
is
the
rate
liquid, the amount of liquid present in the dryexpansion evaporator will vary with the load on
When
the load on the evapoamount of liquid in the evaporator is small. As the load on the evaporator
increases, the amount of liquid in the evaporator
increases to accommodate the greater load.
the evaporator.
rator
is light,
the
Types of Construction.
The
three
and
(3) finned.
control.
of the
through the coil
is by gravity. The vapor accumulated from the boiling action
Circulation
refrigerant
Float control
of
compressor.
164
EVAPORATORS
Bore-lube and
plate-surface
evaporators
l*S
are
tube are
air
and conduct
it
to the refrigerant-carrying
tubes.
does not
affect the
'c
<
(a)
it
and can be
readily defrosted
manually by either
d6a
quality
(ML
Bare- lube
(o>
11-3.
Common dmgm
fin cignf
eo+l.
{&} C*l
far
b*rt-tub*
trwnewi*
H.
coil.
Steel pipe is
used for
utilized in the
Liquid
*nm
ntctiw
Fig.
11-5.
Dry-wpvtslun aviporuer.
rata of
Mb
now
vapor.
through tha
It
Liquid
r#-
flown through
orrflca at tha
shown
3>
Mr
zigzag
fiat
flow control.
in Fig. I!-),
frlftrtftl
Common
application.
Rtfnetrtnt
j^Ro* contra*
Some
are
constructed
refrigerators
it
is
easily cleaned,
(M
Flf.
PRINCIPLES
MM.
OF REFRIGERATION
Truuer Manufacturing,
^^
Rg.
11-5.
Soma
Heavy,
olnctrkally
(E) Fitting
refrlg-
(F)
p.|
whir* vacuum
ll
Inc.)
ontlv (tiled.
eratit passei.
all
mmm
Inc.)
Vacuum ip
K(
In
dry pit to
maintenance required
Spice
due. CO i!urdy,
hold-over
No
limp In con-
struct Jon.
in
EVAPORATORS
Another type of plalc-surfacc evaporator
consuls of formed tubing installed between two
metal plates which arc welded together at the
eutectic solution.
edges (Fig.
in
It -6).
good
welded plated tnd
In order to provide
live
space
plates
is
may
Plate-type evaporators
banks.
may be manifolded
mounted
let
from
1 1-7) and
Fig.
how
the plates
tubing inside.
be used singly or
1*7
the refrigerant
(Fig.
etc.
11-9)
Plate-surface evaporators
or
they
may be
provide excellent
shelves in freezer
11-10).
(Fig.
cream cabinets,
evaporators
are
Plate
especially
useful
for
liquid
By
bank on the surface of the
plain during periods of light loads, a holdover
refrigerating capacity is established which will
help be refrigerating equipment carry the load
through the heavy or peak conditions Fig, 11-11),
building
The
refrigerating
Pig,
1*1.
is
In
whottHlt
Fc*
in
The
up an
ice
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
IfiS
employed
in
ow
ftcfrt|enuifl|
Company.)
flni
1-6.
have been
insialled
(Fig,
13-15),
The
of the
tubing
its
fins arc
imo
It is
In
When
assured.
in
fins,
is
the
some
instances, the
fins
efficiency.
the tubing
is
After the
is
and the
fin is installed,
fin is
the flare
straightened
in
part
on the
designed,
size
of the
As
the size
fin
may
The
fin.
fVAfORATOAS
Fl|
ien
Fig.
1-*.
tlow.
tl-10.
implayid
P1* fnpQjiwn
frtenr indvti.
r*
imngtdi
Mhti ndrtftnni
flow.
Trwwr Minuhcturinf
Jnc)
Plat**
may
ttto b
Kmnt*d
16?
for
PRINCIPLES OF AEFAKJEAATTON
170
by
li*h*d
l on
of
up
buii^.ftf
aipenun,
plite
(Court**)* Dol*
etnbtank
Rafrlfarilinf
Cwnptflf.)
on
accumulation
Frost
operating
air-cooling
low temperatures
at
colls
unavoidable,
is
and
any
since
restricting
the
air
circuit son
over
the
coil
more by
frost
unnecessarily.
frost
is
affected
When
is
maintained above
34' F.
accumulates On the
many
When
air circulation
it
is
general,
fin
How
as
is
automatically by
in
another
chapter
Because of the
fins,
more
resistance lo air
may be accomplished
several
have as
gravity,
in
may
coil surface
This
possible;
is
by
little
therefore,
be wider for
spacing should
be
built
coil will
more compactly.
occupy
less
Generally, a finned
Hut
Of*
the
same
a considerable
capacity.
fans.
has been determined that a definite relationship exists between the inside and outside
surfaces of an evaporator
It
beyond
increase
fad.
in
actually
he addition of
some
reduce
the
evaporator
capacity
In
may
by
provides
for
makes tinned
coils ideally
units.
1
EVAPORATORS
selected for
have
any
specific application
must always
where
V = the
sufficient capacity to
when
ft
operating
is
always in
However,
by gravity
or by action of a
good heat transfer.
pump
how
Regardless of
is still
necessary for
it
must pass
by conduction.
Therefore,
is,
the rate
Q
where
Q =
=A
(11-1)
Btu/hr
A =
U = the
over-all
D = the
logarithmic
conductance factor in
Btu/hr/sq ft of outside surface/" F D
difference
mean temperature
degrees
in
Fahrenheit
_R
U~fi
LjK
K +f
(11-2)
D
ft
of inside
FD
= resistance
by
R =
surface
Metals,
factor, are
tion.
methyl chloride.
Of
least significant.
films.
of
of
coil construction
on the type
and the material used, the
amount of
surface,
conductance factor in
ft/
is
over-all
Btu/hr/sq
171
to outside surface.
PRINCIPLES
172
OF REFRIGERATION
Any
evaporator walls.
flooded
surface
filled
In
increases.
this
respect,
than the
efficient
When
the
improved by internal
is
influenced by fluid
shape of the
surface.
Any
is
finning.
in direct
is
surface.
and the
fins.
ratio of
usually
is
lint
coil
coil
scale formation
internal
tubes
amounts of
is
oil in
At low
from the
is
such that
it
outside surface.
value of
fins to
surface
is
the outside
amount
velocities,
of interior wetted surface. Increasing the refrigerant velocity produces a scrubbing action on
the walls of the tube which carries away the oil
from the
size,
flow.
is
much
For
outside surface.
is
use of
On
the
creases.
The refrigerant velocity is limited, howby the maximum allowable pressure drop
through the coil and, if increased beyond a certain
point, will result in a decrease rather than an increase in coil capacity. This depends to some
extent on the method of coil circuiting and is discussed later. It can be shown also that the conductance of the outside surface film is improved
by increasing the fluid velocity over the outside
liquid
ever,
rator
maximum velocity
is
many
is
surface
may be
from the
When
this
amount of
interior
wetted surface
evaporator
itself.
is
is
increased.
Several
methods
EVAPORATORS
(a)
Fig. 11-12.
Some methods
173
(b)
of
inner finning.
(O
11-10.
Logarithmic
As
Difference.
Mean
Temperature
The drop
a curved
mean temperature
(40
20)
difference
(30
20)
is
15
line (A)
approximately as indicated.
It
calculated
remains constant,
it is
in temperature
will fall
as indicated
difference in
The
which
(a) at
where
JU-t )^H-Q
T
(U3)
fj
= the
the coil
tr
by the dotted
actual logarithmic
is
in Fig. 11-13.
mean
temperature,
line
is
given by equation
(f.
D=
tr)
(11-4)
For the values given in Fig. 1 1 - 1 3, the logarithmic mean temperature difference will be
(40
D=
- (30 - 20) JO
=
=
40-20
ln2
In
30 -20
20)
14.43
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
174
METD
When
air velocity
is
Thus, the
As
METD
transfer
velocities
Leaving
improves.
air
temperature-30 F
is
passing through
evaporator.
all surfaces.
This condition
its
disturbance increases
will
tr
adjacent to
U improves.
is
The
log
after called
(METD), may
also be determined
from Table
11-1.
CoflA
which greatly
performance. Principal
among
these
and distribution of
air in the refrigerated space and over the coil.
These factors are closely related and in many
cases are dependent one on the other.
Except in liquid cooling and in applications
are the circulation, velocity,
not
at a
If air circulation
carried
is
inadequate, heat
CoilB
AW
form
at
peak
efficiency.
It is
is
important also
evenly distributed
the
air
and over
Poor distribution of the circulating
results in uneven temperatures and "dead
coil.
capacity.
or
Air
CoilC
Fig.
1-14. Coils
coil B.
EVAPORATORS
Surface Area. Equation 11-1 indicates
that the capacity of an evaporator varies
11-12.
This
METD
and the
when
U factor
of the evaporator
remains the same. In many
of
is
coil
A, yet the
175
general,
in
many
is
limited
and compact
coils
arrangements must
it it is permis-
the loss of capacity resulting from increasnumber of rows can be compensated for
ing the
3rd
2nd
1st
Row
Row
Row
<
Leaving -<Air
Entering
-<
Air
C
Air -*r-
temperature
drop across typical three-row
11-15. Air
Fig.
cooling
32
no
35
0)
Temperature -<-
coil.
Air
to
CC
Air
Temperature
C\J
Air
o
CM
40*
30*--
Coil
be greater for
coil
same
the
Pro-
(the total
must be
METD
A and
C will
the capacity of
therefore be twice
when
how
the
Note
(depth).
METD
is
afis
number of rows
to
the
deep
coils
11-13.
and
It
was demon-
ences a
first
of
efficiency.
To
the purpose
Evaporator Circuiting.
much
for
desirable
strated in
capacity
is
is
dehumidification.
amount of
pressure drop
becomes
air is
most
efficiently.
area of coil
For
A in Fig.
is
must be
high
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
176
splitting
When
a single
series
maximum,
into
two
at
circuit
of
Refrigerant
out
one
series refrigerant
circuit.
will
the
transfer
and good
oil return.
load,
tiie
greater
size,
affected.
one evaporator
same
is
is
fed simultaneously
Hence,
Evaporators
having
only
perform
single
one
series
illustrated
satisfactorily within
When
is
exceeded, the refrigerant velocity will be increased beyond the desired range and the
pressure drop will be excessive.
bottom as a vapor.
is
100
vapor.
The
latter part
of a single
series circuit
evaporator
* Pressure
is
EVAPORATORS
177
the temperature
difference
between
the
air
Refrigerant
is
in
Refrigerant
distributor
first circuit is
Hence, the
>
refrigerant velocity
is
nearly
all liquid.
is
always lowest
outlet
coil.
The
is
circuit
when
is
of
Sk. Refrigerant
out
an
differential
the circuits.
1
1-14.
all
the factors
Refrigerant
V^
Refrigerant
in
rator manufacturers.
Circuits
in
uneven
Crossflow of air
circuit loading.
Howsimilar
PRINCIPLES
178
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig.
11-20.
Counter-flow
of
more even
circuit loading
and
mean temperature
differential.
Compare this
a
higher
ASRE
same.t
countered.
The
selection of evaporators
from manufac-
is
once the
to operate
are known.
TD.
Evaporator
TD
in Fig. 11-18.
It is
TD
coil
will
evaporator outlet.*
can be
is
the
evaporator
is
evaporators for
air
ASRE
the
selected,
it is
necessary to
first
determine
is
Once
known, an
with evaporator
evaporator TD.
influence
conditioning applications
Fig.
rator
if
the
TD is increased to
METD.
METD
and the
evaporator.
entering
the
That
is,
if
evaporator
increases,
the
METD
EVAPORATORS
evaporator having sufficient surface area to
provide the required cooling capacity at the
design
can be selected.
TD
11-16.
The
Effect of Coil
TD
on Space
When
is
too low,
as detrimental as too
tion of
costly in that
on meats and
space
is
cans,
higher
is
lower
is
When
TD,
the
is one
by the space humidity, an
TD
is
economy of
and
Product Condition.
As
Excessive
it
The
product deterioration in
a particular application is caused by faulty air
circulation or poor humidity conditions. For
the most part, product condition depends upon
the combined effects of humidity and air
circulation, rather than
the evaporator.
When
on
is
l'
E 15
product surface,
30
a2 5
stated previously,
etc.
the circula-
35
(3)
initial cost.
The
When
11-17.
little.
results.
de-
growth of mold and bacteria is encouraged, and sliming occurs on some products. On
the other hand, too much air circulation can be
is
sufficient
rate, the
fruits, etc.
not cooled at a
is
17?
uj
5
5*
10*
15*
20*
Evaporator
25*
30*
35*
TD
amount of exposed
evaporator TD.
in
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
180
Some
products,
damaged by excessive
air circulation
Cut meats,
special consideration.
since they
by high
velocities
and the
rate of air
to obtain the
maximum
Recommended
air
cooling
effect.
velocities
for
product
Natural Convection
Evaporators.
refrigerators,
display
reach-in refrigerators,
cases,
and
walk-in coolers,
depth of the
greater
As
the
METD
and the
is
cold air
is
to the floor,
fall
warm
Since
and tends to
evaporators should be located
denser than
air
For coolers less than 8 ft wide, single, ceilingmounted evaporators are frequently used. When
the width of the cooler exceeds 8 ft, two or more
In coolers where
may
is
be used.
shown
in Figs. 11-22
and
rooms are
11-23, respectively.
they aid and direct the free flow of air over the
natural convection
space.
is
The
is
The
coil
by natural convection
greatly influenced by the shape, size, and
circulation of air
cold and
warm
The
refrigerated space.
air flues
refrigerated
space.
Generally,
in the
shallow coils
fixture,
full
length of the
Fig. 11-22.
tion
of
Overhead
natural
evaporator.
cast
Ice
installa-
convection
Evaporator
aluminum
Detroit
Since
fins.
has
(Courtesy
Machine Company.)
EVAPORATORS
II.23L
Ftf.
tion
tonvtalon
naturil
of
III
warm
eoJd
the
Air has
air.
warm
air flue.
Due
it
warm
air flue
In Fig.
tx a
little
from the
equal to
W','6.
The
distance
M)
in.
above and
3 (o
or
in.
coil
beto* the
coil.
The
horizontal baffles
to 2
in.
per foot to
and lo drain
the condensate- Also, he coil decks must
has
practically
Fig.
in
11-25.
Since
these
assemblies
are
wide variety or sizes and combination (an Table R-l), they can be readily
applied to almost any natural convection
available in a
application.
11-20. Hating and Select on uf Natural Convection Evaporators, Basic capacity ratings
I
F TD.
will
However,
simplify
in
For the
in the
some
evaporator
where
instances,
it
capacity
selection,
I
F.
mentioned
per inch of finned length. For bare pipe evaporators, the ratings given are per square foot
of
some instances
of pipe.
Ratings for plate evaporators are given per
Hf.
11-24.
Tvpkal
conractlon end I.
baflla
amngamaflt
for
natunl
Both
sides
when computing
of the
the area
OF REfRlGEIUTlON
MUNCltt.ES
K.
Ft|.
Nitunl cn.
11*35,
of the
Int.)
Frequently,
plate,
ratings
Tor
plate
To
determine approxi-
Over-all length of
cooler (inside)
specific
Tvp^-.ii
mural
eating
data
f^?
hhjcth
typp of
through
Tables R-l
R-7.
The use or
in
these
(I7fl-2ft)
Enamels
M.
i natural convection
cou-and-baflfe assembly (Fig. 1 J -25 and Table
R-l) for the vegetable storage cool? in Example
KM
Select
I.
From Example
10-11.
17
8500Biu/hr
ft
cooling load)
From Table
sired space
approximate
{15
ft
-7 in.)
14
in.
or 171
in.
ft
To determine
*FTD,in.
Required evaporator
capacity per * F
Total c* J|H>rutor capacity
TD
DewgiiL...!]ralorTD
8500 Blu hr
14*
Fin
e0 7Bu;hr.
l
FTD
Required capacity
{Biu/hr/*FTD/ineh
10-11. de-
humidity for
-|5ft
According to the
x9A
Required evaporator
capacity (average hourly
17 ft
Allowing I ft on each
end of evaporator for
working space, the
approximate over-all
length of the evaporatori4(cFig.Jl-16)
Approx.
87%
Rcquirett
<
From Table
evaporator
forS7%RH
*07 Biu.hr/"
design
required
1-2,
TO
F TD
EVAPORATORS
Became or
tcciicti
IS)
evaporator
will
ofl 65
capacity
Using
this
finned length
Biu/hr/ F/in.
is
- lAfun
J,*5 BtWnr/' F/in.
The overall
in.
(166
in.
in.)
is
173
W-tt Arnnfrnni of
in itortj* COoUr
in.,
Example
(i*
1. 1).
the
The width of
(on**cton
natural
twtporttori
204
is
fit.
(IS in.
cooler.
the evaporator
2),
is
logical
more than
from the cooler wall {installation dimension A of Table R-l) and that the
distance between the two sections of the evaporator (dimension C) be not less than 6 in. nor
more than 8 ft.
The maximum allowable evaporator width
can be determined by subtracting the minimum
of dimensions A and C from the inside width of
12 in.
Maximum
width of evaporator
width of cooler
ticular case, the
evaporator
108
in.
{A
+ C + Q.
Inside
In this par-
is
To
in.
+6 in. +
in.)
90
in.
hngei of coota? r
I
shown
in
number,
spacing,
fin
Model #PK-
and finned
length, viz:
6.3-166 in
are
shown
in Fig. 11-28.
These arrangements
ExampJ*
11*2,
select
room
of Example 10-16,
in the
locker
good
To assure
room,
select
FTD,
(30.5
(6
is
11-27.
ft
mmuni
eonvteiion
Exampi*
t-|).
Required capacity
per bank (Btu/hr)
Number
of banks desired
IB4
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
24,650 Btu/hr
buna
._-
TD
-4lWBtWhr/13*FTD
only 10 F. it is necessary to
determine (he capacity the plate must have at a
IV
TD in order to have the desired design
TD of 10- F. This is accomplished by dividing
the average hourly load by the design TD of
10* F and then multiplying by the rating
of
15* F, vis;
instance
in this
or
is
24,650 Btu/hr
4 banks
6l62Blu/hr/)5'
FTD
TD
6885 Btu/hr
Fig- ll-29>.
ammonia
is
the refrigerant.
rating table.
By
From
11-3,
4590 Btu/hr.
TD.
R-4,
plate
stand,
is
TD
and
is
the application.
Alternate Solution.
rule of
thumb used
in
cations
is
to allow 0.5 Sq
each locker.
Allowing 0.5 sq
per day,
instance
Tabic
approximately 26 in.
wide and 88 in. long (including piping connections), will (it the freeaorr cabinet and has a
capacity of 7140 Btu/hr ai a 15" F
(4760
Btu/hr at 10* F TD>, This provides a small
safety factor
Example
to
referring
the
ft
required la
surface
plate
this
is
By
ft
7fi.S
sq
ft
which best
sq
this size
TD
Btu/hr at a 10
Example
F TD.
11-4.
10-16.
vection evaporator*
lirjt cooten.
con-
EVAPORATORS
IIS
305"
*^r^
Flf.
**
"
g*
tl IT
t\
*-r
tanks
locker
in
Eximpl*
(sm
ptint
11-3.)
^^^^^^^^^
TD
and by
tion
TD
F) x
ft/'
Pipe surface I sq
24,650 Btu/hr
referring to
pipe equals
Hence, the
ft
lineal feet
Forced
Forced
<W%
ft
of
J in.
or
capacity
12,000).
is
evaporator
will
2220
is
ft
Evaporator*.
commonly
or "blower coils" in comevaporators,
Btu/hr
(12,000
10.200).
of any
of
the application, the design of the evaporate r, and
the air quantity. An average sensible heat ratio
of
pipe required
10,200 Btu/hr
is
1800
Convection
convection
the
J in-
Naturally,
966 x Z.3
11*21-
lineal
5).
>M"
17
is
moisture removed
ft)
1.3
'
below its dew point temperature, both the temperature and the moisture content of the air an
reduced (Chapter
By
sensible
heal
depend upon
ratio
the conditions
in
Some
typical unit
cookrs
on shown
in Fig.
11-30.
The
is
u.H)lcr
directly related
of any evaporator
required
is
for
a given
The
air
evaporator
heat
ratio
temperature of the
hour (*0).*
(i) the
the
in
I
1
1-3 is a
con-
rator. vix:
TD
sensible heat
air
ratio
1.08
is
When
air is
_ 30.000
Solution.
cooled
Ai a general
Btu/hr
7.5
(11-5)
The
Equation
capacity
of two factors:
and (2} the drop
air passing
in
quantity
basically a function
sensible
should be .tppri^inuid', f
0.83
1.08
2)00 cfm
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
186
500
ft
Noikl
(Counety Dunham-Bush,
Although higher
increase
alio
When
fan
the fan
motor
horsepower
resulting
will
by
it)
cooler
capacity
velocities.
it
mch
It
not dttcharjid
Inc.)
resulting
to decrease, rather
all
the
from
tkm
velocity exceeds
air
such cases
higher
effect in
Too, where
Is
EVArOWKTORS
The
iir velocity
ii
Face area
Example
1 1
*.
|sq
f i)
am of
thcevaporaior in Example
-5 if i he face velocity
is to be maintained at J 50 fpm.
1
Solution.
_ 2100 dm
By rearranging and
applying Equation
face
11*6,
"
the
1-22-
350 fpm
6 iq
ana
Rat ng and Saf action of
i
Un
ft
Coolers
on
TD
the
In general,
117
TD
Solution.
Model
From Table
#UO!80
F TD,
Btu/hr at a 10*
From Table
motor
is
cooling load
is
from
TD
34,000 BtiV?4 hr
fan selection
at
ftg.
16
IIO I. Su(|ikwii
of unit coolin
walk-in
f*frS|tf*ton.
for
In
(From
300 Btu/hr
location
far
shown
in
in Fig. 11-11,
walk-
IBS
PRINCIPLES Of REFRIGERATION
11-13.
common
cooler (3) the lank-type cooler. (4) theshell*andcoil cooler, and (3) the shell-and-tube cooler.
I,
accessibility
in the
lubes pro*
Min
follows:
su
|ft
150
JO
150
45
100
90
50
115
100
200
60
60
120
50
150
ammonia)
50
125
10
25
in shell
ammonia)
(ammonia
or R-12)
It-XL
Ht
150
10
25
ISO
250
so
60
100
125
15
40
SO
110
tniwftr coeftidants (or vsrfout types of liquid chlllan. (Rtpi-miad from JMJ-5*
furmlulon of th* Amtfican SoclKy of H**tlnj. ftlri{rsttr-i, nd AJr-CondltJoiUnt
En|in*tn,)
surfaces.
For
double-pipe cooler
is
used
11-24.
I her
designs of
1-32.
One
design of a double-
only in
pipe
cookr is shown
in Fig,
Fij. 11-11.
EVAPORATORS
IB?
readily
mum
accessible, for
The
the outside.
liquid
the
The
is
collected in a trough
nukes
is
open to
the air
chilling application
when
Aeration
u a
factor
Flf-
1-14.
employ *d
Bmddoi
in
tooltr
milk-cool nj
I
(Coortu/ Dola
Refriierailn g Company.)
application.
plan is.
With
of damaging
the
equipment
if
occasional
is
is
readily
190
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
_
Warm
fcquWI
Typlal construc-
Flf. If-JS.
J?Bfnj(er*n1
fines
a circumstance which
chilled
liquid
over
the
cooling coil
at
one
the chilled
the
refrigerant
coil
is
M. Flooded rac*w*f
colt,
The
spiral-shaped,
Section
1*4
IVAPOMATOHS
either design
The
shown
lee-Cel
in
Fig.
11-11
is
another
Tank -type
liquid-chilling
to
or water,
brine,
and other
is
liquids
Because
1-37),
As
and
is
and the
tubes.
a genera]
chiller*
a welded
191
operated
is
in the
through the
ihe
ad van*
liquxs line
ntVffMlM
tc uuen dfatn
Thtrmal eaptAiion vahw
Flj.
{Courtis/
Acm*
tndintriai.)
making
toads,
In
this
photographic laboratories.
When operated Hooded with the refrigerant
in the shell, this
is
liquid chiller.
She -and -Coil Cooler*. The shelland-coil chiller is usually made up of one or
more spiral-shaped, bare-tube coils enclosed in
capacity.
11-27.
commonly
referred to as
One
an "instantaneous"
192
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Liquid Outlet
MM
*c r ^"t
ti
'l
f*l
Bf>
tl-3*. Typical
iheilmd-tub* chilltn.
ihrough the
Not*
(0)
taffllnf of
Hooded
Wiur
coils.
Ihc danger of
typ-
circuit
and oiher
which case ihc
When
chilled
beverages
(Fig.
in
"draw-bars,"
in
refrigerant
is
expanded
liquid is circulated
1
When
-38b).
shell
require a
minimum of
room, are
floor space
easily maintained,
nnd head
the
iilics .111 J
ilmmgh the
the chiller
is
the refrigerant
is
shell
operated
circulated through
ii
contained in the
is
pump,
EVAPORATORS
me
flooded type
the possibility of
lubes
with
required
damage
event of freeze-up
is
return
oil
Too, aa previously
to the compressor.
when
t?J
stated,
always considerably
less
is
are
shown
maintain
the
liquid
of dry-cupansion
1-39 "and
in
Figs.
1-40.
ooefnaenl.
chillers,
the
shown
in
Fig.
11-12.
fin
which
En
order to
velocity
When
viscosity is low.
employed
in small
dry<*p*nlkm
drillers are
Flooded
chillers,
in
available
When
the
high, short,
,\thof an
a general rule,
is
ratio, ihe
the chiller.
As
baffles,
drop
velocity
longer,
more
closely spaced
are
IMkr).
The number and the
ficient (Fig.
circuits required
to
lations.
rate to the
in capacities
Flf .
!-.
C uw*
(Counter Aem*
the
METD.
optimum
and
refrigerant
circuit
design
atso
Mrtloit llltMirstini eoimrucrion dtutli of drr-wtpUMlon chllfer with ftxad tub* ihMta,
Industrial.)
SM
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
MO.
Dry-expirtKon (hilJ*r with tub* bundl* fnnl*riy rtmovtd IO llMW lutw inwjimint mnif
Tub* bundl*
b* rtrnov*d U t unll, (CourtMjf Ktnmrd Cn.non, Amtritln Air
Fihmr Com piny Inc.)
Flf.
refrlferani flUtribirtcn,
,
made
For
this
lengths.
in
Tig.
11-39,
the
ends of the
chilter.
The
refrigeranl
11-30.
Flooded Chilian,
Standard flooded
and multipass
lube arrangements,
and
in only
one direction.
lube sheets.
is
only partially
low velocity
therefore
to
the
other before
four,
and
filled
with tubea
in
order to
Although two,
necessary.
if
(Fig. 11*43).
and individual
liquid
in the
Th n design dim
n.j | e<i
the possibility
line
and
sudden
where Ihe
shell
is
completely
filled
EVAPORATORS
Some
re
equipped with
The
flooded chiller*
is
heal
he prima ry
to insure that
line,
it
has
shown
in
Fig.
minimum amount
The
of floor space.
operated flooded.
is
IW
The
chiller
down
pump
piping-
The
return liquid
tributor
box
at the top.
circulating
is
from where
it
again
specially designed
imparts
(inset)
liquid,
thin
paratively
film
down
the
tube
inside
turfites,
11-31.
Short cut
on-***
ipKir^g
tional
conven-
the
that
liquid
refrigerant
is
tump
is
The
principal
cost and
installation
recirculating
1
4-FHs
JOtiHh
the
pump.
Although
somewhat depending
upon the type of chiller and the particular manufacturer, all are based on the simple fundamentals of heat transfer and fluid now which
have already been described. Almost without
methods
selection
differ
a-ataa
2 Circuits
tion
procedure
along
with
the
design
following
closely
selection
that
given
procedure
the
in
follows
catalog
of
and
The
very
one
Flf.
kfi.
Ml.
(D)
chiller.
(o) Baffla ipiCinf in d ry-** pwulon ehilTyp+oJ refrliertnt headl far dry-*Kp*nile>n
(CDurter of
Acme
InduitrkM.)
Acme
Industrie*. Inc.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
pm
Fig. 11*41. Flooded thlller d**F(nd far multlpI circulation of chiliad liquid.
I",>.
circulation i*
ttcompliihed by mean* of th* C4ffld *fld-l*-, or writer heads which ir* bc-lud to Ihe endi of the chiller.
{CourtHr
Vilter
Minu^ctuhni Company.)
Solution
Step
1.
Determine ihe
tons.
Gpm
2.000 Blu/hr/ton
SO x 500 x (54
>
46)
16.7 ions
2,000
Water
in
minus
refrig-
erant temperature
frigerant temperature
From Table
Step
3.
II -1,
at
40
-Mi
- 40 6" F STD
14*
F LTD
METD - 9.47* F
and
baffles spacing)
Fig.
54
re-
move
Fig.
ML
with tubst
In
EVAPORATORS
will
show
that neither
8M
nor 8L
is
available
METD
Gas
197
outlet
Water
inlet
Refrigerant
feed
Inset
Fig. 11-44. Vertical shell-and-tube "Spira-Flo" chiller designed for flooded operation.
is
Corporation.)
in Step 2. From this intersection move horizontally to the scale at the left margin and read
the loading of 1110 Btu/hr/sq ft (loading is the
4.
-^^
Surface area
Loading
180.2 sq
14 feet x 0.425
11-33.
5.95
ft
HaO
Any
200.000
-^5--
Pressure drop
foot
ft
is
called a
so evaporated
refrigerant.
is
called
a "direct-expansion"
direct-expansion
or "direct"
198
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
WWW/WW/WW/W/W,
Refrigerated
Brine
coil "V.
space or
material
V/s;///;ss///s;;j;ss;;ss;;;//v.
Cold brine
to coil
Warm
brine_
"
to chiller
Liquid from
ver
receiver
/" Refrigerant
jfVl
control
&-i
Vapor to
compressor
Brine solution!
suction
?mrm/m/m///??r#mrA
Fig.
M5o.
Brine
pump
Indirect system.
Brine
coil
t4- 7~\
Cold
air to
refrigerated space
Warm
-Air duct
brine
to chiller
Cold brine
Warm
to coil
air
from space
Refrigerant control
,^^BZ^mB^.
receiver
'**r
Vapor to
compressor
rx. s;
suction
..
vM
Brine solution
z|
.
wwiw hw p wbhw/ *
"
>7
^-Brine
-Brine pump
^
Fig. Il-45b. Indirect system
refrigerating system is
brine
is
coil in
communicating duct.
ing system
expansion refrigerant in
then pumped through appropriate piping to the
space or product being refrigerated.
The
chilled liquid, called a secondary refrigerant,
may be circulated directly around the refrigerated product or vessel or it may be passed
through an air-cooling coil or some other type
is
located in air
Up
to
have
been considered.
Very often it is either inconvenient or uneconomical to circulate a direct-expansion
refrigerant to the area or areas where the cooling
is
employed.
EVAPORATORS
of heat transfer surface (Fig. 11-45). In either
case, the secondary refrigerant,
warmed by
the
and
Indirect
recirculated.
refrigerating
systems
are
usually
unit,
from where
is
chilled
seldom
first
lines,
more
serious
likely to
is
required also in
many
where
it is often impractical to maintain a vapor tight
seal around the product or vessel being cooled.
Too, indirect systems are used to an advantage
in any application where the leakage of refrigerant and/or oil from the lines may cause contamination or other damage to a stored product.
The latter applies particularly to meat packing
plants and large cold storage applications when
ammonia is used as a refrigerant.
1 1-34. Secondary Refrigerants.
Some commonly used secondary refrigerants are water,
calcium chloride and sodium chloride brines,
ethylene and propylene glycols, Methanol
(methyl alcohol), and glycerin.
Almost without exception, water is used as
industrial process cooling applications
the secondary refrigerant in large air conditioning systems and also in industrial process cooling
installations
Water,
pan or basin
at the
is
In the
it
chiller.
199
Water
is
and in
farm coolers designed for cooling milk cans.
In such cases, the water, because of
high
of the
product than would be possible with air. Too,
the water supplies a holdover capacity which
tends to level out load fluctuations resulting
from intermittent loading of the cooler.
11-35. Brines.
Obviously, water cannot be
employed as a secondary refrigerant in any
application where the temperature to be maintained is below the freezing point of water. In
such cases, a brine solution is often used.
Brine is the name given to the solution which
conductivity, permits
results
If
more rapid
its
chilling
more
Up
to a
is
However,
if
eutectic
is
salt
PRINCIPLES
200
OF REFRIGERATION
form depends upon the degree of the salt concentration and upon the relative solubility of the
the latter factor decreasing as
salt in water,
The
from the
reduced causes a
is
remaining brine
tempera-
will exist.
tic brine.
is
in excess of the
precipitate
crystals at
temperature.
salt
when
is
reached.
The two
chloride.
being the
common
table variety.
sodium
(2)
is
used primarily in
tic
perties
chloride brine
it
comes in
For
contact.
this
The
reason,
will
when calcium
chloride brine
is
used in
constant temperature.
Two
commonly used
Air
is employed mainly
where the possibility of
in
and
in those applications
is
employed extensively
in installations
fish,
where
and other
at various concentrations
is
chiller
Mr
iff
1r
M
ii
'"
Brine to
concentrator
Jl
Air
value,
Concentrator
from
concentrator
*" Brine to
As
less satisfactory
all
Hence, the stronger the brine solution, the greater the quantity of brine that must
be circulated in order to produce a given
decrease.
\, Brine
I
is
somewhat
Brine
chiller
refrigerating effect.
Fig.
salt
EVAPORATORS
Air
-*
M
Fig.
Brine
201
Eliminators
Brine to
concentrator
ut
WW-
To condensing
unit
Direct
expansion
evaporator
MhHAai.'i
specific gravity
soluble compounds, generally described as antifreeze agents, are often used to depress the
1-37.
may be
around the refrigerated product or container, or it may be used to cool the
air in a refrigerated space. When used to cool
air, the chilled brine is circulated through a
serpentine coil or through a brine spray unit.
Two types of brine spray units which have been
used extensively are shown in Figs. 11-46 and
11-47. In the former unit chilled brine from a
glycol,
Methanol (methyl
alcohol),
and glycerin.
All these
these
compounds
is
Propylene glycol
sively
properties.
circulated directly
space
is- sprayed
down from
the brine
is chilled
chiller.
from where
it
by a direct-expansion
itself.
coil
PRINCIPLES
202
OF REFRIGERATION
PROBLEMS
Btu/hr.
(a) Select
(Plasti-Cooler)
in the cooler.
(6) Select
cooler.
2.
80
in.
deep,
and
brine cooler
is
perature
4. It is desired to
F
F
cool 100
gpm
of water from
56
38
centrifugal compressors.
12-2. The Compression Cycle. Before attempting to analyze the performance of the
compressor, it is necessary to become familiar
with the series of processes which make up
12
com-
pressor.
its travel
Performance
in Fig. 12-1.
of Reciprocating
As the
on the suction
piston
moves downward
vapor from
stroke, low-pressure
is
drawn
On the upstroke of
Compressors
is first
com-
the valve
12-1.
Compressors.
Refrigeration
Vapor
and
(3) centrifugal.
cating compressor
Of
is
by
far
the"
one most
this
its
is
is
volume and
the piston
frequently used.
on
number because
large applications
is
growing
The volume of
called
the clearance
when
dead center.
the high-pressure vapor
is
at top
clearance vapor.
pressure
is
Figure 12-3
plotted
is
steadily.
fugal compressors,
is
stroke.
Not all
will pass out
through the discharge valves at the end of the
compression stroke. A certain amount will
remain in the cylinder in the clearance space
between the piston and the valve plate. The
vapor which remains in the clearance space at
the end of each discharge stroke is called the
increasing.
at the top of
clearance space
piston
is
Fig. 12-1.
At point A,
the piston
is
at the top of
20.
203
its
Because the
204
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is
Discharge^
com-
clearance space
is
allowed to expand.
The
180
Crank position
its
stroke at point
At point
C,
The
begins.
C-D
as the piston
stroke.
moves
By the time
valves open,
A-B
so that
and continues
until the
Clearance
Volume
of
re-expanded
Volume
clearance vapor
pression cycle.
com-
Example
moves from
to
while
completed
and the crankshaft of the compressor has
rotated one complete revolution.
12-3. Piston Displacement. The piston disis
computed as follows:
n-Z)*
v,-where V
Nxn
(12-1)
4 x 1728
minute
per
minute (rpm)
number of cylinders
xL
4 x 1728
is
dividing
fills
completely with
Example
12-2.
12-1 is operating
Once
16.52 cu ft/min
12-4.
The
the
Solution.
the
total cylinder
is
placement
is
ton displacement
12-1.
205
it is
ment
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
206
(c)
Solution
(a)
From Example
12-1,
piston displacement
From Table 16-3, density of R- 12 saturated
vapor at 20 F
From Table
=
=
=
0.8921 lb/cu ft
16.52 x 0.8921
14.74 lb/min
16-3,
80.49 Btu/lb
=
=
=
=
com-
14.74 x 49.33
727.12 Btu/min
727.12
3.63 tons
the
divide
to
piston
at the
compressor
inlet.
may be found by
capacity
is
as
In the
same as that
(1)
Unfortunately, this
the reciprocal of
is
theoretical
its
method of determining
is
than
less
49.33 Btu/lb
question
The
When
12-5.
4.55
3.63 tons
31.16 Btu/lb
200
by the compressor
16.52
preceding examples
Theoretical refrigerating
alternate
_
~
=
always
Refrigerating effect
an
Theoretical refriger-
compressor in tons
density,
16.52 cu ft/min
capacity of
pressor
ating capacity of
Weight of refrigerant
circulated per minute
(b)
16.52 cu ft/min
Piston displacement of
compressor
is
cylinder
is less
compressor
Example
For
conditions of
Example 12-2, find (a) the weight of refrigerant
circulated per minute per ton ; (6) the volume of
vapor to be compressed per minute per ton;
and (c) the theoretical refrigerating capacity of
the compressor in tons.
12-3.
the
(a)
From Example
Weight of refrigerant
circulated per minute
Per ton
(b)
pressor
is
always
=
_
~~
49.33 Btu/lb
less
than
less
its
com-
theoretical
capacity.
actual
the compressor to
12-2,
refrigerating effect
always
pressor.
Solution
is
known
its
piston displacement
is
200
4933
4.05 lb/min
1.121
-*
x 100
(12-2)
volume of
R-12 saturated vapor
specific
at20F
Volume of vapor to be
compressed per
minute per ton
where
cu
ft/lb
=4.05 x
= 4.55
1.121
cu ft/min
Vv
the
piston
compressor
displacement
of (he
207
The
or
Ev =
compressed
When
is
Vn -
Ev
K. x
(12-3)
100
and
Actual
Theoretical
refrigerating
capacity
refrigerating
^-
(12-4)
capacity
Example
12-4.
From Example
12-1,
piston displacement
16.52 cu ft/min
Actual volumetric
displacement
16.52
(b)
From Example
x 0.76
12.66 cu ft/min
12-3,
3.63 tons
Actual refrigerating
3.63 x 0.76
2.76 tons
is
is
Va
the piston
On
the
down
stroke of the
Va
to
Therefore,
capacity
capacity
when
stroke.
Vb
theoretical refrigerating
Vc
In Fig. 12-3,
cylinder
is filled
Ve
and
12-9.
stroke
is
Vj,
Theoretical
The volumetric
Volumetric
efficiency of
Efficiency.
a compressor due
known
is
volumetric efficiency.
theoretical
It
as the
can be
12-7.
shown mathematically
Efficiency.
pressures.
efficiency
2.
Compressor clearance
Wiredrawing
3.
Cylinder heating
4.
1.
12-8.
that
the
theoretical
12-10. Effect
If the clearance
is
When
re-expansion
Efficiency.
filled
be
smaller.
less
To
obtain
maximum
is
volumetric
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
208
It
liquid
is
this
pump. Since a
left in
the
it
is
regardless
of
12-1
1.
clearance.
increased,
of the compressor
compression
is
increased,
re-expansion will
is
flowing
fluid,
the suction
(internal
Likewise,
if
is
ratio.
Effects of
drawing
pressure
The
12-13.
to a higher pressure
For
a compressor of any given clearance, the volumetric efficiency varies inversely with the
Wiredrawing. Wire-
and
will open.
On
pressure, the
amount of re-expansion
that the
rises.
efficiency
the volumetric
absolute
suction
discharge pressure
pressure
is
to
ratio of the
absolute
the
Thus,
ratio.
JK
r-:
(12-3)
where
R =
12-5.
Calculate the compression
of a R-12 compressor when the suction
temperature is 20 F and the condensing tem-
Solution.
weight
and
inertia.
This
means
that
the
it
flows
Example
is
come
ratio
perature
100 F.
From Table
ratio
is
required
To
Compression
=
_
=
35.75 psi
131.6 psi
131.6
expand from
35?75
3.69
* Asre
To
re-
during the
209
in
line is reduced.
by the compression
ratio.
In general,
wiredrawing
is
is
rate.
The Effect of Piston and Valve LeakAny back leakage of gas through either the
12-15.
age.
is
As
increased, the
is
lowered at
of wiredrawing increases.
The refrigerant velocity through the valves of
effect
Wiredrawing
is
is
greater.
wiredrawing
specific
effect associated
Increasing
the
speed
of
with R-12.
the
compressor
Hence, the
in the
head of
compressor.
capacity
and the
rpm
are increased.
12-14. The Effects of Cylinder Heating.
Another factor which tends to reduce the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor is the
heating of the suction vapor in the compressor
The suction vapor entering the
cylinder.
compressor cylinder is heated by heat conducted from the hot cylinder walls and by
friction which results from the turbulence of the
vapor in the cylinder and from the fact that the
refrigerant vapor is not a perfect gas. The
heating causes the vapor to expand after
entering the cylinder so mat a smaller weight of
vapor will fill the cylinder and thereby still
further reduce the volume of vapor taken in
from the suction line.
ratio increases.
discharge temperature
is
higher.
This causes
some of
spring loading
amount of
is critical.
The
of compressor
effect
leakage
is
speed
on valve
discussed later.
Efficiency.
Furthermore,
for
volumetric efficiency
it
system.
ciency of a compressor
is
difficult
effi-
to predict
However, the
that
the
results
volumetric
of such
efficiency
tests indicate
of any
one
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
210
temperature
temperature
given
when
the suction
is
low.
is
displacement,
position
the
weight of
Volumetric
refrigerant circulated
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Compression ratio
The
effect
pressor capacity
is
best illustrated
by an actual
example.
Example
Assuming 100%
12-6.
efficiency,
if
12-4.
future
illustrated
is
pressors
in
the
average
various
compression ratios
The
compressors ranging in
have
From Example
circulated per
minute at 10
From Table
10
is
governing
the
pany changes
F
F
Refrigerating effect
density
of the
suction
The higher
the
is
is
79.36 Btu/lb
=
=
31.16 Btu/lb
48.20 Btu/lb
=
=
12.23 x 48.20
589.49 Btu/min
x 0.7402
12.23 lb/min
Btu/min
589.49
16.52
16-3,
liquid at 100
the vaporizing
=
=
Enthalpy of R-12
16.52 cu ft/min
enthalpy of R-12
saturated vapor at
factor
suction
12-17.
Weight of refrigerant
will
ft
piston displace-
from 5 to 25 hp.
0.7402 lb/cu
12-1,
ment
are
16-3,
size
From Table
density of
volumetric
at
efficiencies,
Solution
(a)
calculations,
efficiencies
by the curve
(b)
From Table
200
2.95 tons
1.263 lb/cu ft
16.52 cu ft/min
16-3,
From Example
12-1,
piston displace-
ment
suction
From Table
effect
= 16.52 x 1.263
= 20.86 lb/min
in refrigerating effect
16-3,
enthalpy of R-12
is
saturated vapor at
40 F
82.71 Btu/lb
=
=
31.16 Btu/lb
Enthalpy of R-12
liquid at 100
211
Refrigerating effect
51.55 Btu/lb
= 20.86 x 51.55
= 1075.33 Btu/min
suction, Btu/min
1075.33
200
which can be attributed to the greater refrigerating effect is 11.8% (1.705 x 0.0695 = 1.823
and 1.283 - 1.705 = 0.118 or 11.8%).
The actual variation in compressor capacity
with changes in suction temperature is more
pronounced than that indicated by theoretical
computations. That is, the change in the actual
compressor capacity with variations in suction
temperature is always greater than the change
in the theoretical capacity.
5.38 tons
The reason
for this
is
When
the vapor-
when
lb/min
20.86
temperature
raised
is
the
operating suction
F to 40 F. The
from 10
20.86
12.23
x 100
is
=70.5%
12.23
The
2.
2.95
higher
whereas
tons,
F suction temperature
at the 40 F suction
2.95
2^5
addition
to
Example 12-7. Assuming that the saturated discharge temperature is 100 F, determine
the actual refrigerating capacity of the compressor in Example 12-6 when operating at each
of the suction temperatures in question.
x 100
82.3%
(a)
From Table
16-3,
Compression
From Example
131.6 psi
29.35 psi
29.35
4.47
76.3%
2.95 tons
=
=
2.95
131.6
ratio
As
in
From Table
it.
for
is
temperature,
suction
Solution
is
of the compressor
results entirely
compressor.
ratio
12-1,
volumetric efficiency
12-6,
theoretical refrigerating
capacity at 10 F
Actual refrigerating
capacity at 10
suction
suction
x 0.763
2.22 tons
From Table
(b)
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
212
Theoretical weight of
16-3,
refrigerant circulated
ration temperature
Absolute pressure
corresponding to 40 F
saturation temperature
Compression
51.68 psi
condensing
Theoretical refrigerating capacity of
2.55
compressor
12-1,
volumetric efficiency
From Example
85.7%
theoretical refrigerating
Actual refrigerating
capacity at 40 F
pressor
theoretical
capacity
is
5.38 tons
= 5.38
= 4.61
suction
Whereas the
From Table
x 0.857
com-
pressure
Compression
-2.22
(ft)
compressor de-
The
effect
the
that
condensing
12-7.
and actual
refrigerating capacities of the compressor in Example 12-1 for each of the two
vaporizing temperatures given in Examples
12-6 and 12-7, if the condensing temperature in
each case is 120 F rather than 100 F.
From Example
vaporizing temperature.
of compressor
sity
2.64 tons
29.35 psi
171.8 psi
29.35
5.85
=
=
=
66.5%
2.645
x 0.665
1.76
suction temperature.
12-1,
piston displacement
of compressor
From Table
16.52 cu ft/min
of R-12 saturated
16.52 cu ft/min
1.263 lb/cu
16.52 x 1.263
20.86 lb
46.55 Btu/lb
=
=
20.86 x 46.55
971 Btu/min
16-3, den-
per minute by
compressor
Refrigerating effect per
pound at 40 F
evaporating and
condensing 120
compressor
Theoretical refrigerating capacity in tons
971
~200
4.85
51.68 psi
171.8 psi
16-3,
absolute suction
pressure
Absolute discharge
= 0.7402 lb/cu ft
ft
Theoretical weight of
refrigerant circulated
From Table
16-3, den-
vapor at 10
For the 40
From Example
12-1,
piston displacement
From Table
200
107.7%
of Condensing Temperature
on Compressor Capacity. In general, the
Solution
For the 10
527.34
12-1,
volumetric efficiency
12-18. Effect
(a)
x 43.20
527.34 Btu/min
171.8
Actual refrigerating
capacity in tons
2.22
Example
12.23
ratio
is
x 100
decreases.
=
=
x 0.7402
Absolute discharge
From Table
43.20 Btu/lb
16.52
16-3,
absolute suction
pressure
tons
increase in
12.23 lb
12-6,
capacity at 40
suction
=
=
131.6
ratio
31.68
From Table
compressor
131.6 psi
pressure
ratio
171.8
51.68
3.32
From Table
213
12-1,
(120
78.5%
100),
the
to 1.76 tons.
ture.
volumetric efficiency
Actual refrigerating
4.85
capacity in tons
3.81
Examining
first
the 10
Since a
x 0.785
to 120
temperature
from 100
the
ture,
theoretical
weight
is
of
the
refrigerant
same
at all
23.5
is
same as
is
efficiency,
refrigerant circulated.
results
entirely
from the
difference
in
the
pound.
The reduction in actual compressor capacity
may be attributed to several factors: (1) a
and
(2)
pound
efficiency
of the compressor.
Increasing the condensing temperature while
the suction temperature remains constant
increases the compression ratio and reduces
the volumetric efficiency of the compressor so
that the actual volume of vapor displaced by the
compressor per unit of time decreases. Therefore, even though the density of the vapor
entering the compressor remains the same at
all condensing temperatures, the actual weight
of refrigerant circulated by the compressor per
unit of time decreases because of the reduction
in the quantity of vapor handled.
Increasing the condensing temperature increases the isentropic discharge temperature. In
this instance, it is interesting to
desirability
equipment.
has already been pointed out. This is of particular importance when the suction temperature
of the cycle is low and the compressor is already
operating at a relatively low efficiency.
When
the
cycle
is
operating at a 40
vaporizing temperature,
the
increasing
to
con-
120
from
The
4.85
x 100
5.38
The loss
in actual
= 10%
to
4.61
3.81
4 61
.
and the
4.61 tons to
5.38
from
x 100
17.4%
PRINCIPLES
214
For the 10
OF REFRIGERATION
2.95
cycle,
compressor capacity
is
2.64
x 100
to
10.5%
2.95
and the
loss in actual
2.55
compressor capacity
1.76
x 100
2.55
is
= 31%
In actual
power which
Naturally,
power
additional
Note
it is
causes
the
capacity
marked decrease
in
the
actual
compressor
at
the
higher
of the
condensing temperature.
The change
in volu-
metric efficiency for a given change in condensing temperature becomes greater as the suction
temperature
of
the
cycle
This
decreases.
these
Therefore,
losses.
the
actual
offset
power
rises,
the
12-19.
tical
sor
may be found by
by the
theoretical
Example
compressing
ratio,
compression.
Example
temperature
12-9.
12-4.
Solution.
ratio
From Fig.
2.76 tons
=
=
0.965
hp
2.76
x 0.965
2.66
hp
raised
the
is
when
while
the
suction
the condensing
The
Therefore,
is
comwork of
greater the
pression per
same
7-9, theoretical
The
greater
From Example
capacity in tons
the
Example
12-10.
Compute
the theoretical
comparison to
From Example
12-7,
actual refrigerating
capacity in tons at 10
capacity.
suction temperature
From
cal
2.22 tons
1.13
at 10 suction and
100 F condensing
Theoretical horsepower
of compressor at 10 F
suction
(6)
From Example
hp
2.22 x 1.13
2.51
hp
cal
suction
0.683
hp
x 0.683
hp
horsepower required by the compressor increases from 2.51 hp to 3.15 hp. This represents
an increase in the power required of
1T-X100=21%
The
-2.51
at
a constant con-
= 4.61
= 3.15
3.15
shown by the
are for a typical
Theoretical horsepower
of compressor at 40 F
is
The curves
at 40 F suction and
100 F condensing
10
12-7,
capacity in tons at 40
suction temperature
=
=
actual refrigerating
From
215
is
relatively small in
to
is
at a
maximum.
The suction temperature at which the horsepower required by a R-12 compressors reaches
a maximum depends upon the condensing
temperature and increases as the condensing
temperature increases.
7
*&*
-**"
Fig. 12-5.
Curves
&sf>
illustrate the
f&
temperature
on the capacity and horseeffects of suction
&y
^s
A>?
^2**
-40'
-30'
-20
-10*
0'
10*
Suction temperature
S^r,w
20
fo
30*
40
50*
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
216
42
**
^^
3.0
4.6
4.5
4-4"
-.2.8
2.6
e
2.6
o
a
5
^ss
4.3 -S
vx^^^-J
4.2
2.2
sJS>-
2.4
V**
&**2-
12
4.1
?.o
4.0
i.8
|
a.
E
o
12-6.
Fig.
Curves
illustrate
s
I
compressors.
on capacity and
horsepower of reciprocating
perature
<->
1.4
m
80
90'
100*
110-
1.0
120*
Condensing temperature
12-21.
The
Effect of
Condensing TemperaThe
12-22.
total horse-
compressor
temperatures
keptconstant.
is
because the decrease in the refrigerating capacity of the compressor which is coincident with
and
an increase
some
offset to
from
1.1
3 to
vaporizing temperature,
.52
is
over-all efficiency is
Thp
=wP xl0
Bhp
(12-6)
Thp
(12-7)
E l\00
o
=
=
Bhp =
where E
Thp
The
efficiency.
Bhp
3.12
086
F condensing temperature is
x 2.22
2.51
hp
hp
Thp
raised
theoretical
3.12
3.9
hp
efficiency
and
(2) die
mechanical
efficiency.
In
is
is
1.52
1.76
=2.68hp
(12-8)
Ee = the
cent
Em =
Bhp
so that
Thp
(12-9)
X E
the
a measure of the
losses resulting from the mechanical friction in
the compressor. The principal factors which
bring about the deviation of an actual compression cycle from the ideal compression cycle
are: (1) wiredrawing, (2) the exchange of heat
between the vapor and the cylinder walls, and
(3) fluid friction due to the turbulence of the
vapor in the cylinder and to the fact that the
refrigerant vapor is not an ideal gas. Notice
that the factors which determine the compression
efficiency of the compressor are the same as those
which influence the volumetric efficiency. As a
matter of fact, for any one compressor, the
volumetric and compression efficiencies are
efficiency
of the compressor
is
roughly the same and they vary with the compression ratio in about the
For
same proportions.
per ton of refrigerating capacity can be approximated with reasonable accuracy by dividing the
theoretical
217
dDCd represents
in compressing the
the
work
cycle
the net
is
the
sum of
horsepower.
Since the indicator diagram illustrated in
is a theoretical indicator diagram of
compression cycle, the indicated work
is the work of an ideal compression cycle and
the indicated horsepower computed from the
indicated work would, of course, be exactly
Fig. 12-7
an
ideal
Bhp
M(hd
-h )
e
42.42 x E
1.1
(12-10)
effi-
Volume
Fig. 12-7. Theoretical indicator diagram for an ideal
compression cycle.
218
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
The
lJ
is
Thp
_4l^
(12-12)
An
Q
an actual com-
indicator diagram of
pression cycle
ABCD,
is
shown
in Fig. 12-8.
The area
is,
of
"'
1Q
1
1
Vb
Vc
'
Volume
Fig.
12-8. Theoretical
indicator
diagram
for
an
Notice that at
(points
return to
reproduces
the
true
diagram
paths
of the various
processes which make up the actual compression
cycle, the indicated
work of
the diagram
is
an
work of the
in the
compressor cylinder.
Line
BC indicates
BC
pression cycle.
cated
compressor.
Bhp
Ihp
Fhp
(12-11)
from the
by comparing
CD
to the isen-
is
indi-
in
Isothermal
sion.
vs. Isentropic
if
work
12-25.
Water-Jacketing
Any
the
Compressor
up by the
compressor cylinder to some external cooling
medium
is
much
in
an air-cooled compressor.
Compres-
12-24.
Cylinder.
219
heat which
is
given
up by
isothermal.
If the temperature of the air surrounding the
results
in
cylinder walls,
However, theoretical
computations indicate that wet compression
will bring about desirable gains in compression
efficiency and reduce the work of compression.
This would be true if the small particles of liquid
vaporized during the actual compression of the
vapor. However, in actual practice, this is not
the case. Since heat transfer is a function of
entering the compressor.
Volume
Fig. 12-9. Isentropic vs. isothermal compression.
PRINCIPLES
220
OF REFRIGERATION
The
is brought
about principally by changes in the -effects of
wiredrawing, cylinder heating, and the back
leakage of gas through the suction and discharge
valves.
suction stroke.
encountered when
maximum
low compressor
placed
pressor
stroke.
minimum
12-27.
The
Effect of
on Horsepower.
Compressor Clearance
of the compressor has no effect on the horsepower, since the work done by the piston in
compressing the clearance vapor is returned to
the piston as the clearance vapor re-expands
at the start of the suction stroke.
However,
since
at a
is
increased.
is
greatest at
at
On
is
is
the
at a
at
creases.
volumetric efficiency
clearance
vapor
is
will
It
higher
speeds
is
at a
than this
maximum. From
critical
speed,
the
slight, effect
12-28.
rotation
is
is
when
changed.
the
If the
Theoretically, based
compressor are reduced in the same proportion. However, the volumetric efficiency of the
compressor does not remain constant during
drawing
effect will
resulting
losses.
The
critical
test
of the
modern
minimum. These
valve-plate
tend
to
increase
the
clearance
efficiency
compressor
the
This
is
particularly
loss
of power
friction in the
power,
will
friction horse-
operating conditions.
at all
it
capacity
and the
entirely
no
is
offsetting gain in
increase in
required
ical friction,
221
to
same
when
is
one compressor
any
drive
practically the
It
was shown
in Section
of the vapor
produces useful cooling, both the horsepower
required per ton and the refrigerating capacity
that,
superheating
of the compressor are the same for the superheated cycle as for the saturated cycle. It
follows, then, that the horsepower required
by
Compressor Performance.
ating capacity
increases
friction
a smaller
It
and
will
efficiency
of the compressor
true
the
to
offset
the
loss
pound
in
is
usually
refrigerating
when
This
the compressor
suction temperature.
is
is
particularly
operating at a low
It
way
is
accomplished in such a
up by the
liquid leaves
inlet is unaffected
by
increased by an
subcooling.
amount equal
to the
is
amount of
PRINCIPLES
222
OF REFRIGERATION
compressor
result-
As
of
Selection.
all
performance
is
not practical.
Hence, com-
determined
accurately
only by actual
Table R-10A is a
The
(superheated 75
the listed rating
saturated
F from -40 F
to 35 F), if
is
(superheated
Where
F from
40
65" F).
to
Where
listed.
perature
is
the temperature
multiplier
is
shown
in
corrected accordingly.
The superheating
assumed to occur
is
in the
evaporator, in the suction line inside the refrigerated space, or in a liquid-suction heat
exchanger so that the superheat produces useful
cooling
(Section
which
Superheating
8-4).
The
requirement
superheating
ASHRAE
standards at
first
of
the
appears to compli-
However,
this is
and
not the
realistic
is
and the
amount of
suction superheat
and
specify that
For
field.
unusual cases, no
if
R-10A
the compressor
Furthermore, com-
be those
listed
in
reasons for
First of
this.
all,
the methods of
is
was shown
in
pound
control, that
liquid is
is,
of the compressor
increased approximately
2%
for each
may be
5F of
From Table
3).
temperature,
is
The design
approximately 24 F.
1.
The
3.
is
of the condenser
upon
practically the
selecting compressors.
that,
on the saturated suction and discharge temperatures, condensing unit capacities are based on
the saturated suction temperature and on the
quantity and temperature of the condensing
is
condenser loading, the only variables determining the saturation temperature at the
discharge of the compressor (and therefore the
capacity of the compressor at any given suction
required
refrigerating
capacity
(Btu/hr)
2.
size
selected
38.39 psia
is
medium.
16-3,
is
From Table
It
223
densing units,
when
is
fixed
by the fan
cooling
load calculations.
evaporator
compressor
selection
is
However,
made
prior
if
to
an
the
compressor should be
selected to match the evaporator capacity rather
than the calculated load. The reasons for this
are discussed in Chapter 13.
The design saturated suction temperature
depends upon the design conditions of the
application. Specifically, it depends upon the
evaporator temperature (the saturation temperature of the refrigerant at the evaporator
selection, the
on
and the
the
saturated
ambient
suction
temperature
air temperature.
PRINCIPLES
224
OF REFRIGERATION
Approximate capacity
Example
12-12.
certain
Example
12-13.
will
Assume
F
F
suction
44,200 Btu/hr
suction
34,600 Btu/hr
1.
reciprocating compressor
bore and a 2.5 in. stroke is
100 rpm. Compute the piston
four-cylinder
rotating
at
in.
Problem
12-2,
(a)
The volumetric
efficiency
of the com-
pressor.
(b)
(c)
44,200 - 34,600
9600 Btu/hr
(d)
efficiency).
The
total
4.
9600
10
=
Total capacity change
for 3 F change in suction
temperature
of
determine:
=
=
cfm
2.
F change in saturated
suction temperature
refrigeration
PROBLEMS
certain
Compressor capacity
at 20
application.
Compressor capacity
at 30
12-15.
selection.
Solution.
23
Example
34,000 + 2780
37,380 Btu/hr
having a 2
Example 12-12
=
=
refrigeration
Solution. Locate the desired saturated discharge temperature in the first column of the
table (100 F). Next, in the second column,
locate the desired saturated suction temperature and read to the right until a compressor
having a capacity equal to or somewhat in
excess of the desired capacity is found. Select
compressor, Model #5F20, which has a capacity
of 34,000 Btu/hr at 1450 rpm.
saturated suction in
saturated suction
of compressor at a 23
960 Btu/hr
conditions:
(b)
(c)
(a)
10
=
=
960 x 3
2780 Btu/hr
105
not
perform satisfactorily.
In any event, it is important to understand
that, regardless of the equipment selected, the
system will always establish equilibrium at some
conditions such that all the system components
will have equal capacity. Hence, whether or not
system equilibrium is established at the sys-
13
System Equilibrium
and Cycling
Controls
design conditions.
This concept
series
is
best
illu-
of examples.
Example 13-1.
walk-in cooler, having a
calculated cooling load of 11,000 Btu/hr, is to
be maintained at 35 F. The desired evaporator
is 12 F and the ambient temperature is
TD
90 F. Allowing 3 F (equivalent to approximately 2 lb) for the pressure drop in the suction
Section
line (see
12-32,
select
an air-cooled
System Balance. In
the designing of a
refrigerating system,
izing
It is
considerations
is
common
together in a
is
from pressure
drop, the saturation temperature at the compressor suction is 20 F (23 F - 3 F).
a condition
system,
of equilibrium or "balance"
From Table
automatically
unit,
of vaporization
condensation.
capacity
is
the same.
all
make
rather than
It follows, therefore,
On
will
occur at the
system
equilibrium
it is
sufficiently close to
How-
is
components
TD
is
will
225
on
TD
is
required.
may be selected
PRINCIPLES
226
OF REFRIGERATION
instance, the evaporator
TD will be 12 F when,
Any
will
Nf
^&
(Compressor; -
temperature
\r
\\
\*w
Then
from
fc
V\>
is
loss,
the evaporator
F + 3 F).
found to be 28 F (25
TD
will
it
is
be 7
determined
F -
(35
0'
15
10
28 F)
Suction temperature
I
32
if
27
XT
22
Evaporator
12
is
TD
the evaporator
when
25
20
25 F.
it
will increase to 17 F,
and
when
TD
TD
common
TD.
With regard to Fig. 13-1, the following
procedure is used in making a graphical analysis
of the system equilibrium conditions:
1.
On
( F),
TD ( F).
lines
and evaporator
The horizontal
important
Example
13-1
is
shown
in Fig. 13-1.
3-1 ,
it is
ture, there is
temperature.
That
is,
temperature,
once
the
selected,
evaporator
TD
is
there
temperature
for
is
TD
The
The procedure
and
evaporator
TD
scales
was discussed
in
the
preceding paragraphs.
2. Using manufacturer's catalog data, plot
the capacity curve for the condensing unit.
Since condensing unit capacity
is
not exactly
is
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
temperatures listed in the table and these points
are connected with the "best-fitting" curve.
227
proportional to the evaporator TD, the evaporator capacity curve isa straight line, the position
only
3.
From the
conditions.
cooler
vapor
is,
at these conditions.
The
intersection of the
this
because
evaporator
the
In
and
equilibrium
TD
this instance,
(point
TD
suction
temperature).
system capacity
Although
somewhat
the
total
in Fig.
13-2),
is
established
at
TD
which
is 3
TD
of
humidity somewhat higher than the design
condition. The total system capacity is approximately 13,500 Btu/hr, which is about 23%
more
originally
is
is
not sufficiently
means only
and
For
rator fan
neglected.
11,000 Btu/hr.
calculated.
For
instance,
if
the
based on a 16-hr
running time, the system will operate only
about 13 hr out of each 24.
The question immediately arises as to whether
or not this system will perform satisfactorily.
original load calculation
Although
this
is
is
greater
is
that
it
TD
of 12
PRINCIPLES
228
OF REFRIGERATION
logical corrective
26
24
<"'
22
^\B
20
| 18
most
16
&12
10
II
l\
1
5*
10*
20*
15*
\\
1
0*
^p
^r
\
25'
Suction temperature
1
32*
27*
22*
17*
Evaporator
I"l4
'
28
7*
12*
TD
satisfactory results
Fig. 13-Z
result in
from point
cation.
design
TD
is
be allowed
if
the space
is
to C.
from
is
is
Another consideration
to point B.
running time
will also
load.
Hence, in
this instance,
it is
evident that
On
it
more
amount of
tion arises as to
is,
to reduce the
by adjusting the
is
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
which is not filled with liquid becomes, in effect,
a part of the suction line.
Another method of reducing the capacity of
the evaporator
is
method has its limitain that the air velocity must be maintained
blower.
tions
at a
However,
level
this
sufficient
Where
Note.
four-pole, alternating-current
Example
having a 10
of the compressor.
for
In
some
motor pulley
is
in.,
Rpmi
Unit Capacity.
1750 x 4
700
Example
13-3.
Determine the diameter of
motor pulley required to reduce the speed
of the compressor in Example 13-2 from 700 to
600 rpm.
and
Ds
_ Rpm
Rpm^
600 x 10
1750
3.5 in.
pressor displacement.
the
13-4.
10
=R
^D,
Solution. Rearranging
3500 rpm.
A refrigeration compressor
13-2.
the
Section 11-22.
is
in.
ducing the
limitations
is
motor operating
229
capacity
is
the compressor by
volume.
stalling
This increase
some
on the compressor
when
required
is
driver.
is
The
is
Rpm1
where
Rpmx =
D =
1
Rpmt =
Z)2
D = Rpmt
x
D2
tial,
is
usually
more
practical
is
substan-
and more
city will
(13-1)
flywheel (inches)
the
speed
of the compressor
driver (rpm)
(inches)
size
of the condenser
on
is
the condenser.
If the
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
230
evident that
if
is
it is
to be
It is
Fig. 13-3
and
arranged to close
is
reduce the
start the
life
in
compressor speed.
It is apparent from the foregoing that, in most
cases, increasing the capacity of either the evaporator or the condensing unit is something
not easily accomplished. Therefore, it
is usually more practical and more economical
to select oversized equipment rather than under-
which
is
sized equipment.
When
to install a float
is
3-4).
to a predetermined
this
The
on a
from time to time,
the system
is
condensing unit
tion
is
is
oversized
city reduction
little, if
This
system load
the tank
is
shown
in Fig. 13-3.
If the
To pump motor
water flows
and constant
rate
which
and
one which warrants careful consideration and which can be best explained by
comparing the refrigerating system to a water
pumping system. For example, assume that it
is desired to maintain a constant water level in
The
is
pump
will
is
equal
operate
any kind
will
be needed.
Fig. 13-4
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
pumping
231
and "on"
Stationary
contact
and
of these types
is
(1)
control.
temperature actuated
Each
sections.
13-7.
Bellows
^m
<a)
stats to sense
~>k .
loading. This
is
However, allowances
are
compensating mechanisms (Fig. 13-6). Decreasing the temperature of the tube or bulb will
have the opposite effect.
f
The thermostat
remote-bulb
here is called a
Although there are a
described
thermostat.
many
purposes
other
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
232
Dissimilar
metals
Invar___
Brass
"or
steel
Fig.
13-7.
Bimetal-t/pe tem-
_Bimetal
"element
Normal
M
Another and
commonly
The compound bar is
a bimetal element.
made up of two dissimilar metals (usually Invar
called
steel)
Invar
is
on
is
always be
less
steel,
ment causes
the bimetal to
warp
active metal) as
shown
in Fig.
13-7c.
This
change in the configuration of the bimetal element with changes in temperature can be utilized
directly or indirectly to open and close electrical
contacts or to actuate other compensating
mechanisms.
13-9. Differential
Adjustment.
Like float
controls, thermostats
predetermined
ture)
maximum
The
and
cut-
tial is
ordinarily about 6
or 7 F.
In
many
or product temperature
is
controlled indirectly
cut-in
On
ture
is
when
TD
space temperature and the evaporator temperasame at the time that the system
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
After the compressor cycles off the
evaporator continues to absorb heat from the
space and warms up to the space temperature
cycles on.
233
in many cases it is necessary to use trial-anderror methods to determine the optimum settings
for a specific installation.
compressor
is started,
ture is quickly reduced below the space temperature by an amount approximately equal to the
design evaporator
stance,
to 32
when
TD.
is
reduced
the evaporator
will
space temperature).
13-10.
is
to the
also asso-
(start
and
On
possible
to
differential,
change the
is
it
differential
not
without
25 F.
(35
is
Although the
differential is
F higher
than
operating range
is
it
was
still
10
originally, that
is,
the
if
the cut-in
cycles will
will result.
is
undesirable.
(cut-out temperature)
Fig. 13-8. Notice that when the unit cycles "on," the evaporator temperature is the same as the space
temperature, whereas when the unit cycles "off," the evaporator temperature is lower than the space
temperature by an amount equal to the design evaporator TD.
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
234
Differential
adjustment
Fig. 13-9.
Schematic diagram
of thermostatic
motor control
illustrating range
tial
and differen-
adjustments.
Range
adjustment
to 35
is left
at
differential, originally 10 F, is
now 15 F and
F and 20 F, is
is
this control
somewhat
larger.
Too,
If the differential
is
ture.
move toward
the
to
shown
in Fig.
13-9.
other type of control changing the range adjustment changes only the cut-in temperature. For
come
still
in
order
therefore, raises
temperatures.
out temperatures.
spring
In
many cases,
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
instructions for adjusting the control are given
directly
on
trol.
the control
itself.
235
is
open or
tacts,
tion
itself.
arcing.
results.
the
strength
of the magnetic
field
warm up
increases rapidly.
When
the
strength of the magnetic field becomes great
enough to overcome the opposing spring tension
to a temperature of approximately
action.
up
As
opposed
37 or 38
able force
up
attraction,
arcing
is
again avoided.
If
tube
is
is tilted
As
the glass
two
electrodes.
left,
contact
is
As
make
the bulb
broken.
is tilted
The
back to the
we assume
on the system
is
in applications
When
the system
Glass tube
to prevent arcing.
13-11.
trol.
Space Control
When
vs.
Evaporator Con-
is
handle the load, no defrosting problems are likely to arise with either method of
temperature control. However, if the system
sufficient to
surface tension of
properly
is relatively
Pool of
mercury
Contacts
Fig. 13-10.
Mercury contacts.
is
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
236
of the
temperature
cut-out
thermostat
for
the circuit
pressure
high-pressure
heavy.
warms up
space temperature
to
the cut-in
In such cases,
porator.
cycles
on
when
the compressor
is
are
controls
desirable
be severely
become
restricted,
will
by
low-side
the
pressure controls,
and cut-in
depend on
inoperative.
actuated
all
on
and are
High-
pressure.
13-14.
When
temperature controls.
used as a safety
when
when
and
start the
the
and
compressor
and are
com-
remote-bulb thermostat. The principal difference between remote-bulb thermostat and the
high-pressure controls
pressure controls
is
is
applications.
compressor, respectively.
can be
purpose.
utilized to control
is
way
that
used for
this
done in order to
13-13.
pressure
on the high-pressure
settings for
and 20 F,
respectively.
When
trol is
becomes
excessive.
the pressure
This
is
on the high-pressure
side of
If a low-pressure
con-
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
pressure setting for the lew-pressure control wj|]
line
pressor
will
be 36 psia (the
As
thie
accordingly.
When
tor rises to the cut-in pressure setting of the lowpressure control, the low-pressure control acts
to close the circuit
Very soon
after
the
Near
the end
or the
running cycle the evaporator temperature and
pressure are gradually reduced below the design
conditions. When the evaporator pressure is
reduced to the cut-out pressure setting of the
Fig.
13-8},
Ads
to break
when
drop
comwas
to cycle the
is
too small
result.
pressure drop
is
pressor cycles
off,
no way
of the control.
Since
compressor
evaporator pressure so
that at the time the compressor cycles on the
rises to the
is
the
same
is
made without
it
an
is
ideal
237
'"remote" installations
saving
line, the
inlet
larly
true
low-pressure control
at
the
is
the
is
line,
assuming
when
the cut-out
For example,
is
36 psia,
trol in that
it
wiring.
Because of the
remote bulb, the thermostat must always be
located near the evaporator or space whose
temperature is being controlled. This requires
that a pair of electrical conductors be installed
between the fk)it are and the condensing unit. On
the
in
electrical
other hand,
so that the
much
13-15.
amount of
Is
Ordinarily, only
the evaporator
is
when
the pressure in
In
this instance,
failure to
is set
for
make an
is
points
A dual-pres-
high- pressure
Dual-Praiiur* Controls,
sure control
desired to
is
less.
low-pressure control
the
are used
one
in
set
the
of
electrical
control,
contact
although a
control
is
shown
pressure control
in Fig.
is
13-11.
This type of
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
33S
Rg.
11-11.
Du*l
pnmirt
control,
{Covrtmj
9<
Pnn Contrail.
When
the compressor.
pump-dawn
space or evaporator
In 1
or evaporator tccrh
perature is controlled directly by the thermostat.
However, instead of starting and stopping the
compressor driver, the thermostat nets 10 open
cycle, the space
(Fig. 13-12).
perature
is
As
circuit,
thereby
de-energizing
to
the
Gow of
evaporator-
the
liquid
Continued
reduced
to
[he
cut-out
pressure
of
the
perature
Inc.)
the temperature
rises
thermostat,
of the
of the
the
thermostat
permitting
liquid
the
refrigerant
Since
evaporator.
the
to
enter
the
warm,
c^ipumtar
is
.-..ipuraujr
vaporises
immediately
low-pressure
to
cut-in
the
control,
pressure
whereupon
of
the
the
low-
and
start* the
compressor.
of crankcase
oil dilution
Chapter
IS.
The problem
by refrigerant absorpis
fully discussed in
STSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
Variation i in System Capacity.
13-17.
Si is
at the
When
13-10,
on the system
Any
time the
TD
space temperature
will
heavy and he
is
design conditions,
the load
239
high,
is
he evaporator
rator
will result.
It
good
in
equilibrium
ing
is
and condensing
sections of the
maximum
load.
system.
practice
This
is
and
capacity
is
somewhat
design capacity.
Obviously,
the
the system to
horsepower
control
average
design
TD will
space
temperature,
periods
and the system capacity will be somewhat less than the average design capacity
During each running cycle the system passes
ally,
the
it is
when
system which
EvwofHw
c
i.
:i
i.
the load
is
cycle.
hmmh
maximum
sufficient
load,
when
is
at
a minimum.
flew antral
Pump-down
will
oversized
c
S>-|1.
During
!,
is
system.
highest,
Flj.
the load
the
when
when
on and
on
Therefore, the
ditiofls
to
and
is
the
tions
in relation
less
a lendency for
is
become oversized
preceding sections.
during
level
Obviously, as the
the
evaporator
desired
the
at this
the
have
the load.
light, the
at
will
sufficient capacity to
humidity
sustained
VPii
nwnmiii
ftiwef JinT"
MFMGERATtON
PRINCIPLES OF
140
and
reduction)
loads.*
(nvuistun
latent
reduction)
space
in
utile** sensible
form of
the
is
heat
is
In such
The
relic, u
air is first
J- 13.
Evaporator
capacity control.
iplit
Into
two lefmcnti
lor
iiiriac*
The
reheating
hot water
is
coils,
iru cydwl
In
some
of the system
city
is
adequately controlled by
When
the system
emended
"
will
is
will
be high
the
same
in all
result
in
component
similar
will
.iiljustment
com portents.
in the
automatiin
the
Therefore,
compressor
evaporator.
will
than normal)
on and
of the
or decrease
However,
is
off impractical.
refrigerating load.
the
most suitable
depend upon the
Naturally, the
it
is
Too,
impose an
flexibility.
necessary to
in
some
Filter
Company,
Inc.)
artificial
<
<
.11
.it
gAin) load
is light.
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
341
Some of
13-1?. Evaporator Capacity Control. Probably the most effective method of providing
evaporator capacity control it lo divide the
evaporator into several separate sections or
respectively.
sections
and
11-15).
When
"face" control
is
used, the
is
not
Fact damper
rwiiunea
aialrut
which the
is
the
greater
more depth
cooling
(moisture
removal) capacity. Hence, as one or more rows
of the evaporator are cycled out, the sensible
is
its
Jatcnt
16 and 13-17)
3-
together
if)
some
in-
foregoing
control will
any of Ihe
of evaporator capacity
necessitate simultaneous control of
methods
compressor capacity.
13-M, Compressor Capacity Control. There
in a number of different methods of controlling
the capacity of reciprocating compressors. One
method, already mentioned, is to vary the speed
When
Hb>
teijr
J- IS,
Filter
(Cour*
Company,
Inc.).
an
electric
Any
desired,
and
17, respectively.
it
is
windings
will
;
MI
unloadcr
Mt
piston
\Fk
When
is
is
de-
relumed
to
dime**
fMT. Evaporator aqulpped with fit* and bypus dimptn lor dpicicy control. D*mp*r* if*
JrttereoAnectad
tint by-pui damper opum wider
Pit-
ft dmp*r
a*
It
tlowd
eft.
With
thii
iirinjerrmnt
traporstor can
be rtfulated by allowing mart or leu lr to by-pua
iht avipcrator
dim para,
of thi
til*
same
proportions.
to throttle the
is
However, since
it
cm
if
pressor suction.
in Fig. 13-18.
capacity which
to
to operate
and cycle on
ineffective.
to
is
to
When
by-pus
to
returned to
full
method
it
seldom used.
Still
13-20).
(Fig.
The
cut-in
additional
pressor
in sequence
rises.
steps
systems
when
the suction
Multiple
discussed
in
com-
detail
in
Chapter 20.
capacity operation.
during
the
unloadcr of
compnuvDn
this
type
it
stroke.
shown
typical
in Fig. 13-19,
as follows:
He.
ML
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
243
Typical
solenoid valve
(shown energized)
Connect to
discharge side
of
Fig. 13-19.
sure
compressor
Condenser pres-
actuated
cylinder
loader mechanism.
Dunham-Bush,
un-
(Courtesy
Inc.)
Valve plate
Cylinder
densers
may be
in a
some
common
housing.
suited to installations
PROBLEMS
1.
Assuming a
Fig. 13-20.
Two
compressors
installed in parallel as
one compressor
is
is
As the
cycled out to
capacities
determine:
(a) The saturated suction temperature at
the point of system balance
(b) The capacity of the system in Btu/hr at
the point of system balance.
14
Condensers and
Cooling Towers
evaporator
14-1.
amount
load
varies
with
the
operating
denser
ton
of evaporator
suction
saturated cycle.
condenser
Example
at a 15
14-1.
An
and condensing
temperatures can be estimated from Charts 14-1,
14-2, and 14-3. Chart 14-1 applies to R-12
systems, whereas Charts 14-2 and 14-3 apply to
R-22 and R-717 (ammonia) systems, respectively. The values given are based on a simple
at various
capacity
erants
minute per
conditions there
is
any given
set
of operating conditions,
given
ax*
(14-1)
He
where
Qc =
Qe =
qe =
qe
245
in which case
respectively.
it is evident from
any given condensing
Example
Btu/hr.
condenser
Solution.
Equation
is
Applying
= 35,000 x 245/200
= 42,875 Btu/hr
on the condenser,
temperature.
Qc
in the load
an increase or a decrease,
respectively, in the
condensing temperature.
fer
condenser capacity
Q=A
(14-2)
in accordance with
temperature
medium
Q =
A =
specific
proportional
to
is
quantity
and
(Ta
- Tx) =
the
(sqft)
U=
2-8,
inversely
where
Equation
rise
ft/
F)
where
more, if it is assumed that the average temperature of the condensing medium is constant, it
follows that an increase or a decrease in the
capacity of the condenser is brought about only
by an increase or a decrease, respectively, in the
condensing temperature.
Tx =
ft
MxC
(14-3)
T2 =
(r2
Tj)
Q,
M=
C=
(7",)
(Tx)
specific
heat
at
constant
value of each
being
inversely
proportional
M = C xQ.AT
AT =
xM
(14-4)
(14-5)
medium
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
246
14-4.
Likewise,
if
14-5.
specific heat values for air
and water
Btu/lb, respectively.
By
for
C,
appropriate
the
substituting
value
for water
"'
(lb/hr)
t>(cu ft/lb)
:
rz
60 min
cfm
or,
Q, x 13.34 cu
0.24 x 60 x
(14-7)
(14-8)
AT
0.24 x
Qs
1.08.x
is
Solution.
to express air
Applying Equation
gpm
60 min x 8.33
lb/gal
computed
directly in
8pm =
or,
Q.
60 x 8.33 x
Ar
gpm
G,
500 X
To
AT
500),
(14-10)
500 x 10
30 gpm
Rearranging and
90,000
AT
~
=
500 x 15
12F
Rearrang-
tion results:
150,000
gpm
and
(14-11)
AT
gpm ?
(14-9)
medium
Example 14-3. If the load on a watercooled condenser is 150,000 Btu/hr and the
temperature rise of the water in the condenser
What is the quantity of water ciris 10 F.
culated in
Qs
ft/lb
AT
cfm
0.24 x
IT
*"
1/1.08),
Q'
air
cfm
(14-6)
-%
and for
is
known, the temperature rise through the condenser can be computed by applying Equation
Average
=
=
=
500 x Ar x gpm
500 x 12 x 36
216,000 Btu/hr
cfm
121,500
1.08
x 25
4500 cfm
247
92-.Water out
Fig. 14-1.
rise
Water temperature
through condenser.
Example
14-7.
air
-= -^64,800
= 20F
upon
the
depend only
temperature
medium
will
will
be 105
F (90 +
15),
whereas if
the
is
be 100
(85
14-5.
Condenser Application. As a
the
medium
and 14-4 will show that the condensing temperature of the refrigerant in the condenser is a
is illustrated
condensing
medium
and the
size
it
is
evident that:
flow rate,
the condensing
general
rule, for
1.
15).
medium
fore,
die condensing
temperature will
of the condensing
medium
increases or de-
creases.
temperature.
3.
Assuming the
stant.
transfer coefficient to
be con-
PRINCIPLES
248
OF REFRIGERATION
amount of condensing
medium
increases.
increases.
medium
than
beyond a
power required
will
more
condensing
circulated
is
limited
is fixed
through the
medium
the condenser.
if
the flow
rates,
and
and
mean
condensing
tions
rate will
and a
in order to provide a low con-
medium
is
lower.
medium
and
fan, blower, or
the
14-6.
power required to
densing
medium
increases
applications,
and freezers.
Natural convection condensers employed on
on small
When
finned tubing
little
and lint.
The plate-type condenser
dirt
is
mounted on the
249
fouling.
air flue is
all
rarely
air-cooled condenser
is
their susceptibility to
most condensing
Since
mounted on the
units
are
floor
ever possible.
times.
This
is
The
amount of
wall insulation
by the savings
is
more than
offset
makes
possible.
is
is
and carried
that
the
limited to
Because of the
the
is
usually
mounted on
than
is
always
that
less
maximum
Notice also
because of the fan location, the distribution of the air over the condenser surface is
very uneven, being much greater on the end of
that,
Remote
mounted indoors.
When located outdoors, the air-cooled condenser may be mounted on the ground, on the
roof, or
installations
shown
In
14-4, respectively.
in Figures
all cases,
14-3
and
the condenser
summertime
chassis-
up from
is
on a
densing.
power
required
is
Naturally, this
PRINCIPLES
250
OF REFRIGERATION
Ceiling
Purge valve
air-cooled condenser.
tesy
(Cour-
pany.)
Compressor''
One
significant
air-
type
is
and
is
now
The
Fig. 14-6
is
typical of these
14-7.
For an
a definite relation-
scribes the
minimum
Good
is
design pre-
The velocity of the air passing through an aircooled condenser is a function of the free face
area of the condenser and the quantity of air
circulated.
The
relationship
is
given in the
following equation:
ft)
with the design of the condenser, being dependent upon the size, number, and arrangement of
the tubes and
fins.
Fig. 14-4.
Normally,
Remote
air-cooled condensers
mounted on
con-
densers are between 500 and 1000 fpm. However, because of the many variables involved,
the
optimum
design
is
a given condenser
For
most air-cooled condensers come
this reason,
from the
ance
Fig.
from
14-5.
an
Remote
air-cooled
air-cooled
equipped
with
(Courtesy
deflectors.
condensers
wind
condenser,
the
roof.
(Courtesy Dunham-Bush,
25
Inc.)
refrigerant.
Since
PRINCIPLES
252
OF REFRIGERATION
(1)
(2)
mean
effective
Table R-13
it
"tempera-
from the
temperature differential.*
is
The basic
ratings given in Table R-13A are based on 90 F
table
for
air-cooled
condensers.
ambient
A by the correction
the
The temperature
METD.
split is
always proportional to
must be known
and condensing tem-
is
installation.
The design
suction
peratures
(3)
Round off to
Example
14-8.
From Table
R-13, select
is
90 F.
perature
0.95
0.665
0.95
densing temperature of
110 F and entering air
temperature of 90 F
Required capacity of
condenser at basic rating
conditions
75 000
x 0.665
11 8,700
Btu/hr
selecting
of a condensing temperature of 1 10 F
most economical condenser
result in the
will
size.
if
14-9.
253
shown
flow rate.
To
cir-
is
a function of time,
it
a high temperature
is
smaller.
Hence, where
number of water
condenser are few and the
is
low, the
through the
long so that the water will remain in
the condenser for enough time to permit the
required amount of heat to be absorbed. On
the other hand, when the flow rate is high and
the temperature rise low, more circuits are used
and the circuits are shorter in order to reduce
the pressure drop to a minimum. This is illu-
circuits
circuits are
and
balance between water and power costs prescribes a water flow rate of approximately 1.5
gal per minute per ton of capacity.
The high cost of water, along with limited
sewer facilities and recurring water shortages in
many regions, has tended to limit waste-water
sizes.
Too,
restrictions
many
opening
Opening
A
B
and
is
leaves
capped.
14-9ft,
openings
A and
and
leaves through
C.
particular attention
Warm
Suction
mater out
When
is
recirculated the
the two
cities
on waste-water
through opening C.
In Fig.
Fig. 14-7.
_^.
PRINCIPLES
254
OF REFRIGERATION
water
system.
Hot gas
in
Pump-^
velocity
denser.
In
all
velocity
is
cases the
minimum
permissible
the
case
maximum
For
this reason,
is
pressure drop. *
the water
city
main
is
the condenser
able city
velocities are
pumping head
optimum water velocity is one which will provide the most economical balance between a
high transfer coefficient and a low pumping
head.
In Figs. 14-9a and 14-9A,
to)
it is
same flow
of interest to
and pressure drop through the circuit arrangement in Fig. 14-9a are approximately four times
//t\rtsJDhJjt\
Water out
**
>*
**
in
in Fig. 14-96.
'*'
B ~U A\ A\ A\ A\
\y \y \y_\y
somewhat higher
and less
condensing surface is required for the same heat
city,
is
in
transfer capacity.
<b)
(b)
it
also tends to
this arrangement,
is
erant
some
it
is
cooling.
in-
255
is
in the greatest
results
shown
shown
Most manufacturers of water-cooled condensers give condenser ratings for clean tubes
ically
type
lating
14-11
and
14-12.
shown
The type
in Fig. 14-12
is
The
(inset).
cleaned by circu-
in Figs.
in Fig. 14-11
minimum
"booster"
cellent
condensers
for
make
use
ex-
with
Refrigerant
"
vapor
in
Water out
Fig.
14-10.
Double -tube
water-cooled condenser.
Water in^
Condensed
refrigerant out
be used.
be
illustrated
later
in the
chapter.
14-11.
Water-Cooled Condensers.
Water-
and
(3) shell-
its
densing pressure
level,
the
small in
afforded
effi-
ciency.
and-tube.
As
name
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
256
condenser.
denser
will
much
the ton-
of the con-
Most
with a
circuit
Frit
equipped
split
systems (Fig.
as
there are
As a
the
up
to
approximately
10
tons
number of
It is
total
if
is ten.
the
same water
and the
culating
water
coils.
consists of a
which a number of
the
twenty, whereas
is
quantity,
capacity,
lubes,
few
pass
general rule,
as
tion
is
and held
Construc-
densing water
is
The
con-
four-pass condenser
probably
the
best
selection,
whereas
for
a
is
This example
is
principles of design
to
mean
Hg.
tion.
condenser cortfiguriofl*.
Trombone
(fl)
configuration,
(t)
157
HeUlt configura-
g in.
Table R-I4 are based on condensing temperaof 102 and 105^ F, 20" and 10" water
tures
and 0.0005
scale factor
which
is
the
rise
minimum
the following
procedure should be followed in selecting the
proper condenser.
0.5
mechanical
permit
large
ammonia
installations.
condenser
is
vertical
-44.
th a
and
a drain at the
bottom
to carry the
motion
is
condensers.
condenser
1.
2.
4.
Evaporator temperature.
Condensing temperature.
Water temperature "in."
5.
3.
side).
avail-
able.
6.
Then proceed
scale factor.
as follows
to be
used in
selecting the
mechanically clcanabk.
temperature
14-12-
Rating
The
is
reprinted directly
Acme
Industries, Inc.
Fig. 2,
2.
gpm
may
per ton.
Knowing
rise
and
R-14.
gpm
required.
PRINCIPLES
258
OF REFRIGERATION
2, find
the
gpm
per
mind when
selecting
tion
will
it should be borne in
a factor that a determina-
be required.
30
Square
feet
of surface
=
Select
METD
1.
From
Be
Fig.
GTD
100
100
LTD
From Table
78
92.4
92.4
22
METD =
11-1,
7.6
13.55
^ f
Number of tubes in condenser
-
60.8
sure to
x 4
60
4.05
final
checks on selection.
Larger
2,
per
tube
gpm
or
r
ft
suction
Make
12
7.5 psi
Solution
9.
78F
3.
8.
100
Suction temperature
being
is
which
0.0005 and
used factor
F
F
Condensing temperature
30
tube.
30 tons
Refrigeration load
shell
some of
is
Example
14-9.
Select
an R-12 condenser
is
0.001.
6.
From Fig.
METD.
7.
Square
feet required
U factor
scale factor
METD
_
~
30.4 x 14,400
266 sq
ft
121.5 x 13.55
8. Referring to Table R-14, a Model STF1010 has 289 sq ft external tube surface and
should be selected. When installed the water
connection should be made for four-pass
operation.
9. (a).
refer to Fig.
259
installation.
storage
is
is
essentially
capacity.
Since the power required by the compressor varies with both the evaporator load and
sizes.
it
provides a reasonable
all
operating
is
Warm
is
pumped over
where
or
it falls
is
sprayed
down
to the tower
basin.
as
it
the tower.
falls
The heat
to
is
is
influenced
water
will
4-8).
Some of
surface includes:
(1) the
wetted surfaces in the tower, and (3) the combined surface of the water droplets falling
the
lowest
temperature
to
all
However,
air.
the
water in passing through the tower (the difference between the entering and leaving water
temperatures)
is
by
(1)
the
rise of the
water in the condenser.*
The load on a cooling tower can be approximated by measuring the water flow rate over the
mean
and
amount of
Section 14-17.
is
used. See
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
260
tower and the entering and leaving water temperatures. The following equation is applied
flow rate(gpm)
Tower load(Btu/min)
x 8.33 x (entering water temperature
(14-12)
Example 14-10. Determine the approximate load on a cooling tower if the entering and
leaving water temperatures are 96 F and 88 F,
respectively, and the flow rate of the water over
the tower is 30 gpm.
(Btu/min)
30 x 8.33
2000 Btu/min
x (96
88)
110 F, respectively.
the load
From
condenser
pound of water
of 250 Btu/min/ton,
the
is
approximately 0.25 lb
is entrained and
away by the air passing through the
tower. Water lost in this manner is called the
drift loss. The amount of drift loss from a tower
14-2.
From
0.33
=
=
0.099
30
gpm x 0.0033
gpm
14-8).
Make-up water, to replace that lost by evaporation, drift, and bleed-off, is piped to the
tons
load
water
is
initial
The quantity of
system
and the
evaporated
propor-
to maintain
bleed-off required
247 Btu/min/ton
8.1
is
Solution.
up quite rapidly
Fig. 14-1,
on the condenser
the refrigerating
capacity of an R-13 system operating on the
cooling tower of Example 14-10, if the evaporating and condensing temperatures are 20 F and
Solution.
off,
Compute
1.
Without
14-1
Example
velocity.
Applying
Solution.
Hot water
261
to
its
in
is broken up into
by the "splash-impact" method.
The quantity and velocity of the air passing
droplets
Make-up water
from
city
main
Since
it
air
through.
schematic diagram of a
is
shown
in Fig.
shown in
Figs. 14-14
common.
through mechanical
draft towers is by action of a fan or blower,
small mechanical draft towers can be installed
indoors as well as out-of-doors, provided that
air
circulation
and
and
14-15, respectively.
warm
most mechanical
on the spray
pattern,
a good spray pattern is essential to high effiThe type of spray pattern obtained
ciency.
depends on the design of the nozzles. For most
nozzle designs, a water pressure drop of 7 to
will
produce a suitable
spray pattern.
Some natural
filling
(usually of
Water
distributor
"Air out
Fig.
14-14.
Small
draft-cooling tower.
Induced
PRINCIPLES
262
OF REFRIGERATION
Air out
f,
Spray
>Teliminators
Wood
fill
cooling tower.
Air in
Water out
78 F.
R-16.
=
=
From
tion
or
2.
3.
cooling
range
and tower
=
=
86
78
10
8
range-ap-
1.1
=
=
=
factor
Nominal gpm
From Table
Example
R-16, for
1.04
90 x
1.1
x 1.04
gpm
gpm nominal,
103
103
Model #SA-68
14-15.
It is
Table R-16.
approach)
3.
temperature
Desired leaving water
temperature
From Table
Solution
Total
gpm required
for 30 tons at 5
gpm/
30 x 5
78
ton
86
From
From wet
select tower,
peratures
86
capacity)
1.
96
rating correc-
chart,
proach factor
1
Solution
Tower range
Tower approach
table.
To
from 96
150
gpm
rating cor-
proach
From wet
1.15
bulb
Nominal gpm
1.0
gpm
From Table
select
14-17.
Condenser By-Pass.
gpm
nominal,
is
tered.
certain,
is
permitted to by-pass
pumping head.
The advantage of the condenser by-pass is
that it makes possible the maintenance of
reasonable condensing temperatures with moderate condenser and tower sizes without greatly
increasing the pumping head. The quantity of
water flowing through the by-pass
is
regulated
Example
14-16.
A compressor on a refrig-
the condenser
is
10 F.
2.
tower
3.
4.
5.
6.
From Table
#SA-58 has a
Total
to
gpm
for 25 tons
=
=
25 tons x 4 gpm/ton
100 gpm
= 94.5 F
Tower range
94.5
87
inoperative.
condenser
The
become
it
follows that:
10
100 x 7.5
75
97
tower range
Condenser
rise
10
is
necessity
87
_ Tower gpm x
it
7.5
by-pass
7.5
87).
gpm
pump motor
leaving the
condenser
by-pass will not only tend to starve the conalso cause the
The
The
may
(14-13)
removed from the valve so that the valve adjustment cannot be changed indiscriminately. An
excessive amount of water flowing through the
denser and raise the condensing pressure, but
263
Gpm
circulated
gpm
through
by-pass
= Tower gpm
= 100-75
= 25 gpm
condenser
gpm
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
364
condenser
coil.
\^J|/ / Eliminators
Refrigerant
vapor
in
,,
air.
>:
Refrigerant
liquid Out
Condensing
coil
more
Air in
To
condensing
coil
is
usually
M-thL'-ut:
.'iL.'.'J
-_-_-_-_-:
the
Fig. 14-14. Schematic diagram of evaporative
con-
denser.
circulated.
condenser increases as the quantity of air circulated through the condenser increases. As a
practical matter, the
14-18.
made up of bare
The amount of coil
Evaporative Condeneers.
rative condenser
is
essentially
An
maximum
quantity of air
evapo-
a water Conser-
diagram of
a typical evaporative
air
condenser
is
The
pumped from the sump up to the spray
header, sprays down over the refrigerant coils
and returns to the sump. The air is drawn in
employed
water,
thermodynamic pro-
are
is
Fig. 14-17.
condenser.
Cutaway view
au (ornate bleed-off.
Bering, Inc.
of "Dri-Fan" evaporative
Engineering, Inc.)
is
The
pump
denser capacity.
265
the job.
made
for these
conditions.
Water
The
14-20.
first
through the desuperheating coils where its temperature is reduced before it enters the condensing coils. The desuperheating coils tend to
increase the over-all capacity of the condenser
and reduce the scaling rate by lowering the
temperature of the wetted tubes. Too, often the
receiver tank is located in the sump of the
evaporative condenser in order to increase the
amount of liquid subcooling.
14-19. Rating and Selection of Evaporative
Condensers. Table.R-17 is a typical evaporative condenser rating table. Notice that the
ratings are based on the temperature difference
between the condensing temperature and the
design wet bulb temperature. The following
sample selection is reprinted directly from the
manufacturer's catalog data:*
Example
McQuay
is
automatically controlled
is
installed
When
the compressor
modulate the
An
condenser
is
reduced accordingly.
Although
Select
an evaporative con-
Products.
limits, the
condensing pressure
will usually
be
Hi
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
When
(b)
minimum,
Inc.)-
la flow
valve remains
condenser
Exterior view,
remains closed
until
is
The opening
approximately 7 psi
pressure.
is set
mum
ambient temperature
in the
summertime
the wintertime
is sufficiently
high to provide a
pressure differential across the refrigerant conlarge enough to assure its proper operation.
The capacity of water regu Sating valves varies
with the size of the valve and the pressure drop
trol
orifice.
The
available pressure
spring.
orifice
is
determined by
Water regulating
the
(2)
maximum
267
pressure
gives
valve.
from the
litera-
Draw
the required
psig.
flow rate.
4.
2.
b.
Read from
the
same
3.
be about 7 psi
rise.
Draw
this value.
the valve
available
sump
etc.,
of cooling tower).
By permission of Penn
Indiana.
25
Condensing pressure
rise
125
100
psi.
intersection.
9.
will
line,
Solution
This intersection
1 in.
and \\
falls
in. valves.
The
1J
in.
valve
is re-
quired.
14-21. Condenser Controls. For reasons of
economy, the condensing medium is circulated
through the condenser only when the compressor is operating. Hence, common practice
is to cycle the condenser fan and/or pump on
and off with the compressor. This is usually
accomplished by electrically interlocking the
fan and/or pump circuit with the compressor
driver circuit. Method of interlocking electrical
circuits are discussed in Chapter 21.
Whereas high pressure controls are always
desirable as safety devices on any type of system,
they are absolutely essential on all equipment
Section 13-13.
perly
and
power consumption, and,
PRINCIPLES
268
in
some
OF REFRIGERATION
cases, overloading
of the compressor
to the compressor
damage
itself.
An
is
light.
when
is
employed to control the capacity of the condenser vary somewhat with the type of con-
(condensing pressure to vaporizing pressure), which reduces the capacity of the control
quantity of condensing
denser used,
trol
and
and
As a
tures result
from
either
when
the
ambient
the
all
amount of
medium
effective
circulated or
condensing surface.
With regard
apt to be low.
as to reduce the
To
with liquid so
surface.
The
sufficiently
some provision
filled
air quantity
is
(open on drop
in
pressure)
of air-cooled condensers,
(a)
available
condenser.
Constant
pressure
inlet
throttling valve
Air-cooled
condenser
2,869,330.)
From
condenser
outlet
To
receiver
(b)
269
design
of
proprietary
(A
Dunham-Bush, Inc.) (Courtesy
Dunham-Bush, Inc.)
is
throttles
cases, although
some
difficulty is
more
satisfactory
method of
controlling
a by-pass
line
between the
inlet
and
As
the
receiver
tank
pressure.
restrict the
amount of
The following
descrip-
engineering data.*
a heat transfer
The pressure stabilizer
surface which transfers the heat from the hot gas
discharge of the compressor to the subcooled
liquid leaving the condenser. This heat exchange
is
* Courtesy
Dunham-Bush,
Inc.
and
from the open position to the closed
exposed to
is
The
up the liquid in the condenser, thus reducing the amount of effective
The subcooled liquid
condensing surface.
coming from the condenser is forced through
experienced
is
valve
gas
to
satisfactorily
establish
the
balanced
and a
solid
column of
control.
The pressure
stabilizer is designed
with a pre-
temperature drops to 50
perature drops below the setting of the regulating valve. The valve then modulates toward
the closed position,
and
through regulation
270
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Cycling of the pump as a means of controlling
the capacity of an evaporative condenser cannot
90 Amb., R-12
110* Cond. temp.
*'
136
' '"
vr
-;' 'v
r'
-'
be recommended.
g^
'
'
PTTX. ........
....'.j
the condenser
rate,
recall
and condensing
the quantity
used,
is
modulating action
l..."..'.'..-"l^J,l
,II'I.H'..I|
the
^T"f J
system
is
ffi'A'.",;.',..',-.'.'M
regulating valve
pumping head.*
Where mechanical
total
pressure stabilizer.
(Courtesy Dunham-Bush,
Inc.)
and the
air quantity
dampers
head unnecessarily.
271
the com-
may
fall
considerably
refrigerant,
fa
below that in the evaporator during the compressor off-cycle. In such cases, the liquid
^Modulating
dampers
in
Water bleeds
condenser.
With no
Drain-
ture
is
install
from boiling
and backflowing to the con-
Air-cooled
Modulating valve
(open on rise of
condenser
inlet
pressure)
Check valve
liquid_
From
_y
discharge
Trenton Company.)
rm\k
1
Fig.
14-23. Evaporative
Sump
tank
Pump
ing Inc.)
inlet, closes
when
receiver
Modulating by-pass
valve-open of drop
in outlet pressure
Overflow
ggB%g
To
Float valve
In addition, an auxiliary
warm
sump
and the
piping arranged so that the water drains by
gravity into the auxiliary sump and does not
must be
installed in a
location
and
14-24).
As a general
rule, air-cooled
condensers require
little
PRINCIPLES
272
OF REFRIGERATION
j
Tower
**
^^^^^^
or condenser
static
drained, cleaned,
and filled with fresh water, the cleaning compound can be added directly to the sump water.
The pump is then started and the cleaner is
head
is
Additional
static
head
Indoor
tank
Therefore,
it is
usually advisable to
nozzles, if any,
When
required,
is
muriatic acid
small
pump
having an acid
may be used
Any
on
all
is
is
subject to scaling of the condenser tubes, corrosion, and the growth of algae and bacterial
slime
Condenser
con-
available commercially.
As
primarily
addition, a
number of chemical
the scaling
rate.
Scale can be
PROBLEMS
1.
An
and eva-
porator
60 tons
40 F
Evaporator temperature
Condensing temperature
Water quantity
10
2.5
gpm/ton
Rework Problem
10 using a condensing
temperature of 120 F.
The heat
denser
is
METD
operating at a
a 105 F con-
condenser?
An
From Table R-12, select an air-cooled condenser for a compressor having a capacity of
42,000 Btu/hr if the design suction and discharge
temperatures are 40 F and 130 F, respectively,
and the outdoor design dry bulb temperature
for the region is 95 F.
9.
temperature of 0 F and a condensing temperature of 100 F. From Chart 14-1, determine the
heat load on the condenser in Btu per minute
per ton of refrigeration. Ans. 257 Btu/min/ton
2.
273
and
(b) the
METD.
Ans. (a) 104.6
8. If the air-cooled
(b) 21.89
12.
cooling tower and a water-cooled condenser (with by-pass) are operating with a
condenser load of 240,000 Btu/hr. Forty-eight
gpm are circulated through the condenser and
32 gpm are by-passed. The ambient wet bulb
temperature is 78 F and the tower approach is
7 F.
(a)
Determine:
condenser.
(6)
Ans. 85
condenser.
leaving the
Ans. 95 F
13.
compressor on a Refrigerant- 12 system
has a capacity of 50 tons. The design wet bulb
temperature is 78 F. The desired condenser
water entering temperature is 85 F and the
desired temperature rise through the condenser
is 12 F. Select a cooling tower from Table R-15
and determine:
(a) The total gpm circulated over the tower
(b) The temperature of the water entering the
tower
(c) The temperature of the water leaving the
condenser
(d) The tower range
(e) The gpm circulated through the condenser
(/) The gpm by-passed
14. Select an evaporative condenser for the
following conditions:
Refrigerant- 12 system
Evaporator load 10 tons
Evaporator temperature 40 F
Wet bulb temperature of entering air 78 F
Condensing temperature 105 F
downward direction
only.
exerted in a
is
However, because of
the loose molecular structure of fluids, the gravitation force or pressure exerted at any point in a
15
is
When an
depth.
Fluid Flow,
is
is
proportional
Centrifugal Liquid
container
sq
ft
and 10
in cross section
ft
high
is filled to
Brine Piping
60
15-1.
Pressure.
Fluid
is
the
The
sum
static
and
Pt
=
p, =
pv =
where p t
(15-1)
is
fluid
area of
of the fluid.
Any pressure exerted by a fluid which is not the
direct result of fluid motion or velocity, regardless of the force causing the pressure, is called
For
and the
is
or 0.433
Whereas
fluids at rest
This
is easily
ft,
psi.
at level
Similarly, the
equal to zero
is
all
62.4 psf
is
312
on
located 5
is
ft
fsf
or 2.165
psi.
all directions.
sq
is
taken into
equally in
exerted
pressure.
directions
(static),
it is
which
is
bottom
=P* +Pv
tion of flow.
the
pressure
total
of the
on
demon-
in the
example employing
a gravitational column.
It was shown in Chapter
Assuming
normal sea level pressure, the fluid pressures at
levels A and B are 15.129 psi (0.433 + 14.696)
and 16.861 (2.165 + 14.696), respectively, while
to the pressure of the atmosphere.
14.696).
However,
it
is
19.026 psi
should be recog-
FLUID FLOW, CENTRIFUGAL LIQUID PUMPS,
exerted also
WATER AND
BRINE PIPING
275
P=
fluid
is
Pressure (psf)
depth
(ft)
density (lb/cu
ft)
(15-2)
depth
(ft)
density (lb/cu
ft)
Pressure (psi)
144
(15-3)
15-2.
column of
column
ft.
Pressure (psi)
Head (ft) x
density (3/cu
,.
,, .
(ft)
24.48 psi.
For any
liquid
made:
by the liquid is
head of the liquid.
At any given head, the pressure exerted by
same head.
(15-5)
K
'
ft)
15-3.
is
psi.
2.04 in. to
2.
Density (lb/cu
It is
is
ft)
(15-4)
Head
144
is
Static
head of any
fluid is the
ht
where, h t
h,
2.31 ft
hv
The
=
=
=
=h + h v
s
(15-6)
depth.
column of that
* This
is
static
liquid
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
276
To
V=
Static
pr
ure
To
|-t
f\
y/2g x h v
fa
/.
itself is entirely
in
relationship
between
fluid
independent of
15-2. Illustrating
15-4.
Fig.
* 144
(15-11)
static, velocity,
(15-10)
it
the
flowing
fluid.
a circuit.
Energy or work
(ft-lb)
mass
(lb)
x head
(ft)
(15-12)
column equivalent
liquid
is
is,
head of the
liquid.
expressed as
The fundamental relationship between velocity and velocity head is established by Galileo's
law, which states in effect that
all falling
bodies,
The
final velocity
=Mx
Ek
tical
head of a
the
where, h v
ft/sec/sec)
By combining and/or
and
rearranging Equations
base of 10
ft-lb (1 lb
Equation
1-8.
x 10
ft)
in
accordance with
is
established:
JLxi
- "14T
also zero.
(15 " 8)
Pv
no
ft-lb (1 lb
in the water
(15-9)
the
lb of water at
potential energy of
head energy of
to Equation
x 10 ft), according
15-12. Likewise,
V* x P
Ig x 144
On
10
To
pound of
fluid.
(15-7)
15-7
is
-*"
fluid is
lb
of water at a
level
midway
potential energy in
energy of pressure.
15-5. Static Head-Velocity
static pressure
of a fluid
is
BRINE PIPING
277
Head
The
WATER AND
Relation-
fact,
that the
exerted equally in
all
conduit.
This relationship
is
expressed by the
basic equation
*-\
directions,
(15-13)
fluid is exerted
a measure of the
On
on the opening
of tube B, the height of the liquid column in tube
B is a measure of the total pressure or total head
pressure of the flowing fluid act
it
two
fluid
columns
is
where
is
sections
Conversely,
as
is
is
through the
and C,
converted back into static head
head
V=
Q =
A =
velocity
(velocity
converted to pressure).
In view of the head-energy relationship,
it is
velocity
from changes
in
conduit area.
PRINCIPLES
278
Head.
Friction
15-6.
OF REFRIGERATION
It
fluid flowing
duit
is
This value
piping.
is
15-1.
water piping system conof 128 ft of 2 in. straight pipe, 6 standard
elbows, and 2 gate valves (full open). Using
fairly rough pipe, if the flow rate thrdugh the
system is 40 gpm, determine:
(a) The total equivalent length of straight pipe
(b) The total friction loss through the piping
in psi and in feet of water column.
pipe
is
"
(ft)
(ft)
pressure loss/100
fittings,
2.4
160.4
(b)
ft
30.0
ft
Applying Equation
XJ
Converting to
ft
loo
= 4.8 psi
= 4.8 x 2.31
= 11.09 ft H2
H4
loss
determined from
100
128.0
equation:
nominal
in.
1.2 ft
=
=
ft
Pipe
@5
pipe.
of straight pipe
of 2
is
feet
Straight pipe
hundred
is
psi is
(a)
As a
purposes.
Example
sists
conduit.
piping
such as elbows,
15-2.
ft (psi)
(15-14)
15-7.
offer
straight pipe
When
added
is
centrifugal
pump
consists
mainly of a
is
enclosed
WATER AND
the
impeller
mounted directly on
driving motor so that
the
of the
pump
279
is
pump-
5-5).
BRINE PIPING
are
connected together by
a.
flexible coupling.
pump
liquid
Fig.
15-5,
asig m bl y
pump
Typical
centrifugal
(Gourteiy
Bell
&
Getsttt
,)
more
pump can
facturer's ratings,
required
it
gpm and
know
necessary to
the total
the
pumping head
friction head.
The static head is the vertical distance between the "free liquid level' and the highest
1
lifted by the
pump. For the condenser-water circulating system in Fig. 15-7, the static bead, measured in
flow
through
centrifugal
pump.
fugal
the
pump
delivery
is
is
zero.
closed, at
As
which
the valve
is
delivery
at various
Gpm
Fig.
15-4. Centrifugal
pump
dalivery
erewei
apacity in-
{CourtMy
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
280
in the
manu-
When more
Static
head
largest pressure
pumping head.
The pressure loss through
the
straight pipe
ft
entirely.
However,
Globe
/^valve
Condenser
Pump-^
Fig. 15-7. Condenser-water circulating system.
is
*
its
own
by the pump
is
is
accord.
actually
shown
Static
in Fig. 15-8.
as
head
5-9, there is
15-10.
head
is
which
shown
an auxiliary
employed, as shown in
Fig. 14-24, the vertical distance between the
level of the water in the tank and the normal
water level in the tower basin must be treated
as a separate static head.
Since pump manufacturers always express the
pumping head in "feet of water column," it is
necessary to compute the pumping head in these
units.
When the pressure loss through the
several system components is given in psi or in
other units of pressure, it must be converted to
feet of water column before it can be used in
computing the pumping head. The required
conversion factors are found in Table 1-1.
lifted
and
the total
static
Total length of
80
is
gpm
[|Purnp|
|
in Fig.
Lower
tank
Fig. 15-8
Example
tem shown
15-2.
The
erating system.
40 gpm
in Fig. 15-7
WATER AND
BRINE PIPING
281
sys-
Pipe system
curve
Friction loss
s
Static
head
(or elevation)
Gpm
Fig. 15-10. Friction head of piping system increases
Solution.
Total equiva-
as flow rate
Straight pipe
3 2 in. standard el-
80.0
ft
15.0
bows at 5
22
ft
Converting to
ft
HaO
=
=
let)
at 12 ft
in. gate
(open) at 1.2 ft
valves
15-2,
Tower
ft
the
3.71
8.58
ft
2.31
8.58
25.90
24.00
ft
57.58
ft
H2
From Chart
3 psi
123.8
x 3
100
3.71 psi
Open balance
tank
=
=
=
=
Condenser
4.8
123.8
From Chart
24.0
42
(Courtesy
Ingersoll-Rand Company.)
""
the smallest
this
pump
pump
throttled
on
chiller
"
system.
loss.
There
is
no
use
circuit
static head.
is
head in
feet
efficiency
usually in
gpm, a more
is
x
=Gpm x33,000 head
x
total
Bhp
total
pump
33,000 x
8.33 lb/gal
efficiency
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
282
Combining constants,
Bhp "
lines
Gpm
total
3960 x
head in
feet
(15 - 15)
efficiency
When
is
viz:
Bhp =
Gpm
minimum amount
total
head x
specific gravity
3960 x efficiency
(15-16)
From Equation
it is
increases as the
15-16,
or specific gravity
Velocity
(inches)
(fps)
(psi)
15.5
31.5
72.8
2\
10.0
10.5
24.3
7.1
4.8
11.1
3|
4
5.2
2.0
4.6
3.9
1.1
2.5
increases,
Typical
progressively
increases
the
as
delivery
rate
Pump
increases to a
maximum
no
delivery,
The pump
when
obtained
the desired
the
pump
gpm when
is
mum
initial
is
is
some point
head-capacity curve.
Water
11.1ft),
from 3 to 4 in.
reduces the friction loss by only an additional
9.4 ft of water column (11.1 to 2.54 ft), which
further increase in the pipe size
selected to deliver
operating at
its
from 2 to
is
efficiency curve in
ft
(ftHaO)
pumping requirements
minimum. Water
will
For
instance,
tiie
is
ex-
of 55
ft
of water column,
ft
systems
assume two
pumping heads,
pump
rate of 150
gpm
at a 70-ft head.
Therefore, for
is
15 ft (70
55),
Gpm
Fig. 15-1
efficiency
1.
Variations
in
with delivery
Rand Company.)
On
(Courtesy Ingersoll-
tical size.
The use of 3 J
in.
is
the
most prac-
pump
pumping
rate of
all
valves
pump
when
the
pump and
on the
inlet
and
this
purpose.
PROBLEMS
2.5 in.
283
2.
Rework Problem
3.
of 100
ft
90 elbows.
column.
If
60
gpm
is
10
ft
of water
system, determine:
(a) The total equivalent length of pipe.
Ans. 1 30 equivalent
(b)
BRINE PIPING
If the
sists
WATER AND
ft
4.
ditions:
(a)
90 to 105.
Maximum entering water temperature
85 F.
(c) Desired water quantity through condenser
at maximum loading 9 gpm.
(d) Pressure available at city main during
period of peak loading 50 psi.
(e) Pressure loss through condenser and water
piping 12 psi.
(6)
Others,
16
Safe Properties.
16-2.
properties of the refrigerant are the prime consideration in the selection of a refrigerant. It
Refrigerants
is
these are
hydrocarbons.
16-1.
ing,
Generally speak-
to use.
its
* Since
some of
16-3.
refrigerants.
Toxicity.
suffocation
Since
all fluids
life,
a relative term which becomes meaningful only when the degree of concentration
and the time of exposure required to produce
toxicity
harmful
The
is
toxicity
As a
first
the confusion inherent in the use of either proprietary or chemical names, has adopted a numbering system for the identification of the various
will
it
properties
Fur-
all
is
it is
nature that
react
strin-
thermore,
is
applications.
it
some degree
refrigerant that
any propor-
and economical
in
Nor should
refrigerating equipment.
fluid
It
fluid
safe
Too, the
Those
falling into
Group
of Table 16-7).
and
exposure periods.
classified in
On
284
REFRIGERANTS
the latter group
deficiency than
is
by any harmful
Group 6
However,
it
purposes the
normal
state,
285
equipment.
refrigerants
and on short
the fluorocarbon
effects
in small concentrations
This
exposure.
refrigerants (see
16-4.
is
true of
Column
all
3 of Table 16-7).
ammonia
the
involved
hazard
as a refrigerant
is
in
fact
precautions,
is
using
negligible.
refrigerant that
use
its
is
is
ice plants,
and
where
Naturally,
operation,
it
is
minimum power
requirements
latent heat
employed
Straight hydrocarbons,
operating personnel
is
(1)
the
Most
required,
equipment
Mechanical Refrigeration"
local codes
factors,
less.
When
is
accomthe vapor
is
high, the
be
amount of
is
too
of the liquid.
286
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigerent-50
Methane
(CH4)
Refrigerant-40
Refrigerant-30
Refrigerant-20
Methyl Chloride
Methylene Chloride
Chloroform
(CH3CI)
(CH2CI2)
(CHCI3)
-11*F
104"F
Refrigerant-21
-259F
Carbontetrach loride
142-F
(CCI4)
169F
Refrigerant-22
Dichloromonofluoromethane
Monochlorodifluoromethane
(CHCI2F)
(CHCIF2)
48'F
-41F
Refrigerant-11
Refrigerant- 12
Refrigerant- 13
Trichloromonofluoromethane
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Monochlorotrifluoromethane
(CClaF)
(CCI2F2)
(CCIF3)
75'F
Refrigerant-10
-22F
Fig. 16-1.
Methane
115*F
series refrigerants.
Refrigerant- 14
Carbontetrafluoride
(CF4)
-198F
REFRIGERANTS
When
initial
which
superheating
effect.
is much improved.
of compression ratio on the work
heat exchanger
The
effect
of compression
and,
consequently,
on the
coefficient
Naturally,
all
it
small compressors.
Too,
it is
287
and
and a
permit
automatic
operation
minimum of maintenance.
Early Refrigerants. In earlier days, when
was limited to a
few large applications, ammonia and carbon
dioxide were practically the only refrigerants
Later, with the development of
available.
small, automatic domestic and commercial
16-6.
mechanical refrigeration
units, refrigerants
refrigerants
fallen
into disuse
all
these
and are
vaporizing
into
pressure
leak
system,
the
is
whereas
if
the
is
that
they
present time.
is
minimized.
allow
the
use
of lightweight
properties,
is still
few
applications.
maximum
temperature application.
In Table 16-8, a comparison
is
given of the
erant.
size,
weight,
and
known
carbons).
288
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigerant- 170
Ethane
(CH3CH3)
-113
-127.5-F
114
Trichlorotrifluoroethane
(CCI2FCCIF2)
Dichlortetrafluofoethane
117.6'F
(CClFjjCClFii)
38.4F
with chlorine (CI) atoms, the resulting compounds are methyl chloride (CH3 C1), methylene
chloride (CHaClg), chloroform (CHCI3), and
series in
common
use.
identifies
the
last
If the chlorine atoms in the carbontetrachloride molecule are now replaced progressively
with fluorine atoms, the resulting compounds
sections.
carbontetrachloride
are
(CC1 4),
respectively,
trichloromonofluoromethane
dichlorodifluoromethane
(CC1 S F),
(CCl a F2),
mono-
order, the
(CF^,
ASRE
In the same
refrigerant standard number
respectively.
and
compounds
are Refrig-
derivatives
Refrigerants-113
and
two
fiuoro-
16-8.
The
Effect of Moisture.
a wellcombine in
It is
corrosive
which
will react
compounds
(usually
acids)
oil
and
Moisture corrosion also contributes to compressor valve failure and, in hermetic motorcompressors, often causes breakdown of the
motor winding
insulation,
which
results
in
REFRIGERANTS
289
refrig-
refrig-
temperature
erating system
is
erating practice
demands
that the
moisture
decreases,
it
follows
that
the
etc.,
control
However, the
the evaporator
is
is
is
restored.
started
and stopped by
alternate melting
is
and
when
the
exceeds the
is
in the
Ammonia and
sulfur dioxide,
on
the other
In
water and
For
this reason,
ammonia systems
can be operated successfully even when relatively large amounts of moisture are present in
the system.
and
sulfur dioxide
is
highly corrosive.
In
be very heavy.
The halocarbon refrigerants hydrolyze only
slightly
As a
290
16-9.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
refrigerant
nor the
oil is
adversely affected by
the relationship.
fur dioxide
and the
corrosive acids
and
oil,
the formation of
16-10.
which
characteristic
Because copper
is
lubricating
oils
for
to the
important
the
is,
various
the ability
oil
and
vice versa.
With reference
may be
those
(1)
is
The
differs
one
suction lines.
refrigerants.
relationship,
disagreement.
is
reactions
With regard
Oil Miscibility.
refrigerant-oil
of unfavorable
decomposition of the
cause
the
significance
is
some
insofar
as
of
it,
the
has
little if
selection
oil
any
of the
However, since it
greatly influences the design of the compressor
and other system components, including the
refrigerant
is
concerned.
an important
refrigerant characteristic
some
and
detail.
effects
and reducing
its
lubricating qualities.
To
compensate for refrigerant dilution, the compressor lubricating oil used in conjunction with
oil-miscible refrigerants should have a higher
initial viscosity
REFRIGERANTS
may be
Viscosity
defined as a measure of
a measure of the resistance
fluid friction or as
flow
viscosity
fluids
will
thicker,
more
viscous
Hence,
more
fluids.
low
To
perature.
thin,
than
provide
If the viscosity of
not have sufficient
body to form a protective film between the
various rubbing surfaces and keep them
oil is
On
separated.
of the
oil is
sufficient
oil will
fluidity
if
the viscosity
not have
between the
oil will
penetrate
readily
When an
oil-miscible refrigerant
the problem of
by the
return
oil
carried
along
and the
when nonmiscible
Unfortunately,
will
portion of the
units.
will
oil circulating
Since the
oil
is
is
reduced,
is
lowered.
serve
it is
function
its
ammonia and
is
oil
to lubricate the
when confined
out at
For
this
reason,
oil
all
and other
ammonia, and pro-
made
to the
visions should be
from these
com-
periodically,
a large
from the
various low
best
oil will
refrigerant unavoidably
The degree of
settle
oil,
separate
will
oil
in the case of
than
lighter
may be
matically.
its
is
percentage of the
liquid
For example,
ammonia, which
This
form
oil is actually
the refrigerant.
since,
the crankcase
However,
oil to
is
compressor,
refriger-
Any
refrigerant piping
not be adequate.
through the system with
the refrigerant will have an adverse affect on
the efficiency and capacity of the system, the
compressor
employed,
is
greatly simplified
is
the refrigerant.
291
experienced in bring-
When
points,
either
and returning
it
continuously
or
to the crankcase.
make
The
may be
amount of
oil
tionable.
effect
is
in
on system
capacity, the
amount of
oil
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
292
Too,
in circulation
may
cause the
oil level in
the
leakage,
pressor parts.
when
crankcase to
fall
oil
oil,
an
is sometimes installed
between the compressor
is likely
amount of
to be inadequate and/or
oil in circulation is
excessive or to cause
an undue
capacity
and
line
separators are
oil
efficiency.
where
apt to be
loss in system
Specifically, discharge
recommended
for
all
The same
employing
thing
is
miscible
separators
are
is
be
from
for
of the refrigerant
Furthermore, after the leak has been
located and repaired, the system must be
completely evacuated and dehydrated before it
leaks
and for
occur in
New systems
they
Chapter 19.
16-11. Leak Detection. Leaks in a refrigerating system may be either inward or outward,
detail in
below
all
more
is
oil
velocities.
discussed in
system
no leakage of refrigerant
but air and moisture will be
is
detecting leaks
also
control.
Oil
of evaporator is apt to
because of low refrigerant
may
below 0 F.
recommended
the
in
from the
leak
will
On
checking a
this type
inadequate
to the outside,
the
the pressure
atmospheric, there
when
refrigerants
evaporator temperature
refrigerant
the
and
pressure.
One method of
The soap
solution
is first
applied to
light.
The
The
produce
sulfite)
when
another
with stronger
available in
any drug
but
REFRIGERANTS
not in contact with,
suspected areas.
ammonia swab
all
leak
ammonia
way
the ammonia swab. Dampened phenophthalein
paper, which turns red on contact with ammonia vapor, may also be used to detect
ammonia leaks.
corrosive to
systems employing any of the halocarbon refrigerants. The halide torch consists of a copper
element which is heated by a flame. Air to
For carbon dioxide and the straight hydrocarbons, the only method of leak detection is
the soap solution previously mentioned.
16-12.
is
make
it
an
plants,
Ammonia
per
is
of
little
consequence.
pound of any
refrigerant.
effect
This, together
all
ammonia becomes
Ammonia
will
case.
the removal of
oil
of
all
Ammonia
at standard ton
joints, in
is
highly
toxic,
but
nonflammable
and
nonexplosive.
The
pheric pressure
Sulfur dioxide
characteristic
atmospheric pressure is
tor and condenser pressures at standard ton
conditions of 5 F and 86 F are 19.6 psig and
may be
systems
placement.
ammonia at standard
-28 F. The evapora-
nonferrous
systems.
unlike
boiling point of
to
The
corrosive
torch.
suspected areas.
non-
is
all
systems.
Ammonia
293
fur dioxide
floats
is
not
oil miscible.
heavier than
on top of the
oil
refrigerant.
simplifies
However,
the
Since this
problem of
oil
return,
it
equipment.
Like most common refrigerants, sulfur dioxide
in the pure state is noncorrosive to
metals
acid
(H2SOg)
and
sulfuric
Howform
acid
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
294
refrigerating systems.
It is odorless,
nontoxic,
in other places
sideration.
installations are
still
and
317.5 psig
are
1031 psig,
F and 86 F
respectively.
are small.
is
is
approxi-
refrigerant,
its
wide use in
pressure
Its
is
boiling
point
10.65 F.
horsepower required per ton at standard conditions is 1.84, whereas for ammonia, the horsepower required per ton is only 0.989, the latter
chloride, neither
Since
its
pressure
perature
( 69.9 F)
below
is
its
freezing tem-
dioxide cannot exist in the liquid state at atmospheric pressure nor at any pressure below
point
triple
pressure
of 75.1 psia.
Oil
return
in
its
At any
into account.
chloride vapor
may be
sublimes directly into the vapor state and therefore below this pressure is found only in the
leak detector.
However,
solid
and vapor
states.
temperature of
COa
it is
lighter
than
oil.
Hence,
oil
return problems
ammonia
system.
It
has
many of
is
applied
critical
is
simplified
109.3 F)
is
recommended because of
this
method
is
not
the flammability of
methyl chloride.
16-16. Methylene Chloride (Carrene I).
Methylene chloride (CH2 C1 2 ), another halocarbon of the methane series, has a boiling point
of 103.5 F at atmospheric pressure, a characteristic which permits the refrigerant to be stored
in sealed cans rather than in compressed gas
and
9.5 in.
Hg,
respectively.
REFRIGERANTS
5 F), centrifugal compressors,
ticularly suited to
Although
it
methy-
of moisture.
It is also
it
has been
is
Along with
its
295
type
centrifugal
Refrigerant-12
low as -110 F.
either case.
16-17. Refrigerant-ll. Refrigerant- 1
system in that the solvant action of the refrigerant maintains the evaporator and condenser
is
come
The
in contact with
1 (CC1 3 F)
a fluorocarbon of the methane series and
conditions are 24
tively,
under
all
plifies
the problem of
is only
approximately one-half that required for methy-
lene chloride.
is
However,
pressures
and the
relatively
this is
offset
air
may be
Furthermore,
compound which
it
is difficult
is
a highly stable
down even
to break
permits closer
is
that
much
greater
than that
The
commonly used
refrigerants.
explosive.
it
Refrigerant-ll
that of
16-19.
Refrigerant- 1 3. Refrigerant-13(CC1F,)
is being used in ultra-low
is
critical temperature is 83.9 F. Since condensing pressures and the compressor displace-
suitable
for
use with
all
three
types of
compressors.
Refrigerant-13
is
a safe refrigerant.
It is
not
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
296
miscible with
oil.
halide torch
may be
used
40 F,
Refrigerant-22
systems
down
to evaporator temperatures as
Horsepower
minimum,
another
still
is
are
mean
that Refrigerant-22
erant-12 in
superior to Refrig-
is
applications.
all
As
a matter of fact,
except in those applications where space limitations necessitate the use of the smallest possible
equipment and/or where the evaporator temperature is between -20 F and -40 F,
Refrigerant-12, because of
its
lower discharge
probably
the
more
desirable
of
oil, is
two
the
refrigerants.
between 20 and
advantage added to
that the evaporator pressures
temperatures
evaporator
particularly
The
ture
is
ability
erant-12
and therefore
less
trouble
is
experi-
recommended
undesirable.
the compressor.
is
a safe
refrigerant.
The
exact
oil
is
used
When
oil
made
detection.
16-21.
Refrigerant-1
necessitate
the
use
of
tions.
The
Hence,
erating capacity
is
with Refrigerant-22
approximately
man
60%
greater
with Refrigerant-12.
For
centrifugal
type
compressor.
ditioning applications,
Refrigerant-113
respectively.
13.
also employed in
and brine chilling down
it
is
to 0 F.
is relatively
low
REFRIGERANTS
for a low pressure refrigerant (19.59 cu ft/min/
weight)
by other
common
Refrigerant- 1 14
refrigerants.
is
and
industrial air
down
to
70
F.
It is
297
It
has a
28
F.
22, the
lies in
evaporator.
Refrigerant-1 14
torch
may
A halide
The
its
an increase in compressor
capacity of approximately 18%. This makes it
possible to use the same direct connected comerant- 12 results in
an
electric
Therefore,
will
pressor
all
act as
For
this reason,
com-
(butane, propane,
compounds
will
is
almost
is
by the
simple expedient of changing refrigerants.
16-25. Refrigerant Drying Agents. Refrig-
erant drying agents, called desiccants are frequently employed in refrigerating systems to
and
sulfate).
commonly known
as Carrene 7*,
an azeo(73.8% by
is
ation.
f
An
azeotropic mixture
is
a mixture of two or
gel
(silicon dioxide),
granular form.
desiccant
and
is
Drierite
is
an absorption type
form and
available in granular
in cast sticks.
more
portions,
and
off.
17
relatively constant.
Refrigerant Flow
When
when
desired and/or
automatic control
the system
Controls
is
is
subject to
required.
is
It is also
17-29).
There are
oil
Automatic
17-3.
Expansion
shown
valve
hand expansion
and
(6) the
high pressure
low pressure
is
seat,
valve consists
a pressure bellows
screen or strainer
is
usually installed
The
in Fig. 17-2.
screw.
float.
may
The construction
automatic expansion valve is shown
liquid refrigerant
sides
is
latter
float,
Valves.
six
of a typical
in Fig. 17-3.
valve functions to
by flooding more or
refrig-
less
pansion
valves
are
hand-operated
needle
17-1).
The rate of liquid flow
through the valve depends on the pressure
valves (Fig.
adjustable.
for
the
principal
exerted
on one
acts to
move
diaphragm,
is
valve
evaporator loading.
The
pressure.
the compressor
remain constant at
either
(1) the
spring
forces:
and on the
load.
of the hand
unresponsive to
is
spring
disadvantage
is
evaporator
298
pressure
is
so
that
the
desired
evaporator
REFRIGERANT
loading.
of the spring
is
299
Adjusting
screw
FLOW CONTROLS
There-
after,
fall
Bellows or
diaphragm""?"^.
move
in
the
Needle
Evaporator pressure
It is
when
evaporator for a short time after the compressor cycles off and, since the resulting vapor
is
When
0.078" Orifice
f Flare
Fig.
17-1.
capacity
Small
hand-expansion
valve.
Should
spring pressure.
tesy Controls
desired 10 psig,
it
will
Company
of America.)
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
300
fact, if the
Automatic
expansion
below a certain level, the automatic expansion valve, in an attempt to keep the evaporator
fall
valve
Liquid to
and
here
Liquid
from
receiver
Vapor!
compressor
critical point.
(a)
Obviously,
since
permits only a
it
Automatic
-expansion
during periods
valve
when
filled
small
with liquid
is
evaporator
receiver
most
desired.
pressure
maintained constant
is
the
pressor,
here
valve
Vapor
compressor
1
(b)
Operating characteristics of the automatic expansion valve under varying load conditions.
Fig.
17-4.
Heavy
(a)
load
conditions,
Minimum
(b)
load
conditions.
The
chief disadvantage
compared
controls.
efficiency,
would ordinarily
exist with
expansion valve
as
and
of the automatic
is its relatively
poor
efficiency
Another disadvantage of the automatic expansion valve, which can also be attributed to
its constant pressure characteristic, is that it
cannot be used in conjunction with a low
pressure
motor
relationship,
it
is
kept constant.
To accomplish
30
this necessitates
the
the load
tor decreases
&|15
>
LU
(A
0)
o.
-0ff
->fr
-0n->j.^0ff
0n-f
Off
more and
must be flooded
reduced,
surface
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time
in
minutes
evaporator pressure.
by-pass
erators
and
freezers
storage cabinets.
cost.
valves are
now
301
means of
compressor.
line to the
Thermostatic
^^"""expansion valve
C
Fig. 17-6.
Automatic expansion
by-pass valve.
Automatic expansion valve
adjusted for minimum desired
evaporator pressure
^>
_ Condenser
"by-pass
line
r\
")
c
As such thay
order to prevent
is set
for the
porator pressure.
amount just
sufficient to
maintain the
an
minimum
is
by-
vapor, that
PRINCIPLES
302
OF REFRIGERATION
A ^- Evap,
pres.
liquid-charged
20 , -21.05psig
thermostatic
expansion valve.
20 , -21.05psig
Remote bulb
f 20-21 05 psig
30"-21.05psig*
Too,
vaporization of the liquid particles in the compressor reduces the volumetric efficiency of the
compressor, which, under the circumstances, is
refrigerant
evaporator pressure.
which
Thermostatic
17-4.
Because of
its
Expansion
Valves.
its
ready
controls,
a screen or strainer
is
may
of foreign material
The
characteristic operation of the thermoexpansion valve results from the interaction of three independent forces, viz: (1) the
static
is
(3) the pressure exerted by the saturated liquidvapor mixture in the remote bulb.*
As shown in Fig. 17-7, the remote bulb of the
expansion valve is clamped firmly to the
the
cation,
the
where
valve
is
keep the evaporator completely filled with refrigerant under all conditions of system loading,
without the danger of liquid slopover into the
suction line. Because of its ability to provide
full and effective use of all the evaporator surface under all load conditions, the thermostatic
expansion valve is a particularly suitable refrigerant control for systems which are subject to
wide and frequent variations in loading.
is a schematic diagram of a
expansion valve showing the
principal parts of the valve, which are: (1) a
it is
Although there is a slight temperature differential between the temperature of the refrigerant
vapor in the suction line and the temperature
of the saturated liquid-vapor mixture in the
may
it
Figure 17-7
thermostatic
which
is
open to one
Refrigerant-12.
move
the
The operating
described
best
bulb contact.
are
303
example.
With reference
to
Fig.
17-7,
assume that
it
when
Any change
adjusted
Refrigerant- 12
is
P%
(21.05
is
28.46
psi,
the
will
superheated so that
while
its
surroundings,
the
its
becoming
thereby
temperature
is
increased
In this
instance,
at point C.
The
move toward
10 F,
superheat
is
to reduce the
amount of
effective
it
tends
evaporator
direction.
it
is
remote bulb, being at the same temperature as the superheated vapor in the line, will
then have a pressure (Ps) of 28.46 psig, the
saturation pressure of Refrigerant- 12 at 30 F,
which is exerted on the diaphragm through the
capillary tube and which constitutes the total
force tending to move the valve in the opening
in the
Under
will
from
drop in the
the evaporator,
spring pressures
of Pj and
sum
If the pressure
7.41).
valve to
amount of
effective surface.
valve superheat
is set
However,
if the
PRINCIPLES
304
OF REFRIGERATION
is
and pressure
of the increased rate of vaporization. Furthermore, since the valve will maintain a constant
superheat of approximately 10 F, the temperature of the vapor at point C will also be higher
because of the increase in the evaporator temperature, as will the temperature
and pressure
of the fluid in the remote bulb.
Obviously, then, unlike the automatic expansion valve, the thermostatic expansion valve
cannot be set to maintain a certain evaporator
temperature and
When
superheat.
pressure,
only a
thermostatic
constant
expansion
valve
is used as a refrigerant control, the evaporator temperature and pressure will vary with the
Fig.
17-8.
Conventional
liquid-charged,
internally
(Courtesy
General Controls.)
As a general rule,
most
applications,
it
pressure,
that because of
the
rate
all
the liquid
When
the
refrigerant pressure
is relatively
perature
also small
consequence.
valve in that
greater travel
will
point
is
10 F,
in
effective cooling.
resulting
REFRIGERANT
the diaphragm of the valve. If the valve spring
is adjusted for a pressure (iy of 7.41 psi, a bulb
7.41) will
FLOW CONTROLS
effective
same as those
21.05 psig and 20 F,
pressure
rather
pressure.
This
is
so constructed that
305
is
than
on the
outlet
the
evaporator inlet
accomplished by completely
diameter
pressor
effective
evaporator
Naturally,
surface
the
the loss of
will
materially
shown
in
Fig.
16psjg-15*F (sat)
1*-
An
18.38 psig
|A
17-9.
relatively
as
portion
side,
temp 11*F)
Super heat
C
Fig. 17-9. Schematic diagram of externally equalized thermostatic expansion valve.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
306
Fig.
17-10. Externally
ized
thermostatic
equal-
expansion
Company.)
diaphragm
is
when added
psig, which,
11
to
18.41
psig,
the
Hence, a bulb
pressure of
move
corresponding to a
temperature
4F, a suction
is
(16
4) is necessary
The
pro-
of
Although
desirable in that
of
all
it
characteristic
this
insures full
and
efficient
tions of loading,
sirable in that
it
it is,
at the
same
all
is
use
condi-
time, unde-
is its
tendency to
is
when
the
this
period and
is
reduced.
The
because of excessive
evaporator pressures and temperatures during
rises to
the compressor
driver
Not
cartridge-type
which
(Fig.
17-11),
the
with a noncondensible
gas, acts as a solid link between the diaphragm
and the valve stem as long as the evaporator
cartridge,
is filled
is less
the cartridge.
ever,
when
the
maximum
pressure, called
(MOP) of the
depends on the pressure of the gas in the
cartridge and can be changed simply by changthe
operating pressure
valve,
The operation of
is
When
spring tension.
is
less
than the
rises to
maximum
is
some
In
cases
is
addition
adjustable in the
to
the
field.
overload
protection
tend
remote bulb.
valve
Pressure
charged
mechanical
cartridge
Fig.
17-11.
Cartridge-type
again
Obviously,
307
fact
to
that
eliminate
the
possibility
the evaporator
pressure
of liquid
The
must be
308
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
sufficiently to
However, whereas
in the liquid
compared to those
is shown in
valve
is
limiting
characteristic
function of
its
Is
refrigerant.
is
thermostatic expansion
always
liquid is
limited
so
that
Fig. 17-13.
amount of
will
17-7.
charged valve,
sufficiently large to
gas-charged
is
in the
at
the
all
form of
Once
a saturated
little effect
evaporator
the
equilibrium
pressure (P3)
valve
the bulb
pressure,
established only
is
is
equal to the
since
when
Therefore,
limiting valves.
Since
evaporator
the
indirectly
sum of
the evaporator
in Fig.
MOP
(25
equivalent to
Once
10
bulb
the
psig)
reaches
pressure
is
limited
309
maximum evaporator
of the valve) to change.
Since the bulb pressure (P3) is always equal to
the evaporator pressure (Px) plus the spring
pressure (Pa), increasing the superheat setting
MOP
pressure (the
(Pa) will
decrease the
MOP
(Px ).
Likewise,
maximum
when installing a
The valve body
coldest point
have very
little effect
exceeds
25
psig,
the
sum of
the
On
the
will
be
less
than the
maximum
bulb pressure
tive
stantially greater
pressures
Limiting
under normal
high
operation.
during
pull-down
these
periods,
Low
long shut
Chart showing
performance of
the gas charged and liquid
Fig.
down
period
17-13.
comparative
down."
(Courtesy
Controls
Division,
- Liquid
charged valve
"pull-
Detroit
Motor
overloaded
American
Corporation.)
/
A
,''
Gas char
jed v alve
<Y
w \6 ^pW
!\
the
PRINCIPLES
310
OF REFRIGERATION
is
Remote bulb
control
if
not required,
usually
it is
more practical to
some maximum
loses
liquid
condenses at
these points
initial
and operating
For
expansion
time,
thermo
expansion
particularly
As a
cations.
in
conditioning appli-
air
valve.
the desired
period.
The other
is
to limit the
maximum
Valves.
Although expansion valves having a bulb
charged with the system refrigerant are suitable
for most medium and high temperature
17-9.
compressor loading.
Which is the better
solution depends upon the requirements of the
common
particular installation.
The reason
upon examination of
In applications where
12
perature
is
desirable, the
is
shown
in Fig.
17-15.
the
Therefore,
to cause a
is
much
at
high
at
low temperatures
than
/o
-5.5
65
r*
60
50
Fig. 17-15.
heat.
45
40
<%
lao
a 25
15
ys
$\
35
20
{5 psi
i
55
&f\
%if\
t*-13*-l3
I
'
psi
10
5
10
20
Temperature (*F)
30
40
50
60
temperatures.
in
Fig.
at
20
mately 13
pressure.
whereas
psi,
is
when
Obviously, then,
the expansion
amount of
much of
the
C in
Curve
if
the superheat
and where
good practice
an expansion valve having
than the
fluid other
Fig. 17-16
indicates
spring
311
is
is
desired
70
65
60
55
ST
45
40
1>
9;
50
s/
i&rtx
&)>&*
S 35
rl <*
30
m ^0 / Apc
^ Pr^^6'
S >f\r
10'
btt
25
xgi
/fl"
20
cut
*~2*
15
10
10
20
30
40
50
60
Temperature (*F)
change in the
is
more
critical.
less
heat.
optimum performance.
Since
refrigerant.
17-10.
is
delivered to the
PRINCIPLES
312
OF REFRIGERATION
distributor.
distributor
is
In others,
it is
distributor
it is
is
a refrigerant distributor
is
shown
in Fig. 17-17.
common
Any
A
Smooth contoured
approech
A
Divergent section
Gradual reduction
in
velocity-contour flow
Little
turbulence
venturi-type distributor,
flow characteristics,
is
shown
along with
in Fig.
its
17-18.
Retainer
Body
Nozzle
313
Tubing
ring
Exploded View
Valve Company.)
(a)
(b)
butor provides a
minimum
shown
is
The following
in Fig. 17-19.
A centrifugal-type distributor
is
illustrated in
catalog data.*
is drilled
Centrifugal
to receive the
distributor*
The
inlet
end
is
recessed to receive
is
an
held in place by
The nozzle
squarely
it
orifice
impinges
The
orifice size
it
-Evaporator
enters these
Fig.
17-20.
valve and
* Sporlan Valve
Company.
Single outlet
thermostatic expansion
centrifugal-type distributor.
(Courtesy
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
314
o a o o
head up.
With the exception of the manifold-type
W. t=d/
17-21.
Fig.
distributor,
refrigerant distributor
is
outlet thermostatic
Single
when a
expansion
(Courtesy Alco
Valve Company.)
swirling effect
evaporator tubes.
manifold
Weir type
or
illustrated in Fig.
17-21.
distributor
This type of
is
distri-
Some
applications
are
shown
in Fig. 17-22.
17-1
best
1.
typical
distributor
no
restrictions
Fig.
17-22. Illustrating
distributors.
applications
of refrigerant
Remote Bulb
extent,
Location.
To a
large
depends upon
is
ings.
location
and
installation of the
it is
the proper
remote bulu.
When an external remote bulb is used (mounted
on the outside, rather than the inside of the
refrigerant piping) as is normally the case, the
bulb should be clamped firmly (with metal
clamps) to a horizontal section of the suction
line near the evaporator outlet, preferably
expansion valve
315
the
temperature
difference
line
"E=
External bulb on small suction line
pany.)
External bulb
line.
When an
iron pipe or
should
by
trial
and
If the temperature of the bulb is permitted to rise substantially above that of the
evaporator during the off cycle, the valve will
cycle.
filled
When
the
bulb
is
located
on the
may
On
fill
when
suit-
remote bulb
may
error.
on
On
is
operates
on a pump-down
cycle.
316
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
the remote bulb must be located
on the evapora-
evaporator
of operating superheat
and resulting in irregular operation of the valve
due to alternate drying and filling of the trap.
If valve operation becomes too irregular, liquid
may be blown back to the compressor by the gas
line at the
Evaporator
Multi-outlet
thermo
expansion
valve
on
is
bility
The
correct
thermo
expansion
valve
Thermo expansion
do nothing to
valve
Correct
(b)
Evaporator
Liquid trap-
As short as possible-
Any
Fig* 17-25.
Recommended remote
(Courtesy
317
expansion
will
performance,
valve
cause poor
should
care
it is
necessary or desirable
required or
when
when low
superheats are
is likely
down
to be
the suction
line
2\
riser.
to
Remote bulb
Fig. 17-27.
OD.
in.
refrigerant
range.
12,
pressure drop
is
psi.
17-13.
0F
or in excess of approximately
1F
at
is
valve
Equalizer line
refrigerant
Faulty remote
bulb location
Evaporator
Correct remote
bulb location
circuiting"
back."
either case.
This
is
not
true,
As
described in
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
318
the
two
first
'latter
deliver
through the
orifice
suction
pressor side.
is
may
be con-
When
the
connected to a horizontal
should be installed on top of the line in
is
oil
on both
the low
When
and high
when one
refrigerant distributor
or liquid into
the compressor.
is
used.
17-14.
tion.
selected,
is
needed.
An externally
is
tor inlet
is
Once a
Solution.
sub-
valve
of
8.1 tons at
when
psi.
a 20
and
all
of the
evaporator temperature
refrigerant.
Thermostatic
made on
valve type
permissible.
From Table
expansion
system
rating table.
The expansion
Normally, valve
on a condensing temperature
the load
50%
on the
of the design
the valve.
17-15.
when
below
is
(2) the
likely to fall
not
of their
two or
more separate circuits, with each circuit being
fed by an individual expansion valve. With this
known:
evaporator temperature,
is
will
50%
valves
Capillary Tubes.
the simplest of
all
The
capillary tube
ft!
and
319
Accumulator
two units.
For any given tube length and bore, the
these
Capillary tube
bonded
heat exchange
and condensing pressures of the system. Likewise, the greater the frictional resistance of the
tube (the longer the tube and/or the smaller the
is
when
Consequently,
if
efficiently
the latter
the
system
is
is
Strainer
in operation.
to
perform
perature.
pressure
suction
compressor,
pumping capacity
components
at
some
effect
of too
and
raise
the
much
lower the
condensing
it is
some operat-
capacity.
pumping capacity of
Naturally,
an increase
is reduced at these conditions, the oversystem capacity will be less than the design
pressor
all
the compressor.
seal in the
PRINCIPLES
320
OF REFRIGERATION
Ob-
may
also result.
How-
all
ever, of
amount of
likely to
at the
ing conditions.
At
on the system
The
it
cycles off,
it
remains
more importance
Moreover,
pressor.
considerable
is
cost,
all
savings in
the
manufacturing
on all
costs.
Thus,
Many
room
coolers.
ditioners.
charge,
an open type compressor may lose suffiby seepage around the shaft
cient refrigerant
overcharge
accurately.
overloading of
where
of
is
difficult to charge
Furthermore, because of the long
and suction
erant
is
lines,
in the tube.
liquid state.
this
minimum amount of
condenser at the tube
mum
cause a maxi-
therefore a
maximum
increase
in
the
and
flow
321
When
the tube.
the tube
of the vapor
of a buoyant member
or pan) which is
responsive to refrigerant liquid level and which
acts to open and close a valve assembly to admit
more or less refrigerant into the evaporator in
accordance with changes in the liquid level in
the float chamber. The float chamber may be
located on either the low pressure side or high
pressure side of the system. When the float is
located on the low pressure side of the system,
float control consists
(hollow metal
ball, cylinder
When
is
called a
the float
is
located
The
is
orator
make
some other
Bonding
liquid state
is
and a high
predominately in the
refrigerant side tube
On the
other hand, because of their bulk and the relatively large refrigerant
on small
been discarded in
appli-
this area in
lies
Low
low pressure
The
rate at
depleted by vaporization.
It is
is
being
responsive only
322
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Vapor to
compressor
Fig.
17-29.
Low
side float
pump
through evaporator.
Hand expansion
valve
and
filled
will
all
conditions
it
modulates
designed that
is either fully
open or
Point
should be above
chamber
rof suction
oil
to
of interchanger
Metering valve
Strainer
~*y
Primary flow
and solenoid
closed except
when
compressor
operating
is
Do
not use
operated
solenoid valve
pilot
(Courtesy General
Electric.)
may be
float
it
installed
accumulator in
(Fig. 11-1),
separate float
On
chamber
323
(Fig. 17-31).
pump employed
to
valve
The operating
The
refrigerant
Weighted
valve pin
c
c
Fig. 17-31. High pressure float
Intermediate valve
(pressure reducing valve)
valve.
injection
Fig. 17-29
of
is
pump failure.
Low pressure
float valves
may be used
in
sion valves.
In
many
instances, a single
low
low pressure
rate of vaporization,
When
the
com-
remain closed
again.
until the
compressor
is
started
PRINCIPLES
324
OF REFRIGERATION
'Service valve
Service valve
Bunker
type coil^
sure
float
valve
application.
Com-
pany.)
Liquid
header"
Oil drain
it
always in the evaporator, and that the refrigerant charge is critical. An overcharge of
refrigerant will cause the float valve to overfeed
of the liquid as
equal
is
Moreover,
if
To
to
at
least
25%
of
the
evaporator
volume.
The
float valve
is
on a
Notice
and
and
float valve
may be
used
shown
in Fig. 17-32.
refrigerant
is
With the
latter, liquid
pressure receiver)
Body^.
float
float
arm
move
merged in the
is
float ball is
always sub-
Float
float
and
assembly
arm
Head
Pivots
Fig. 17-33.
valve.
Company.)
Valve pin
Valve seat
Outlet
'
Inlet
17-19.
However, the
employed for
chamber.
unit.
ordinarily
this
in the
is
325
float switch
level
(1)
float
Fuse
Line
-\=rEvaporator pressure
To holding
contact on motor
Solenoid
Heat exchanger
Strainer
starter relay
pilot valve
regulator
Start-stop
switch
Surge drum-
fc
^Strainer
Globe valve
Refrigerant cooled
section
Fig. 17-34. Baudelot cooler with float switch, solenoid liquid valve, evaporator pressure regulator, and
solenoid pilot valve. (Courtesy Alco Valve Company.)
valve should be located as close to the evaporator as possible and always in a horizontal line in
switch which
In larger
and close a
is
when
the
level
many
applications for
PRINCIPLES
326
OF REFRIGERATION
Suction line
Return from
Thermostatic
expansion valve
Insert bulb
of level
master
element
ooooo
mm""
Fig.
levelcontrol.
connections
lan Valve
on
rise)
by employing a
The
ex-
(Courtesy Spor-
Company.)
17-35. Thermostatic
Electrical
a low wattage
an
electric
designed
17-20.
with
specially
expansion
thermal element can also be used to control the
liquid level in flooded-type evaporators. Figure
17-35 illustrates a typical installation on a
valve
vertical surge
reservoir
for
the
thermostatic
charge.
The
drum.
Manual opening
stem
Pilot line
Com-
pany.)
Main port
As
evaporator
and more
rises
comes
in con-
element
liquid directly into the evaporator or accumulator (surge tank), into an accumulator drop leg,
Pilot operated
employed on large
327
opening direction and, supplies a greater pressure to the top of the piston thereby moving
the piston in an opening direction and providing
a greater flow of refrigerant. Conversely, when
the suction vapor superheat decreases, indicating
the need of a reduction in refrigerant flow, the
pilot valve moves in a closing direction. This
provides less pressure on top of the piston, permitting the piston to move in a closing direction
External
Remote
equalizer line
bulb well
Pilot
thermo
expansion valve
Pilot solenoid
liquid valve
.Main line
strainer
Note:
When
tubes.
tonnage
installations.
The
is
usually a thermostatic
in
the
pilot valve
"A" from
is
the load.
in Fig. 17-38.
the pilot
line.
When
piston
is
and tube
chiller.
on a
The
externally
equalized
PRINCIPLES
328
OF REFRIGERATION
adjusting the pressure
Pilot line^
control piston.
connection-J'fpt
Strainer screen
A gage is
initial start-up.
17-22.
few of their
provide automatic operation.
many functions in the refrigerating system are
described at appropriate places in this book.
is
field
when
the coil
is
By
energized.
attaching a
Hand operating
stem
Caution-for normal
system operation
stem should be
screwed in until flats
(Fig. 17-42),
Fig.
17-38.
Liquid
high
pressure.
valve
control
controls the
directly.
In the
armature controls
only the pilot port rather than the main valve
port. When the coil is energized, the armature
is drawn into the coil magnetic field and the
side through
an adjustable
pressure gage
port
opened.
pilot
start-up.
is
shown in
typical application of a
pilot is
shown
in Fig. 17-41.
Fig. 17-40.
low pressure
As the
low pressure
float
liquid level
float pilot
on
the
bottom of the
the piston and
lift
As
the
liquid
is
main valve
port.
The
latter
bleeder is not
be obtained by
pressure
is
on top of
valve port C.
the floating
main piston
the
magnetic field
and closes the pilot port. The pressure immediately builds up on top of the main piston,
causing the piston to drop and close off the
main valve
coil
port.
specially
is
on
top.
in
Consideration
is
to
be
be
installed.
given
to the
REFRIGERANT
FLOW CONTROLS
329*
C
L.
j2
>s
I
C
s
s
8
a
o
c
I
Q.
<
330
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
o
>-
f>
a.
'I
a.
*o"
IL
u o
a.
o
>-
MO
331
maximum
regulators.
The function
regulator
is
ot
tne
evaporator pressure
\W
f\\\\
!S^^-
LW\\\^
Fig.
solenoid
17-43. Pilot-operated
floating
piston
(Courtesy
type.
of the
valve
Sporlan
Valve
Company.)
Fig.
17-42. Small,
direct-acting
solenoid
valve.
The
(Fig. 17-44)
may drop
on
evaporator
throttling-type
regulator
is
is
never
operating.
fully
As
pressure
closed
the load
important to recognize
that the evaporator pressure regulator does not
maintain a constant pressure in the evaporator
the compressor.
It is
pressure.
(moduor fully
Fig.
17-44. Throttling-type
evaporator
pressure
Company of America.)
332
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
External
pilot circuit
connection
Fig.
17-45.
Pilot-operated
''Main port
.Is
regulator.
(Courtesy Sporlan
Valve Company.)
^W^sgp
Alco Valve
Com-
fall
pressure,
With
section.
desired minimum.
Section 17-21.
position.
similar to that of
is
333
of the regulator
operated
It is
pilot
liquid
is
valve
control
described
in
shown
do
in
chillers in
They are
prescribes a
minimum
evaporators are
all
systems
suction
regulator
main
where the
operated at approximately
same temperature, a
pressure
humidity control
evaporator temperature.
evaporator
multiple
the
loading.
In
order to prevent
minimum
can be
single
evaporator
in
installed
On
all
the
the
17-46),
pressure
maximum,
20-16). This
use
tion
operate
to satisfy
the
to protect the
regulators
is
are
recommended
for
on any
installation
1.
High
3.
the
pressor continues to
is
2.
in
an increase
to:
tures,
The purpose of
other hand,
how
pressure
the
regardless of
where a
multiple of evaporators connected to a single
compressor are operated at different temperaevaporators.
regulator"
starting loads.
pump)
operation.
the
4.
coldest evaporator.
pressures.
In large
sizes,
The
valve
shown
in Fig.
17-45
is
pilot
control.
With
internal
pilot
control,
operated.
regulators
in
large
sizes
are pilot
7),
and 717
(ammonia).
As a
areas,
employed
compressors cannot be
with low pressure
economically
refrigerants
18
best
applied
to
systems
having
evaporator
and
relatively
high condensing pressures, reciprocating compressors have also been used very successfully
Compressor
in both
perature installations.
Construction
and Lubrication
sizes
units
industrial installations.
of compressors are
eration duty:
and
(3)
(1)
reciprocating,
centrifugal.
The
(2)
rotary,
reciprocating
reciprocating piston,
ciprocating compressor
and condensing
Among
at
its
relatively
334
and
its
field.
and
bility
single-acting,
vertical,
(1)
enclosed
compressors and (2) double-acting, horizontal
compressors employing crossheads and piston
Because of
pressor
is
its
com-
US
Bg-
IE.
Large
I.
showing
capacity,
compressor
reciprocating
details of lubrication
{Courtesy
t/lttm.
Vik*r
Manufacturing Company.}
and therefore
is
applications.
As compared
more
floor
Also, while
Hew
oil
|ig.lu
(rama
it
is
also
the
crankcase
erant.
is
The
the suction
and discharge
Ufie
KKkel-IKWJ luhicaLcn
crasshfrf nin
Md
pressures, whereas in
taction
GUite
.war.
wlw
Flirt
piste
dHflllM
jket
IK
Frame
bwt
full
langjh
reducing OirtHutfiS
mi
pockets
hens
Law *
discharge
hvc
Fig. 18-2, Donblt-aeting. horizontal sOmpr40r, Cinder clearance Can bi adjusted msmJally to obtain
capacity control. {Courtesy WorthlngtOn Corporation .)
33S
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
a.
"5
COMPRESSOR
seal
suction pressure.
more
serious because
to maintain
reciprocating
it is
Light
nod
piston
compressor than
usually
it is
a pressure
more
of
difficult
around the
sea)
horizontal
the
single-acting
reciprocating
com-
Numerous
combinations
of
the
following
from
as
few as one to as
many
as sixteen.
may
CONDUCTION AND
LUBRICATION
cylinder wall
and
in the side
film
in.
on
sufficient
rings are
diameter,
in
provided with
more
Where four or
arrangements
are
ordinarily
W, or
used.
radial
In-line
less.
337
oil
grooves to
facilitate lubri-
Automotive- type
the
bottom
of
the
Double- trunk
from one to three
the top and one or two
piston.
compression rings at
oil rings at !hc bottom.
As a general rule, pistons are manufactured
The
ances.
When aluminum
all
factors
castings
for
larger
whereas cylinder
compressors frequently
automotive and
(2)
two
common
double-trunk
types:
For the
339
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
the vapor
designed
be
valves
largest
response
Therefore, in order to
increases.
to
losses,
provide
the
the
ptale,
to
rapid closing
and to open
Too, whenever
vapor
through
passages-
In
all
maximum
wiredrawing
The maximum
may be defined as
limits.
and automatically.
18-6.
Poppet Valves.
bleeder arrangement
The poppel
valve
is
also
is
included in the
travel-
facilitate
most discharge
valve,
Furthermore, they
of the
caused by
To
loaded.
compressor.
(I)
differentials
valves
pressure
changes
ring pflte
side.
The poppet
in
valve,
one of the
refrigeration compressors,
first
is
types used
essentially
compressors.
ring! ccmstitut*
COMPfcE&SOft
339
18-5.
Fig
Discharge valve
assembly (diie valve), (from
the ASRE &ota Book, Design
Volume,
1957-58
Edition.
Reproduced by permission of
the American Society of MeltRefrigerating
ing.
Shoulder screw
anrf
^Sy_
Air-
Conditioning Engineers)
for locking
Coil spring,
screws
Discharge vatae
retainer
Disc valve _
Flat spring
it
increase
pressor,
over slots
J-7- fting
The
The
and
is
to
is
lift.
seat,
in the
One
disadvantage of
one that
is
spaces,
two smaller
One modification of
is
retainer,
18-8.
much
do
mounted
flush as
is
and
that
increased in
clearance
volume
is
necessarily
Flexing Valves,
individual design to a
vaj ve.
assembly.
outer
principal
they cannot be
The
For example, in
a thin
steel reed,
which
The Rapper
is
valve
usually fastened
one end while the opposite unfastened end rests on the valve seat over the valve
securely at
port.
to cover
shown
in Fig, 18-9.
The
"beam"
valve reed
valve, is
is
held in
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
340
consists of
flexible
is
held
down
port.
in Fig. 18-10.
18-*.
Valve
Location.
As
previously
de-
may be
As a
general rule,
the piston
With small
Valve
Fig.
tB-4.
One
popular
design
of flexing
vaNe.
beam which
is
upward
at this point.
The ends
up and down
move
at the center.
act.';
as the reed
The
spring-
as a safety device to
damage
in the
the
valve port.
oil
is
not usually
of liquid of
any bind. However, with the arrangement in
Fig. 18-9, the whole valve assembly will lift to
pass liquid slugs. Under ordinary discharge
sufficient clearance to pass a slug
down
firmly
on
is
ample
to
reed.
is
Worth
nj-
COMPHESSOft CONSTRUCTION
AND LUBRICATION
341
When
in the cylinder
head, ihe
by the
event
slug
that a
springs.
held
is
However,
the
Flf.
nety
in
to the compressor.
the
discharge
valve
damage
In smaller compressors.,
usually
is
designed
to
tn
an effort
the
trend
in
rpm
is
and rpm,
it
is
Since single-
a function of
diseffi-
maximum
speeds.
maximum
is
up
to
rotational speed of
more or
less limited
by the
is
However, as a
no
limit
to
piston
Since considerable
difficulty is
experienced in
valve arrangements,
somewhat
rpm
limited.
volumetric
efficiency
of
the
compressor is
by the
compressor
is
increased.
Piston velocity
rpm and
Theoretically,
assembly, which
is
a function of compressor
The
rpm a
stroke
(ft)
4 in.
If the rotational
x 2
800 fpm
is
Pon d*d.
will
have to be reduced to
12
~-
x S00 fpm
tttz
3600 rpm x 2
1.33 in.
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
3*2
of vtlve
If
often
mounted
In
u i discharge vike,
upon
The
[pax
This
volumetric
is
the
accounts
efficiency
maximum
for
of
the
piston velocity,
fact
the
that
will
certain
is
increased up to a
further increased,
[he efficiency
required
it
means
from an increase
in the size
is
of the conv
the speed
if
usually
limited
permissible
in order to
Too, since the
piston stroke and the compressor rpm are both
is
shorter the
compressor
bore
large
will
be greater
bore
is
the bore
is
limits the
125%
bore dimension
ture
M3
(Fig.
housing which
ment per
maximum
piston displace-
cylinder.
in
in.
approximately
compressors up to
in some of the large
18-2).
is
stuffing
cast as
box
is
domestic
18
the stuffing
in.
a cylindrical
is
the space in
fills
The packing
box housing.
held in
industrial types,
stuffing
Cranks, Rods, and Bearings. Crankshafts employed in large compressors are of the
crank-throw type and are usually constructed
place by a
of forged
18-12.
stccf
All bearing-
ease-hardened,
where
brass
or
is
when
tightened,
and press
and housing,
two.
and
satisfactory
aluminum bearings
are used.
As
a general rule,
the crankshaft
Crankshaft
arrangement.
locknut
sometimes
(roller
used
bad)
or
for
operation.
The
compressors.
and
is
mounted on a
straight
eccentric
is
counterbalanced
screw arrangement.
face.
aluminum, forged
are
usually
steel,
case-hardened
steel.
Wrist-pins
made
Bronze,
the
is
oil
to prevent
from the
crankcasc
is
on duty
installations
to tighten the
is
babbit.
The
ammonia
large
are
for
where an operator
Common
bearings
mains.
the
tually
compressors
designed
automatic
for
vacuum when
must be
long
the shaft
is
self-lubricating,
and be
life,
rotating or idle.
have
It
reasonably
Is
shown
in Fig-
The
which
is
An
oil
film
occurs
crankcase housing.
double
shaft
seal.
in Fig. 1S-1
Notice
that
employs
the seal
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
344
Mitel
retaining
rinj
Oil
Sea!
--*
ulult-
Crankshaft
tMarifiE
Gasket
Seal spring
oil
during
especially
cating
, i
it
more important
the
lubricating
stability, (2)
strength,
oil
(4) viscosity,
are:
<1)
com-
chemical
(3) dielectric
in evaluating these
an individual
oil
which
selecting the
and
Same of
compressor,
be used,
to
(4) the
that
it
cating
is
oil
perform
continuously
and
its
lubricating function
is
in a
ability of the
decomposition
oil
frequently
condensers
are
used,
the
oil
closely
is
related
to
the
unsaturated
hydrocarbons
in
the
oil.
These
desired.
is
of
amount of
oils
from
a water-white.
wa *
content.
Pour point
consideration in selecting an
is
an importan 1
low tem-
oil for
perature systems.
of the
oil
under-
oil
hermetic motor-compressor
where
an
without
these units.
Since
effectively
oil for
If the
Since
all
amount of
any
oil if
wax
will precipitate
becomes cloudy
oil is
from
reduced
Because the
oil
oil
from the
oil in
the evaporator
and
will
become Inopera-
oil is the
temperature at
from a
mixture of 90% Refrigerant- 12 and 16% oil by
volume. Since [he use of an oil soluble refrigerant lowers the viscosity of the oil and affects
both the pour and cloud points, where oil
miscible
refrigerants
employed,
are
the
floe
point of the
than the
precipitate
to
oil is a
mixture to determine
In order to provide
adequate lubrication for the compressor, the
of the
viscosity
oil
If the viscosity
in addition to
its
(in
friction will
floe point
of the
oil is
a measure of
oil
wax
soluble refrigerant,
it
when
may
compressor)
rotary
Because
lubricating
or of the
oil
its
reasonable limits.
tive,
also be defined as a
will
Although a small
may
oil, viscosity
wax
too high,
is
cating
345
is
low.
On
(in
when
occur
the
is
will
be increased.
when
larly
compressor parts
is
will be inadequate.
miscihte refrigerant
is
ra-17. Dielectric
Strength.
strength of an oil
used,
The
dielectric
is
to cause
an
a gap
immersed
in
the
oil.
Since
any
moislure,
the
oil will
lower
its
dielectric strength is
relatively free of
contaminants.
This
is
oil is
especi-
for a given quantity of oil (60 mm) at a controlled temperature (usually 100 F) to flow by
gravity
from a
capillary
shown graphically
to 40" P.
to the lubri-
The
of tem-
effect
With regard
changes
oil
ally important in oils used with hermetic motorcompressor units, since an oil of low dielectric
strength may contribute to grounding or
shorting of the motor windings,
1 0-1 A. Viscosity,
Viscosity has already been
0% refrigerant
line
oil
175
dilution).
SSU when
Shown
F of approximately
to approximately
also in Fig,
18-12
is
the
is
BOO
reduced
effect
of
H*
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
2000f
18-12.
Fig.
of
tem-
ViKWlty
curves
perature
of
Refrigerant- ( 2
solution
in
o\\.
-20
20
60
SO 100
TemparatUfa F
ffiD
210
the
Imbricating
on the
dilution
refrigerant
oil
40
viscosity
of
oil-
temperature
when diluted
SSU
with
at this
same
% Refrigerant-
causing the
oil
rubbing surfaces.
12.
It is
must be taken
into
account
oil to
be splashed
case
down
into the
(Fi.
1S-3),
by
guide.
in
selecting
18-19.
the
lubricating
compressor
the
vary
of
somewhat
enclosed
approximately
15
compressors up through
hp are splash lubricated.
most compressors employ
Jn the
splash
method of
lubrication,
the
gravity
shaft
seal
In
rifle-drilled to
Too,
carry
oil to
scoops or
dippers arc sometimes installed on the end of the
the
aid
wrist-pin
bearings.
forcing
in
oil
through
oil
rifle-drilled
oil
passages.
times
called
flooded
lubrication,
employs
small,
This method
high
conventional
excessive
oil
speed
compressors
where
the
splash
splashing of the
oil in the
is
crankcasc.
method of
lubrication, the
oil
tubes
performing
After
lubricating
its
sump
com-
The
Ammonia
Reciprocating
Carbon dioxide
Reciprocating
pumps
pressor.
oil
is
U7
A. Small Systems
Type of
SU at 100 F
Refrigerant
Compressor
Oil Viscosity
Sulfur dioxide
Reciprocating
Sulfur dioxide
Rotary
Methyl chloride
Reciprocating
J 50-300
280-300
70-200
not usually
critical
Refrigerant-30
Centrifugal
How-
Refrigerant-30
Rotary
2SO-300
2S0-3O0
280-300
150-300
Refrigerant-
Centrifugal
28G-30G
ever, this
is
is
not true or
all
employing
oil dippers
compressors, particu-
with splash
Refrigerant- 12
Centrifugal and
Refrigerant- 21
Reciprocating
Refrigerant-] 13
Centrifugal
2SO-300
280-300
280-300
housing.
Refrigerant- 1 14
Rotary
28G-3O0
larly those
lubrication.
reciprocating
foreign
pump
material
info the
pump
oil filters
of
B. Industrial Refrigeration
or bearings.
dioxide compressors
are worthwhile
circulating systems)
An
oil
junction with
In some
all
compressors,
large
cylinders
are
SU
Type of Compressor
Viscosity
Range
compressor cylinders
Where oil
50-300 at 100 F
prevented from
is
entering system or
cylinders:
carried
to
the
Cylinders
troughs.
Oil
cross-head
by
506-600
at 100 F
150-160 at 100 F
systems
In splash systems
Steam-driven compressor
cylinders
sate
is
when conden-
making
140-165
C. Miscellaneous
SU
Type of Requirement
place,
excessive
dilution
of the
oil
discharge line
is
210 F
Equipment
In the
at
splash-fed
materially increased.
Under
Viscosity at
00
F Range
Bearings
king
oiled,
normal
temperature
Grease lubricated
Wick
280-300
100-115
280-300
280-300
280-600
oilers
Lubrication
Fig.
IB- 1 3.
ASKE
Ou<rt took,
recommendation:. {From
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
g,
cal
a- 1 *- Sifigle-aKifig, verti-
erankctse.
Manufacturing Company. )
more
severe that
all
Mot
crankcase.
only
other lime.
and
broken rods and shafts. Too, where considerable oil foaming occurs in compressors employforced
ing
feed
lubrication,
lubrication
will
and
displaces
vapor
which
would
crankcase
in
In
compressor
the
the
system design, particularly with reference to
evaporator
and suction
I .
will
often
cause
As
leaking
3.
may
Any
pressor
the
evaporator, liquid refrigerant will boil off in
evaporator and condense in the compressor
crankcase.
Naturally,
is
this
can
occur
only
a number of ways:
flow
piping.
also be a contributing
condition is readily
the
again,
factor- Here,
corrected or prevented by proper design.
refrigerant control
evaporator. It
refrigerant
any event,
com-
the
pressor without lubrication but there is also
liquid
of
slugs
noncompressible
possibility thai
refrigerant
likely to occur
is
is
located
installations where the compressor is
cold
outside or in a basement or some other
location.
The
is
to
an
electrical
heating element
in
tbe
warmer
is
location.
certain
oil
amount of
come
permitted to
are
another, as
is
(I)
refrigerant
can be
depends on
that
oil
oil.
in contact
oil
only approximately
of the refrigerant
psi, the
maximum
must of
much
in
0%
necessity vaporize
in the
drawn
oil is
8%
by weight. However,
SO
vapor increases.
in
as
pumped
oil
returns
vapor.
On
In
conditions, the
other
if
be
il
The
140
the oil
fl 7
120
soiled
latter
oil
in the
V
X^
j*
^qV
si-
temperature of BO" F-
w//
Assuming
faunt
30
by weight
60
SO
40
of
R-12
that the
Flf.
trie
20
10
be established,
y'
20
to
separated oil
/)
/ /
librium
is
the
lubricating
is
cooled to
is
words, under
practical significance
off cycle
percentage pf
I6-)S.
Temperature-pTeMure
relationship
crankcase
will
20%
of
oi!
be approximately
by
weight, as determined from Fig. 18-15. Suppose
now that the compressor cycles on and that the
in the
is
the oil
The
inlet,
42%.
foaming
oil
only approximately
is
oil
amount of
percentage of Rcfrigeram-
crankcase
increased to 60
new
percentage.
mixture
oil -refrigerant
%. Therefore,
increases considerably as
lower
pressure
this
solubility
dissolved in the
is
crankcase
percentage of refrig-
the
The
mixture
in a
in
in the
always
maximum
the
pressure,
oil to
and
Engineers.)
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
iSO
Suction
BCTM4
the oil
for ail
that
returns
to
the
is
oil
drainage into
the crankcase.
Oil
check
valve
Bleed pert
during
the
so
officycle
that
warm
amount of
the
Ffg,
ft-
through
Illustrating oil
16.
an
purpose.
oil
chamber
passage
Since this
oil
provided
for
this
com-
to the
passage
oil
will
relatively small.
down
cycles
The
off.
crankcase
Rotary Compressors.
roller
bleed port
The
is
blow-by gases
compressor.
If
low pressure
in
the
amount of refrigerant
The pump-down cycle
the
resulting
limits
pressors in
it)
is
completely evacuated and the crankcase pressure reduced to a low level before the compressor
pump-
cycle, in
on
common
Rotary com-
designs.
latter
being
mounted
concentrically in a
Because of the shaft
cylinder (Fig.
18-17).
eccentric,
cylindrical
Ihe
roller
eccentric
is
minimum
clearance.
As
the
up
this
prevent
crankcase,
increase
the
oil
Not
only would
from returning
to
the
it
in
compressor.
suction,
With
with
the
cylinder
is
crankpin
mounted
in the
suction
wail.
crank-
cycle, the
the cylinder
maintaining contact
around
bearing.
in a
manner of
spring-loaded
all
times.
blade,
bears
The blade
351
wall.
by the roller
drawings in Fig.
moves
in
extend the
working
full
clearance
allowed
being
between
Suction and
slol,
but on opposite
sides.
The
discharge ports
is
continuous
on
roller
by the sequence of
S-1T.
is
oil level in
discharge
However, when
is lost and
illustrated
is
the
high and
compressor.
point
travels
At one
Dnch*rE
Shift
Hg-
compressor.
to
line
PRINCIPLES
3S1
OF REFRIGERATION
suction line to the evaporator
To
r.on fiercer
Hscl
pressor cycles
when
.;.::.
port
the
com-
off.
are-
positive
Discharge
reed
ROtor
slot
How-
ever,
like
reciprocating compressors,
rotary
compressors experience volumetric and compression losses resulting from blow-by around
Suction/
row?
drawing.
ee-mprewor.
As
rotary compressors
into
when
evaporator
!he
the
compressor
cycles off.
oil
pressures.
is
maximum. Heads or
end-plates
seal
The
vanes
being
is
are installed
high,
cylinder wall
relatively
on
rolor shaft
side, the
is
18-18).
one
wire-
mounted
The
and
compressors
employed
number of
wall
when the
rolor.
some
In
rotor
is
turning.
The vanes
are
minimum
pressed vapor
is
The com-
rotor clearance.
I(>11.
cylinder wall.
The
years.
near
steel shaft
The number of
impeller
wheels
and
18-20),
employed
in
leaking
back
through
the
compressor
and
and
To
resist
or of high carbon
steel
typical
steel
two-stage rotor
shown
is
in
Fig.
at increased temperature
high-pressure,
353
high-velocity vapor
discharged
collected in
is
which
vapor to the
inlet
of the
or,
18-32,
in the case
is
On
entering
forced radially
at high velocity
The
line
dis-
to the condenser.
centrifugal compressor
is
shown diagrammatic
cally in Fig.
|23,
The routing impeller wheels are essentially
moving parts of ihe centrifugal comand as such arc the source of all the
energy imparted to the vapor during the compression process. The action of the impeller is
such that both the static and velocity heads of
the only
pressor
Equalize*
check valve
Cyllnd*f-)tttt
nil
ll*SI
Capacity unlove?
by-pass
line
Capacity unloaded
Compressor
sub- base
Capacity unKMtter
expander poduet
Fig.
ft-
9.
Large capacity, rotating vana-type rotary compressor. (Courtesy Freezing Equipment Sales, Inc.}
PRINCIPLES
REfFtlGE RATION
compressor
wuh upper
half of housing
of
the
produced
addition
much
head which is
head is also
developed within the impeller wheel because of
In
column
compress the
Hence, the static
to
to
the
static
cenlrifiigaliy, a velocity
is
rotated
it
approaching that
of the wheel. Since the greater portion of this
velocity hend is subsequently converted to
static head within the casing surrounding the
attains a rotational velocity
Cutaway view
Impeller wheel.
of centrifugal COmfsrfcHOr
y%
N=
i
H=
V-
small.
in
g =
The
total
wheel
fps
H
=
From
x P
V* x p
"
144
144
mean
Ib'cu
is
it
only
on
being proportional to
and to
However,
since the
maximum
tip velocity
strength or materials
the refrigerant,
it
is
limited by the
maximum
single impeller
more impeller
wheel
is
also limited.
com-
ft
the foregoing
in pressure
fi
As a
is
where p
355
For
compressors,
made
com-
in
the pre-
1 herefote,
evident
discharge temperatures.
Pj.
18-22.
is
relatively
it is
3S*
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
for
this
sizes.
high
and
losses
friction
poor
At the same
rotation
and/or
the
number of
manufacturers
agree
that
the
fugal
compressor
is
one which
oompnatsor.
York CorpnsrKion,)
{Ceurteiy
from approximately
COMPRESSOR. CONSTRUCTION
AND LUBRICATION
3S7
often
wheel to the
much
indivi-
dual
cases.
Because
in
some
rotative
of
high
their
compressor displacement at moderate compression ratios, they have been applied successfully in all temperature ranges with both low
and high pressure refrigerants.
Some
of
employed
more common
the
with
refrigerants
compressors
centrifugal
arc
Refrigerants- 1
and
113
make
compressors
in
relatively low.
is
Their use
such
in
and wheel
On
sizes.
evaporator
design
is
large and/or
temperature
low,
is
same tonnage.
mum
some instances,
is
shown
diffuser vanes
in Fig. 13-25,
The labyrinth
stationary partitions,
sists essentially
of a
series
of thin
seal
con-
steel strips
the next
head
difference
several
in
the
operating
refrigerants,
designed to
fit
pressures,
the compressor
must be
application.
high in
all sizes
in
the pockets.
seal
is
many instances.
80%
30%
Efficiency losses
is
the labyrinth
or pockets provided.
The fact that the vapor pressure on the discharge side of the impeller wheels is always
greater than the pressure
on
irreversible
side
and
fluid friction.
inlet
18-23.
accomplish
this,
To
is
shaft
on the outboard
side
stage
is
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
358
Fif.
18-lSd.
VoltitE-type
t&mpreHQr.
The
to
wheel.
the
When
pressure
pressure
subject
is
is
properly sized,
across
the
disc will
on
by the
first-
and second-stage
is
two impellers.
Since
produced by
impellers.
it is
combined
sufficient
thrust
of
rotor assembly
is
supported radially in
cating cither by a
359
c
o
I
o
a.
t_
t
o
t)
Q.
M
s
</>
o E
W^: o
ifl
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
360
Second-stage
impeller at
cond. press.
Fig.
18-26.
Labyrinth
seal
Labyrinth seal
between housing
and shaft
pump
with an external
The
oil reservoir.
prin-
and the
Since these
shaft seal.
is little
refrigerant
simplified in
is
or no contamination of the
oil.
of a centrifugal compressor.
these is its relatively flat headcapacity characteristic as compared to that of
positive displacement compressors. This, along
the
in
design
Principal
among
and tends
compressor
oil
wide variations in
evaporator loading.
reservoir to
Discharge
all
Oil
filters
oil
outlet
Suction
are
inlet
centrifugal
com-
pump must also be equipped with an auxiliary oil pump to supply oil pressure during
oil
start-ups
driven
and
at other times
when
pressors. In addition to
its ability
the shaft
to maintain
on
:.")
rotor
assembly
a..^>-:-.
-*
pump
361
or blower, the
will
com-
is
limited.
50
1
100* F
45
condensing
temperature
.,40
*&\
y\
r>5
Cons tent
30
120
140
160
180
200
Tons refrigeration
220
|35
E
100
rp
"
~2
reciprocating type in Figs. 18-28 through 18-31.
& 25
^20
15
erating capacity
10
100 120
140
160
Tons
180
200 220
240
plished
refrigeration
108
Ih
40* F
evaporator
can produce.
When
104
102
Centrifugal
on a
compressor
and con-
/
'
A
/
98
_\
94
i
{
'
9?
130
Gl
140
150
160
180
170
Brake horsepower
190
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
362
Capacity characteristics
Horsepower characteristics
Varying speed
100
90
80
Varying speed
\\ s
|eo
\
\
> ^Reciprocating
Worth-
ington Corporation.)
Reciprocating
50
\\
\
Identrif ugal
\
Centrifugal
40
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
100
90
80
tain a
over a
is
an impor-
means of
70
60
50
40
30
20
A-B
compressor
by
The
The reduction
compared
temperature
recommended
It is
is
further decrease in
By comparison,
the
pressor capacity.
is
relatively small as
to
Regardless of the increase in condensing temperature, the reciprocating compressor will continue
and produce
a refrigerating effect.
Figure 18-29 compares the power require-
ments of the centrifugal and reciprocating compressors under conditions of varying condensing
temperature. Whereas the centrifugal shows a
reduction in power requirements with an increase in the condensing temperature to correspond with the rapid fall off in capacity shown
in Fig. 18-31, the reciprocating compressor
shows a small increase in power requirements
to correspond with the small change in refrigeration tonnage shown in Fig. 18-29 for that
machine.
Figure 18-30 also
illustrates
the nonover-
much more
is
is
to
the
in
reciprocating compressor
portional
centri-
sensitive to
is
speed
approximately prochange,
according
18-31, a
speed change of only 12% will cause a 50%
reduction in the capacity of the centrifugal
compressor.
18-25.
Capacity Control.
of centrifugal compressors
Fig.
Capacity control
is
usually accom-
Because of
363
extreme
sensitivity to changes
compressor is ideally
suited for capacity regulation by means of
variable speed drives, such as steam turbines
and wound-rotor induction motors. When constant speed drives, such as synchronous or
squirrel cage motors, are employed, speed control can be obtained through the use of a
hydraulic or magnetic clutch installed between
its
the drive
gear.
the relatively
flat
head-capacity characteristic of
(1)
methods
is
used.
must
PRINCIPLES
364
OF REFRIGERATION
Condenser
water
in
JSp
"
i
Condenser
'
-\\
)j
CondensenP^^^^
water out
Economizer
Carrier
centrifugal
compressor
Fig. 18-33.
machine.
(Courtesy Carrier
Corporation.)
Chilled
brine out
Chilled
brine in
must be close-coupled,
as
shown
in
Fig.
the
(Section
is
shown
in Fig. 18-33.
Refrigerant liquid
Refrigerant vapor
mediate chamber.
erating system
for
minimum.
B
EH
Except
of a flash intercooler
between the condenser and
20-12)
on a conventional vapor-compression
High pressure liquid drains from the
to reduce the
tor.
cycle.
chamber
is
pound and
operates
reduced
introduction
is
by additional
is
power required
may be used
19
in.
Refrigerant Piping
and Accessories
types
and
lines.
up
to J in.
below 250
psi,
screwed joints
in.
may be used on
For higher
pressures,
sizes
in.
listed
A joint
compound,
suit-
all
screw
connections.
With
in.
rigidity is desired.
pipe sizes up to 3
more
when
inforced.
resistant to corrosion,
above $
19-2.
lighter in weight,
all sizes
size
materials and labor. Specific minimum requirements for refrigerant piping, with regard to type
and weight of piping materials, methods of
joining, etc., are set forth in the American
Standard Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration (ASA Standard B9.1). Since the speci-
and
used for
sizes
is
Flared compression
wrought iron
fittings
may
be used for
except
to corrosion.
or black
steel.
all
refrigerants
ammonia,
5%
500 F,
smaller.
365
tin
and
may
PRINCIPLES
366
OF REFRIGERATION
sweat
fittings
may be
either
wrought copper or
fittings #re
not suitable
normal operation
and maintenance of the equipment, or restrict
safety hazard, obstruct the
When
the require-
The piping
usually
hundred
serious
and therefore
suffi-
However, regardless of
connected equipment.
hall-
results.
that
it is
easily installed
for inspection
and
readily accessible
and maintenance. In
all cases,
damage
pulsations
pressor,
resulting
and by turbulence
When
lines,
due to high
lines
flow.
velocity.
and
and noise
centrifugal
The supports
should be close enough together to prevent the
pipe from sagging between the supports. As a
general rule, supports should not be more than
8 to 10 ft apart.
support should be placed not
more than 2 ft away from each change in
ceiling hangers or wall brackets.
direction, preferably
run.
to
on
compressor.
a horizontal
OD
Since a small
amount of vibration
is
inherent
in the design
However,
if
ment
is
flexibility,
the
it.
is
obtained by
to
vibration
REFRIGERANT PIPING
is
ACCESSORIES
367
Where
AND
suction
and discharge
lines
Vibration
vibration.
WELDED
dampening compressor
eliminators
be
should
SEAMLESS
FLEXIBLE
obtained by running the suction and discharge piping approximately 30 pipe diameters
arily
in
all cases,
TIN BRONZE
(MHXCOPHt,
114% TM)
before
TUBING
isolation type
HIGH TENSILE
KONZE
the piping.
WIRE
MAIDING
man conm.
1.71% Hi mix
discharge
pulsations
do not cause
sufficient vibration
and
COPPER
FERRULE
is
a tuning fork)
is set
up
in the piping.
COPPER
In some
TUBE END
changing the speed of the compressor, by installing a discharge muffler, and/or by changing
the size of length of the discharge line. Since
changing the speed of the compressor is not
usually
practical,
the
latter
two
particularly
methods
vibration
many of the
refrigeration
directly to
The American
Brass
and
1.
installed as to:
when used
together.
When
Anaconda
Company.)
to all evaporators
2.
oil to the
3.
Avoid
efficiency
4.
cycles,
19-6.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
368
Suction
Line
Because
Size.
of
its
of the
suction piping is usually more critical than that
of the other refrigerant lines. Undersizing of
the suction piping will cause an excessive refrigerant pressure drop in the suction line and
result in a considerable loss in system capacity
and efficiency. On the other hand, oversizing of
relative location in the system, the size
optimum
is
one that
will
mum practical refrigerant pressure drop commensurate with maintaining sufficient vapor
velocity to insure adequate oil return.
Most systems employing oil miscible refrigerants are so designed that oil return
from the
through the
suction line, either by gravity flow or by entrainment in the suction vapor. When the evaporator
is located above the compressor and the suction
line can be installed without risers or traps, the
oil will drain by gravity from the evaporator to
the compressor crankcase, provided that all
horizontal piping
is
pitched
is
downward
in the
is
of
Example
19-1.
Refrigerant-12 system,
if
the line
is
in.
OD copper tube.
From
Solution.
4.26
R-12
satu-
rated vapor at 20
1.097 cu ft/lb
4.26 x 1.097
x 40
=
From Table
187 cfm
19-1, the
OD copper tube
Applying
15-13,
6.81 sqin.
Equation
the refrigerant
pipe
return.
On
when
6.81 sq in.
3850 fpm
In the interest of high system efficiency, good
that a riser
suction temperature of
riser
is
must be
resulting
riser
under mini-
and carry
it
to the compressor.
velo-
entrainment in suction
risers
and
and pipe
sizes
be increased by 25
riser.
size,
the refrigerant
temperature
of
relationship
all
refrigerants
changes with the temperature range, the maximum permissible pressure drop in the suction
piping varies with the evaporator temperature,
decreasing as the evaporator temperature decreases.
For
at 40 F, the
vapor
maximum
permissible pressure
drop in the suction piping (equivalent to a 2 F
is
only 0.4
psi.
REFRIGERANT PIPING
Tonnage capacities of various sizes of iron
pipe and type L copper tubing at various suction
AND
ACCESSORIES
The values
respectively.
50
and ammonia,
Refrigerants-12, 22,
\ Table tons/
_ 52J
=
=
illustrate the
will serve to
/ 40 \
\30.6/
x (1.1 13)1 *
1.88F
the bottom of Table 19-2,
temperature
18
50
The condensing
is taken as 100 F for Refrigerant12 and as 105 F for Refrigerant-22 and am-
369
1.55
When
is
sized
on the
basis
Refrigerant- 12
Example
19-2.
40-ton,
in psi.
Solution.
of pipe as a
Adding
50%
OD
OD
Total equivalent
length
52.8
ft
Correction factor
from Table
19-3 to
correct tonnage for
1 10 F condensing
temperature is 0.9.
Corrected tonnage
=
=
to occur in
temperature
oil
entrainment in
risers.
control,
capacity.
compressors.
maximum
Obviously,
when
the
system
capacity
is
34 x 0.9
30.6 tons
tunately, the
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
370
minimum
yTo compressor
up
oil
return
the riser.
Pitch
OD
for
minimum
loading
OD
46.8
x 144
Eccentric
1415
fpm
4776
reducer
Pitch
From
evaporator
OD
method
OD
OD
is
not
critical
is
mainly one of
riser design.
minimum
of the design
not less than 25
load, the problem can be solved by reducing the
system load
size
of the
is
riser only,
The
degrees
maximum
Example
19-3.
Assume
that the
minimum
From Example
in
specific
cfm
OD
copper tubing is 6.81 sq in. Therefore, the velocity of the vapor in the suction piping is
46.8
x 144
993 fpm
6.81
From Chart
oil
Note
3 at the
bottom of Table
40 y- a
X
50
((i2T))
=- 248 F
loading.
(see
10
drop at
is
19-2)
19-1 A, the
entrainment with 20
minimum velocity
F vapor in a
3|
in.
When
pressure
OD
added
will
still
be
the
over-all
within
well
the
acceptable limits.
its flat
side
riser.
An
down should
when
the
for
this is
balance
25
minimum
rule,
load, undersizing
suction riser is approximately 1430 fpm. Increasing the table value by 25 %, the minimum
design velocity is found to be 1775 fpm (1430 x
1.25).
It is
AND
REFRIGERANT PIPING
portion of the piping
On
is liberally sized.
the
less than 25
of the design loading, undersizing
of the riser to conform to the requirements of
minimum
maximum loading,
during periods of
in
low temperature
especially
In such cases,
installations.
maximum
load condition.
The
larger riser is
ACCESSORIES
371
or
during
compressor start-up.
Generally,
is operated on a pump-down
cycle, it is good practice to install a liquidsuction heat exchanger in the suction line of all
systems employing dry-expansion evaporators.
The reason for this is that thermostatic expansion valves frequently do not close off tightly
during the compressor off cycle, thereby permitting off cycle leakage of liquid refrigerant
into the evaporator from the liquid line. When
the compressor starts, the excess liquid often
slops over into the suction line and is carried to
the compressor unless a liquid-suction heat
exchanger is employed to trap the liquid and
unless the system
vaporize
the
flow
rate
level
riser to
up the
riser.
and
velocity
in
the
As
smaller
oil
return
is
sufficient to
The
it
before
it
risers to the
control
will
When
line,
the evaporator
pump-down
valve bulb, as
Fig.
19-3.
Double
riser construction.
oil)
entering the
com-
from the
is
trapped
liquid line,
itself
may
not
not operated on a
should be
beyond the expansion
is
immediately
shown
suction
(Courtesy
Carrier Corporation.)
U-bend or
2
Method
Method
ells
'
PRINCIPLES
372
OF REFRIGERATION
below
50%
pump-down
control
50%
rate.
'
pump-down
control
minimum
loading.
some of
multiple evaporators
main when
it is
common
to
suction
risers.
The
be brought
cycle. If the
in
above the
level
of the compressor
pumped from
the
off.
of the line
in.
shown
in Fig. 19-6.
Since
Fig.
individual suction
lines.
properly
when
the load
on the evaporator
falls
Preferred
will drain
the compressor.
are connected to
line into
is
oil
return to
as nearly equal as
possible.
and
19-11.
19-9.
Discharge Piping.
charge piping
Fig. 19-5. Evaporator
below compressor.
piping.
is
REFRIGERANT PIPING
AND
ACCESSORIES
373
the discharge piping tends to increase the compressor discharge pressure and reduce the capa-
Tonnage
and
to a
common
suction riser.
riser
is sufficiently
and carry
it up the riser. Minimum vapor velofor oil entrainment in discharge risers are
given in Charts 19-1C and
for Refrigerants- 12
cities
and
22, respectively.
increased by
25%
design velocity.
to determine the
When
minimum
the
system capacity
varies over a wide range, a double-pipe riser may
be necessary, unless a discharge line oil separator is used. When an oil separator is installed
Fig.
19-7. Multiple
evaporators,
common
suction
line.
for
suction piping.
pitched
oil
pressor head.
levels
connected
PRINCIPLES
374
OF REFRIGERATION
draining from the vertical riser during the off
How-
approaches
ever,
certain
pressor crankcase
Section 19-12).
pumped
which
of
is
minimum
riser
19-14).
With this
header serves
this purpose.
during periods
Alternate
approach~N i
1
discharge piping into the head of the comSince this trap will also collect any
pressor.
liquid refrigerant
piping
is
one for 25
ft
of vertical
rise,
Additional traps,
Oil equalizer
should be installed
line
used,
since
any
oil
or liquid refrigerant
Crankcase
pressure /
equalizer
REFRIGERANT PIPING
Fig.
19-12.
AND
ACCESSORIES
Pitch
down
to
separator
375
3__r
r.
Oil
separator
^Sight^Oil return
Solenoid
line
glass
*J
down-comer, as shown in
never in a
19-10.
Liquid
liquid line
riser.
is
Lines.
The function of
the
efficiently.
state,
any
oil
carried along
is
in the liquid
by the
is
readily
liquid lines.
erant control.
from the
Pitch
down
tionable.
connected
in parallel.
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
376
19-2, 19-3,
and
of vertical
lift is
19-4.
found in Table
19-6.
Example 19-4.
Refrigerant- 12 system
has a capacity of 35 tons. The equivalent length
of liquid line including fittings and accessories
is 60 ft.
If the line contains a 20 ft riser,
determine:
(a) the size of the liquid line required
(b) the over-all pressure
(c) the
drop
in the line
amount of subcooling
(F) required to
OD
(a)
(6)
For 60
ft
equivalent
=
=
in the pipe
connected
in parallel.
and
seat,
and often
results in
evaporator.
To
x 0.6
1.00 psi
ft
lift
city
1.8 psi
=
=
=
=
0.55 psi
x 20
11.00 psi
1
+11.0
12.0 psi
(c)
is
tion
(100
93).
19-11.
the liquid.
the
How-
drop
is
much
in excess of
is
to be prevented.
In most cases, a
subcooler
may be
in
any
by
Fig. 19-16.
REFRIGERANT PIPING
expansion valves, thermostatic expansion valves,
or low pressure float valves. Some exceptions to
this are installations using
Inlet
ACCESSORIES
Equalizer
AND
377
Outlet
connection
water-cooled con-
storage
tank
for
the
Equalizer
connection
"
liquid
refrigerant.
Outlet
is
permitted
Equalizer
connection
denser.
_Q_
there
are
the through-flow
and
outlet
Bottom
inlet
receiver.
equalizing line
opening.
piping
liquid line.
When
is
fpm and
denser,
as
shown
is
in
Fig.
19-19.
When an
150 fpm.
All bottom inlet receivers of both the throughflow and surge types must be equipped with
equalizing lines.
distance
maximum
378
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
^Purge
valve
Fig. 19-18.
Top
inlet
through
Purge
\\/~ valve
-Gas
^Equalizer
inlet
Highest expected
/operating
^/condenser
jr
s^
%!
liquid level
Surge type
s"
R"
nU
P^L
JmL
receiver
^X^H. P.
liquid
to exp. valve
h2
*^'B"
hookup.
(Courtesy
\y$i&mBr%'
York
Corporation.)
^3\
Maximum
Drain
Velocity of
line,
Ibs/min
None
150
150
150
100
If
a valve
is
maximum
Required
inches
14
Angle
Globe
None, Angl e, or Globe
h%
16
28
14
may
AND
REFRIGERANT PIPING
condenser
is listed
bottom of
at the
Gas
^-Equalizer
shown
inlet receiver is
h2
vertical distance
is
oil
inadequate or
Detail
"A"
Gas
inlet
in Fig. 19-21.
As a
general rule,
Equalizer
in
Condenser
3*
(I I
piping
bottom
inlet
The
oil
difficult
return
is likely
Relief valve
to be
to accomplish and/or
an undue
\ "quid
High
pressure
level
receiver
recommended
for:
(1) all
systems employing
when
oil
provisions must be
made for
oil return,
and
To evaporator
379
Fig. 19-19.
ACCESSORIES
-be below
in
liquid level
the receiver
bottom
inlet receiver.
(4)
On
design problems.
refrigerant
Discharge line
oil
types:
momentum
The
oil
inlet
The
water-cooled,
sometimes called an
construction to
Size for lOO'/min
velocity at
max
flow through
each condenser
J* per
ft
or more.
design flow
rate.
top
inlet receiver.
Water
is
chiller-type
separator,
chiller,
similar in
oil
is
on
The
into a drop-leg
manually from the sump or returned automatically to the compressor through a float
valve. (Fig. 19-23.) The water flow rate through
the separator must be carefully controlled so
that the refrigerant vapor is not cooled below
its condensing temperature, in which case liquid
380
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
oil
of accomplishing
this
following sections.
refrigerant could
is
a
in-
The
described
are
the
in
of a discharge
of liquid refrigerant passing from the oil separator to the compressor crankcase when the
compressor
The
is idle.
piping or
chilled to a temperature
Therefore, even
when an
oil
100%
separator
efficient.
is
used,
it
and the
oil
19-23.
chiller-type
Application
oil
of
separator.
may
is
separator
is
relatively high
However,
after the
and causes
and pass a mixture of oil and
Fig.
liquid refrigerant
may condense
The
To
-*-
condenser
Water
Her,connections
Trap'
Oil sight
glass-
Oil return
<
compressor
crankcase
^Manual
High pressure
float
drain valve
REFRIGERANT PIPING
liquid refrigerant to the compressor crankcase.
is
separator
oil
is
which case the liquid will boil off in the condenser and condense in the separator.
To eliminate the possibility of liquid refrigerant draining from the oil separator into the
in
AND
ACCESSORIES
381
the refrigerant.
Therefore,
an
oil
separator
can be
hand
throttling valve
(oil
and
refrigerant)
is
cycle,
inlet
operating.
oil
pressor in as
warm
a location as
compossible. The
be replenished periodically.
Since the lubricating oil is not returned to the
compressor through the refrigerant piping, the
minimum vapor velocity in ammonia piping is of
no consequence and the piping is sized for a low
compressor cycles
drained into an
19-14.
porators.
evaporators
erant vapor
line
oil
minimum
vapor velocity.
off.
Of
To minimize
vapor
to separate
common
and certain types of air-cooling evaporators that are operated semiflooded by bottomfeeding with a thermostatic expansion valve.
In both cases, the problem with oil return results
from the lack of sufficient refrigerant velocity
and turbulence in the evaporator to permit
entraining the oil and carrying it over into the
crankcase.
suction line.
is
oil receiver
17-39).
the suction
line.
Oil
from the
oil receiver is
oil
Ammonia
a nonmiscible
Piping.
installed.
ammonia is
pumped over
Since
must
chillers
small
amount of the
oil-rich
is
liquid
continuously
ment
will ordinarily
keep the
oil
concentration
As
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
382
shown
exchanger
it
bled
valve
is
the
off into
an
receiver.
oil
in
some
oil,
the
chillers
oil
is
completely
is
on
Refrigerant- 12
is partially oil
the crankcase
as
shown
in Fig. 19-11.
when
is
refrigerant tur-
oil
all at
exactly the
equalizing line
the upper layer containing the greater concenthis reason, the oil bleeder
same
may
As shown
oil level,
miscible at evaporator
For
suction
returning
is
tration of oil.
oil
on the
Therefore,
temperatures.
common
oil miscible
other hand,
arrangements'
is idle.
bleeder connection
may
piping
to an oil receiver.
through the suction line will be evenly distributed to the several compressors. Too, it is
very unlikely that the amount of oil pumped
over by any two compressors will be exactly the
Since Refrigerant- 12
typical
line, it is
at all temperatures
is
bleed off
19-15.
throttling
pressors.
is
illustrate
when
equipped
with oil bleeder lines which permit a measured
amount of the oil-rich liquid in the chiller to be
instances, into
17-41
compressor.
Flooded liquid
is
liquid refrigerant
in Fig. 17-30,
off
is
oil levels,
it
Liquid-suction
interchanger
Hand
-expansion
valve
Fan
Strainer-*'
Thermal \
expansion'
(Courtesy
tion.)
valve
Coil
possible loading
Base pan
Carrier
Corpora-
is
ments of
power
Because of
require-
suited
stant
Whereas
the
change
reciprocating compressor
portional
to
the
to
speed
approximately prochange,
Fig.
according
IB-3J,
18-25.
Capacity Control,
Capacity control
it*
for capacity
compressor is ideally
by means of
regulation
When
con-
such as synchronous or
squirrel cage motors, are employed, speed control can be obtained through the use of a
hydraulic or magnetic clutch installed between
speed
drives,
Centrifugal compressors arc available for refrigeration duly only as an integral part of a
centrifugal refrigerating machine.
Because of
the relatively
0)
3*3
flat
head-capacity characteristic of
and
the resulting
component
must
he
condensing temperature through control of the
condenser water. Often, some combination of
these methods
used.
(Courteiy
Wonhinpofl CorppraUon)
REFRIGERANT PIPING
compressor
is
with
piped
ACCESSORIES
Where
AND
piping,
rigid
suction
and discharge
WELHD
compressor
placed
obtained by running
is
I
SiiMUSS
ord in-
HEIItLI
TIN
to amplify
and transmit
vibrations
and noise
WWII
TDIlMi
men husks
In
mm
the piping.
Wilt
mi mwl
tine.
pulsations
Occasionally,
(OFftl
FttMl
MM
arc amplified
a tuning fork
M*tii
changing the speed of the compressor, by installing a discharge mulTler and/or by changing
Hoh
Diliien,
Since
particularly
vibration
many
installed as to:
1,
in
and
when used
together.
When
refrigeration
directly to
to ail evaporators
2,
oil to
3,
Avoid
damage
to the compressor.
REFRIGERANT PIPING
may be
AND
ACCESSORIES
case
3S3
equalizing
The crank-
must not
line
be
any kind.
Both the oil equalizing line and the crankcase
pressure equalizing line should be the same size
traps of
Manual shut-off
system.
Liquid
19-14.
liquid line
means of determining
The
sight glass
Wnen
liquid hoes
frequently
is
when one
is
used) to deter-
mine
if
Double pore
glasses
Typical sight
liquid
refrigerant.
shown
in Fig. 19-15.
19-17.
are
Refriger-
carbon
is
In
refrigerant.
systems
the
by-pass
arrangement
necessary
also
pressures.
This
lo
is
equali/e
the
crankcase
oil level
line.
with B
This
line
valves
iW
PRINCIPLES Of REFRIGERATION
may be
valves,
In
used.
shouM be imply
the strainer
all cases,
Most
refrigerant compressor!
When
installing
the
come equipped
inlet
refrigerant
chamber-
piping,
cue
If -If.
relief
Pressure
Valve*.
Relief
Pressure
mounted on
or water-cooled condenser.
relief
valve
In
many
instances,
The exact number, locaand type of relief devices required ire set
forth in the American Standard Safety Code for
Mcchanical Refrigeration, and depends for the
most part on the type and size of the system.
points in the system.
tion,
somewhat
in this respect,
when designing
an
installation.
is
fusible
plug
is
F4f.
drier.
immediately in front of
automatic valves in
or more automatic valves arc installed close together, a single
strainer, placed immediately upstream of the
all refrigerant lines.
all
When two
outl
fli-nr
Flf.
It>2t,
Typltil
prmura
filli(h(t. (C6unaa>Mual!T
Brut Compin^)
I.
Valve body
3 Otsehoktor
4.
tint*
5 Sprint
67.
itWw
Spnng
Oudt) conwMA
Laid h*I and locking
wi
Ml
(b)
An(ta tvpa
1U
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
How between
pressor,
live
refrigerant lines
and he "hack
When
erant line
valve
it
open
and
com-
is
to the compressor.
the compressor
ihe
When
is
the
open lo
to the compressor
for refrigeration
on
is
wa ler and
brine ines.
I
flow,
its
use
is
recommended whenever
practical,
m
Fl|.
It-Jt.
mud.
(*)
Comprwr
lni*rmdit
poilflort.
on
(Fig. 19-30.)
When
from
ihe
or
Itaaible plug,
19-21.
shown
The
As
Mf.
Vlltar Mtftubcturlng
ininuil
Company.)
nlvi.
(Country
REFRIGERANT PIPING
reduce the possibility of leakage through the
packing in the full-open position (Fig. 19-32.)
Many packed valves are equipped with cap
seals which completely cover and seal the
valve stem, thereby eliminating the possibility
is
not in use.
AND
ACCESSORIES
387
at design capacity.
OD
PROBLEMS
1.
Ans. If in.
(g) Liquid line size.
(h) The over-all pressure drop in the liquid
line at design capacity.
Ans. 4 psi
(i)
The condenser
city
OD
(b)
The
over-all pressure
Ans. 2
Ans. 2| in:
2.
Determine the
size suction
when
adequate
25
3.
Rework Problem
oil return
operating at
is
OD
OD
Ans. (a) 2f
in.
fpm
2000 fpm
OD
and discharge
(b)
2\
in.
OD
using Refrigerant-22.
(b) 1.23
(c)
4000
OD
(c)2iin.
(/)
2000 fpm ig) If in.
(A) 7 psi (/) 2f in,
4. Rework Problem 2 using Refrigerant 22.
Ans. (a) 2i in.
(b) 1 \ in.
(d)
OD
OD
OD
OD
As a
evaporator
is
more
frequently the
is
the frost
is
the defrost
period required.
Methods of Defrosting.
Defrosting of
accomplished in a number of
different ways, all of which can be classified as
either "natural defrosting" or "supplementary-
20-2.
the evaporator
20
is
heat used to
melt
off
the
Defrost Methods,
Low-Tern perat u re
Systems,
and Multiple
Intervals.
The
Some common
necessity
accomplished
with
heat
air.
The
On
is
tors
month.
defrosting
employed
Natural
"shut-down" or
Installations
Defrosting
source of the
frost.
Temperature
20-1.
the-
is
simplest
the system
method of
down manually
defrosting
until the
is
to shut
evaporator
When
several evaporators
connected to the
in different
solution.
is
the evaporator is
put back into service by opening the shut-off
valve.
If
automatic defrosting
is
desired,
a clock
down for a
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
DEFROST METHODS
fixed period of time at regular intervals.
the
number and
As a
installation.
hours.
On
usually
be defrosted
it is
is
at least
is
necessary, the
soon as possible
is
placed back in
after defrosting.
is initiated
Both
defrost
SYSTEMS
frosting
an
in
is
earlier chapter,
389
natural de-
As
described
off-cycle defrosting is
control that
the
required
is
automatically adjusted to
is illustrated
in Fig. 20-1.
is
completed.
length,
operation.
Defrost position
Normal position
mmsfiaavsssssa
Drain-off position
'/mmmmssmm
normal position
drain-off position
Inc.)
PRINCIPLES
390
OF REFRIGERATION
the tubes.
after
Inset
shows
is
space.
evaporator
is
equippped with
evaporator
is
defrosted,
are turned
on
until the
To
in the
drain
line,
line
rapidly as possible.
trap
is
installed in the
warm
prevent
air
When brine or an
the
is
than wasted.
is
large
in the reservoir
One manufacturer
its initial
concentration.
evaporator
gained
is
coil.
The
principal
is
advantage
melting frost.
KM.
An
is
evaporator
shown
in Fig.
line
DEFROST METHODS
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
391
At
line solenoid
and
L-
starting
)
Hot gas
/solenoid
Hot Gas
ing has
way
many
variations, all of
which
in
some
By-pass
line
utilize the
->
When
the evaporator.
tt
is
hot
the
-J
-i
gas
refrigerant control.
Defrosting
up
its
is
accomplished
state.
disadvantages.
no
Since
liquid
is
vaporized in
available
more
As defrosting progresses,
refrigerant
is
and
less
in
pressure loss.
At
At
completely defrosted.
of liquid refrigerant will return to the compressor and cause damage to that unit. This is
most likely to occur either at the beginning of
control.
is
completed.
from another.
is
is
placed
392
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Suction line
Thermostatic
exp. valve
Liquid
solenoid
Fig. 20-4.
Hot
Liquid line to
other evaporators
(if
20-8.
By em-
pump)
principle,
con-
cycle.
An automatic expansion
20-6(a)
and
20-6(fc),
"X"
B-2-4-6-8
"Y"
Open: A-2-4-6-8
Close:
B-l-3-5-7
Crankcase
pressure'
regulator
Fig. 20-5.
Hot
gas defrost
used to
and
Modern
D of Fig.
A-l-4-5-8
Defrost
respectively,
Open: A-l-3-5-7
Close:
is
Open: B-2-3-6-7
Defrost
valve
Normal Operation
Close:
required)
DEFROST METHODS
Heat Bank Defrosting. The Thermobank* method of hot gas defrosting employs
a water bank to store a portion of the heat
20-9.
evaporator
is
being refrigerated.
when
the
During the
bank
Fig.
20-6. (a)
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
393
Reverse cycle
defrost
system
(normal
operation).
is
water increases.
When
discharge
of the heat ordinarily discarded at the condenser is stored in the bank water. Notice
that the suction vapor by-passes the holdback
valve and bank during the refrigerating cycle in
Company.
the
thickness,
initiated
frost
the
by an
reaches
defrost
cycle
electric timer
a predetermined
(Fig.
20-86)
is
hot
it
"
394
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
re-evaporated.
The heat
bank
is
stored in the
coil.
Expansion
and suction
line is
returns
the
coil.
Evaporator
valve
Compressor
Fig.
Reverse cycle
20-7. (a)
hot gas defrost normal operation, (b) Reverse cycle hot gas
defrost
defrost
Receiver
Expansion-,
cycle.
Evaporator
valve
Check valve
Four way
valve
Expansion
valve,"
Condenser
Check valve
Iver '
Receiver
returns
to
the
suction
inlet
of
the
20-10.
Vapot Defrosting.
schematic dia-
is
is
actually a
accumulator,
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
DEFROST METHODS
Re-evaporator
Re-evaporator
coil'
395
coil
Thermobank
Thermobank
Compressor
Receiver-
"Compressor
Receiver'
Normal operation
Defrost
(b)
(a)
Fig. 20-8.
Thermobank hot
amount of
The
back
to
the
It
fans.
An
terminates
control
evaporator
the
defrost
by a reduction
The
rarification
Suction
from
Defrost limit
thermostat
tat~*p
by a defrost
and
Vapot has no
initiated
normal operation.
20-11. Multistage (Booster) Compression.
temperature
and
the
is
compressor is
vaporized by the heat of compression and
returned to the evaporator. In this way, the
Vapot provides a continuous source of latent
feeding
defrost cycle
gas defrosting.
liquid
SYSTEMS
coil
Suction to
compressor
Suction line
continuously
per foot
in.
minimum
Liquid line
between solenoid
and compressor
connections'
fl
Fig. 20-9.
(Left)
Corporation.)
Typical
application
of
Vapot.
mQ
(Right)
Enlarged
view of Vapot.
(Courtesy Recold
PRINCIPLES
396
OF REFRIGERATION
<
[C
1
I
^-
)
Fig. 20-10. Three-stage, direct
as
the
evaporator
become
temperature
is
reduced.
Whereas conventional
will
usually
evaporator
give
single-stage
satisfactory
temperatures
down
systems
results
to
with
-40 F,
provided
efficiencies.
In
method which
staging.
erant gas
types:
(1)
to
is
sion process,
the gas
is
it
increase in the
DEFROST METHODS
Three common methods of gas desuperheating and liquid cooling for direct staged
systems are illustrated in Fig. 20-12. The
intercooler
shown
intercooler.
an "open"
The liquid from
SYSTEMS
and necessitates
oversizing of the valve, which often results in
sluggish operation.
Too, since the lowtemperature, low-pressure liquid leaving the
intercooler
is
illustrated in
Fig. 20-126.
is
submerged
com-
is
The
intercooler are in
and the
fact
its
that
liquid refrigerant
is
simplicity
and low
cost,
The
chief disadvantage
is
that the
type
is
intercooler,
the
Vapor
velocities in
intercoolers should
Hot gas
Evaporator
coil
Therefore,
397
is
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
Low stage
condenser
(refrig.
cooled)
Low stage
(booster)
comp.
High stage
oomp.
398
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Open type
intercooler
(a)
(b)
Direct staged
intercooler.
systemclosed,
re staged system
(c)
open,
flash-type intercooler.
dry-expansion
DEFROST METHODS
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
To evaporator
SYSTEMS
399
valve
in
The
22.
is
subcooled as
the
intercooler.
condenser
coil
and
it
liquid
from the
ammonia has a
ammonia systems
fluorocarbon
as
not as important in
systems employing
is
in
refrigerants.
For
this
reason,
sometimes neglected in
ammonia systems, in which case the discharge
vapor from the low stage compressor is usually
desuperheated by injecting a small amount of
liquid
cooling
liquid
ammonia
is
The vaporization of
the liquid
ammonia
in this
ammonia
^- _--- T
system employing ethylene, methane, and propane in the low, intermediate, and high stages
respectively
The
In some
\i
is illustrated
in Fig. 20-14.
is
is
on
and
is
The
decreases.
As a
general
rule,
water-cooled
limit
The use
of high pressure refrigerants also simplifies the
design of the low stage evaporator in that higher
Cascade Staging.
and
efficiency.
Too,
do not
and which,
enough
to provide
intermingle,
and a
400
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
DEFROST METHODS
are compared
on pressure-enthalpy coordinates
and multistage
ratios.
Return
20-14. Oil
in
Multistage Systems.
return
is
tions.
system.
This
is
some means of
insuring
and returns
it
to the suction
Therefore,
of compressors con-
nected in series
stages in the
stage
401
SYSTEMS
method of
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
equal
by bleeding
levels
oil
stage
Desuperheattng of
disclutje vapor from
first-stage compressor
131.6
Condenser pressure
M0*F
Line of single
stage compression
Interstage pressure
30.56
(0.43 lb of
R-12 evaporated
intercooier per
in
pound of R-12
circulated)
First-
compression
Evaporator pressure
7.125
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Fig. 20-15. Mi diagram of two-stage direct-staged R-12 system with flash intercooier. First-stage compressor
16.19 cfm/ton. Second-stage compressor displacement 6.24 cfm/ton including vapor from
displacement
intercooier.
Compression
is
approximately 4.3 to
I.
PRINCIPLES
402
OF REFRIGERATION
Electric
power
Evaporator
Check j_
valve
|
Low pressure
Condenser
motor control
in
20-15. Multiple
one wherein
Temperature System.
is
unit.
The
more than
One obvious
disadvantage
is
that in
level.
line
evaporator
when
refrigeration.
main
is
in the
low tempera-
is
temperature evaporator
ture evaporator,
it
demands of
For
system
this reason, if
is
a multiple temperature
on
evaporator(s) constitute
ture system
is
illustrated in Fig.
20-16.
An
for at least
total load,
60%, and
When
DEFROST METHODS
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
403
The evaporator
warmer evaporators
may be
the
types,
latter
being employed
whenever
evaporator
In
is
temperature
multiple
is
systems,
low
ordinarily used to
When
the
compressor
is
the
operating,
generated in
all
at
which vapor
the evaporators.
is
being
If the
com-
is
high,
temperature evaporators
is
satisfied,
the eva-
little
from that
As
previously mentioned,
are
satisfied
When
the
perature evaporators
setting
low pressure
To
on
control.
when
throttling
With
pilot operated
evaporator pressure regulators, positive closeoff of the regulator during the compressor off
cycle can be obtained by controlling the regulator with a temperature or solenoid pilot.
suction
of the compressor.
large
drop
below the cut-out setting of the low pressure
control and the compressor will cycle off.
With the compressor on the off cycle, any one
absorbing reasonable pressure increases occurring in the high temperature evaporator and
requires refrigeration.
regulators
short cycling
is
is
only a small
is
relatively small.
PRINCIPLES
404
OF REFRIGERATION
in
suction
lines
Low stage
'evaporator
Low
side
float
Low
side
float
stage evaporator
High stage
evaporator
evaporator
Subcooled liquid to
low stage evaporator
Discharge from high
/* stage
compressor
Fig.
20-18.
multiple
desuperheats
discharge gas
DEFROST METHODS
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
405
obtain
multiple
temperature
operation.
typical installation
shown
is
in Fig. 20-17.
The
When the
the thermostat contacts
close, energizing the solenoid coil and opening
the liquid line to the evaporator. The pressure
space temperature
rises,
cycle the compressor on, if the latter is not already running. If the compressor is already running, the entrance of liquid into the evaporator
will cause a rise in the operating suction pressure.
When
level,
is
re-
the thermostat
more expensive
tem
employing Refrigerant- 2
compressors. (Courtesy York Corporation.)
1
is
to the compressor
when
the
opened.
406
at
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
of evaporators
Obviously, with this type of operation it is very
difficult to maintain a balanced relationship
between the space and evaporator temperatures,
and
refrigerated
For
this
important,
space
reason,
it is
becomes
very
when humidity
indefinite.
control
is
throttling-type
and temperature
necessary
high
With
will
However,
evaporator
in con-
suction lines
porators to avoid excessive pressures and temperatures in these units when the warmer
line.
Temperature Operation
Staged Systems.
multiple temperature
and
stage compressor
must be
The high
three stages
is
shown
in Fig. 20-19.
transformers.
21
Power
is
establishments at 460
industrial
much
users at
higher voltages by
Motors
and Control
Electric
Circuits
Many
motor
external
leads.
Motors.
21-1. Electric
three-phase
alternating
Single-phase
current
and
motors
order to
sizes
hp.
the
When
three-phase power
three-phase
motor
is
2. Starting
unloaded
3.
its
power
5.
single-phase
current.
is
and/or
three-phase
or multispeed operation.
6.
alternating
greater simpli-
is
usually
city
Practically all
starting).
4. Single
ambient tem-
or explosive materials.
below
although the
available,
The conditions
sizes
that
factors
available,
of
will
result.
designed to
operate at temperatures approximately 40 C
(72 F)
Both types are guaranteed by the manufacturer to operate continuously under full
load.
it
is
408
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Motors may be
according to the
classified
(1)
and
(4) explosion-
to
housing.
when
part,
motor
starting
torque
motors
may be used
On
unloaded.
starts
starting torque
driven
230 V
motor
exceed
often
load current
transformers,
ment.
Alternating current motors may be classified
according to their principle of operation as
either induction motors or synchronous motors.
Fig. 21-1.
"Y"
(a)
connected
transformers,
(c)
(6)
Transformers
field
is
at a proportionally
lower temperature rise.
Most motors can be operated with small
overloads for reasonable periods of time
types:
without
shorten the
life
and materially
of the insulation.
(slip ring).
The two
and
(2)
wound
rotor
As shown
in
each
and
21-2,
alternately distributed
ELECTRIC
cote to establish the desired
number of
poles.
rotates at a speed
rotating stator
When
the stator
is
each 120
currents,
electrical
degrees out-of-
At
of the rotor
field
409
field rather
no voltage
would be induced in the rotor and the rotor
would have no magnetic polarity. Therefore,
it is necessary that the rotor turn at a speed
than cutting across
slightly less
it,
in which case
field
so that
Squirrel
cage
rotor
Fig.
21-2. (a)
Squirrel
polyphase motor,
rotor
(slip
ring)
(b)
cage
Wound
polyphase
motor.
Wound
rotor
(6)
PRINCIPLES
410
OF REFRIGERATION
A 2
=5
a
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t5
"5s
,?,
>
s I
o
60
id"
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*-
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1c
h-
l-
c
O 0)
r t
S a
ja u
iil
.e
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0)
MIC
vt
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0)
L.
M
f
1
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-o
01
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c
E
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3 C
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c u
tL.
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C
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c
i>
Qf=
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c
13
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8
32
o v e
fc*
HI
15
o
>
\>
'2
$ 2
-5
*
Jo
c
cd
fc
F
M
*>
<c
id
To
:e
=5
4-*
01
Kl
.C
J"S
a *
-I
ii
j=
4J
L-
>
M
C
0)
c s
si M
<0
01
c 3
c 8
M
3
u V>
f a
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rs
01
to
c
w
i V
c 3
id
F .2
3 X
C
?l
$
u
F*S
oc
"
!
3
.E
O"
c
a 2
|
Is
g i 1*3
r-
to
ELECTRIC
3
-C
a.
i,
M U
Eg.
411
PRINCIPLES
412
slips by.
OF REFRIGERATION
is
called the
and
three-phase
is
motors
induction
full load,
usually
are
Neglecting rotor
speed of any
a function of the
is
name.
The
motor
is
number of
available in a
Two
characteristics.
frequently
designs
equation:
starting
Frequency x 120
t
Number
275%
of
full
'
of poles
currents.
The
normal
is
60 x 120
1800
rpm
125% and
torque-low
of this design
em-
(21-1)
speed
far
= -
by
is
the
slip,
motor
alternating current
motors have a
high-starting torque-low starting current characteristic which makes them suitable as drives for
compressors which must start under load.
Design C motors develop a starting torque
between 225% to 275% of full load torque, but
motor.
Multispeed operation of squirrel cage induction motors can be obtained by proper design
is
1800
decreases as the
1750
2/78 /o
1800
Rotor
slip is also
power input
the total
motor
of the motor.
the lower
is
The
effort
is
is
converted
a definite
motor
when
full
voltage
is
the motor
instant of starting
applied
Wound
21-4.
Wound
is
to the
terminals.
Starting
torque
motor efficiency.
Three-Phase Squirrel Cage Motors.
The rotor winding of a squirrel cage motor
consists of bar-type copper conductors embedded
maximum
speed.
slip ring
motor
differs
or
wound
from the
rotor
motor induction
decreases
in
21-3.
the
rotor
winding.
ELECTRIC
connections of the rotor windings are brought
out to
The
slip rings.
on the
leads
slip
shown in Fig.
21-26.
motor
resistors, as
The operating
the same as
is
slightly
CIRCUITS
the motor
comes up
413
will
be
After
This produces
alternate north
when
starting
high-starting
torque
can
be
As
motor
the
accelerates,
the resistance
is
By
field
the
coils,
full
slip
and high
effi-
ciency.
The speed of
the
wound
varied from
rotor circuit.
The
starting resistors
can be used
At
power factor
By
loads.
that results
Therefore,
by inductive loads.
will in
no way
nous motor
21-5.
of
poles
the
direct current.
The
an
mounted on the
motor shaft. The rotor is also equipped with a
squirrel cage winding, called the "damper"
called
exciter,
winding, which
is
which
used to
is
start the
motor.
The
When
on the
squirrel cage
21-6.
(1) split-
no
is
simultaneous in
all
is
Therefore, there
is
no tendency
for the
to
rotate.
PRINCIPLES
414
OF REFRIGERATION
alone.
is
Centrifugal
switch
and,
if
it
wound
will
by overheating.
Since the
maximum
phase
split that
motor has a
motor
Fig. 21-4. Split-phase motor.
Motors.
21-7. Split-Phase
In
order
to
In the
wound
is
the
starting
winding
electrical degrees.
in the
by
approximately
can be
approxi-
is
the split-phase
is installed
shown
in series with
in Fig. 21-5.
30
Capacitor
is
"split" to
Centrifugal
switch
When
switch
starting
in
the
starting
winding
winding.
disconnected,
With the
the motor
Squirrel
cage
rotor
ELECTRIC
approaches approximately
70%
of
415
maximum
speed,
thereafter the
tor, called
series
Fig. 21-7.
shown
in Fig. 21-6.
the
At
the instant of
starting-and-running
capacitors
remains
capacitor
Running capacitor
but
Starting capacitor
is
in
in
is
circuit
sized for
The
continuously.
power
factor correction
How-
a large
Centrifugal switch
degree
of phase
displacement,
the
permanent capacitor is
very low. These motors are available only in
small fractional horsepower sizes. They are
used mainly as drives for small fans which are
starting torque of the
mounted
directly
SO
cage
rotor
% of rated speed.
Also,
it
down
to
starting switch.
21-11.
circuit,
Construction
somewhat
from that of the other single-phase motors in
that the main stator winding is arranged to form
salient poles, as shown in Fig. 21-8. The auxiliary winding consists of a shading coil, which
surrounds a portion of one side of each stator
of the shaded pole motor
differs
pole.
The shading
single
of a
is
Stator winding
Shading
coil
(starting winding)
Squirrel
struction of the
is
cage
rotor
Fig.
PRINCIPLES
416
short-circuited
OF REFRIGERATION
sufficiently
to
remove the
starting
field
motor are
its
simple
21-12.
employed
frequently
contacts
pull
"M"
motor-compressor units
are three-phase squirrel cage motors and split-
21 -9c).
the motor.
run single-phase motors. Whereas the splitphase and capacitor start motors are limited to
small fractional horsepower units, the capacitor
in hermetic
start-and-run
motor
out of the
is
Contacts
is
through 10 hp.
motors are employed from 3 hp up.
on
Although air, water, oil, and liquid refrigerant are sometimes used as cooling mediums
to carry
circuit,
the
must be
sized to
fit
the current
The current
coil relay is
vapor cooled. For this reason, hermetic motorcompressor units should never be operated for
any appreciable length of time without a
continuous flow of suction vapor through the
motors.
unit.
made up of a
mounted
centrifugal
mechanism as a means of
capacitor)
starts.
coil
and
or potential relay.
21-13.
Hot Wire
relay depends
It
is
is
relatively
The
relay contacts,
shown
When
in Fig. 21-10.
the motor
is
current
passing
winding.
With the
starting
winding energized,
emf is
open the
starting contacts
starting winding
from the
circuit.
The high-starting
ELECTRIC
417
Line
Thermal element
Thermal element
Thermal element
Fig. 21-9.
Hot wire
starting relay,
and
Potential or voltage
capacitor
start-and-run
motors.
start
The
(b)
Run
position,
(c)
Overload position.
motor
starts
coil type
turns of
series
Fig. 21-11.
The
closed
when
the motor
is
and are
not running.
When
is
equal
to
the
line
PRINCIPLES
418
OF REFRIGERATION
contain built-in overcurrent protection,
lays
Relay (starting)
contacts
w Relay
coil
starting
current
115
the circuit.
power
starting
start
-Neutral
Fused
disconnect or
circuit breaker
starting
volt
the coil
motor,
opening the relay contacts disconnects both the
starting winding and starting capacitor from
contacts.
motor over-
contacts
open
until
L.
Operating
stopped.
control
21-16.
some type of
(Motor)
15
single-phase motor.
tures
starting re-
The
21-126.
Running
capacitor
shown in Fig.
With low
"hot"
line,
may be
-Relay
Fig. 21-1
1.
coil
installed in either
power
ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
419
lines
However,
21-12c.
all
"hot"
lines
must be
full load
current of the motor(s) they are controlling,
these controls tend to become unwieldy when
motor exceeds 15 or
20 amperes.
general
Therefore,
practice
Fused disconnect
or circuit breaker
is
magnetic contactor.
A magnetic contactor or motor starter
is
Hi-Lo
pressure
control
230
volt single-phase
power
Overcurrent
protectors
Fused
disconnect
or circuit
breaker
r
Operating
control
with 230
three-phase power.
magnetic
source.
Overcurrent
protector
field,
When
is
de-energized,
field, causing
the contacts to open and disconnect the motor
is
indirectly
coil.
Therefore,
the
operating
control
is
with 230
single-phase power.
motor
circuit.
420
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig. 21-13.
indirectly
Magnetic^
Motor controlled
through
magnetic
contactor.
contactor
Armature
(insulated
ir---
from
contactors)
"cycling" control
First,
is
small,
motor
circuit, the
may be
different
from
that of the
motor
circuit.
is
shown
in Fig. 21-14.
contactor
described
in
the
section
is
so
is
called
preceding
an "across-the-line"
named because
it
starter,
and
immedi-
other
type.
excessive
current surges
^Operating or
is illustrated
in Fig. 21-15.
When
#1 holding
coil is energized
close,
ELECTRIC
with
low
voltage
421
Transformer
control
circuit.
24
volts
holding
Operating
coil
control
Relay heater
)_
Relay contacts
j
0verload rela *
Timing
relay
contacts
Fig. '21-15.
Resistance
type
422
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is subjected to a sustained overcurrent,
the temperature of the heater element increases
above normal and the excess heat given off by
motor
the
in
the
holding
coil
de-energizes
the
holding
coil
contacts
overload
This
circuit.
of this control
when
the
the
useful
pump
oil
minimum, or
build
fails to
pressure
oil
below
falls
developed by
predetermined
up
to the
minimum
safe level
oil
is
shown
in Fig.
21-16.
by an
oil
control.
case
(suction)
Indiana.)
Motor Overcurrent
Protection.
It
and
satisfy
many
motor
the
and
pump, and
oil
as measured
pressure.
pressure
therefore
is
not
To determine
pump.
circuit.
21-19.
is
pressure
oil pressure,
pressure gage,
circuit
and
(2)
set
To
be
oil
oil
pressure.
pressure
This
is
in Fig. 21-17.
One
bellows
pump and
is
reflects
total
oil
pressure.
The
and
is
of contacts installed
trol.
oil
ELECTRIC
pressure failure control allows the compressor
to operate 90 to 120 sec with the oil pressure
level.
will
energized.
If,
useful
pressure builds
pressure of the
will
tarily
oil
falls
compressor.
be
control must
423
oil
after the
oil
compressor
up
to
starts,
the
the cut-in
This action
On
operation.
oil pressure
be reset manually.
Referring to Fig. 21-17, notice that the timing
relay consists of a timing switch
and a heater
is left
in the circuit.
Continued
element.
series
starter,
is
coil.
is
connected in parallel
The
pressure differential
The
resistor
coil circuit
is
heater.
compressor
is
oil
IS
interval,
circuits.
pump
operates only
when
the
To
motor
To discharge
of
oil
pump
424
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
a
3
O
ELECTRIC
As indicated
instructions
CIRCUITS
interlocking
is
of the more
the
desired
In this
oil
The
The
is 35 psi (72
37).
cut-in pressure should be set at approxi-
continuously and
off-on
switch.
is
controlled with a
With
this
particular
manual
control
entire system.
The holding
wired
fan or
holding coil of the compressor starter is connected through an auxiliary contact in the
condenser starter so that the compressor starts
energized.
rule,
three
fan (or
pump
Fig. 21-19.
ating
contactor.
V V
Overcurrent
protection for
\j
\<*MH
condenser fan
230 v
3 phase
Compressor
Condenser fan
first
Likewise, the
426
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
8K
1
01
.2
t.
>
<2
S-
c
* -
t
>
ELECTRIC
the condenser starter
This
compressor starter.
arrangement permits the condenser fan or pump
(thermostat)
rather
than
to cycle off
Another
controls
the
common method
of accomplishing
is
427
ment and
Tables
and
Charts
430
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
l-l.
By
Multiply
Atmosphere
Atmosphere
Atmosphere
Atmosphere
To Obtain
29.92
Inches of mercury
33.93
Feet of water
14.70
1.058
Inches of mercury
(at 32 F)
0.881
Feet of water
62.37
Feet of water
0.4335
Feet of water
0.02950
Feet of water
Inches of mercury (at 62 F)
Inches of mercury (at 62 F)
Inches of mercury (at 62 F)
13.57
1.131
0.4912
0.07355
Inches of mercury
0.03613
TABLE
Gas
70.73
5.202
0.002458
Properties of Gases
3-1.
Air
0.2375
0.169
1.406
53.3
Ammonia
0.508
0.399
1.273
90.5
35.1
Carbon
dioxide
0.207
0.162
1.28
Carbon
monoxide
Hydrogen
0.243
0.173
1.403
3.41
2.42
1.41
Nitrogen
0.244
0.173
1,41
55.1
Oxygen
0.218
0.156
1.40
48.3
0.154
0.123
1.26
24.1
55.1
765.9
Sulfur
dioxide
TABLES
TABLE
Absolute Pressure
Properties of Saturated
4-1.
Specific
Volume
431
Steam
Entropy
Enthalpy
Temp.,
Hg,
F,
Psi,
liquid,
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
32
34
0.08854
0.09223
0.09603
0.1803
0.1878
0.1955
35
36
37
38
39
0.09995
0.10401
0.10821
0.11256
0.11705
40
In.
Sat.
Evap.,
Sat.
Sat.
vapor,
liquid,
Evap.,
hfll
Sat.
Sat.
Evap.,
Sat.
vapor,
liquid,
St.
s,
vapor,
s,
(8)
(9)
00)
(11)
(12)
1075.8
1076.2
1076.7
0.0000
0.0020
0.0041
2.1877
2.1821
2.1764
2.1877
2.1841
2.1805
1077.1
1077.6
2.1709
2.1654
2.1598
2.1544
2.1489
2.1770
2.1735
2.1700
2.1666
2.1631
"t
h,
(5)
(6)
(7)
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
3306
3180
0.00
3061
3306
3180
3061
2.02
1075.8
1075.2
1074.7
0.2035
0.2118
0.2203
0.2292
0.2383
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
2947
2837
2732
2632
2536
2947
2837
2732
2632
2536
3.02
4.03
5.04
6.04
7.04
1074.1
1073.6
1073.0
1072.4
1071.9
1078.0
1078.4
1078.9
0.0061
0.0081
0.0102
0.0122
0.0142
0.12170
0.12652
0.13150
0.13665
0.14199
0.2478
0.2576
0.2677
0.2782
0.2891
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
2444
2356
2444
2356
2271
2190
2112
8.05
9.05
10.05
11.06
12.06
1071.3
1070.7
1070.1
1069.5
1068.9
1079.3
1079.7
1080.2
1080.6
1081.0
C.0162
0.0182
0.0202
0.0222
0.0242
2.1435
2.1381
2.1327
2.1274
2.1220
2.1597
2.1563
2.1529
2.1496
2.1462
0.14752
0.15323
0.15914
0.16525
0.17157
0.3004
0.3120
0.3240
0.3364
0.3493
0.01602
0.01602
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
2036.4
2036.4
1964.3
13.06
14.06
15.07
16.07
17.07
1068.4
1067.8
1067.3
1066.7
1066.1
1081.5
1081.9
1082.4
1082.8
1083.2
0.0262
0.0282
0.0302
0.0321
0.0341
2.1167
2.1113
2.1060
2.1008
2.0956
2.1429
2.1395
2.1362
2.1329
2.1297
0.3626
0.3764
0.3906
0.4052
0.4203
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
1703.2
1644.2
1587.6
1533.3
1481.0
1703.2
1644.2
1587.6
1533.3
1481.0
18.07
19.07
54
0.17811
0.18486
0.19182
0.19900
0.20642
20.07
21.07
22.07
1065.6
1065.0
1064.4
1063.9
1063.3
1083.7
1084.1
1084.5
1085.0
1085.4
0.0361
0.0380
0.0400
0.0420
0.0439
2.0903
2.0852
2.0799
2.0747
2.0697
2.1264
2.1232
2.1199
2.1167
2.1136
55
56
57
58
59
0.2141
0.2220
0.2302
0.2386
0.2473
0.4359
0.4520
0.4686
0.4858
0.5035
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
0.01604
0.01604
1430.7
1382.4
1335.9
1291.1
1248.1
1430.7
1382.4
1335.9
23.07
24.06
25.06
26.06
27.06
1062.7
1062.2
1061.6
1061.0
1060.5
1085.8
1086.3
1086.7
1087.1
1087.6
0.0459
0.0478
0.0497
0.0517
0.0536
2.0645
2.0594
2.0544
2.0493
2.0443
2.1104
2.1072
2.1041
2.1010
2.0979
Of
33
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
2271
2190
2112
1964.3
1895.1
1828.6
1764.7
1895.1
1828.6
1764.7
1291.1
1248.1
1.01
Reproduced with permission from Thermodynamic Properties of Steam by Keenan and Keyes, published by John
Wiley and Sons.
432
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OF REFRIGERATION
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TABLES
TABLE
7-1.
439
after
Condensing Temperature
90
80
Saturated
100
Suction
Temperature
-40
-30
-20
-10
111.0
91.6
121.0
92.3
132.0
93.9
105.0
90.5
116.0
92.0
127.5
93.2
102.0
90.2
112.5
91.4
124.0
92.6
97.5
89.5
108.5
90.7
119.9
91.9
95.0
89.2
106.0
90.3
117.0
91.5
10
92.0
88.7
103.5
89.9
114.0
90.9
20
90.0
88.4
102.0
89.6
112.0
90.6
30
88.0
88.1
99.0
89.1
110.8
90.4
40
86.0
87.7
97.0
88.8
109.5
90.2
50
84.0
87.4
95.5
88.6
107.0
89.8
Condensing Temperature
110
Saturated
120
130
Suction
Temperature
-40
-30
-20
-10
143.0
95.1
155.0
96.3
166.5
97.3
138.0
94.3
150.5
95.5
161.5
96.6
135.5
93.7
147.0
94.8
157.5
95.8
131.6
93.1
143.0
94.2
154.0
95.2
128.5
92.6
141.0
93.7
152.0
94.8
10
126.5
92.1
137.5
93.2
148.5
94.3
20
124.0
91.7
136.0
92.8
147.2
93.9
30
122.0
91.4
133.5
92.5
146.0
93.6
40
120.0
91.1
132.5
92.2
143.5
93.2
50
118.0
90.8
131.0
92.0
142.0
92.9
440
PRINCIPLES
TABLE
OF REFRIGERATION
Heat Transmission
10-1.
Btu per hour per square foot per degree F difference between
Wind
t
velocity 15
air
Rooms
on the two
sides.
mph.
Thickness of Insulation,
V Inches
Wall Thickness
X Inches
-Corkboard
(Vapor seal on
warm
Concrete block 8
Concrete block 12
0.12
0.12
0.085 0.066
0.083 0.065
0.054 0.046
0.053 0.045
0.040
0.039
0.035
0.035
Cinder block 8
Cinder block 12
0.11
0.11
0.039
0.039
0.034
0.034
0.045
0.039
0,034
side
Corkboard
Common
brick
0.11
0.081
0.064 0.053
Common
brick
12
0.10
0.076
0.061
0.050 0.043
0.038
0.034
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.085 0.066
0.081 0.064
0.081 0.064
0.054 0.046
0.053 0.045
0.052 0.045
0.040
0.039
0.039
0.035
0.035
0.034
0.13
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.089
0.087
0.086
0.085
0.036
0.036
0.035
0.035
Clay
Clay
Clay
,Vapor seal on
warm
tile
tile
tile
4
6
8
side
Corkboard
..
J:'<E-*!?I
:Sv.*4*l^v.fl
From
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete
8
10
12
0.069
0.068
0.067
0.066
TABLES
TABLE
10-2.
Heat Transmission
Btu per hour per square foot per degree F difference between the
Outside wind velocity 15 mph.
Material
Granulated
cork
Rock or
palco wool
Sawdust
1* board on
both sides of studs*
wool
Sheet
3%
5%
0.079
0.055
0.072
0.050
0.097
0.069
-----
Corkboard
Glass or rock
on the two
0.084
0.11
0.055
fill
"
Thickness of Insulation
(Inches)
Insulating
Material
10
12
.040
0.033
0.027
0.036
0.029
0.025
0.051
0.042
0.035
Insulation
Granulated
cork
Palco or
rock wool
1- board
both sides-2" x 4" studs-16"
Sawdust
NOTES:
'Coefficients corrected
* Actual thickness
From
for2x4or2x6 studs, on
*%
16
in.
sides.
on
steel
Rooms
Insulating
Type of Construction
air
441
centers.
2 x 4 studs
in.
TABLE
Heat Transmission
10-3.
Btu per hour per square foot per degree F difference between
Wind
velocity 15
air
Rooms
on the two
sides.
mph.
Thickness of Insulation,
Wall, Floor or
Ceiling Thickness
Y Inches
X (Inches)
Self-supporting partition*
I
Corkboard
Cork
Cement
partition
0.056
0.047
0.041
0.036
0.067
0.055
0.046
0.040
0.035
0.084
0.066
0.054
0.046
0.040 0.035
0.083
0.065
0.054
0.045
0.039 0.035
0.13
0.089
0.12
0.087
0.12
0.11
0.069
plaster/
on both sides
Corkboard*
Floor'
2
Finish 2
Slab
Slab
Finish concrete
Insulation
Finish 3
Slab
Finish
6
4
Foamglas
2
Finish 2
Slab
Floors
0.15
0.11
0.087
0.071
0.060
0.053
0.046
0.15
0.11
0.084
0.070
0.059
0.052
0.046
0.14
0.10
0.083
0.069
0.059
0.051
0.045
0.12
0.089
0.069
0.042
0.086
0.067
0.056
0.055
0.048
0.12
0.047
0.041
0.036
0.036
0.11
0.082
0.064 0.053
0.045
0.039
0.035
0.13
0.092
0.072 0.059
0.050
0.043
0.038
'
Slab
Finish
Slab
6
4
Finish
Ceiling*
, Vapor seal
on warm side
'Concrete slab
Concrete 4
Concrete 8
Corkboard
sleeper
Ceiling*
>Ceiling joists or wall studs
/Sheathing
Wood
(actual)
Ceiling*
,Tee iron
construction
Corkboard
From
TABLES
TABLE
10-4.
in
443
Thermal
Conductivity
Material
Brick,
common
Cement
per inch
per test
thickness)
8.0
plaster
12.0
Corkboard
0.28
0.31
Foamglas
0.40
.5
lb per
cu ft
0.33
0.26
0.41
hollow clay 8*
Wood,
yellow pine, or
fir
ASHVE
RE
per sq
for
per
0.60
0.53
1.0
per inch
thickness)
0.30
0.40
0.30
0.36
0.29
0.34
0.30
0.45
0.64
0.60
1
1
ft
2
2
1.0
0.80
Authority
0.27
0.80
0.27
hollow clay 4*
thickness)
Tile,
per
5.0
Concrete
Cinder aggregate block 8*
Cinder aggregate block 12*
Gravel aggregate block 8*
Tile,
(*)
perF
Conductivity
(Q
(*)
*
Thermal
Thermal
Conductance
These conductivities were used for insulating materials in calculation of heat transmission
Most of these values have been increased 10 above laboratory test values to allow for
the effect of moisture gain in the insulating material and for imperfect workmanship. This also
assumes adequate vapor sealing. When no vapor sealing is applied or where the workmanship is
poor the value of the insulation is largely destroyed. It is extremely difficult to get a good vapor seal
*
coefficients.
with loose
fill
type insulation.
TABLE
10-5 A.
Surface Conductance
(f)
TABLE
10-5.
Surface Conductance
Number of
Panes
Btu/hr/sq
ft/
F)
Summer
Surface
Exposure
0.29
Ceilings
Inside
1.65
1.20
0.21
Roofs
Outside
6.00*
4.00f
Walls
Inside
1.65
1.65
Walls
Outside
6.00*
4.00t
1.13
0.46
Winter
TABLE
10-6.
Refrigeration Design
Average
Maximum
Average
Maximum
Ambient
Temp.
Ambient
Temp.
Ambient
Temp.
Ambient
Temp.
88
Dover
87
88
99
97
Milford
87
Wilmington
87
96
98
94
Flagstaff
75
90
Phoenix
100
113
84
98
Columbia
Washington
89
98
Arkansas
Fort Smith
91
103
Jacksonville
88
Rock
90
100
Miami
88
Orlando
88
Bakersfield
96
114
Tallahassee
88
96
90
97
100
Fresno
Los Angeles
94
111
Tampa
88
95
83
94
Oakland
Sacramento
San Diego
San Francisco
75
89
90
75
108
Atlanta
87
Savannah
89
95
99
75
83
Boise
89
105
Pocatello
83
100
89
101
87
Location
Alabama
Birmingham
Mobile
Delaware
Arizona
Tucson
Little
Location
District of
Florida
California
80
Georgia
Idaho
Colorado
Colorado Springs
Denver
83
94
83
Grand Junction
88
Pueblo
83
98
102
100
Connecticut
Hartford
83
94
New Haven
New London
83
Norwalk
83
95
93
96
83
Illinois
Cairo
Chicago
Peoria
88
98
100
Quincy
Rockford
90
103
-87
101
Springfield
90
102
TABLE
10-6 (Continued)
Average
Maximum
Average
Maximum
Ambient
Temp.
Ambient
Temp.
Ambient
Temp.
Ambient
Temp.
90
100
Wayne
87
100
Indianapolis
89
87
90
101
Location
Location
Indiana
Evansville
Fort
South Bend
Terre Haute
Minnesota
Duluth
Minneapolis
99
St.
Cloud
79
92
90
102
88
101
90
99
96
Mississippi
100
Jackson
Vicksburg
Iowa
9P
Sioux City
90
90
90
90
90
86
90
Kansas
Concordia
93
108
Billings
85
104
City
92
106
Butte
75
Hutchinson
92
108
Havre
Helena
82
82
96
99
Burlington
Davenport
Des Moines
Dubuque
Keokuk
Mason City
Dodge
101
Missouri
100
Hannibal
Kansas City
102
99
101
St.
97
102
St.
Springfield
Salina
95
111
92
105
Wichita
91
104
86
88
98
99
Baton Rouge
88
98
New
89
92
98
102
Eastport
70
81
Portland
81
93
Lincoln
Shreveport
89
87
Boston
84
81
Lawrence
81
Worcester
81
Grand Rapids
Jackson
Lansing
Marquette
Saginaw
Omaha
Nevada
Reno
Tonopah
84
101
84
96
81
92
Atlantic City
83
Paterson
85
Trenton
85
92
95
96
103
104
99
102
New
Fall River
Detroit
102
New Jersey
Massachusetts
Michigan
Alpena
98
106
Platte
Concord
Maryland
Cumberland
103
New Hampshire
Maine
Baltimore
103
103
94
89
92
North
Louisiana
Orleans
92
92
88
Nebraska
Kentucky
Louisville
102
Montana
Topeka
Lexington
Joseph
Louis
90
92
82
86
86
86
86
94
90
94
92
Mexico
Albuquerque
83
Santa Fe
81
New York
Albany
Binghamton
83
95
99
Buffalo
80
Elmira
83
98
99
New York
85
83
81
96
96
88
101
99
90
445
83
96
94
89
97
93
95
Poughkeepsie
Rochester
Syracuse
83
95
83
96
Watertown
83
93
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
446
TABLE
10-6 (Continued)
Average Maximum
Ambient Ambient
Temp.
Temp,
Average
Maximum
Ambient
Temp.
Ambient
Temp.
Asheville
81
93
Chattanooga
87
98
Charlotte
86
98
Knoxville
87
98
Raleigh
86
98
Memphis
89
99
Wilmington
Winston-Salem
86
95
97
Nashville
87
98
102
Location
North Carolina
North Dakota
Bismarck
Devils Lake
Tennessee
86
87
84
Texas
Dallas
92
103
El Paso
92
102
100
Fort Worth
92
92
92
104
Ohio
Akron
Location
Houston
San Antonio
86
86
98
Canton
Cincinnati
88
100
Cleveland
83
95
Salt
Columbus
Dayton
88
98
Vermont
88
Toledo
87
99
99
Youngstown
86
97
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
City
Tulsa
97
92
104
92
105
Oregon
Portland
81
95
Altoona
82
Erie
83
Harrisburg
85
Philadelphia
87
Pittsburgh
85
Scranton
82
96
92
97
97
96
95
Pennsylvania
Rhode
Island
99
102
Utah
Modena
Lake City
Burlington
80
97
88
101
80
91
87
99
95
98
Virginia
Lynchburg
Norfolk
87
Richmond
87
Washington
Olympia
75
Seattle
75
Spokane
Walla Walla
75
90
86
102
87
105
Charleston
87
102
Clarksburg
84
97
Huntington
Parkersburg
Wheeling
87
100
86
86
101
West
Virginia
98
83
94
Green Bay
85
97
Charleston
88
98
La Crosse
87
Columbia
88
99
Madison
Milwaukee
87
99
96
99
Providence
South Carolina
South Dakota
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Huron
93
Pierre
94
107
110
Rapid City
87
103
Cheyenne
Lander
Sioux Falls
88.
102
Sheridan
Do
87
79
80
86
94
98
102
TABLES
TABLE
10-6 A.
Ground
Location
Alabama
Birmingham
Mobile
Location
75
Boise
60
Pocatello
60
60
Illinois
Flagstaff
Phoenix
Tucson
Arkansas
Fort Smith
Rock
60
80
80
70
70
75
Fresno
80
Los Angeles
Oakland
Sacramento
San Diego
San Francisco
75
Colorado
Colorado Springs
Denver
Cairo
Chicago
Peoria
Quincy
Rockford
Springfield
60
60
60
60
60
Indiana
California
Bakersfield
Temperature
Idaho
Arizona
Little
Ground
Temperature
70
65
80
65
65
Grand Junction
60
60
60
Pueblo
55
Evansville
Fort
Wayne
Indianapolis
South Bend
Terre Haute
65
60
60
60
65
Iowa
Burlington
Davenport
Des Moines
Bubuque
Keokuk
Mason
City
Sioux City
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
Connecticut
Hartford
65
New Haven
New London
65
Norwalk
65
65
Kansas
Concordia
Dodge
City
Hutchinson
Salina
Delaware
Topeka
Dover
65
Milford
65
Wilmington
65
Columbia
Washington
District of
Wichita
60
60
60
60
60
60
Kentucky
Lexington
65
Louisville
65
65
Louisiana
Florida
Jacksonville
Miami
Orlando
Tallahassee
Tampa
Baton Rouge
80
80
80
80
80
Georgia
Atlanta
Savannah
75
New Orleans
75
Shreveport
70
Maine
Eastport
Portland
60
60
Maryland
70
75
447
Baltimore
Cumberland
65
65
PRINCIPLES
448
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
I0-6A (Continued)
Ground
Location
Ground
Temperature
Location
Temperature
New
Massachusetts
Mexico
Albuquerque
70
Santa Fe
65
Boston
65
Fall River
Lawrence
60
60
Worcester
60
Albany
Binghamton
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
Buffalo
Elmira
65
60
New York
65
Poughkeepsie
60
60
60
60
Michigan
Alpena
Detroit
Grand Rapids
Jackson
Lansing
Marquette
Saginaw
Minnesota
Duluth
Minneapolis
St. Cloud
Springfield
55
75
75
75
60
60
60
60
60
55
55
Havre
Helena
50
North Dakota
Bismarck
Devils Lake
65
Cincinnati
65
65
Cleveland
65
Columbus
Dayton
60
Toledo
65
60
Youngstown
60
Oklahoma
Oklahoma City
60
Tulsa
65
65
55
60
65
70
New
Oregon
Paterson
70
70
Trenton
70
70
Pennsylvania
Altoona
Harrisburg
55
New Jersey
Atlantic City
50
Akron
Canton
Erie
Hampshire
Qoncord
50
Ohio
Portland
Nevada
Reno
Tonopah
75
55
Nebraska
Platte
Wilmington
Winston-Salem
55
Billings
Omaha
Raleigh
70
70
70
Charlotte
Butte
North
Watertown
Asheville
Montana
Lincoln
Syracuse
North Carolina
Missouri
Hannibal
Kansas City
St. Joseph
St. Louis
Rochester
50
Mississippi
Jackson
Vicksburg
New York
65
65
Philadelphia
70
70
Pittsburgh
65
Scranton
65
Rhode
Island
Providence
65
TABLES
TABLE
I0-6A (Continued)
Ground
Location
Temperature
South Carolina
Ground
Location
Temperature
Virginia
Charleston
75
Columbia
75
Lynchburg
Norfork
Richmond
South Dakota
75'
75
70
Huron
55
Pierre
55
Washington
Olympia
60
Rapid City
55
Seattle
75
Sioux Falls
55
Spokane
Walla Walla
60
60
Tennessee
Chattanooga
Knoxville
Memphis
Nashville
70
70
70
70
Texas
Dallas
El Paso
Fort Worth
Houston
San Antonio
70
70
70
Modena
Salt
Lake City
Charleston
Clarksburg
Huntington
Wheeling
65
Wisconsin
Green Bay
Madison
Milwaukee
60
65
65
75
60
60
65
65
Parkersburg
La Crosse
Vermont
Burlington
West Virginia
75
Utah
449
55
55
55
55
Wyoming
Cheyenne
Lander
55
Sheridan
55
55
450
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
10-7.
Radiation
(Degrees Fahrenheit to be added to the normal
temperature difference for heat leakage calculations to compensate for sun effect not to be
Type of Surface
Wall
South West
Wall Wall
Flat
Roof
Tar roofing
20
15
Black paints
Medium-colored
faces,
sui
such as:
Unpainted wood
Brick
Red tile
Dark cement
Red, gray, or
green paint
Light-colored surfaces,
such as:
White stone
Light-colored
cement
White paint
TABLES
TABLE
0-8 A.
Storage
Air Temperature,
Temp.,
Inter.
Cooling to
90
85
in
451
100
95
50
60
70
50
60
70
50
60
50
60
65
0.65
0.85
1.12
0.93
1.17
1.44
1.24
1.54
1.58
1.95
60
0.85
1.03
1.26
1.13
1.37
1.64
1.44
1.74
1.78
2.15
55
1.12
1.34
1.57
1.41
1.66
1.93
1.72
2.01
2.06
2.44
50
1.32
1.54
1.78
1.62
1.87
2.15
1.93
2.22
2.28
2.65
45
40
1.50
1.73
1.97
1.80
2.06
2.34
2.12
.2.42
2.47
2.85
1.69
1.92
2.16
2.00
2.26
2.54
2.31
2.62
2.67
3.06
35
1.86
2.09
2.34
2.17
2.43
2.72
2.49
2.79
2.85
3.24
30
2.00
2.24
2.49
2.26
2.53
2.82
2.64
2.94
2.95
3.35
TABLE
I0-8B.
40
Storage
Air Temperature,
50
in
F
90
80
Temp.,
Cooling to
100
Inter.
70
80
70
80
30
0.24
0.29
0.58
0.66
1.69
1.87
2.26
25.
0.41
0.45
0.75
0.83
1.86
2.05
2.44
20
0.56
0.61
0.91
0.99
2.04
2.22
15
0.71
0.75
1.06
1.14
2.20
10
0.85
0.89
1.19
1.27
2.38
0.98
1.03
1.34
1.42
2.51
2.71
3.12
1.12
1.17
1.48
1.56
2.68
2.86
3.28
1.23
1.28
1.59
1.67
2.79
2.98
3.41
3.69
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
50
60
2.53
2.95
3.35
2.71
3.14
3.54
2.62
2.90
3.33
3.73
2.39
2.80
3.07
3.51
3.92
2.52
2.93
3.20
3.64
4.04
3.40
3.84
4.27
3.56
4.01
4.43
4.15
4.57
1.35
1.41
1.73
1.81
2.93
3.13
3.56
3.85
4.31
4.74
1.50
1.53
1.85
1.93
3.05
3.25
3.67
3.96
4.42
4.86
1.63
1.68
2.01
2.09
3.24
3.44
3.88
4.18
4.66
5.10
1.77
1.80
2.12
2.21
3.38
3.56
4.00
4.30
4.78
5.21
1.90
1.95
2.29
2.38
3.55
3.76
4.21
4.51
5.00
5.44
452
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
TABLE
0-9 A.
Air
32 F
grilles)
Air
Air
Volume
Changes
Volume
cuft
per 24 hr
cuft
Changes
per 24 hr
Volume
Changes
Volume
cuft
per 24 hr
cuft
250
300
400
500
600
800
38.0
1,000
17.5
6,000
6.5
30,000
2.7
34.5
1,500
14.0
8,000
5.5
40,000
2.3
29.5
2,000
12.0
10,000
4.9
50,000
2.0
26.0
3,000
9.5
15,000
3.9
75,000
1.6
23.0
4,000
8.2
20,000
3.5
100,000
1.4
20.0
5,000
7.2
25,000
3,0
Changes
per 24 hr
Note: For storage room with anterooms, reduce air changes to 50% of values in table.
For heavy duty usage, add 50% to values given in table.
From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1949 Edition, by permission of the American Society of
Heating,. Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
TABLE
I0-9B.
cuft
250
300
400
500
600
800
grilles)
Air
Air
Air
Volume
32 F
Air
Volume
Changes
per 24 hr
Volume
Changes
Volume
cuft
per 24 hr
cuft
29.0
1,000
13.5
5,000
5.6
25,000
2.3
26.2
1,500
11.0
6,000
5.0
30,000
2.1
22.5
2,000
9.3
8,000
4.3
40,000
1.8
20.0
2,500
8.1
10,000
3.8
50,000
1.6
18.0
3,000
7.4
15,000
3.0
75,000
1.3
15.3
4,000
6.3
20,000
2.6
100,000
1.1
Changes
per 24 hr
cuft
Changes
per 24 hr
For storage rooms with anterooms, reduce air changes to 50% of values in table.
For heavy duty usage, add 50% to values given in table.
(2) For locker plant rooms, double the above table values.
From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1949 Edition, by permission of the American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Note:
(1)
TABLES
TABLE
DtSISN
10-10.
OOM
CONDITIONS
Tamparatara
HtUITS
TYPE
OF
Ralatlva
HamMhV
STORA6E
Rac-
Rac-
DagF DagF
Applai
07b
Aprlcoh
Avocados
35
3M0
31-32
CMII Start
CkillRahk
40k
Kk
CUII
OOMPH
(SaaDac-
2044)
40
Start
Dataa
(fcaa
ropac
104.7
Si
10
to
Long
12-70
Si-W
12
MS
suo
07
00-10
ilJ
504
as
SM0
05
1045
254
32
31-33
05b
MS
22.3
3441
05
05-fO
24
Si
Si-40
05b
05-*)
24.4
CMII Start
CMIIFtaha
40
05
314
3i
OS
24.2
Short
30k
3S-40
70c
tS-75
204
20k
20-32
70c
10-71
IS.4
70-75
204
70-70
104
ss
35-40
32L
32-Si
70c
70c
43-SO
70
t0-70
Ua?
40
34
34-M
70
4S-7S
05
05b
0040
0045
Skort
30-40
31
31-32
40
CMII Rat*
33
Skort
3S
10
Chill Rata*
40
32
Skart
00
05
3S-40
30-31
05-10
31-34
05b
OS-N
40
05
CMIIRaM
32
OS
0540
Skart
CMII Start
SS
at
CkMHaJ*
Skort
4E
4S
SO
4S
CMII Rat*
Skort
40
12
CMII Start
40
CkM Hal*
05-10
4MB
CMII Start
St-40
Ctb
05b
05-S0
05-10
00
05
4540
05b
40-40
Mb
0540
0540
05
01
40-01
05
SM4
05b
OS
01
Factor
274
204
0040
0540
254
204
314
224
324
224
114
22J
044
544
SS4
544
374
1*4
454
374
314
224
114
224
IElm
Natal)
SPECIFIC
HEAT
Otu/lb/
DagF
aaAftor
fora Fraac
Fraai- lag
lag
041
0.41
Lataat
Air
Haat
at
Fiavoa
Ola/lb
tloa
dS"f
09
32
24
047
122
a.i
44
IM
4M
0.12
040
122
a.i
0.1
10
33
047
2041
00
11
22
047
Md
0.3
W
a
2241
2H
0.11
041
IM
274
04
HaaHag Sf-70*
40
Si
It
0.1
Dan
10
24
Old
0.10
101
75
2440
II4F
Da.,
OS
34
047
Md
0.N
0.41
ia
04
2040
04
40
IM
54
04
Ma
70
30
047
aid
0.11
047
122
a 84
0.10
3-4
mo,
040
1-12
Ma
047
0.10
54
Dan
Wd
045
10
-4
047
041
41
041
044
Mi
144
54
70
34
040
041
112
77
204
040
34
040
045
041
112
71
244
2.0
Wk
75
14
22
0.70
Md
0.11
041
ia
a4
a
2M
14
04
Mo
75
P a
14
ad
0.11
041
ia
20.1
75
47
44
04
040
ad
Ml
041
ia
214
44
04
VA,
75
22
040
1141
04
OS
1441
IM
04
0-10
a
a
2a
1041
04
44 Wk
04
1141
04
1-4
w
a
2M
1441
0.4
44
ad
04
70
a
a
a
04
M4f
54
04
1-iMa
IM
IM
IM
IM
0.4
14 VA,
a
a
ia
1041
04
IS
a
a
a
2041
04
1-3
a
no
14
14
14
4.3
1-10
W
N
ia
0.3
44
lODayl
9
to
2441
04
7-14 Dayi
la
Ft./Mln
0.2
254
21.3
Otu/lb
24 Hr
44
314
224
05-10
05b
00
05
Hr
Mo,
40
314
224
05
05
CkM Start
la.
104.7
St
32
Haat
TTma
214
10-05
Start
CkM Start
Ol|i
314
104
314
15
Uomo
05-10
os-a
It
laraamj
05b
05b
05
OS
254
22J
314
22J
CMII Start
CMII HMaai
Holdlag Oraoi
Haldtagklpa
[VlaHara
wapafnHt
oms
0M0
70
(AiimHcm
Saltan)
03
03a
SI
fCn<|
Driad
20.4
CMUFhtt
CMII Start
CMII Rah*
Craa-
03
D<
lataut
SUrt In
Condi-
Mpaahg
Oorrlaa
(Corol)
Storaga
Fartad
314
OS
4041
1741
Racom-
OS
05
Skort
Tamp.
244
204
07
10-32
ROM
mum
0540
0540
3S-40
lot
49
Product
tion
Sk
Start
Mail-
Loag
CMII
CMII
at
rod
CjratM
par lb
Air at
Skart
453
Md
0.11
044
ia
01
204
M
2M
Wrf
454
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
10-10 (Continued)
DESION ROOM
CONDITIONS
Temperature
FRUITS
type
of
STORAGE
leletlve
HnmldHv
om- Nnnbmend- lible m d tibia
d
Range
i3 Rang*
om-
Permit-
DogF DogF
Patches
Peon
Short
tion
K-40
osa
MS
2U
31-13
n>
01-05
224
12
40
05
11.0
CbUIRnbh
32
OS
224
K-40
Ilk
Chill Rail*
naeeppfoa Short
Long Mpe
Chill Start
Chill
Hnl*
20-11
40
40
SO
45
00a
as-to
90b
05-M
K
K
01
OS-W
40-41
Kb
05-10
S0-M
ttb
OS-W
22i7
11
40-4S
Wk,
05
24
o.
040
1-7
Mo,
70
11.0
24
1-4
31-32
Kb
10-05
22.1
ChlUFtafah
24
Wk
Wk
05
10-05
31-12
05b
U4S
22.3
Ft./Mln
0
29.2
40
047
44
Md
0.01
0.49
122
27-20
Wk,
to
ISO
Md
0.90
040
128
ISO
0.1
21.0
ISO
0.1
20.1
244f
14
20
047
2-1
Mo
0.40
lie
00
204
24
047
244f
04
N
00
204f
04
12
ISO
ISOd
040
0.1
10
to
0.1
17.01
44
1-0
to
to
04
DogF
ISO
44
11.0
128
tion
2141
2SJ
224
05
0.41
Alr
Mo-
0.1
21.1
40
0.91
Altar
Freezing
ConPoint
tent
ter
0.1
20.1
10
ot
Fusion
tora FreezBtu/lb
Freexing
Ing
I..
Wa-
04
41.0
12
2-4
34
Uag
CMa Start
3M0
Btu/lb
24 Hr
(Ei.iaa
Notef)
10.0
Haat
0.3
2U
tor
Latant
DaaF
114
00-05
Loog
CMII Start
ChlnFlnbh
Fac-
Maal-
HEAT
Ota/lb/
Haat
22.1
05
Short
Hr
SPECIFIC
Latant
5.1
35-40
40
Hn-
Tlma Rata
Start lih
17.5
IS
Dot F
2*4
IS
Ptamsaad Short
From
Period
Condi-
Long
Long
Qstoet
mended
Product
mum
Storage
Short
Prod
Maxl-
Recom-
Chid Start
Chill Start
fmMt
Air at
Ik.
Rec-
Ert
trrelns
par lb
200
0d
0.90
M0
122
OS
204
40
to
ICO
Md
TABLES
TABLE
10-11.
DESISN ROOM
CONDITIONS
Tamparatwa
VME-
TYPf
TAOUS
STORA6E
Of
Rac-
Roc-
Chill Start
Chill
Rahh
Skort
loans.
Oroaa
Est
Grains
par lb
Air at
Raeom-
Coadl-
Pormh-
DagF DogF
Asparagus Short
alatlvo
Humidity
om- Pormls-
om-
40
4*45
32-31
Ka
33
40
40-4S
to
32-40
Ka
Prod
Mail-
Product
Latant
mom
Tamp.
Haat
Doif Timo
Hr
Storaga
Parted
rlon
05-K
05-K
32.0
K
k
40
23.7
finStart
Rata
Factor
ish
Ofu/lb
24 Hr
(Ex. son
Notof)
4.0
JOOay.
40
31.0
OS-X
05-X
-455
24
0.M
11
05
hM
Short
40
40-45
05-M
32.0
(Urn*)
Long
33
32-40
Ma
05-X
24.4
Mi,
Short
4)
40-45
Taps Off
Ua
31
32-34
Mb,
Toot On
Short
40
32
40
40-45
24.5
XDays
X X M
31.0
047
23.2
Wa.
Haat
tor
Fraaa-
Alr
Con
tng
Point
lion
of
laAftar Fusion
te*. Frosa- Itu/lb
Froas- t"g
Ing
0.11
041
IX
tout
% DagF
Ft./MIn
M.0
214
40d
047
0.47
111
X.0
21.7
Days
0.7
40
IS.0f
150
tOd
0.7
IS
X
to
34
40
Lataat
IM
32.0
Long
DagF
0.5
0.5
Chill Start
Mari-
HEAT
Ota/lb/
13.01
23.2
Chill Flalih
SPECIFIC
3.0
0.70
0.M
41.5
.4
Shallad
XDayt
04
40
Uaahollad
Loag
ChHI Start
CMII Rahh
Broccoli
32
Chill Start
Chill
Rahh
irasMf
Short
Sprouts
Loag
CMII Start
Chill
Cabbago
Rahh
Short
CMII Start
Chill
Hah*
00
10a
n
41
Short
32-3*
X
X
40
33
40
40-45
33
40
33
32-X
X-K
X-K
Kb
32
to
35-40
32-M
4)
40-45
32
32-34
Carrots,
Short
40
40-45
Loag
ChHI Start
32
32-34
35-40
32
32-M
Xa
Chill Start
40
CMII Rahh
32
Short
31
35-40
X
X
X
Long (Wattod)
32
31-32
Wa
Cora
Short
(Croon)
Loag
CMII Start
Cahry
Chill
Rahh
Cacons-
Short
bon
Loag
CMII Start
CMII Rahh
tadb. p
Short
Loag
(lead)
32
43
32
a
45
M
N
X
X
31-40
X
Ma
X
X
X
X
a
N
X
32-M
Xa
35-40
31-32
SO-K
4540
34
24
0.00
23.7
7-10 Days
324
244
34
24
0.30
24.0
3-4
Wk
34
24
0.00
244
K-K
K-K
34
24
040
Mo
34
24
040
Wk
Ot-K
34
24
O.00
2-4
Mo
0.41
IM
14.5
31.0
34
24
040
to
IX
Kd
0.13
0.47
132
114
31.2
to
I74f
IX
aOd
0.13
0.45
124
X.0
X.4
0.14
0.45
124
X.0
314
52
24
14
to
40
IX
tOd
0.X
0.44
in
24
W.I
M
M
IX
17.01
tOd
0.11
0.44
144
21.7
044
040
IK
ns
20.1
X
M
X
04
40
I74f
IX
tOd
0.X
0.41
137
K.S
X4
M4
44
14
X
X
2K
I34f
0J
Wk
40
17.01
424
2-3
0.5
34
04
0.5
04
10-14 Dayl
0.5
7.0
44 Dap
X
Kd
0.11
14
244
244
21.2
14.01
44
41.7
X-K
K-X
X4
to
0.3
45J
374
IX
0.3
314
22J
K-K
0.X
IX
44
2-3
X
40d
0.X
04
244
23.7
314
0.5
23.7
23.7
M4
04
244
324
K-K
K-K
K-X
K-X
121
0.3
Day
23.7
23.7
0.41
I44f
4.0
10-14
324
K-K
K-K
0.M
40
2.0
4-5
X
M
04
23.7
23.7
24.1
IX
7.0
3-4>Mo
32.0
254
M4
0.5
20.2
25.0
121
0.4
54
34.5
32.0
040
1741
44
32.0
Long
70
0.4
05-K
OS-K
Short
Day
23.7
32.0
flowor
32
3.0
10-14
040
0.1
324
K-K
K-K
Ca.H-
40
Mo
32.0
w
K
X
Xb
X
X
X
2.0
1-3
324
K-K
K-K
43
X
32
Loag
Rahh
23.7
10
to
to
10
X
X
Kb
n
Short
Chill
05-K
Topi Off
On
32.0
254
10
4045
32-X
Carrots.
Tope
OS-W
K-X
K-K
I50d
0.X
044
IM
i.o
30.1
X
X
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
456
TABLE
10-11 (Continued)
DESIGN >OOM
S PMPITION?
Tamporatura
VEGETAM.ES
OF
STORAGE
Rac-
ommand-
RacPafmlitibia
ad
Ranga
Dag_F DagF
LoHuca p
om- Parmts-
mand
Iblt
ad
Ranga
Est
Gralnt
par lb
Air at
Racomrnandad
Condl-
ttoo
IS
35-40
24.1
32-34
J
10a
MS
35
10-15
24.5
Short
45
45-50
OS
7545
37.5
Long
34-40
OSa
75-5S
24.2
32-35
05
7S-70
Start
Loo
Mator*
Ralatlva
Humidity
TYPE
0dl
Prod
Mail-
Lataat
Product
mum
Tlma Rata
Do
Staraga
Parted
ntf-
Rn-
Hr
Start lih
Factar
Haat
Wk
2-4
Wk
DaoF
Latent
Wa-
Haat
tar
ta/lb
24 Hr
IE*, taa
aforo
of
Fusion
Con
Attar
Fraai-
Fran-
Stu/lb
lag
NotoO
lag
74
2-3
Mail-.
HEAT
Sta/IW
0.10
taut
Fraai-
Air
Ing
Point
tion
DaoF
0.11
In
Room
R./MIn
0.44
134
81.0
31.2
1.0
34
Mo-
0.44
115
5.0
21.0
10
40
J
Watorfjjfi?
0.2
ISO
dm"
bah.
lOVPW
OntOMJ
32
40
Chill Half*
22.3
.2
Short
10
5*40
75
70-75
4H0
Long
32
32-tt
75
70-75
11.0
24
0J
Chill Start
40
Chill flnlsh
Short
Paranlpt
Day
Long
Cklll Start
Long
Chill Start
Chill
Hnhh
X
32
40
Short
35
(ma)
Long
CMII Start
Chill Halih
33
(Sood
22.3
7-10
0J
0
31.0
05
75
24
0.10
44 Mo
70
27.5
75
34
34
24
0.00
11.5
0J
10-15
24.2
32-34
Kb
0-tJ
254
32J
44
04
10
35-40
32-34
2-4
Mo
70
34
24
0.00
05-10
Nb
5-10
1-2
Wk
05
31.0
05
23.2
0.5
3.0
34
20
fc47
SO-70
55
os-w
45.2
Urn
31-St
05a
55-10
24.4
0.5
35.3
3.0
Stock)
Short
45
45-50
00
lIM
Long
39
30-32
50c
7540
7540
Spinach
Short
3S
35-40
TSa
10-15
25.2
Long
32
32-U
ISa
10-15
25.0
Swoat
Potato.
Short
SS
ss
55-40
00-55
54.5
Long
5S-40
(Sa
50-tS
54.5
Tomatoas
Short
SS
SS-aO
05
55-10
54.5
(Groan)
Long
Mpaatng
ss
540
55
OS-W
54.5
as
iI-70
55
5-10
Chill Start
70
so
*S
70J
13J
05
ma
Chill Rnllh
(Woo)
Long
fWattad.
Mraad)
From
4041
OSa
5-10
irs
3S
3S-40
H-M
20.2
Long
32
32-34
15a
15-M
25.0
Chill Start
40
Tarnlpa
ablat
.41
I1J
15
Chill Rnllh
32
Short
40
40-4S
31-40
Long
3S
Chill Start
10
CMII Rnllh
Mo
3.0
4-4
Mo
ts-w
3-5
Wk
3.0
7b
5-10
24.0
410
24.0
130
14
30.1
ISO
ISOd
0.U
0.44
111
3.0
2*.1
7-10
52
34
1.0
Dar
150
Md
0.45
107
00.0
2.7
044
0.47
113
75J
2M
2.
ISO
0.12
0.52
121
010
24.0
ISO
0.12
0.51
I2
104
30.3
ISO
lOd
ISO
10
10
40
0J4
0.42
102
7>.0
254
0.12
6.44
132
ist
30.4
ISO
It)
N
40
N
15*
0.4
ltd
3.0
10
0.10
0.45
121
ors
30.S
Mo
*)
40
70
34
14
JO
1741
IS
0.5
5.0
2-4
N
N
0J2
I44f
4.0
4-6
40
40
24
0
ISO
ISO
0.4
31.0
41
0.4
254
5b
ISM
0.11
0.5
>
10
250
0.2
7.0
10-14 Dai
34.5
1$
21.0
1441
SOr
Saaorkravt
814
I74f
M
M
244
23.7
128
0J
23.7
0.47
I0.0f
IS
0.11
I4.0T
35-40
32
Pom
Potatooi
Itatlng)
Potatooi
05
Mo
0
35
10
0.70
ltd
o.to
0.45
130
104
304
It
IJ
It
2341
ISO
1.2
ltd
TABLES
TABLE
10-12.
DESIGN ROOM
CONDITIONS
Tempera'tere
MEATS
TYPE
OF
STORAGE
Relative
Humidity
Ree-
Rec-
DagF DagF
55
35
40
Start
55
JO-M
rlerdenlng
2(t
20-30
50
5045
Slicing
Raom
38
CMIIaad
HaMlag
CMII Rahh
33
Laag
55
Short
30
Chill Start
45
30
Raha
CMII
55-it
15-32
Mail-
Product
mum
Tamp.
Recom-
Staragi
Farted
41.7
14.4
21.3
<5
45-70
41.7
57b
12b
07
17
05-10
244
05-10
20.0
40-45
05
004S
31.0
31
31-32
05
IMS
21.3
CatMaat
Shaft
34
Rah Frozen
Laag
14
Hn
05-W
24.0
4*5
Shart
34
MOO
15c
Laag
30-32
05a
34
34-M
05-07
24.3
1547
5545
41.7
20
21-10
05b
55
50-M
Chill Starts
I5J
53.7
55
70
44.1
Chill Start
45
OS
37.5
Chill Ralih
35
05
20.4
Chill Start
31
N
W
10.1
Habht
Raha
21
Factor
hi'
2.5
34
14-30
00
05-W
254
Laag
20
20-30
05.10
11.7
Chill Start
45
10b
40
CMII Raiih
30
21.4
Chill Start
40
05
114
SPECIFIC
tu/lb/
DaoF
Latent
Heat
af
laAfter Fution
tere FramOtu/lb
Freezing
ing
Chill Flnha
32
Shart
15
1540
100
44
24
18.01
Long
32
32-11
35
35-40
Tab
(**)
Freth
5.0
3Wk
Picked
21.7
70
70-75
204
44
II
0.47
Mo
0.1
Mo
0.1
Days
3Wk
0.30
20
0.75
0.. J
It
72
105
57
140
541
35
II
047
24.01
0.75
0.40
7-22
US
72
15
14
047
23.0f
3.4
2Wk
40
ISOd
0.75
ISO
ISO
0.74
0.41
101
40
0.75
1141
II
0.70
21.01
W
W
0.40
0.30
014
0.32
lit
10
Dan
24.3
IS
Days
Rahh
05
OS
05-W
4.46
374
a.
21.3
57
10
ISO
Wd
0.45
0.30
044
(0
27
10
ISOd
ISOd
047
0.10
1.5
50
21
Wd
103
72
043
0.44
lit
N.4
27
W
W
0.W
0.44
ITS
07
27
ISO
34
0.40
040
014
40
21
0.4
0.71
0.37
IN
74
27
40
0.2
05
41
1.00
40
40
250
ISO
Wd
0.2
Mo
250
250
0.5
Davt
40
ISO
0.42
2.3
05-M
(-5M
52
to
0.40
1.3
ISDari
250
0.75
4.2
70-75
45
21
1.3
W s
05
Chill
70
1.3
100
to
250
1.1
70
Chill Starts
ISO
31.3
1.1
105
to
250
Wd
J2-.34 .11-24
.3
105
244
114
31.3
1.0
1.3
M-N
05-10
In
Room
0.4
3.4
32-11
07b
Mo-
Ft./Mtn
5.7
IS
34
25-10
DegF
2241
1.0
32
21
1.7
Shart
Laag
tion
1.7
100
Laag
Laag
Wet
10c
Air
ing
Point
5.0
0.1
22.1
05-W
05-W
Freez-
~
0.5*
Ma
314
05'
Wc
tar
tent
0.50
Haarti,
ale.)
WaCon-
1.2
11.7
Short
Haat
Itu/lb
24 Hr
(E.iao
Notaf)
24.3
20.4
70
Chill
(Linn.
07a
05c
004S
0045
0045
CMII
CMIIIng
34-n
(-S)-O
Shart
Hr
20.1
40
Laag
Rata
Day.
38.3
Laag
Smoked
lima
23.2
Shart
LotMFresh
IS
20.0
riaad
Short
Latant
tlan
Maat
lead
f
Start
Caadl-
3S-40
Kb
5540
Eit
Prod
Grains
par lb
Air at
70-00
05b
35-40
Laag
457
17.01
ISO
ISO
150
Wd
PRINCIPLES
458
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
DESIGN
10-12 (Continued)
ROOM
Eit
CONDITIONS
Tamparatura
OF
STORAGE
Humidity
TYPE
MEATS
Ralatlva
Rac-
RaC-
ommand-
'armliilbl.
ad
Ranga
DagF DagF
Prod
Grain!
par lb
Air at
Raeom-
Mail-
mum
Storaga
Short
40
404
Long
31
31-32
80c
00c
75-00
75-00
29.1
20.1
And
Smokad
Short
35
35-40
15a
80-90
25.2
Hr
Chill Start
42
Chill Flnlih
32
Short
35
Chill Start
42
05
33.4
32
OS
22.3
Fran
Chill Flnlih
Smokad
Summar
Drying
Long
Wrapping
Vaal
From
25.2
40
35-40
25.5
40
05
00-90
31.0
50
41-56
70
45:80
37.2
32
32 34
70
70-75
18.4
05
80-8!
45
Room
45-50
Short
34
34-31
Long
2B
21-30
45
to
39.6
30
21.4
Chill Flnlih
70
35
1.00
1M
HEAT
OWIb/
DagF
MailLatant
Wn-
Haat
tar
of
Fulion
Fram- Btu/lb
Fram- ing
ing
Bofora
0.2
0.0
0.40
4.S
0.U
Attar
Fraai-
Con- Ing
tant Point
DagF
85-90
85-90
tion
In
Room
Ft./Mln
ISO
iso
156
at
u
150
9.0f
4.3
70
35
1.00
0.09
0.56
93
45
26
to
ISO
9.0f
tOd
to
0.0
Mo
6-8
3.2
Mo
0.06
0.56
86
60
25
5.0
to
40
40
1.3
to
40
2IJH
to
3.6
15
Dayi
100
40
0.75
to
2.0
0.0
24.8
19.0
Alr
Mo-
tod
7 Dayi
37.5
Chill Start
07b
87b
(E.
SPECIFIC
21.1
05-90
5S-M
35 40
55
Short
05a
Otu/lb
24 Hr
Notaf)
Mo
31.4
M
35-40
Hr
fin-
Factor
Haat
tion
(Saltad)
80
Tima Rata
Start lib
Condi-
SauMga
Caung
Frank!
Dot F
Parlod
mandad
Latant
Product
1.3
0.71
0.39
91
43
29
tOd
TABLES
TABLE
10-13.
DESIOM
tOOM
CONDITIONS
MUCH,
SPECIFIC
Est
Fred
TYPE
OF
Urn Why
Rec
Parmts-
DagF DagF
omad
Mail-
pari?
Air at
mum
Racom-
Storage
aiaadad
Condi-
Period
Rec-
meed- dbla
ad
459
permissible
redact
Latairi
Tamp.
DagF
Start
lima
Hr
Rata
Factor
i*
tion
Haat
Otg/lb
24 Hr
HEAT
0ta/lb/
DagF
latare
(Exsaa
Notef)
Fran-
74u
04u
1.0
Mas*.
Lataat
Wa-
Haat
ter
ol
Attar Fasten
Free* Otv/lb
Fraai-
Alr
Con.
rant
ag
DagF
than
In
Ft./Mtn
iearlWhale-
ahrl
WoedaaKeg
Short
Metal Keg
attar or
Sbart
3C
36
3540
05
74c
0045
354
254
204
Mo
Ma
40
3545
Otc
.l
10
Days
45-70
Honey SePr
Laag
05
7540
045
4.45
Caady
Long
as
40-70
55
5045
B4
Carter
(la Tb<)
40
14
4*45
Lang.
34-34
OS
05b
5046
0045
314
24J
15
Day
24
04
Sbart
40
43-45
0b
7540
7540
21.1
30-34
16
Mo
04
0045
0045
1045
046
7540
7540
7540
7540
314
314
314
214
354
274
MDayi
4
CtHMta
Americaa
Camembert
40
40
40
Sbart
Laaa
Umbargar
fteqeerort
MM
4*45
34-34
05b
40-45
05
Laaa
31
30-34
Sbart
4540
41
40
4)
SO
3044
06b
10
00b
00
00b
Lang
<0
40-70
55
5045
42.1
Sbart
35
3540
7540
0046
234
MM
0c
Sbart
40
4045
Kb
Laag
30
40
30-31
Chill Start
Chill R.ltt
30
05b
05b
05b
Long
CMII Start
Lena
30-34
40-45
Coating)
Craam
(40%)
Eggs Crated
(See
Doc
2D4S)
Eggs, Frozen
10 lb
MM
Oac.2D.es
Far, Woolen
(See Doc.
1041)
Fleer
Chill
let*
only
Laag
aaaral
Orchldl
Oardeales
Craam
SSal Can
(SaaDec.
JD44)
046
0547
2.l
fODays
314
204
314
Mo
4.24
Otc
445
445
Otc
30
10
40
24
046
Mo
047
70
(54
17
2.5
0.70
040
104
10
04
24
0.70
040
04
404
it
046
042
70
S5.0
44
044
55.0
IS
0.1
044
041
40
04
24u
045
0.40
SO
554
045
0.46
100
744
314
046
100
4045
l4
15
15-10
70
45-70
04
70
71-02
40
4045
044
40k
33-40
05
540
314
3-14
5-10
374
l~g
5*46
OS
045
54.5
Si
32-40
75
70-75
23.1
2a
0.40
la
la
040
134
042
27-31
PerSq
5Yr
a
u
a
250
040
Wk
ISOd
0.1
I20 0tu\
40d
04lu
4f
Mo
a
a
a
a
a
in
20-31
FtFloei
SS
0545
74f
0.1
Dayi
W
to
044
Mo
4 Mo
45
05
45
in
ISO
044
0.lu
Mo
150
40
04
10
36-40
45-50
304
34
04
20.4
40
154
0.44
24
04
24
04
Dan
Mo
12
15
ISO
ISO
250
MDayi
40
0.34
043
21.1
5.41
044
20
0.3
2.3
35
46
Hides. Caring
Storage
MM
Raid
Famlgated
Howan,Cat
lea
21.1
24
Me
Mo
(24
a
u
a
04
0.40
la
0.1
0.40
la
Hardaalag
Start
Ruhr.
Sc
-a
Start
4.16
Be
1.55
05c
445
Rahb
-20
Lard
Sbart
45
32
45-50
Mc
3244
0c
7540
7540
Maple
Sbart
45
45*0
70c
45-70
2.f
Loag
II
31-32
70c
45-70
17.7
05c
-10
0.75
24
-10
0.75
l.lf.u
0.77
37
H4
2044
0.1a
145
42
l.3f,ii
O.lu
354
21.1
22
4Mo
6
Mo
24
04
040
0.7
044
0.1
B
041
a
5
2a
2B
2a
so
la
2a
2a
4*0
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
DESI0N
10-13 (Continued)
ROOM
CONDITIONS
Tomparatura
MISCEL-
OF
STORA6E
TYPE
Ralatlva
Humidity
Rac-
SacParrnh)-
om- Farmlf-
maad- tlbla
ad
Raago "ad
DagF DagF
Mapla
Short
Strip
MDt
4S-50
70c
45-70
31-11
70c
45-70
05-40
70c
45-75
Short
B
41
Nab,
Short
la
II
Chill Start
Chill Ftaha
Ibla
lUaga
HdWil
Doc-
lorHad
Mc
Eat
Gralai
par lb
Air at
Racom-
Prod
Maxi-
Product
Lataat
mum
Tamp.
Haat
Storago
DagF
Parted
Start
Coadl-
Unto Rata
Hr Factor
sr
Ota/lb
24 Hr
(Es.m
Notof)
tlon
0.7
Mo
17.7
20.1
SDayt
.l
SKCIFIC
HEAT
Ota/lb/
DaoF
MaitLatant
Wa-
Haal
tar
of
laAttar Futlon
tora Fraaa- Otu/lb
Fraaa- i>g
COR'
tant
45-75
25J
32-40
70c
45-75
11.4
70
45-75
B.3
ttel
DagF
0.11
53
34.0
ISO
no
0.00
45
IS
10
Ml
124
07.5
0.K
O.SO
la
Room
Ft./Mla
31
ISO
BO
B0
0.1
70c
Ma-
aflat
la.
0.40
Alr
lag
0.1
10c
40-41
Fran-
0JS
0.22
3-10
2-0
in
SMk
Loag
Nats
IMM
Short
Loag
11
1-45
n->
70
45-75
10.4
Olao
Short
45
45-H
00c
38.1
Loag
M-U
00c
7540
7540
23J>
ODDayi
0.3
ISO
Loag
41
4MS
70
5-70
20.5
Mo
0.0
150
Loag
24-
70
MO
16.4
i-OMo
VkcIim
Saram
Saraba
From
0-12
M;
0.01
Mfl
0M
0.50
4-10
2J>
ISO
0.3
0.24
4-14
3-10
ISO
ISO
0.40
DM
150
0.*
50.0
TABLES
TABLE
10-14.
FRUITS
Commodity
Applet
Btu per hr
D.gP
per lb
40
40
Apricots
.023
.036
.170
54
.069
.190
Chilling
70-S6
Borrios
.115
.345
Cherries
32
60
Ml
Cranberries
32
SO
Dates, Froth
32
40
50
.014
.019
.036
Grapefruit
32
.0096
40
.022
.058
60
Grape*
32
_moM
40
60
.0075
.014
.050
32
40
60
.012
.017
.062
32
.012
.017
.062
40
60
Orangos
32
40
60
Poars
Plums
From
.5S
.170
Beans, String
32
.099
.140
.470
Beets
40
60
32
40
60
Brussel
Sprouts
Cebbage
.055
.085
.150
32
.059
.095
.280
40
60
32
.059
.095
.280
40
60
Cauliflower
32
.059
.095
.280
40
60
Carrot.
32
.045
.073
.170
40
60
Celery
32
.059
.095
.280
40
60
Corn, Sweet
32
40
.035
.170
Cucumber
32
.028
Endive
40
60
40
.200
Lettuce
32
.240
Melons
40
60
32
40
60
.028
.175
32
50
.130
.460
32
.018
.039
.075
Watermeionf)
Mushrooms
Onions
.017
.029
.104
Ml
.175
J30
.960
.041
50
70
32
.045
.073
.170
40
60
32
40
60
.170
Poas
60
.170
.820
32
60
.016
.230
Peppers
32
60
.057
.180
Potatoes
32
40
70
40
.014
.030
.060
32
Strawborriot
per lb
32
.170
.820
Parsnips
Poachoi
Btu per Kr
O.gF
32
60
(Except
Limos
Temperature
40
Beans, Lima
.250
.014
.019
.036
40
Asparagus
.500
34
Commodity
.018
.030
.120
32
40
M
Bananas
Holding
Ripening
VEGETABLES
Temperature
32
461
.023
.036
60
.032
.250
32
40
60
.018
.030
.120
32
40
60
.068
.120
.360
Spinach
Sweet Potatoes
Tomatoes
(Green)
(Rip.)
Turnips
I
32
40
.070
60
40
.130
.027
32
40
.040
.050
PRINCIPLES
462
TABLE
OF REFRIGERATION
Heat Equivalent of
10-15.
Electric
Motors
Btu/hp-hr
Motor
Connected
Load
Motor
hp
|to
*to3
3 to 20
1
in
Connected
Losses
Load
Outside
Outside
Refr.
Refr.
Refr.
Space 1
Space2
Space3
4250
3700
2950
2545
1700
Cooler
2545
1150
Temperature,
Heat Equivalent/Person
2545
400
Btu/hr
useful output
TABLE
Heat Equivalent of
Occupancy
10-16.
and motor
50
720
40
30
840
950
coolers.
20
1050
10
1200
motor
is
work of
1300
-10
1400
pump on
space.
Society
outside of space.
Conditioning Engineers.
TABLES
TABLE
10-17.
463
Usage Heat Gain, Btu per 24 Hour for One Cubic Foot Interior
Capacity
Temperature Reduction in
Volume
Cubic
Feet
Service
40
45
50
55
15
Normal
Heavy
108
122
135
149
162
134
151
168
184
201
Normal
Heavy
97
124
109
121
133
145
140
155
171
186
Normal
Heavy
85
96
107
117
128
138
149
160
114
128
143
157
171
185
200
214
Normal
Heavy
74
83
93
102
111
120
130
139
148
104
117
130
143
156
169
182
195
208
Normal
Heavy
68
98
77
85
94
102
111
119
128
136
110
123
135
147
159
172
184
196
Normal
Heavy
65
95
73
81
89
97
105
113
122
130
107
119
130
142
154
166
178
190
Normal
Heavy
61
68
76
84
91
99
106
114
122
91
103
114
125
137
148
160
171
182
Normal
Heavy
59
89
67
74
81
104
111
118
112
123
89
134
96
100
145
156
167
178
Normal
Heavy
57
86
64
97
72
79
86
93
100
107
114
108
119
130
140
151
162
173
Normal
Heavy
55
62
95
69
76
83
90
97
104
110
84
105
116
126
137
147
158
168
51
58
77
83
90
96
102
89
64
99
70
79
108
118
128
138
148
158
50
100
200
300
400
600
800
1000
1200
1600
Normal
Heavy
60
70
75
80
176
189
203
218
235
251
216
268
157
169
202
217
182
233
248
65
194
170
228
From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1949 Edition, by permission of the American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
PRINCIPLES
464
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
10-18.
(Btu per sq
ft
per 24 hr)
Insulation
Cork or
Equivalent
in.
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
170
108
81
65
120
132
156
117
168
126
240
180
252
189
264
?67
788
7.16
101
114
98
144
120
103
151
72
62
94
78
67
198
159
7,07
79
66
57
192
144
115
216
162
72
60
52
180
135
108
90
77
228
99
144
108
87
204
90
166
138
118
144
174
41
45
40
54
48
43
40
36
59
52
47
43
39
72
64
58
90
80
72
53
56
48
51
72
65
60
54
86
76
68
42
68
60
54
50
45
77
68
29
26
24
50
44
40
36
63
36
3r
30
27
63
57
66
60
77
70
75
73
28
76
33
36
33
39
36
41
38
44
31
47
43
50
46
52
49
2.4
1.8
96
72
1.44
58
6
7
1.2
48
1.03
41
36
32
12
0.90
0.80
0.72
0.66
0.60
13
0.55
14
0.51
9
10
11
54
46
36
33
30
33
30
28
84
72
56
50
46
96
82
41
153
122
102
88
61
130
108
93
81
171
137
126
108
m
113
95
84
76
69
63
99
88
79
55
58
61
51
54
56
71
66
104
97
83
76
69
63
59
173
108
96
86
79
77
66
61
Single
glass
27.0
Double
glass
1080 1220 1350 1490 1620 1760 1890 2030 2160 2290 2440 2560 2700 2840 2970 3100 3240
11.0
440
500
550
610
660
715
770
825
880
936
7.0
280
320
350
390
420
454
490
525
560
595
630
Triple
glass
665
700
740
Note: Where wood studs are used multiply the above values by 1.1.
From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1955-56 Edition, by permission of the American
Refrigerating,
770
810
840
Society of Heating.
~M
TABLES
10.82
11.67 12.37
13.92 14.43
ifi
tAx
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r*t>ao
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27.28 27.64
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t*(*.t0t*iA
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enisMir,
Mr.M<i
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r>S5f*s
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aox*'
x*5 3E283
acnae
Mlftt>N
-.X-.?
t*
XXX X
3t%X
tOtOMMA
^*<s ^ < rtioSof
mSSm
xxxx^
e%
fttft*r*
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t*f3
f*S
rmxot*
SS8S2 S8S5S
OOtMMM
528=S
5S2SS
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t*.
t%t^XXX
BOOVVV
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moo
M^>fi t*X0
rroj
i^ *<5
^ fO ^
465
PRINCIPLES
466
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Evaporator Design
11-2.
Design TD,
TD
neiauve
Natural
Convection
Humidity,
%
90-86
85-81
80-76
75-70
For temperatures 10
rator
TD
8-10
12-14
14-16
16-18
18-20
20-22
95-91
of 10
is
Forced
Convection
10-12
12-14
14-16
16-18
convection evaporators.
TABLE
Pure
CaCli
%by
wt
60
Specific
Specific
gravity
60
11-3.
Baume
heat
Crystal-
density
60F
lization
60F
Btu per
starts
lbF
CaClt
Water
Brine
lb/gal
lb/gal
lb/gal
Water
lb/cu
Brine
lb/cu
ft
ft
ft
1.000
0.0
1.000
32.0
0.000
8.34
8.34
0.00
62.40
62.40
1.044
1.050
1.060
1.069
1.078
6.1
27.7
26.8
25.9
24.6
23.5
0.436
10.4
0.924
0.914
0.898
0.884
0.869
.526
.620
.714
.810
8.281
8.234
8.231
8.212
8.191
8.717
8.760
8.851
8.926
9.001
3.26
3.93
4.63
5.34
6.05
61.89
61.59
61.51
61.36
61.22
65.15
65.52
66.14
66.70
67.27
13
14
1.087
1.096
1.105
1.114
1.124
11.6
12.6
13.8
14.8
15.9
0.855
0.842
0.828
0.816
0.804
22.3
20.8
19.3
17.6
15.5
0.908
1.006
1.107
1.209
1.313
8.168
8.137
8.120
8.093
8.064
9.076
9.143
9.227
9.302
9.377
6.78
7.52
8.27
9.04
9.81
61.05
60.81
60.68
60.47
60.27
67.83
68.33
68.95
69.51
70.08
15
16
17
18
19
1.133
1.143
1.152
1.162
1.172
16.9
18.0
19.1
20.2
21.3
0.793
0.779
0.767
0.756
0.746
13.5
11.2
1.418
1.526
1.635
1.747
1.859
8.034
8.010
7.984
7.956
7.927
9.452
9.536
9.619
9.703
9.786
10.60
11.40
12.22
13.05
13.90
60.04
59.86
59.67
59.46
59.23
70.64
71.26
71.89
72.51
73.13
20
22.1
23.0
24.4
25.5
26.4
0.737
0.729
0.716
0.707
0.697
-11.9
-16.2
1.970
2.085
2.208
2.328
2.451
7.883
7.843
7.829
7.792
7.761
9.853
9.928
10.037
10.120
10.212
14.73
15.58
16.50
17.40
18.32
58.90
58.61
58.50
58.23
58.00
73. 61
22
23
24
1.182
1.192
1.202
1.212
1.223
74.19
75.00
75.63
76.32
25
26
27
28
29
1.233
1.244
1.254
1.265
1.276
27.4
28.3
29.3
30.4
31.4
0.689
0.682
0.673
0.665
0.658
-21.0
-25.8
-31.2
-37.8
-49.4
2.574
2.699
2.827
2.958
3.090
7.721
7.680
7.644
7.605
7.565
10.295
10.379
10.471
10.563
10.655
19.24
20.17
21.13
22.10
23.09
57.70
57.39
57.12
56.84
56.53
76.94
77.56
78.25
78.94
79.62
29.87
1.290
1.295
1.317
1.340
32.6
33.0
34.9
36.8
0.655
0.653
0.640
0.630
-67.0
-50.8
-19.5
3.16
3.22
3.49
3.77
7.59
7.58
7.49
7.40
10.75
10.80
10.98
11.17
23.65
24.06
26.10
28.22
56.80
56.70
56.04
55.35
80.45
80.76
82.14
83.57
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
21
30
32
34
From ASRE
7.0
8.2
9.3
8.6
5.9
2.8
0.4
3.9
7.8
4.3
Data Book, Design Volume, 1957-58 Edition, by permission of The American Society of
TABLES
TABLE
Pure
NaCl
%by
wt
Specific
gravity
59
39
F
F
1-4.
Specific
Baumfi
density
60F
467
heat
59 F
Btu/lb
Crystal'
lization
starts
NaCl
Water
Brine
lb/gal
lb/gal
lb/gal
degF
NaCl
Water
lb/cu
lb/cu
ft
foot
Brine
lb/cu
ft
ft
1.000
0.0
1,000
32.0
0.000
8.34
8.34
0.000
62.40
62.4
6
6
7
8
9
1.035
1.043
1.050
1.057
1.065
5.1
6.1
7.0
8.0
9.0
0.938
0.927
0.917
0.907
0.897
27.0
25.5
24.0
23.2
21.8
0.432
0.523
0.613
0.706
0.800
8.22
8.19
8.15
8.11
8.09
8.65
8.71
8.76
8.82
8.89
3.230
3.906
4.585
5.280
5.985
61.37
61.19
60.91
60.72
60.51
64.6
65.1
65.5
66.0
66.5
10
11
12
13
14
1.072
1.080
1.087
1.095
1.103
10.1
10.8
11.8
12.7
13.6
0.888
0.879
0.870
0.862
0.854
20.4
18.5
0.895
0.992
1.090
1.188
1.291
8.05
8.03
7.99
7.95
7.93
8.95
9.02
9.08*
9.14
9.22
6.690
7.414
8.136
8.879
9.632
60.21
59.99
59.66
59.42
59.17
66.9
67.4
67.8
68.3
68.8
15
16
17
18
19
1.111
1.118
1.126
1.134
1.142
14.5
15.4
16.3
17.2
18.1
0.847
0.840
0.833
0.826
0.819
12.0
10.2
8.2
6.1
1.392
1.493
1.598
1.705
1.813
7.89
7.84
7.80
7.76
7.73
9.28
9.33
9.40
9.47
9.54
10.395
11.168
11.951
12.744
13.547
58.90
58.63
58.36
58.06
57.75
69.3
69.8
70.3
70.8
71.3
20
24
1.150
1.158
1.166
1.175
1.183
19.0
19.9
20.8
21.7
22.5
0.813
0.807
0.802
0.796
0.791
1.920
2.031
2.143
2.256
2.371
7.68
7.64
7.60
7.55
7.51
9.60
9.67
9.74
9.81
9.88
14.360
15.183
16.016
16.854
17.712
57.44
57.12
56.78
56.45
56.09
71.8
72.3
72.8
73.3
73.8
25
25.2
1.191
1.200
23.4
0.786
2.488
7.46
9.95
18.575
55.72
74.3
21
22
23
17.2
15.5
13.9
4.0
+
-
1.8
0.8
3.0
6.0
3.8
+
+ 16.1
+32.0
TABLE
Alcohol
% by Wt
1-5.
Glycerine
Deg F
%byWt
DegF
% by Vol
DegF
Propylene Glycol
% by Vol
DegF
28.0
10
29.1
15
22.4
29.0
10
23.6
23.4
10
26.0
19.7
10.0
15
22.5
20
25
30
13.2
20
25
30
16.2
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
3.5
20
25
30
19.0
35
2.5
40
-5.5
-15.0
-25.5
-39.5
-57.0
35
40
45
50
55
5.5
-2.5
-13.2
-21.0
-27.5
-34.0
-40.5
100
14.9
4.3
-9.4
-30.5
-38.0
-5.5
+29.1
+62.6
35
40
45
50
-4.0
-12.5
-22.0
-32.5
45
50
55
59
Above 60%
tallize at
14.5
9.0
fails to crys-
-99.4
468
PRINCIPLES
TABLE
12-1.
OF REFRIGERATION
Compression Ratio
Compressors
Volumetric Efficiency
Compression Ratio
87.3
62
6Z2
2.2
86.0
6.4
61.2
2.4
84.9
6.6
60.2
2.6
83.5
6.8
59.2
2.8
82
58.2
3-
80.8
7.2
57.2
3.2
79.5
7.4
56.3
3.4
78.3
7.6
55.3
3.6
77.2
7.8
54.4
3.8
76.0
53.5
74.9
8.2
52.6
4.2
73.7
8.4
51.7
4.4
72.5
8.6
50.8
4.6
71.3
8.8
49.9
4.8
70.1
49
69.0
9.2
48.1
5.2
67.9
9.4
47.2
5.4
66.8
9.6
46.4
5.6
65.7
5.8
64.5
63.3
9.8
10
Volumetric Efficiency
45.7
44.9
TABLES
Temperature of Water
125
Types of Water
469
or Less
Over 3 Ftf
Sea water
0.0005
0.0005
Brackish water
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
artificial
Untreated
0.003
0.003
0.001
0.001
Great Lakes
River water:
0.001
0.001
Minimum
0.002
0.001
Mississippi
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.002
0.008
0.006
Delaware, Schuylkill
East River and
Muddy
or
silty
Hard (Over
15 grains) gal
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.003
Engine jacket
0.001
0.001
Distilled
0.0005
0.0005
* 2.16
gpm
per tube
t This table
Inc.,
is
New York.
TABLE
14-2.
Cooling Range
Deg. F
BIed-Off Rates
Percent
Bleed-off
0.15
7*
0.22
10
0.33
15
0.54
20
0.75
470
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
o n
MNMn
f
o
s
O oo o
vt tN
* oo
tno\iftin
o\
uo i> vi
^nift
O m SO
^0Q^-4tN
HflOm^M
*N ^ vi so vi
00
-h
OOWhw
OS
voo ^ O
H^mmift
_
^h
tn
-- vi
n
*-
***
iOOOO
("-^^"Os^*
onm
v* v.
^OOONqo*^
Vt tN 00 tN 00
,-h ,- *TS
fO
tN
-hO
^ ~* ^
n **
00 SO "^
-*
oo so
^oninm
*n m f>
<-
.-**
O VI
00 SO Vt
.-*-<
OQO^
^ON'OOsO
OS
OOm
m w*
irt
f"-
vi v N
vo 5K L!
rtSSJ*"
f>
m vt
^ ON S
^
^
'"'
vi
oo vi
o\
iZ
OOnineO
s
>
vt
Opoen
oo
<4-
so t
so
-h
^
^ oo O
rn
SO 00
n o i>
oo
*"*
oo
vi
l> N
o *
v
a,
73
ri
3 I
S^
VI Vi Vl
_! OS * _^ ~
oo SO
23 00m
OO Vt l> 00 f
^ o <o
O
OO
<SN N
"">
oo
"O
<
irt
N ^- ^"
.Q
vj vi ci
tn *""
V
w
v>
4)
w-i
<*
os o OS
fO IN >
\ *
* fO "A
rj
wso v
*n"
tN v
vi ci n
so
oo oo r*
(*5 <N -!
*>
iN
*J
<rj
vj oo
ri -J
m
^
vt
so
OVtOs
tN
*n
^d
so M 00
Hrtd
m O so
VJ tN oo
**> N
O so vt
vj \o so
O
*
O
*N
bo
vt
vi
01
0<*)n
00 VI Vt VJ Vt
**
>
3
so oo oo v.
^ *
** o n o
*"*
-<-
Nrtd
m i>
^ in
On t>
00 ^ P4
Vt SO Os
ri
1-^
'
o
*^
m c4
IL
v vj oo v>
>
vi
*>
41
*"
tri
vj <s
Om
m cs
^
*"*
so o
o
~*
VJ 00 "*
so (*i ph*
O oo vj
p^dd
ro
**
oovon
o\
odd
en fi *n
O
(s
vi
Ul
III
_l
co
oo
.5
2*S
**
o. oo bo
*^o
-as
s.
i
e a u
iJla
ii
ii
ii
II
II
DQQ QQQ
5.* ^
&..
Sop
o
TABLES
TABLE
15-2.
471
Gravity
at(F)
Temperature
Freeze
Liquid
Calcium brine
Sp gr = 1.10
Sp gr
Sp gr
Sodium
Sp gr
Sp gr
=
=
1.20
1.25
atF
20.3
10
1.11
20
30
40
50
60
1.21
1.19
1.15
1.12
1.11
-5.8
1.21
1.49 1.44 1.38 1.33 1.28 1.26 1.24
-26.0 1.27 1.26 1.85 1.75 1.66 1.57 1.50 1.44 1.40 1.37 1.34
brine
Ammonia
1.10
14.9
1.18
-6.0
(liquid)
Refrigerant-12 (liquid)
Methyl chloride
Methylene chloride
1.11
1.19
1.58
1.50
1.27
1.21
1.19
1.15
1.12
1.11
1.44
1.39
1.33
1.28
1.25
1.22
-107.8 0.68 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
-114.6 0.83 0.81 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90
-22
-97
0.93 0.91
-59.0 1.10 1.09 1.87 1.83 1.78 1.72 1.62 1.57 1.46 1.40 1.36
-38.0 1.09 1.08 1.83 1.74 1.64 1.54 1.48 1.42 1.37 1.31 1.26
2.0
1.06
1.34
1.27
1.22
1.17
1.13
1.11
1.42
-168
-252
-144
1.60
1.55
1.42
1.42
1.42
1.42
1.42
1.42
1.42
1.42
1.49
1.42
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.02 0.97
1.13
1.13
1.13
1.12
1.12
1.12
1.11
1.11
1.11
-142.1
1.40
1.65
1.63
1.62
1.60
1.59
1.58
1.56
1.54
1.52
1.33
* To obtain pressure drop from flow of above liquids through pipes, multiply pressure drop for
water flow (of equal quantity through same pipe) by factors from above table.
Courtesy York Corporation.
PRINCIPLES
472
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
16-1.
ASRE
Refrigerant
Numbering System
ASRE
Standard
Boiling
Refrigerant
Chemical
Chemical
Designation
Name
Formula
Molecular
Weight
Point,
Status1
Halocarbon Compounds
10
Carbontetrachloride
11
Trichloromonofluoromethane
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Monochlorotrifluoromethane
Monobromotrifluoromethane
12
13
13B1
14
20
21
22
23
30
31
32
40
41
(50
110
111
112
112a
113
113a
114
114a
114B2
113
116
120
123
124
124a
125
133a
140a
142b
143a
150a
152a
160
(170
218
(290
CC1.F,
CC1F,
CBrF,
Carbontetrafluoride
CF4
Chloroform
Dichloromonofluoromethane
Monochlorodifluoromethane
CHC1,
CHC1.F
CHC1F,
Trifluoromethane
CHF,
Methylene chloride
Monochloromonofluoromethane
Methylene fluoride
Methyl chloride
Methyl fluoride
Methane
-21.6
-114.6
-72.0
-198.4
C
c
c
s
s
142
70.0
CH.C1,
84.9
105.2
CH.C1F
CH.F,
CH.C1
68.5
48.0
52.0
50.5
34.0
16.0
236.8
-61.4
-10.8
ccucci,
CC1.CC1.F
CC1,FCC1,F
CC1.CC1F,
CC1.FCC1F,
CC1.CF,
CCIF.CC1F,
CC1.FCF,
CBrF.CBrF,
CCIF.CF,
Monochloropentafluoroethane
Hexafluoroethane
Pentachloroethane
104.5
148.9
88.0
119.4
102.9
170.2
74.8
48.1
CH4
Tetrachlorodifluoroethane
Tetrachlorodifluoroethane
Trichlorotrifluoroethane
Trichlorotrifluoroethane
Dichlorotetrafluoroethane
Dichlorotetrafluoroethane
Dibromotetrafluoroethane
153.8
137.4
120.9
-41.4
-119.9
CH.F
Hexachloroe thane
Pentachloromonofluoroethane
86.5
CHF.CC1F,
220.3
203.8
203.8
187.4
187.4
170.9
170.9
259.9
154.5
138.0
202.3
153
136.5
136.5
CHF.CF,
120
CH.C1CF,
CH,CC1,
CH.CC1F,
118.5
CF.CF,
CHCl,Ca,
Dichlorotrifluoroethane
CHa,CF,
Monochlorotetrafluoroethane
Monochlorotetrafluoroethane
Pentafluoroethane
Monochlorotrifluoroethane
Trichloroethane
Monochlorodifluoroethane
CHC1FCF,
133.4
100.5
Trifluoroethane
CJH5CF3
84
Dichloroethane
Difluoroethane
Ethyl chloride
CH.CHC1,
98.9
CH.CHF,
66
CH.CH.C1
64.5
Ethane
CH.CH,
Octafluoropropane
CF.CF.CF,
Propane
CsngGHfCrig
Cyclic Organic
C316
C317
C318
CC1 4
CC1.F
30
188
44
-109
-259
C
Q
365
279
199.0
195.8
117.6
114.2
38.4
C
c
38.5
117.5
-37.7
-108.8
D
D
324
83.7
10.4
14
-55
43.0
165
12.2
D
S
-53.5
140
-12.4
54.0
-127.5
-36.4
-44.2
Q*
c^
Compounds
Dichlorohexafluorocyclobutane
Monochloroheptafluorocyclobutane
Octafluorocyclobutane
C4C1,F.
233
C.C1F,
C4F,
216.5
200
140
77
21.1
D
c
AZCUlFUpCS
500
501
502
Refrigerants-12/152a 73.8/26.2 wt
Refrigerants-22/12 75/25 wt
Refrigerants-11/115 48.8/51.2 wt
%*
CC1,F^CH,CHF,
99.29
-28.0
CHC1F./CC1.F,
93.1
-42
CHClF^CaF,CF,
112
-50.1
TABLES
TABLE
-473
16-1 {Continued)
ASRE
Standard
Refrigerant
Designation
Chemical
Miscellaneous Organic
Name
Chemical
Molecular
Boiling
Point,
Formula
Weight
Status 1
Compounds
Hydrocarbons
50
170
290
600
601
(1150
(1270
Methane
CH4
Ethane
Propane
Butane
CH.CH,
CHsCHjCHj
CH,CH,CH,CH,
44
Isobutane
Ethylene
Propylene
CH(CH),
58.1
CrIj=CHj
28.0
42.1
-155.0
-53.7
C,H,OC,H,
74.1
HCOOCH,
60.0
94.3
89.2
CH.NH,
C,H6 NH,
45.1
CH,CH=CH,
16.0
-259
30
-127.5
-44.2
58.1
C
C
c
31.3
14
C)
C)
Oxygen Compounds
610
Ethyl ether
Methyl formate
611
Sulfur
Compounds
620
Nitrogen
Compounds
630
Methyl amine
631
Ethyl amine
Inorganic
31.1
Compounds
717
718
729
744
Ammonia
NH
Water
H,0
17
18
CO,
29
44
744A
Nitrous oxide
Sulfur dioxide
764
1113
1114
1120
1130
1132a
1140
1141
1150
1270
Air
Carbon dioxide
-28.0
212
-318
-109
(subl.)
Unsaturated Organic
1 1 1 2a
20.3
61.8
N.O
-127
14.0
Compounds
Dichlorodifluoroethylene
Monochlorotrifluoroethylene
Tetrafluoroethylene
Trichloroethylene
Dichloroethylene
Vinylidene fluoride
Vinyl chloride
Vinyl fluoride
Ethylene
Propylene
* Carrier Corp.
44
64
SO,
Document 2-D-127,
CC1,=CF,
133
CC1F=CF,
CF,=CF,
CHC1=CC1,
116.5
CHC1=CHC1
CHr=CF,
CH,=CHC1
100
131.4
96.9
64
62.5
CH,=CHF
46
CJij==Cjij
28.0
CHjCrr=CHj
42.1
67
-18.2
-105
187
118
-119
7.0
-98
-155.0
-53.7
c
c
p. 1.
Denotes that as of October 1956, the status of these refrigerants as regards commercial
evolution
follows: C, S, or D.
Commercial SSemi-commercial
Development.
2. The compounds methane, ethane, and propane appear
in the halocarbon section in their
1.
is
as
proper
numerical positions, but in parentheses since these products are not
halocarbons.
3. The compounds ethylene and propylene appear in
the hydrocarbon section as parenthetical items in
order to indicate that these compounds are hydrocarbons. Ethylene
and propylene are properly
' identified
under Unsaturated Organic Compounds.
From the ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1957-58 Edition, by permission of the American
Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
PRINCIPLES
474
TABLE
OF REFRIGERATION
16-2.
SPTOl
Vapor,
sp vol
euft/lb
cuft/lb
Liquid,
Pressure
Temp
F
1
psla
.00991
.00993
.00996
.00999
44.21
38.93
34.37
30.44
27.03
0.00
0.79
27.03*
26.65*
26.24*
25.78*
25.27*
0.01002
.01005
.01008
24.06
21.47
19.20
3.94
4.73
5.52
.01011
.01015
17.21
15.47
6.31
2.555
2.852
2.931
3.179
3.534
3.923
24.72*
24.11*
23.95*
23.45*
22.73*
21.94*
0.01018
4.342
4.801
5.294
5.830
6.411
21.08*
20.15*
19.14*
18.05*
16.87*
0.01034
7.032
7.702
8.422
9.199
0.01051
.01055
.01058
-40
-36
-32
-28
-24
0.739
0.847
0.968
0.00964
28.42*
28.20*
27.95*
27.67*
27.37*
0.00988
1.420
1.605
1.810
2.035
2.283
1.103
1.253
4
4
St
29.72*
29.60*
29.43*
29.19*
28.86*
.157
.240
.356
.518
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
.00961
.00967
.00974
.00981
.01021
.01022
.01024
.01027
.01031
.01037
.01041
.01044
.01048
.2053
0.2046
.0109
.0127
.0145
.0162
.2040
.2033
.2027
.2021
94.69
95.18
95.66
96.15
96.63
0.0264
0.1991
.0281
.0297
.0314
.0330
.1987
.1983
.1979
.1976
5.447
5.006
4.607
4.245
3.921
15.89
16.70
17.52
18.33
19.15
97.11
97.60
0.0346
0.1972
.0362
.0378
.0394
.0410
.1969
.1966
.1963
.1960
3.636
3.356
3.107
2.883
2.679
19.96
20.78
21.61
22.43
23.26
99.53
100.01
100.49
100.97
101.45
0.0426
0.1958
.0442
.0457
.0473
.0489
.1955
.1953
.1950
.1948
2.492
2.322
2.242
2.165
2.020
1.887
24.09
24.93
25.34
25.76
26.60
27.43
101.93
102.41
102.65
102.89
103.36
103.83
0.0504
0.1947
.1945
.1944
1.765
1.652
1.548
1.452
1.363
28.27
29.12
29.97
30.82
31.67
104.30
104.77
105.24
105.71
106.17
0.0580
0.1938
.0595
.0610
.0625
.0639
.1937
.1936
.1935
.1934
1.281
1.206
1.135
1.068
1.007
32.53
33.38
34.24
35.10
35.97
106.63
107.09
107.55
108.00
108.46
0.0654
.0669
0.1933
.1932
.0683
.0698
.0712
.1931
0.9505
36.84
37.71
38.59
39.46
40.35
108.91
109.35
109.80
110.24
110.69
0.0727
0.1929
.1928
41.23
111.12
0.0798
1.61
0.01088
.01092
.01094
.01096
.01101
.01105
100
104
108
112
116
23.60
25.33
27.15
29.05
31.07
8.90
10.63
12.45
14.35
16.37
0.01109
120
124
128
132
136
33.20
35.42
37.74
40.23
42.80
18.50
20.72
23.04
25.53
28.10
0.01130
140
144
148
152
156
45.50
48.35
51.31
54.41
57.65
30.80
33.65
0.01154
.01159
36.61
39.71
42.95
.01163
.01168
.01173
.8970
.8476
.8014
.7581
100
61.04
46.34
0.01179
0.7176
Co.. Inc.
.0073
0.0091
11.87
12.68
13.48
14.28
15.08
2.90
3.58
4.27
5.73
7.27
It
0.2085
.2076
.2068
.2060
.0019
.0037
.0055
8.519
7.760
7.087
6.481
5.934
16.31
17.60
18.28
18.97
20.43
21.97
du Pont de Nemours
0.0000
0.2015
.2010
.2009
.2005
.2000
.1996
80
84
86t
88
92
96
I.
87.48
87.96
88.44
88.91
89.39
.0197
.0201
.0213
.0231
.0248
0.01069
.2192
.2160
.2133
.2108
0.0179
7.73*
5.80*
3.72*
1.53*
0.39
.01135
.01139
.01144
.01149
.0197
.0146
.0096
.0047
92.27
92.75
92.88
93.24
93.72
94.21
10.90
11.85
12.87
13.95
15.09
.01113
.01117
.01122
.01126
0.2226
7.89
8.68
8.88
9.48
10.28
11.07
10.02
.01073
.01077
.01081
.01085
3.15
-0.0250
81.7
82.9
84.0
85.2
86.3
7.10
60
64
68
72
76
.01062
.01066
1.58
2.36
Vapor
13.94
12.58
12.27
11.38
10.31
9.359
52
56
Court et) E.
Liquid
40 1
F
89.87
90.35
90.83
91.31
91.79
15.61*
14.24*
12.78*
11.20*
9.53*
40
44
48
Vapor
Entropy, datum
Btu per lb
V
-9.89
-7.89
-5.91
-3.94
-1.97
0.100
Liquid
-40 F
V
288.6
189.0
127.58
87.5
61.1
-90
-80
-70
-60
-SO
-20
-16
-12
psig
Enthalpy, datum
Btu per lb
98.08
98.56
99.05
.0519
.0527
.0535
.0550
.0565
.0741
.0755
.0770
.0784
.1943
.1941
.1940
.1930,
.1929'
.1927
.1927
.1927
0.1926
1I
TABLES
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479
480
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
16-4.
Temp
F
Pressure
cu
ft
volume
per lb
psia
Liquid
-200
-190
-180
-170
-160
0.4329
0.7490
1.238
1.967
3.104
-150
-140
-130
-120
4.464
6.455
9.080
12.48
0.009466
0.009574
0.009685
0.009801
0.009920
Vapor
61.33
36.74
22.99
14.942
9.750
Enthalpy
Entropy
datum 40 F
Btu per lb
datum 40 F
Btu per lb
Liquid
Latent
Vapor
Liquid
-34.551
-32.429
-30.298
-28.208
-26.083
73.096
72.029
70.790
69.904
68.808
38.545
39.600
40.672
41.696
42.725
-0.10081
-0.09313
-0.08575
-0.07858
-0.07213
0.28147
0.26708
0.25375
0.24131
0.22960
0.18066
0.17395
0.16800
0.16273
0.15747
-24.010 67,783
-21.902 46.696
-19.792 65.596
-17.671 64.473
-15.527 63.316
43.773
44.794
45.804
46.802
47.789
-0.06491
-0.05844
-0.05209
-0.04590
-0.03977
0.21887
0.20863
0.19896
0.18980
0.18106
0.15396
0.15019
0.14687
0.14390
0.14129
48.751
49.700
50.620
51.519
52.389
-0.03286
-0.02806
-0.02230
-0.01665
-0.01106
0.17275
0.16484
0.15716
0.14977
0.14259
0.13889
0.13678
0.13486
0.13312
0.13153
Vaporization Vapor
6.976
4.950
3.605
16.81
0.01004
0.01017
0.01031
0.01045
0.01060
22.23
28.89
36.98
46.68
58.19
0.01075
0.01091
0.01109
0.01127
0.01146
1.5642
1.2232
0.9689
0.7766
0.6289
-13.387
-11.241
- 9.052
6.843
4.604
62.138
60.941
59.672
58.362
56.993
71.71
87.43
105.6
126.4
150.1
0.01167
0.01189
0.01213
0.01239
0.01268
0.5139
0.4234
0.3512
0.2930
0.2454
2.320
0.000
2.363
4.809
7.484
55.546
54.023
52.416
50.668
48.630
53.226
54.023
54.779
55.477
56.113
-0.00548
0.00000
0.00545
0.01096
0.01686
0.13558
0.12872
0.12199
0.11524
0.10814
0.13009
0.12872
0.12744
0.12620
0.12500
40
176.8
206.8
240.4
277.9
319.6
0.01299
0.01335
0.01375
0.01422
0.01477
0.2066
0.17443
0.14732
0.12437
0.10455
10.052
12.696
15.443
18.247
21.370
46.638
44.479
42.100
39.472
36.450
56.690
57.175
57.543
57.719
57.820
0.02234
0.02789
0.03351
0.03921
0.04516
0.10146
0.09470
0.08777
0.08061
0.07295
0.12380
0.12259
0.12128
0.11982
0.11811
45
50
55
60
65
342.2
365.9
390.8
417.0
444.5
0.01509
0.01546
0.01588
0.01637
0.01696
0.09565
0.08734
0.07945
0.07189
0.06468
22.979
24.651
26.418
28.310
30.322
34.769
32.958
30.946
28.677
26.137
57.748
57.609
56.364
56.987
56.459
0.04826
0.05143
0.05473
0.05824
0.06193
0.06889
0.06466
0.06013
0.05518
0.04981
0.11715
0.11609
0.11486
0.11342
0.11174
70
75
80
473.4
503.7
535.5
0.01771
0.01874
0.02047
0.05767
0.05207
0.04131
32.515
35.110
38.527
23.193
19.382
13.565
55.708
54.492
52.092
0.06591
0.07059
0.07672
0.40379
0.03625
0.02513
0.10970
0.10684
0.10185
83.93
561.3
0.02772
0.02772
45.271
45.271
0.08898
0.08898
-uo
-100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
10
20
30
Courtesy E.
I.
du Pont de Nemours
2. 631
2.031
TABLE
16-5.
Liquid,
Pressors
density
f>
t
pala
P<<S
lb/cnft
Vapor,
p vol
Enthalpy, datum
Btu per lb
cuft/lb
Liquid
-40 F
Entropy, datum
Btu per lb
Vapor
Liquid
40 F
Vapor
-155
0.19901
29.51*
97.67
188.1
-29.07
86.78
-0.0808
0.2996
-150
-145
0.2605
0.3375
29.39*
29.23*
97.33
96.99
146.1
114.5
-27.79
-26.52
87.36
87.94
-0.0767
.0727
0.2952
.2912
-140
-135
0.4332
0.5511
29.04*
28.80*
96.63
96.27
90.61
72.33
-25.25
-23.99
88.53
89.11
-0.0687
0.2874
.0647
.2837
-130
-125
0.6949
0.8692
28.51*
28.15*
95.91
95.53
58.21
47.23
-22.73
-21.47
89.70
90.29
-0.0609
0.2803
.0571
.2770
-120
-115
1.079
1.329
27.72*
27.21*
95.15
94.76
38.60
31.77
-20.22
-18.98
90.88
91.47
-0.0534
.0497
0.2738
.2708
-110
-105
1.626
1.976
26.61*
25.90*
94.37
93.97
26.33
21.96
-17.73
-16.48
92.07
92.67
-0.0461
0.2680
.0425
.2653
-100
0.2627
95
2.386
2.865
25.06*
24.09*
93.56
93.14
18.43
15.54
-15.23
-13.98
93.27
93.87
-0.0390
.0356
.2602
90
85
3.417
4.055
22.96*
21.67*
92.72
92.29
13.20
11.26
-12.73
-11.47
94.47
95.08
-0.0322
0.2579
80
78
76
74
72
4.787
5.100
5.430
5.79
6.17
20.18*
19.55*
18.87*
18.14*
17.37*
91.85
91.67
91.49
91.31
91.13
9.650
9.086
8.561
8.072
7.616
-10.22
9.72
9.21
8.70
8.20
95.68
95.92
96.16
96.40
96.64
70
68
66
64
62
6.57
6.99
7.40
7.86
8.35
16.55*
15.70*
14.86*
13.93*
12.93*
90.95
90.77
90.58
90.39
90.21
7.192
6.795
6.426
6.079
5.755
7.69
7.19
6.68
6.17
5.67
96.88
97.12
97.36
97.60
97.84
60
58
8.86
9.39
9.94
11.89*
10.81*
9.69*
8.53*
7.31*
90.03
89.84
89.65
89.46
89.27
5.452
5.166
4.900
4.650
4.415
5.16
4.65
4.13
98.08
98.32
98.56
98.80
99.04
.0288
.2556
-0.0255
0.2535
.0242
.0229
.0216
.0203
.2526
.2518
.2510
.2502
-0.0253
0.2494
.0177
.0164
.0151
.0138
.2487
.2479
.2472
.2465
-0.0126
0.2458
.0113
.0100
.0087
.0075
.2451
.2444
.2438
.2431
-0.0062
0.2425
.0050
.0037
.0025
.0012
.2418
.2412
.2406
.2400
0.2394
.2389
56
54
52
10.51
11.11
50
48
46
44
42
11.74
12.40
13.09
13.80
14.54
6.03*
4.68*
3.28*
1.83*
0.326*
89.08
88.88
88.68
88.49
88.30
4.192
3.986
3.793
3.611
3.440
0.51
99.28
99.52
99.76
100.00
100.23
40
38
36
34
0.610
1.42
2.27
3.15
4.07
88.10
87.90
87.70
87.50
87.29
3.279
3.126
2.981
2.844
2.713
0.00
0.53
1.05
1.58
2.10
100.46
100.70
100.93
101.17
101.40
0.0000
32
15.31
16.12
16.97
17.85
18.77
30
28
26
24
22
19.72
20.71
21.73
22.79
23.88
5.02
6.01
7.03
8.09
2.590
2.474
2.365
2.262
2.165
2.62
3.15
3.69
4.22
4.75
101.63
101.86
102.10
102.33
102.56
0.0062
0.2367
9.18
87.09
86.89
86.69
86.48
86.27
.0074
.0086
.0099
.0111
.2356
.2351
.2346
20
25.01
10.31
18
16
14
12
26.18
27.39
28.64
29.94
11.48
12.69
13.94
15.24
86.06
85.85
85.64
85.43
85.21
2.074
1.987
1.905
1.827
1.752
5.28
5.82
6.40
6.90
7.43
102.79
103.02
103.25
103.48
103.70
0.0123
10
31.29
32.69
34.14
35.64
37.19
16.59
17.99
19.44
20.94
22.49
84.99
84.78
84.56
84.34
84.12
1.681
1.613
1.549
1.488
1.429
7.96
8.49
9.02
9.55
10.09
103.92
104.14
104.36
104.58
104.80
0.0182
.0194
.0205
.0217
.0228
.2312
.2307
.2302
.2298
38.79
24.09
83.90
1.373
10.63
105.02
0.0240
0.2293
25.73
27.44
28.33
29.21
31.04
83.68
83.45
83.34
83.23
83.01
1.320
1.270
1.246
1.221
1.175
11.17
11.70
11.97
12.23
12.76
105.24
105.45
105.56
105.66
105.87
0.0251
0.2289
6
8
40.43
42.14
43.02
43.91
45.74
.0262
.0268
.0274
.0285
.2285
.2283
.2280
.2276
10
12
14
16
18
47.63
49.58
51.59
53.66
55.79
32.93
34.88
36.89
38.96
41.09
82.78
82.55
82.32
82.09
81.86
1.130
1.088
1.048
1.009
0.9721
13.29
13.82
14.36
14.90
15.44
106.08
106.29
106.50
106.71
106.92
0.0296
0.2272
.2268
8
6
4
2
4
5
481
3.61
3.09
2.58
2.06
1.54
1.02
.0013
.0025
.0037
.0050
.0135
.0147
.0159
.0170
.0307
.0319
.0330
.0341
.2383
.2377
.2372
.2361
0.2341
.2336
.2331
.2326
.2321
0.2316
.2264
.2260
.2257
TABLE
Pressure
Temp
F
1
16-5 (Continued)
Liquid,
density
Vapor,
lb/cu
cu ft/lb
ft
sp vol
pl
psig
43.28
45.53
47.85
50.24
52.70
81.63
81.39
81.16
80.92
80.69
0.9369
24
26
28
57.98
60.23
62.55
64.94
67.40
30
32
34
36
38
69.93
72.53
75.21
77.97
80.81
55.23
57.83
60.51
63.27
66.11
80.45
80.21
79.97
79.73
79.49
0.7816
40
42
44
46
48
83.72
86.69
89.74
92.88
96.10
69.02
71.99
75.04
78.18
81.40
79.25
79.00
78.76
78.51
78.26
0.6559
50
52
54
56
58
99.40
102.8
106.2
109.8
113.5
84.70
88.10
91.5
95.1
98.8
78.02
77.77
77.51
77.26
77.01
0.5537
60
62
64
66
68
117.2
121.0
124.9
128.9
133.0
102.5
106.3
110.2
114.2
118.3
76.75
76.50
76.24
75.98
75.72
0.4695
70
72
74
76
78
137.2
141.5
145.9
150.4
155.0
122.5
126.8
131.2
135.7
140.3
75.46
75.20
74.94
74.68
74.41
0.4000
80
82
84
86
88
159.7
164.5
169.4
174.5
179.6
145.0
149.8
154.7
159.8
164.9
74.15
73.89
73.63
73.36
73.09
0.3417
20
22
Enthalpy, datum
Btu per lb
Liquid
-40 F
Vapor
.9032
.8707
.8398
.8100
.7543
.7283
.7032
.6791
.6339
.6126
.5922
.5726
.5355
.5184
.5014
.4849
.4546
.4403
.4264
.4129
.3875
.3754
.3638
.3526
.3313
.3212
.3113
.3019
107.13
107.33
107.53
107.73
107.93
0.0352
18.74
19.32
19.90
20.49
21.09
103.13
108.33
108.52
108.71
108.90
0.0409
0.2235
.0421
.0433
.0445
.0457
.2232
.2228
.2225
.2222
21.70
22.29
22.90
23.50
24.11
109.09
109.27
109.45
109.63
109.80
0.0469
0.2218
.0481
.0493
.0505
.0516
.2215
.2211
.2208
.2205
24.73
25.34
25.95
26.58
27.22
109.98
110.14
110.30
110.47
110.63
0.0528
0.2201
.0540
.0552
.0564
.0576
.2198
.2194
.2191
.2188
27.83
28.46
29.09
29.72
30.35
110.78
110.93
111.08
111.22
111.35
0.0588
0.2185
.0600
.0612
.0624
.0636
.2181
.2178
.2175
.2172
30.99
31.65
32.29
32.94
33.61
111.49
111.63
111.75
111.88
112.01
0.0648
0.2168
.0661
.0673
.0684
.0696
.2165
.2162
.2158
.2155
34.27
34.92
35.60
36.28
36.94
112.13
112.24
112.36
112.47
112.57
0.0708
0.2151
.2148
.2144
.2140
37.61
38.28
38.97
39.65
40.32
112.67
112.76
112.85
112.93
113.00
0.0768
0.2133
.0780
.0792
.0803
.0815
.2130
.2126
.2122
.2119
40.98
41.65
42.32
42.98
43.66
113.06
113.12
113.16
113.20
113.24
0.0827
0.2115
.0839
.0851
.0862
.0874
.2111
.2107
.2104
.2100
44.35
45.04
45.74
46.44
47.14
113.29
113.34
113.38
113.42
113.46
0.0886
.0898
0.2096
.0909
.0921
.0933
.2093
.2089
.2085
.2081
47.85
48.6
49.4
50.2
50.8
113.52
113.57
113.61
113.65
113.69
0.0945
0.2078
51.5
52.3
53.1
53.8
54.6
113.71
113.74
113.77
113.79
113.80
55.3
56.1
56.9
57.7
58.4
113.81
113.80
113.79
113.78
113.76
0.2928
98
72.81
72.53
72.24
71.95
71.65
100
102
104
106
108
212.6
218.5
224.6
230.7
237.0
197.9
203.8
209.9
216.0
222.3
71.35
71.05
70.74
70.42
70.11
0.2517
110
112
228.7
235.2
241.9
248.7
255.6
69.78
69.45
69.12
68.78
68.44
0.2167
.2104
116
118
243.4
249.9
256.6
263.4
270.3
120
122
124
126
128
277.3
384.4
391.6
398.8
306.1
262.6
269.7
276.9
284.1
291.4
68.10
67.75
67.40
67.05
66.70
0.1871
.1825
130
132
134
136
138
313.5
321.0
328.7
336.6
344.6
298.8
306.3
314.0
321.9
329.9
66.35
66.00
65.65
65.25
64.85
0.1629
140
142
144
146
148
352.7
361.0
369.7
379.0
388.8
338.0
346.3
355.0
364.3
374.1
64.45
64.05
63.65
63.25
62.85
0.1408
150
152
154
156
158
399.0
407.0
416.0
426.0
436.5
384.3
392.3
401.3
411.3
421.8
62.45
62.02
61.58
61.13
60.67
0.1216
.1179
.1141
.1105
.1070
59.2
60.0
60.8
61.6
62.5
113.74
113.71
113.67
113.62
113.56
160
448.0
433.3
60.20
0.1035
63.5
113.50
114
Courtesy E.
I.
du Pont de Nemours
Vapor
15.98
16.52
17.06
17.61
18.17
170.1
175.4
180.9
186.5
192.1
92
94
96
Liquid
40 F
F
1/Vf
184.8
190.1
195.6
201.2
206.8
90
Entropy, datum
Btu per lb
.2841
.2755
.2672
.2594
.2443
.2370
.2301
.2233
.2043
.1983
.1926
.1772
.1724
.1675
.1585
.1538
.1492
.1449
.1368
.1330
.1292
.1253
.0364
.0375
.0379
.0398
.0720
.0732
.0744
.0756
0.2253
.2249
.2246
.2242
.2239
.2137
TABLES
TABLE
16-6.
Pressure
Temp
F
(
pel*
-105
-104
t-
and
1.24
1.29
1.35
lb/cuft
euft/lb
Liquid
/
Vapor
datum -40 F
Btu per lb
Entropy, datum
Btu per lb
Liquid
-68.5
-67.5
-66.4
-65.4
-64.3
570.3
570.7
571.2
571.6
572.1
-0.1774
*27.4
27.3
27.2
27.0
26.9
45.51
45.47
45.43
45.40
45.36
182.90
175.42
168.48
161.98
155.92
-63.3
-62.2
-61.2
-60.1
-59.1
572.5
572.9
573.4
573.8
574.3
0.1626
1.52
1.S9
1.66
1.73
1.79
26.8
26.7
45.32
45.28
45.24
45.20
45.16
150.30
144.68
139.27
134.06
129.06
-58.0
-57.0
-55.9
-54.9
-53.8
574.7
575.1
575.6
576.0
576.5
1.86
1.94
2.02
2.11
2.18
*26.1
45.12
45.08
45.04
45.00
44.96
124.28
119.75
115.37
111.31
107.39
-52.8
-51.7
-50.7
-49.6
-48.6
576.9
577.3
577.8
578.2
578.6
2.27
2.36
2.46
2.55
2.65
25.3
44.92
44.88
44.84
44.80
44.76
103.63
99.87
96.28
92.86
89.65
-47.5
-46.5
-45.4
-44.4
-43.3
579.1
579.5
579.9
580.4
580.8
2.74
2.85
2.96
3.07
3.19
24.3
24.1
44.73
44.68
44.64
44.60
44.56
86.54
83.50
80.61
77.90
75.30
-42.2
-41.2
-40.1
-39.1
-38.0
581.2
581.6
582.1
582.5
582.9
3.30
3.43
3.56
3.69
3.82
23.2
22.9
22.7
22.4
22.2
44.52
44.48
44.44
44.40
44.36
72.80
70.35
68.01
65.78
63.70
-37.0
-35.9
-34.9
-33.8
-32.8
583.3
583.8
584.2
584.6
585.0
3.94
4.09
4.24
4.39
4.54
21.9
21.6
21.3
21.0
20.7
44.32
44.28
44.24
44.19
44.15
61.65
59.60
57.64
55.78
54.01
-31.7
-30.7
-29.6
-28.6
-27.5
585.5
585.9
586.3
586.7
587.1
61
4.69
4.86
5.03
5.20
5.38
20.4
20.1
19.6
19.3
18.9
44.11
44.07
44.03
43.99
43.93
52.34
50.79
49.26
47.74
46.23
-26.5
-25.4
-24.4
-23.3
-22.2
587.5
588.0
588.4
588.8
589.2
60
59
58
57
56
5.55
5.74
5.93
6.13
6.33
18.6
18.2
17.8
17.4
17.0
43.91
43.87
43.83
43.78
43.74
44.73
43.37
42.05
40.79
39.56
-21.2
-20.1
-19.1
-18.0
-17.0
589.6
590.0
590.4
590.8
591.2
S5
54
53
6.54
6.75
6.97
7.20
7.43
16.6
16.2
15.7
15.3
14.8
43.70
43.66
43.62
43.58
43.54
38.38
37.24
36.15
35.09
34.06
-15.9
-14.8
-13.8
-12.7
-11.7
591.6
592.1
592.4
592.9
593.2
99
98
97
98
1.41
1.47
95
94
93
92
91
64
63
62
52
51
26.5
26.4
26.2
26.0
25.8
25.6
25.5
25.1
24.9
24.7
24.5
23.9
23.6
23.4
Vapor
-40 F
F
Vapor
223.14
214.23
205.90
197.70
190.08
- 90
- 89
- 88
- 87
- 86
- 85
- 84
- 83
- 82
- 81
- 80
- 79
- 78
- 77
- 76
- 75
- 74
- 73
- 72
- 71
- 70
- 69
- 68
- 67
- 66
- 65
27.9
Enthalpy,
27.8
27.7
27.7
27.5
1.00
1.04
1.08
1.14
1.19
Vapor,
sp vol
45.71
45.67
45.63
45.59
45.55
-100
prig
Liquid,
density
1.6243
.1744
1.6167
1.6129
1.6092
.1655
1.6055
1.6018
1.5982
1.5945
1.5910
.1597
.1568
.1539
.1510
-0.1481
1.5874
1.5838
1.5803
1.5768
1.5734
.1452
.1423
.1395
.1366
-0.1338
1.5699
1.5665
1.5631
1.5597
1.5504
.1309
.1281
.1253
.1225
-0.1197
1.5531
1.5498
1.5465
1.5432
1.5400
.1169
.1141
.1113
.1085
-0.1057
-0.0920
.0892
.0865
.0838
.0811
-0.0784
.0757
.0730
.0703
.0676
-0.0650
.0623
.0596
.0570
.0543
-0.0517
.0490
.0464
.0438
.0412
-0.0386
1.5368
1.5336
1.5304
1.5273
1.5242
.1030
.1002
.0975
.0947
.0360
.0334
.0307
.0281
1.5211
1.5180
1.5149
1.5119
1.5089
1.5059
1.5029
1.4999
1.4970
1.4940
1.4911
1.4883
1.4854
1.4826
1 .4797
1.4769
1.4741
1.4713
1.4686
1.4658
1.4631
1.4604
1.4577
1
.4551
1.4524
ctcSa?No
^^ "
'
483
PRINCIPLES
484
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Temp
Liquid,
density
Pressure
16-6 (Continued)
Vapor,
sp vol
Enthalpy,
F
lb/cu
ssia
pais
ft
cuft/lb
///
33.08
32.12
31.20
datum -40
Fl
40 F
Entropy, datum
Btu per
Btu per lb
lb
F
Vapor
Uquid
Vapor
Liquid
-10.6
593.7
594.0
594.4
594.9
595.2
-0.0256
.0230
.0204
.0179
.0178
1.4497
1.4471
1.4445
1.4419
1 .4393
595.6
596.0
.0127
1.4368
0.0000
50
49
48
47
46
7.67
7.91
8.16
8.42
8.68
14.3
13.8
13.3
12.8
12.2
43.49
43.45
43.41
43.37
43.33
45
44
43
42
41
8.95
9.23
9.51
9.81
10.10
*11.7
11.1
10.6
10.0
9.3
43.28
43.24
43.20
43.16
43.12
28.62
27.82
27.04
26.29
25.56
40
39
38
37
36
10.41
10.72
11.04
11.37
11.71
*8.7
8.1
7.4
6.8
6.1
43.08
43.04
42.99
42.95
42.90
24.86
24.18
23.53
22.89
22.27
1.1
2.1
3.2
597.6
598.0
598.3
598.7
4.3
599.1
35
34
12.05
12.41
12.77
13.14
13.52
5.4
42.86
42.82
42.78
42.73
42.69
21.68
21.10
20.54
20.00
19.48
5.3
6.4
7.4
8.5
9.6
599.5
599.9
600.2
600.6
601.0
0.0126
*1.6
42.65
42.61
42.57
42.54
42.48
18.97
18.48
18.00
17.54
17.09
10.7
11.7
12.8
13.9
14.9
0.0250
0.8
0.0
0.4
0.8
601.4
601.7
26
13.90
14.30
14.71
15.12
15.55
25
24
23
22
15.98
16.42
16.88
17.34
16.66
16.24
15.83
15.43
15.05
20.3
603.2
603.6
603.9
604.3
604.6
0.0374
17.81
42.44
42.40
42.35
42.31
42.26
16.0
21
1.3
1.7
2.2
2.6
3.1
20
18.30
18.79
19.30
19.81
20.34
3.6
4.1
4.6
14.68
14.32
13.97
13.62
13.29
21.4
22.4
23.5
24.6
25.6
605.0
605.3
605.7
606.1
606.4
0.0497
5.1
5.6
42.22
42.18
42.13
42.09
42.04
20.88
21.43
21.99
22.56
23.15
6.2
6.7
7.8
7.9
8.5
42.00
41.96
41.91
41.87
41.82
12.97
12.66
12.36
12.06
11.78
26.7
27.8
28.9
30.0
31.0
606.7
607.1
607.5
607.8
608.1
0.0618
23.74
24.35
24.97
25.61
26.26
9.0
9.7
41.78
41.74
41.69
41.65
41.60
11.50
11.23
10.97
10.71
10.47
32.1
33.2
34.3
35.4
36.4
608.5
608.8
609.2
609.5
609.8
0.0738
10.3
10.9
11.6
26.92
27.59
28.28
28.98
29.69
12.2
12.9
13.6
14.3
15.0
41.56
41.52
41.47
41.43
41.38
10.23
9.991
9.763
9.541
9.326
37.5
38.6
39.7
40.7
41.8
610.1
610.5
610.8
611.1
611.4
0.0857
.0880
.0904
.0928
-.0951
1.3454
1.3433
1.3413
1.3393
1.3372
30.42
15.7
41.34
9.116
42.9
611.8
0.0975
1.3352
31.16
31.92
32.69
33.47
34.27
16.5
17.2
18.0
18.8
19.6
41.29
41.25
41.20
41.16
41.11
8.912
8.714
8.521
8.333
8.150
44.0
612.1
612.4
612.7
613.0
613.3
0.0998
1.3332
1.3312
1.3292
1.3273
1.3253
35.09
35.92
36.77
37.63
38.51
20.4
21.2
22.1
22.9
23.8
41.07
41.01
40.98
40.93
40.89
7.971
7.798
8.629
7.464
7.304
49.4
50.5
51.6
0.1115
52.7
53.8
613.6
613.9
614.3
614.6
614.9
.1138
.1162
.1185
.1208
1.3234
1.3214
1.3195
1.3176
1.3157
39.40
40.31
41.24
42.18
43.14
24.7
25.6
26.5
27.5
28.4
40.84
40.80
40.75
40.71
40.66
7.148
6.996
6.847
6.703
6.562
54.9
56.0
57.1
58.2
59.2
615.2
615.5
615.8
616.1
616.3
0.1231
.1254
.1277
.1300
.1323
1.3137
1.3118
1.3099
1.3081
1.3062
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
2
3
4
5
7
g
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
'
4.7
3.9
3.2
2.4
30.31
29.45
9.6
8.5
7.4
6.4
5.3
4.3
3.2
0.0
17.1
18.1
19.2
45.1
46.2
47.2
48.3
in.).
.4342
1.4317
1.4292
1.4267
2.1
1.1
602.1
602.5
602.8
.0025
.0051
.0076
.0101
.0151
.0176
.0201
.0226
.0275
.0300
.0325
.0350
.0399
.0423
.0488
.0472
.0521
.0545
.0570
.0594
.0642
.0666
SS'P
.0714
.0762
.0768
.0809
.0833
.1022
.1045
.1069
.1092
1.4242
1.4217
1.4193
1.4169
1.4144
1.4120
1.4096
1.4072
1.4048
1.4025
1.4001
1.3978
1.3955
1 .3932
1.3909
1.3886
1.3863
1.3840
1.3818
1.3796
.3774
1.3752
1.3729
1.3708
1.3686
1
1.3664
1.3643
1.3621
1.3600
1.3579
1.3558
1.3537
1.3516
1.3495
1.3474
TABLES
TABLE
Temp
F
Liquid,
Pressure
density
485
16-6 (Continued)
datum
Btuperlb
40 F
Vapor,
sp vol
Enthalpy,
cuft/lb
Uauid
Vapor
Entropy,
datum 40 F
Btu per lb
Uauid
Vapor
1.3043
1.3025
1.3006
1.2988
1.2969
Pita
P*>8
lb/cttft
1/v,
44.12
45.12
46.13
47.16
48.21
29.4
30.4
31.4
32.5
33.5
40.61
40.57
40.52
40.48
40.43
6.425
6.291
6.161
6.034
5.910
60.3
61.4
62.5
63.6
64.7
616.6
616.9
617.2
617.5
617.8
0.1346
49.28
50.36
51.47
52.59
53.78
34.6
35.7
36.8
37.9
39.0
40.38
40.34
40.29
40.25
40.20
5.789
5.671
5.556
5.443
5.334
65.8
66.9
68.0
69.1
70.2
618.0
618.3
618.6
618.9
619.1
0.1460
54.90
56.08
57.28
58.50
59.74
40.2
41.4
42.6
43.8
45.0
40.15
40.10
40.06
40.01
39.96
5.227
5.123
5.021
4.922
4.825
71.3
72.4
73.5
74.6
75.7
619.4
619.7
619.9
620.2
620.5
0.1573
.1596
.1618
46.3
47.6
48.9
50.2
52.6
39.91
39.86
39.82
39.77
39.72
4.730
4.637
4.547
4.459
4.373
76.8
77.9
79.0
80.1
81.2
620.7
621.0
621.2
621.5
621.7
0.1686
34
35
61.00
62.29
63.59
64.91
66.26
36
37
38
39
40
67.63
69.02
70.43
71.87
73.32
52.9
54.3
55.7
57.2
58.6
39.67
39.63
39.58
39.54
39.49
4.289
4.207
4.126
4.048
3.971
82.3
83.4
84.6
85.7
86.8
622.0
622.2
622.5
622.7
623.0
0.1797
41
42
43
60.1
61.6
63.1
64.7
66.3
39.44
39.39
39.34
39.29
39.24
3.897
3.823
3.752
3.682
3.614
87.9
89.0
90.1
91.2
92.3
623.2
623.4
623.7
623.9
624.1
0.1908
.1930
44
45
74.80
76.31
77.83
79.38
80.96
46
47
48
49
50
82.55
84.18
85.82
87.49
89.19
67.9
69.5
71.1
72.8
74.5
39.19
39.14
39.10
39.05
39.00
3.547
3.481
3.418
3.355
3.294
93.5
94.6
95.7
96.8
97.9
624.4
624.6
624.8
625.0
625.2
0.2018
51
52
53
76.2
78.0
79.7
81.5
83.4
38.95
38.90
38.85
38.80
38.75
3.234
3.176
3.119
3.063
3.008
99.1
100.2
101.3
102.4
103.5
625.5
625.7
625.9
626.1
626.3
0.2127
54
55
90.91
92.66
94.43
96.23
98.06
56
57
58
59
60
99.91
101.8
103.7
105.6
107.6
85.2
87.1
89.0
90.9
92.9
38.70
38.65
38.60
38.55
38.50
2.954
2.902
2.851
2.800
2.751
104.7
105.8
106.9
108.1
109.2
626.5
626.7
626.9
627.1
627.3
0.2236
61
109.6
111.6
113.6
115.7
117.8
94.9
96.9
98.9
101.0
2.703
2.656
2.610
103.1
38.45
38.40
38.35
38.30
38.25
2,565
2.520
110.3
111.5
112.6
113.7
114.8
627.5
627.7
627.9
628.0
628.2
0.2344
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
120.0
122.1
124.3
126.5
128.8
105.3
107.4
109.6
111.8
114.1
38.20
38.15
38.10
38.05
38.00
2.477
2.435
2.393
2.352
2.312
116.0
117.1
118.3
119.4
120.5
628.4
628.6
628.8
628.9
629.1
0.2451
71
131.1
133.4
135.7
138.1
140.5
116.4
118.7
121.0
123.4
125.8
37.95
37.90
37.84
37.79
37.74
2.273
2.235
2.197
2.161
2.125
121.7
122.8
124.0
125.1
126.2
629.3
629.4
629.6
629.8
629.9
0.2558
72
73
74
75
.2579
.2601
.2622
.2643
1.2125
1.2110
1.2095
1.2080
1.2065
76
77
78
79
80
143.0
145.4
147.9
150.5
153.0
128.3
130.7
133.2
135.8
138.3
37.69
37.64
37.58
37.53
37.48
2.089
2.055
2.021
1.988
1.955
127.4
128.5
129.7
130.8
132.0
630.1
630.2
630.4
630.5
630.7
0.2664
.2685
.2706
.2728
.2749
1.2050
1.2035
1.2020
1.2006
1.1991
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
A,
.1369
.1392
.1415
.1437
.1483
.1505
.1528
.1551
.1641
.1663
.1708
.1730
.1753
.1775
.1819
.1841
.1863
.1885
.1952
.1974
.1996
.2040
.2062
.2083
.2105
.2149
.2171
.2192
.3214
.2257
.2279
.2301
.2322
.2365
.2387
.2408
.2430
.2473
.2494
.2515
.2537
1.2951
1.2933
1.2951
1.2897
1.2879
1.2861
1.2843
1.2825
1.2808
1.2790
1.2773
1.2755
1.2738
1.2731
1.2704
1.2686
1.2669
1.2652
1.2635
1.2618
1.2602
1.2585
1.2568
1.2552
1.2535
1.2519
1.2502
1.2486
1.2469
1.2453
1.2437
1.2421
1.2405
1.2389
1.2373
1.2357
1.2341
1.2325
1.2310
1.2294
1.2278
1.2262
1.2247
1.2231
1.2216
1.2201
1.2186
1.2170
1.2155
1.2140
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
486
TABLE
Temp
Prosstav
16-6 (Continued)
Liquid,
density
Vapor,
lb/cu
cu
sp vol
Enthalpy,
datum -40 F
Entropy,
Btu per lb
datum 40 F
Btu per
lb
F
t
ft
ft/lb
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
psla
psig
A,
81
82
83
84
85
155.6
158.3
161.0
163.6
166.4
140.9
143.6
146.3
149.0
151.7
37.43
37.37
37.32
37.26
37.21
1.923
1.892
1.861
1.831
1.801
133.1
134.3
135.4
136.6
137.8
630.8
631.0
631.1
631.3
631.4
0.2769
80
87
88
89
90
169.2
172.0
174.8
177.7
180.6
154.5
157.3
160.1
163.0
165.9
37.16
37.11
37.05
37.00
36.95
1.772
1.744
1.716
1.688
1.661
138.9
140.1
141.2
142.4
143.5
631.5
631.7
631.8
631.9
632.0
0.2875
.2895
91
92
93
94
95
183.6
186.6
189.6
192.7
195.8
168.9
171.9
174.9
178.0
181.1
36.89
36.84
36.78
36.73
36.67
1.635
1.609
1.584
1.559
1.534
144.7
145.8
147.0
148.2
149.4
632.1
632.3
632.3
632.5
632.6
0.2979
.3000
96
97
98
99
100
198.9
202.1
205.3
208.6
211.9
184.2
187.4
190.6
193.9
197.2
36.62
36.56
36.51
36.45
36.40
1.510
1.487
1.464
1.441
1.419
150.5
151.7
152.9
154.0
155.2
632.6
632.8
632.9
632.9
633.0
0.3083
101
215.2
218.6
222.0
224.4
228.9
200.5
203.9
207.3
210.7
214.2
36.34
36.29
36.23
36.18
36.12
1.397
1.375
1.354
1.334
1.313
156.4
157.6
158.7
159.9
161.1
633.1
633.2
633.3
633.4
633.4
0.3187
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
232.5
236.0
239.7
243.3
247.0
217.8
221.3
225.0
228.6
232.3
36.06
36.01
35.95
35.90
35.84
1.293
1.274
1.254
1.235
1.217
162.3
163.5
164.6
165.8
167.0
633.5
633.6
633.6
633.7
633.7
0.3289
111
250.8
354.5
258.4
262.2
266.2
236.1
239.8
243.7
247.5
251.5
35.78
35.72
35.67
35.61
35.55
1.198
1.180
1.163
1.145
1.128
168.2
169.4
170.6
171.8
173.0
633.8
633.8
633.9
633.9
633.9
0.3392
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
270.1
274.1
278.2
282.3
286.4
255.4
259.4
263.5
267.6
271.7
35.49
35.43
35.38
35.32
35.26
1.112
1.095
1.079
1.063
1.047
174.2
175.4
176.6
177.8
179.0
634.0
634.0
634.0
634.0
634.0
0.3495
121
122
123
290.6
294.8
299.1
303.4
307.8
275.9
280.1
284.4
288.7
293.1
35.20
35.14
35.08
35.02
34.96
1.032
1.017
1.002
180.2
181.4
182.6
183.9
185.1
634.0
634.0
634.0
634.0
634.0
0.3597
124
125
lit,
0.987
0.973
.2791
.2812
.2833
.2854
.2917
.2937
.2958
.3021
.3041
.3062
.3104
.3125
.3145
.3166
.3207
.3228
.3248
.3269
.3310
.3330
.3331
.3372
.3413
.3433
.3453
.3474
.3515
.3515
.3556
.3576
.3618
.3638
.3659
.3679
Vapor
1.1976
1.1962
1.1947
1.1933
1.1918
1.1904
1.1889
1.1875
1.1860
1.1846
1.1832
1.1818
1.1804
1.1789
1.1775
1.1761
1.1747
1.1733
1.1719
1.1705
1.1691
1.1677
1.1663
1.1649
1.1635
1.1621
1.1607
1.1593
1.1580
1.1566
1.1552
1.1538
1.1524
1.1510
1.1497
1.1483
1.1469
1.1455
1.1441
1.1427
1.1414
1.1400
1.1386
1.1372
1.1358
TABLES
TABLE
16-7.
487
Decomposition
or Explosive
Limits of
by Flame
Concen-
Products of
Refrigerant
ASAB9
Nafl
Safety
Fire
Code
Group
Under-
Refrigerant in Air
Classifi-
Group
Duration
of
Exposure
cation
Number
(hr)
Methane
R-14
31
Ethylene
Nitrous oxide
31
writers
3.0-25.0
itol
Kulene-131
Propane
R-22
5A
3.3-10.6
37.4-51.7
29-30
33.2-34.3
37.5-51.7
42.4-58.5
Nonflam.
Nonflam.
61
Ammonia
Carrene-7
5A
R-12
Methyl chloride
6
4
Isobutane
+5
Sulfur dioxide
It
Butane
R-114
R-21
Ethyl chloride
i
2
2
2
0.221-0.256
50.2-52.2
89.6-95.7
2.62-3.28
0.7
37.5-51.7
1.165
20.1-21.5
10.2
4.0
90.5-96.8
10
2-2.5
6.72
5.1-5.3
4.8-5.2
2-2.5
23.3-25.2
5.04-6.3
4A
1.0
Nonflam.*
25
1.1
20
30
Nonflam.
Nonflam.
2.4
16.0-25.0
1.0
8.1-17.2
1.8-8.4
Nonflam.
15
1.0
Nonflam.
Nonflam.
18
2.0
3.7-12.0
1.0
27.1
2.3-7.3
16
1.6-6.5
5
3
4
4
0.5-0.6
19.4-20.3
28.5-30.4
2-2.5
35.7
3.12-3.9
11.25-11.7
Nonflam.
Nonflam.
0.0025
61
Dichlorethylene
by Vol
Nonflam.
Carbon dioxide
by
Vol 4
+5
Ethane
R-ll
Methyl formate
Methylene chloride
R-ll 3
(min)
4.9-15.0
cuft
61
R-13
lb/1000
by Vol
in Air
+5
8
Duration
of
Exposure
Nonflam.
4.5-20.0
20
1.0
16
1.2
Nonflam.
Nonflam.
2.1
5.6-11.4
1 Unofficial.
Very
To
* Initial
concentration.
Refrigerating,
Book, Design Volume, 1957-58 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
PRINCIPLES
488
OF REFRIGERATION
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TABLES
TABLE
Shw
in Inches
Pipe
OD
Sin
19-1.
Nomina Enema
Dia.
Inches
Type
Internal
Thick-
Dia.
Inches
Metal
Inches
X
X
X
X
H
Inchef
.250
X
X
.049
15.25
20.00
5090.0
681.0
2940.0
.080
12.29
1895.0
253.0
1310.0
/.134
.500
.402
.430
.049
.035
.196
.127
.144
7.65
9.50
8.89
1135.0
1001.0
151.0
133.5
735.6
.269
.527
.545
.049
.040
.306
.218
6.10
7.25
7.00
660.5
621.0
88.0
82.6
470.0
.344
.284
.652
.660
.049
.042
.539
5.10
5.85
S.79
432.5
422.0
S7.5
56.1
267.0
.418
.745
.065
.598
4.36
331.0
299.0
44.0
39.8
.641
.045
5.12
4.86
240.5
.785
3.39
3.84
3.72
186.0
174.7
24.7
23.2
145.9
.839
3.06
3.02
118.9
115.0
15.8
97.3
.625
.750
.875
1.025
.050
1.375
1.245
1.265
.055
L
1.625
K
L
2.125
K
L
2.625
K
L
3.125
K
L
*X
3.625
K
L
*H
4.125
K
L
SK
5.125
K
L
6X
6.125
K
L
Weight
Per
Foot
Pounds
10.45
IK
Occupy
.028
IK
3H
in Ft.
.076
.065
iX
of Pipe
in Ft.
.110
.995
XX
Length
ofHpe
.032**
Length
Length
o/Rpe
.311
1.125
2X
External Internal
.030"
IX
Per Square
Foot of
.190
IX
\H
TransTerse
Area
Square Inches
.375
489
8.125
K
L
1.481
1.505
.065
.072
.232
.333
.341
.435
.482
.989
.775
.825
1.481
.198
.362
.454
.653
1.215
1.255
2.78
2.070
1.725
1.771
2.35
2.57
2.54
83.5
81.4
11.1
10.8
69.6
1.36
1.14
3.540
3.000
3.090
1.80
1.95
1.92
48.0
46.6
6.39
6.20
40.6
2.06
1.75
5.400
4.620
4.760
1.45
1.57
1.55
31.2
30.2
4.15
4.01
27.6
2.92
2.48
6.620
6.810
1.22
1.31
1.29
21.8
21.1
2.90
2.80
18.6
4.00
3.33
8.96
9.21
1.05
1.13
1.11
16.1
2.14
2.07
13.9
15.6
5.12
4.29
11.620
11.920
.93
12.4
12.1
1.65
1.61
7.50
6.51
5.38
18.100
18.600
.7S
7.95
7.75
1.06
1.03
7.04
9.67
7.61
25.80
86.61
.62
5.59
5.41
.74
4.90
13.87
10.20
14.80
.47
.060
1.959
1.985
.083
2.435
2.465
.095
2.907
2.945
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7.750
3.385
3.425
.120
.100
10.350
3.857
3.905
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4.805
4.875
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20.530
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5.845
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3.09
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15.3
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2.78
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1
9.29
<
490
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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PRINCIPLES
492
OF REFRIGERATION
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_l
O
4*
Ex
Size
1?
c
*&.*
3
TABLES
495
I
s
a
8
=>
*1
11
**
Is
*1
S3
Scq
I*8
8
.2
IS
.8
.8
Line
J?
3
_
co
dW3i Nouwanivs
8*.
.1
.3
3 (IV)
<e
ni
30nvho 0NKiNOdS3UMO0
SS01 dW31
1N3~I\/Ain03
TABLE
19-5.
Suction
Capper
Drof
OD
-90
-so
Lint
Tamp F
-60
-59
-40
-30
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.4
0.8
0.8
1.2
2.5
4.5
1.1
1.4
2.2
0.5
1.0
1.7
2.7
5.7
10.0
16.2
24.3
35.0
62.5
106.0
H
F AT
Per 100
Equiv. Length
0.17
0.30
0.47
1.00
if
11
2J
ft
1.7
31
31
*J
Si
61
0.24
0.42
0.67
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.40
2.4
1.9
3.3
5.4
8.2
11.7
20.8
35.4
2.8
4.1
6.0
10.6
18.1
25.8
0.16
0.34
0.59
0.93
1.9
3.5
5.5
8.4
12,0
21.2
34.8
0.23
0.48
0.81
1.34
2.8
5.0
8.0
12.0
17.2
30.6
50.0
3.9
5.9
8.5
15.1
7.3
10.8
15.6
27.8
47.2
1.7
3.5
6.1
10.0
15.0
21.5
38.5
65.4
19.5
28.0
50.0
85.0
0.57
1.19
2.07
3.3
6.8
12.3
19.6
29.5
42.3
75.0
123.0
0.75
1.55
2.7
4.3
8.9
16.0
25.5
38.5
55.0
98.0
160.0
4.6
8.0
13.0
Una?
Copper
Receiver
OD
V-lOOfpm
Silt
0.9
H
11
it
F AT Per 100
Equiv. Length
21
21
31
3t
41
51
6^
ft
0.31
0.65
1.12
1.8
3.7
6.6
10.6
16.0
22.9
0.44
0.91
1.59
2.5
5.2
9.4
15.0
22.6
32.3
57.5
41.0
66.5
94.0
0.94
1.93
3.4
5.4
11.1
20.0
32.0
48.0
68.8
122.0
200.0
3t
3|
4i
5i
6}
0.6
1
t
2t
Refrigerant 717
li
li
2
(Ammonia)
F AT
Per 100
Equiv. Length
n
ft
3
31
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
-40
-SO
0.26
0.55
3.6
7.0
18.0
36.0
63.0
100.0
210.0
375.0
t
ii
it
ij
2i
2t
3t
3t
4J
19-3
a
6t
-30
IPSSCH
i
0.38
0.76
0.50
1.05
1.53
2.15
3.15
3.4
5.0
6.3
9.2
10.3
15.0
18.4
26.8
27.3
39.8
37.8
55.2
68.3
100.0
110.0
161.0
258.0 376.0
2.00
4.10
6.5
12.0
See Table
Steel
-60
40
11.0
21.5
37.0
60.0
125.0
220.0
350.0
30.0
44.0
65.0
113.0
180.0
5
3.0
5.2
8.5
17.5
31.0
50.0
75.0
105.0
190.0
305.0
Sgstem'
t
it
2
to Receiv-
2.1
See*/
IPSSCH
Condenser
1
t
1.8
3.2
5.0
10.5
18.5
1
Refrigerant 22
Liquid line*
TfptL
Stage
Diecharge
Refrigerant 12
Low
Ammonia
and
Suction lines'
12, 22,
0.62
1.30
2.50
5.10
8.1
15.0
24.3
43.7
65.0
90.0
162.0
262.0
610.0
1.05
19.5
35.0
52.0
72.0
130.0
210.0
490.0
1.0
2.1
4.1
8.5
12.5
25.0
i
f
1
It
It
2
40.0
21
3
71.0
105.0
145.0
260.0
n
4
<
425.0
6
8
80
80
80
80
80
80
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
17.0
34.0
75.0
150.0
305.0
490.0
See Table
19-4
charge
Temp,
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
(3)
Refrigerant 12
Suction
Discharge
1.12
1.07
1.03
1.00
0.96
0.93
0.90
O.SS
0.70
O.SS
1.00
1.2S
ISO
1.80
Discharge
Discharge
1.09
1.06
1.03
1.00
0.97
0.94
0.90
O.SS
0.71
O.SS
1.00
1.20
1.45
1.S0
0.77
1.00
1.23
100
(<
nrrn-TWir
Table
AT Lees,<,F
\"
\'-
site.
ftr?t
A '*aBP*'L~tl*.f'
(
100
(5)
1.45
1.67
BqmaUnt Lengths,
Refrigerant 22
Suction
*\
Actual Tens
\"
ToUeTous J
ar^Alr^o^U^tog aSr2eS
n *'*""*' 19S7~58
Editi0n ' **
496
CHARTS
CHART
14-1.
497
-30
-20
-10
20
10
30
40
50
Suction temperature F
From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume 1957-58 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers.
CHART
14-2.
-5Q
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
Suction temperature F
A^ndlSg gS. **
*%**
<
498
PRINCIPLES
CHART
14-3.
OF REFRIGERATION
E _
O Q)
oh a)
re
co
ton
in
E
280
per
moved
no
100
90
to
g.8.220
3 3
8U
70
60
200
-10
!0
30
20
10
40
Suction temperature F
CHART
15-1.
Resistance to Flow of
ci
000^ cio o h
CM
CO
tf)U>
CCJ
oj
<* into 00
1
lin. ft)
BMS 79.
CHARTS
CHART
15-2.
Resistance to Flow of
CO ^ mio
o o o do
CM
CO
c>
-H
Water Through
CM
CO
t If)*
CO
BMS
79.
o
""
lin. ft)
Fairly
cm
Rough Pipe
co
*f
mu5
00
499
500
PRINCIPLES
E
c
b
e
rt
ill
L.
OF REFRIGERATION
*2
Sco
_l
>*
//
//
t5
>M
a)
>
.3*
cH
E i
3
0)
'//,
L.
01
,s
?
^"XX
* a
*&
iiC
_l
<
BO
M
C
g
O
.
111
I
*
o
-1
*c
3
>s
El
>
L.
l
o
f Oe
>?
<
^
*
H
AC
<
X
u
L.
E
e
M
k
C
rS
to
4J
^P
1
oe
<
X
u
V/
I/*'
Copp
in
i/>
CM
s
_l
*>
<
c
M
L.
iud) '<ipo(9A
sb3
/I
/y
Minim
/l 71 ii
rf
1
77
<*
uinuiiuiim
T<3
CHARTS
e
E
e
||v
1S
-J
iu
^ 8 8
2 J
.8
SO 8
J2 *
>s
o w
1*1
UKlj
'%M|8A SB8
UinUI|UJM
<
I
u
M
00
&
c
IU
IS
o
a
I
(d
i*
13
wdj
<
i
o
'X}!0O|3A
se8 umujiujh
501
502
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
CHART
5.0
4.6
I9-2A.
NX \ \
s N.
\\ \
\
^130
s^fe^
^f
Icnr^
4.2
110
10! r
3.8
igo;
:3.4
40
20"
0
3.0
20
-40
2.6
-100
-80
-60
-20
-40
20
in
60
40
evaporator-T
CHART
I9-2B.
|3-8
3.6
^_130
3.4
*^ <*f
^3.2
^120
^ ^
'hire.
t3.0
12.8
60"
40
1^2.4
20
2.2
^2.0
80
2.6
1.8
-100
-60
^40
-20"
-80-60-40-20
.
^_
20
in
evaporator-'F
40
60
CHARTS
CHART
I9-2C.
Ammonia Flow
Rate
503
504
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
The equipment rating tables reprinted in this book are intended only to illustrate methods of
equipment rating and selection. For this reason, many are incomplete and therefore do not
represent the full line of the manufacturer.
TABLE
R-l.
(7* less
Model
than overall)
Width
No.
Tubes
Single
J-14
13*
K-16
18^
U8
24'
Fin
Spac.
1.47
1.21
1.89
1.29
2.52
2.21
1.82
2.94
i
i
1.72
3.15
2.15
2.44
10
2.52
2.94
2.44
4.42
i
i
30'
K-1.12
42*
12
13**
16
PK-16
18i*
12
PL-18
24**
16
PN-1.10
29J*
20
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
13'
K-26
18i*
12
L-28
24*
16
N-2.10
29$*
20
J-28
30*
16
K-2.12
42*
24
L-2.16
54*
32
PJ-24
13'*
16
PK-26
18J'*
24
PL-28
24**
32
PN-2.10
29J**
40
15
in.
TD
i
i
1.72
3.78
2.58
5.04
3.44
2.52
1.72
3.78
2.58
5.04
3.44
6.30
4.30
3.68
3.04
3.65
5.88
4.87
2.94
2.44
4.42
3.65
5.88
4.87
22.1
18.2
33.1
27.3
44.1
35.5
55.2
45.9
44.2
36.6
66.3
54.8
88.4
73.2
44.2
7.33
6.10
36.6
66.2
54.8
88.3
73.0
110.0
91.1
2.65
2.23
3.96
3.34
5.30
4.45
6.62
5.57
5.30
4.45
7.92
6.68
10.60
8.90
5.30
4.45
7.92
6.68
10.60
8.90
13.25
11.12
39.8
33.5
59.4
50.1
79.5
66.8
99.3
83.6
79.5
66.8
118.8
100.2
159.0
133.5
79.5
66.8
118.8
100.2
159.0
133.5
198.8
166.8
Coils
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
1TD
1.26
J-18
PJ-14
0.86
29J*
54*
in.
N-1.10
L-1.16
SqFt
per
2.52
1.72
3.78
2.58
5.04
3.44
6.30
4.30
5.04
3.44
7.56
5.16
10.08
6.88
5.04
3.44
7.56
5.16
10.08
6.88
12.60
8.60
TABLES
h 13*l
Type
r- 24 -*i
(* 29% -*j
Type L 18
Type N 1.10
Type K 16
14
Type J 24
30
505
Type N 2.10
-)
42
f<
in
Type K 1.12
Type J 18
ssl
U model 54"'wide
sfli
Type J 28
|*13H
sIKo^w
iS?
Type K 2.12
|-d3*|
Type PK 16
Type PJ 24
Type PK 26
Installation
^ *D
<-A-4___J<
SSSSSKW
<-E-l
WZMmk-E
A
JMWm.
12
in.
Minimum
in.
10
*k
(-
29Js
-j
wmm.
D
8ft
in.
4ft
in.
in.
in.
29%
-|
lw^
Type PN 1.10
jfs^
Type PL 28
in
'km!
ft.
in.
>|
l-e 24
Type PL 18
Maximum
|- 24 ->j
dimensions
5)
Type L 2.16
(*18iJ->|
fel8%*|
Type PJ 14
Dimensions
Type L 1.16
Type PN 2.10
506
OF REFRIGERATION
PRINCIPLES
TABLE
Single
R-2.
Nate Evaporators
Hour
Catalog
Width,
Length,
feetot
sqri
Number
Inches
Inches
Pass
Surface
1224
12
1236
12
1248
12
1260
12
1272
12
1284
12108
12
12144
2230
2236
2248
2260
2272
2284
22108
24
36
48
60
72
84
"K"
per Plate
at 15
9.9
4.18
10
13
150
195
15.8
6.26
16
18
240
21.8
8.35
21
27.8
26
24
30
315
10.45
33.8
12.55
31
36
465
39.8
14.65
37
42
555
54
72
270
360
450
540
630
810
1080
420
495
660
825
990
1185
1500
390
12
144
69.8
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
30
36
48
60
72
25.7
9.64
11.58
24
29
28
31.6
43.6
15.4
38
44
55.6
19.3
23.2
48
58
55
67.6
66
720
945
360
435
570
720
870
84
79.6
27.24
68
79
1020
34.9
87
100
1305
108
12
51.8
18.83
48
25.2
63
103.6
108
TD
33
TABLE
R-3.
Plate Banks
No. of
Expansion
Valves
No. of
Expansion
Valves
Catalog
Size,
No.
Feet of
Number
Inches
Plates
Pass
4-1248-B
12 x 48
87
1260
5-1248-B
12
x48
109
1575
6-1248-B
12 x 48
131
1890
4-1260-B
12 x 60
111
1560
1950
2340
1860
2325
2790
2220
2775
3300
2880
3600
4320
3780
4725
5670
5-1260-B
12 x 60
139
6-1260-B
x
x
x
x
x
166
136
6-1284-B
60
12
72
12
72
12
72
12
84
12 x 84
12 x 84
4-12108-B
12 x 108
5-12108-B
12 x 108
6-12108-B
12
x
12 x
12 x
12 x
108
144
144
144
4-1272-B
5-1272-B
6-1272-B
4-1284-B
5-1284-B
4-12144-B
5-12144-B
6-12144-B
12
R-12
170
204
160
200
240
207
258
310
279
348
418
4
5
Ammonia
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Hour
TD
Co
Below 32
Above
32
1440
1880
2160
1800
2250
2700
2160
2700
3240
2520
3150
3780
3240
4050
4860
4320
5400
6480
TABLES
TABLE
Catalog
Width,
Number
Inches
Length,
Inches
No. of
Plates
R-4.
Feet of
Pass
Plate Stands
No. of
Expansion
Valves
F-12
4-2230-S
5-2230-S
6-2230-S
7-2230-S
8-2230-S
22
22
22
22
22
30
30
30
30
30
4-2248-S
5-2248-S
6-2248-S
7-2248-S
8-2248-S
22
22
22
22
22
48
48
48
48
48
4-2260-S
5-2260-S
6-2260-S
7-2260-S
8-2260-S
22
22
22
22
22
4-2272-S
5-2272-S
6-2272-S
7-2272-S
8-2272-S
6
7
8
507
No. of
Expansion
Total
at 15
TD
Valves
Ammonia
Below
32
103
128
154
180
206
1440
1800
2160
2520
2880
2280
2850
3420
Above 32
1680
2100
2520
2940
3360
2640
3300
3960
4620
5280
175
218
2
2
2
262
306
350
3990
4560
60
60
60
60
60
222
2880
278
333
390
445
2
2
2
3600
4320
5040
5760
3300
4125
4950
5775
6600
22
22
22
22
22
72
72
72
72
72
3480
4350
5220
6090
6960
3960
4950
5940
6930
7920
4-2284-S
5-2284-S
6-2284-S
7-2284-S
8-2284-S
22
22
22
22
22
84
84
84
84
84
4080
5100
6120
7140
8160
4740
5925
7110
8295
9480
4-22108-S
5-22108-S
6-22108-S
7-22108-S
8-22108-S
22
22
22
22
22
108
108
108
108
108
5220
6525
7830
9135
10440
6000
7500
9000
10500
12000
6
7
6
7
8
6
7
8
6
7
8
6
7
8
270
338
405
474
540
2
2
1
1
3
3
2
2
319
398
479
558
637
2
2
415
518
622
725
830
4
4
PRINCIPLES
508
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
R-5.
Liquid*
in
Desired
Desired
Liquid
Refr.
Temp.
Temp.
Liquid
Refr,
Temp.
Temp.
"K"
(a)
38
15.7
35
(c)
19
13.5
60
55
50
45
(a)
38
15.5
(c)
15
13.0
(a)
38
15.2
30
25
(c)
11
12.5
(a)
36
15.0
20
(c)
12.0
(a)
32
14.5
15
(c)
11.2
40
(c)
28
14.0
10
(c)
(a)
24
13.5
(c)
-1
-5
10.5
35
35
(b)
19
12.5
(c)
-9
9.0
35
(6)
15
10.8
8.2
35
(b)
11
10.0
-12
-16
35
(ft)
9.0
65
-5
-10
(c)
(c)
"K"
9.8
7.5
Water cooling, (b) Water cooling, ice formation on coils, (c) Brine cooling.
For dry expansion tubing or pipe submerged in water or brine without agitation. (Courtesy
Vilter Manufacturing Company.)
(a)
TABLE
R-6.
Refrig.
in
Air*
Fahrenheit
Temp.
F
-20
-10
10
20
30
32
28
24
20
36
40
44
2.30
2.49
2.50
2.52
2.11
2.49
2.51
2.52
2.11
2.49
2.49
2.47
2.52
1.79
2.50
2.52
2.48
12
1.80
2.49
2.49
2.52
2.49
1.40
1.79
2.50
2.49
1.39
2.01
2.48
2.51
1.40
1.99
2.48
2.53
1.59
1.99
2.51
2.50
1.39
-4
-8
-13
-17
-25
-30
-40
-50
*
1.39
1.59
1.99
1.30
1.49
1.80
2.01
1.39
1.60
1.74
1.98
1.50
1.70
1.79
1.50
1.60
1.80
1.39
1.70
1.79
1.80
1.59
1.80
1.80
1.79
1.80
coils
60
2.11
14
50
TABLES
TABLE
509
R-7.
Lineal Feet
Pipe Size
*'
4.55
3.64
i'
2.90
li-
2.30
if
2.01
2*
1.61
TABLE
R-8.
Core
Btu/Hr Rating
Motor Heat
Surf.
Model
10
TD
15
TD
FT*
Circuits
UC25
UC35
UC45
2,500
3,750
3,500
5,250
67
93
4,500
6,750
156
UC65
UC85
UC105
6,500
9,750
8,500
12,750
10,500
15,750
210
266
328
UC120
UC180
UC240
UC320
24,000
36,000
378
566
755
32,000
48,000
1030
12,000
18,000
18,000
27,000
Split
Split
Split
Two
3
Air
Tube
HP
25
7,600
10'
8,000
12'
i"
20
11,500
14'
12
1
A
12,600
16'
12
13,350
16'
15,100
18'
(2) 2*0
18,000
25,200
34,000
(2) 18'
75,000
(2)
(2)
(2)4
(2)i
Btu/24
Hr
Fan
20
20
1140 1,000
1140 1,480
1140 1,730
23
27
25
(2) 14'
1140
(2) 16'
1140 2,550
1140 4,050
1140 6,000
25
20
27
28
22'
1500
1500
1500
1,950
17
TABLE
Acme
Model No.*
DXH-805
41
806
807
808
809
810
50
59
67
76
85
94
102
811
812
813
814
DXH-1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
DXH-1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
DXH-1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
1412
1413
1414
1415
1416
Chillers
Capacity
Std.
No.
Number
Range Tons
of Circuits
5.4 to 19
44
8 to 30
68
40
92
14 to 52
120
20 to 71
164
31 to 111
252
of Tubes
64
77
91
104
118
131
145
158
171
184
197
211
105
123
141
159
177
195
213
231
249
267
285
136
159
184
207
231
255
278
302
325
349
372
187
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
1615
1616
219
251
283
315
348
380
412
444
477
509
286
335
384
437
487
535
583
633
683
733
782
830
880
976
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2020
Water
111
119
DXH-1606
DXH-2006
R-9
Tube
Area Sq Ft
Effective
11 to
510
TABLES
0.35 0.4
0.4
0.2
_L
J_
0.15
0.2
J_
L5
1.0
0.8
0.6
l
L_
0.6
0.8
_l_
>
0.4
maximum
25
2.0
15
1.0
'
0.6
0.8
Courtesy
Acme
Industries.
1.0
3.0
3.5
I
2.0
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TABLES
TABLE
Specified Suction
R-IOC.
-40
Saturated suction
temperature
Actual suction
temperature
Temperature
30
at
Compressor
Inlet (R- 1 2
-20
515
and R-500)
-10
and above
43
35
65
55
65
TABLE
R-IOD.
Correction Factors
Saturation temperature
Factor
-40
-30
-20
-10
0,90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
10
20
30
0.95
0.96
0.97
40
50
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TABLE
TABLE
A.
R-13.
40 Suction
MnHel
No.
Air Entering
Fan
Fan Motors
Speed
Dia.
Tons
Btu/hr
Cfm
Inches
HP
A
A
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TABLES
TABLE
B.
525
Suction temp. F
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0.81
0.85
0.89
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0.92
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0.98
1.00
TABLE C.
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Condensing Temperature
air.
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Air D.B.
70
80
90
100
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
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1.33
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1.67
1.83
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526
PRINCIPLES
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527
528
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Gpm
Fig.
TABLES
ou
130
25
1.25
1.20
|.
20
3
E
1.15
1.10
1.05
v^/V
0.95
8.15
?.
&
S
ca
;s
^ .v
fe ^
s^
,
1.00
I"
E
10
>>>;
120
110
105
100
t^> 90
80
0.90
-40-30-20-10
10
20
30
40
50
Evaporator temperature *F
Gpm
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
per ton
20
30
At
W
Am
4 Pass
Jk*\
20
10
iw uu
zz
i //'//
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'/;/ //
/
'//a
(/ V
7
'//
Gpm
45678
10
per tube
Gpm
Fig.
43
per tube
529
530
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
R-15.
Catalog
Stock
Number
Number
EL-33
EL-50
EL-75
EL-100
EL-1J0
2-EL
3-EL
4-EL
5-EL
EL-200
EL-300
1-EL
6-EL
7-EL
Nominal
HP
Rating
SAE
SAE
SAE
Flare
Flare
Flare
i
i
\
1
li
2
3
i
i
i
i
*
#
*
*
*
Cleaning
Tool
Shipping
Dimension in Inches
Height Length Depth
8f
H
lOf
lOf
No. of
Weight
Catalog
Sections
(Appr.)
Number
18
21
21
27
20
25
30
836
836
836
836
836
35
39
1036
1036
12f
33
14
34
34
13
18
O.D. Swt.
i
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i
16i
TABLES
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532
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
TABLE
A.
(In
R-17.
Cond.
No.
E-80F
E-135F
E-270F
60
(F)
70
65
75
78
(F)
80
85
90
2.6
2.2
1.9
1.5
1.2
1.1
95
100
3.2
2.9
2.5
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.2
3.8
3.5
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.3
1.9
105
4.5
4.2
3.9
3.5
3.3
3.1
2.6
110
5.3
5.1
4.8
4.4
4.1
4.0
3.5
115
6.3
6.0
5.7
5.3
5.1
4.9
4.5
90
4.4
3.9
3.3
2.6
2.1
1.8
0.9
95
5.5
5.0
4.3
3.7
3.3
2.9
2.1
100
6.6
6.1
5.5
4.8
4.4
4.1
3.2
105
7.8
7.3
6.7
6.0
5.6
5.4
4.5
0.6
110
9.4
8.9
8.3
7.6
7.2
6.9
6.1
115
11.0
10.5
9.9
9.3
8.9
8.6
7.8
90
8.8
7.8
6.6
5.2
4.2
3.6
1.8
95
11.0
10.0
8.6
7.4
6.6
5.8
4.2
100
105
13.2
12.2
11.0
8.2
6.4
14.6
13.4
9.6
12.0
8.8
15.6
11.2
10.8
9.0
110
18.8
17.8
16.6
15.2
14.4
13.8
12.2
115
22.0
21.0
19.8
18.6
17.8
17.2
15.6
TABLE B
Evaporator Temperature Correction Factors
Evaporator
Correction
Temp.(F)
Factor
50
0.97
40
1.0
30
20
1.03
10
1.09
1.05
Evaporator
Temp.
F)
Correction
Factor
1.11
-10
-20
-30
1.16
1.20
1.26
TABLES
TABLE
300
R-18.
1
2^,
flowchart
200
All
in
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60
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TABLE
Centrifugal
R-19.
Pump
Capacity Table
160
140
120
E 100
ft*
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60
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100
125
150
175
200
225
Courtesy Bell
250
275
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WT^WH Wf
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300
325
533
PRINCIPLES
534
OF REFRIGERATION
cn
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Index
Absolute, humidity, 59
Brines, 199-201
British thermal unit, 17
pressure, 5
temperature, 13, 14
Adiabatic, compression, 37-39, 82
Butane, 297
By-pass, condenser, 263
cylinder,
242
conditioning, 122
Canning, 123
dry, 57
latent heat of,
quantities,
62
57
sensible heat,
specific heat,
62
246
Capacity, centrifugal
229
standard, 58
total heat,
condenser, 245-253
62
297
Carrene
7,
Carbon
to,
207
Clearance gas, 203
Clearance volume, 203
Centrigrade temperature, 12, 13
Charles' law, 26, 29
Chart, psychrometric, 64-69
Barometer, 2
Barometric pressure, 2
Baudelot coolers, 188-190
Booster compressors, 395, 396
Bourdon tube gage, 5
Boyle's law, 27, 28
Brake horsepower, 216
Brine cooling, 199-201
380
188-197, 201
535
INDEX
536
Cloud
345
point,
Coefficient, of expansion,
24
rotary, 203,
of performance, 97
selection of,
180-187
service valves, 78
single acting, vertical,
speed
types, 203,
185-187
air,
361
334-344
250-252
222
forced
limit,
reciprocating, 203-223,
334-337
363
surging, 362
valves,
334
337-341
air
ratings, 222,
179
leakage into, 145, 146, 152
179
humidity
compound, 395-401
constant pressure, 25, 26, 219
cycle,
PV
diagram
of,
204
heat of, 95
isentropic, 95,
219
processes,
PV
diagrams
of,
34-36, 38, 39
208
ratio of,
wet, 219
352-363
203
334-337
horsepower, 214-220
impellers,
352-354
344-350
lubrication of,
mechanical efficiency
oil check valve, 349
of,
337
223
216-218, 221
214
210-212
Condenser load, 96, 244, 245
Condensers, air cooled, 248-255
air quantities for, 245-247
air temperature rise in, 245-247
booster for, 255
capacity, 245-253
capacity control, 267-271
chassis mounted, 249
forced air, 249
function of, 244
gravity flow, 248, 249
location of, 249
rating and selection, 251-253
remote, 249
temperature split, 252
Condensers, water cooled, 253-259
by-pass, 263
capacity control, 267-271
cleaning, 255, 256, 271-273
double tube, 255
rating and selection, 257-259
recirculating systems, 253
scale factors for, 255
scaling rate, 254-255
shell-and-coil, 255, 256
shell-and-tube, 256, 257
water piping for, 253, 254, 278
water pressure drop through, 253, 254
water quantities for, 245-247
water regulating valves, 265-267
water temperature rise in, 245-247
water velocity in, 253, 254
Condensers, evaporative, 264, 265
capacity control of, 267-271
rating and selection, 265
Condensation of vapors, 49, 50
Condensing pressure, 83
variation with suction temperature,
INDEX
Condensing pressure,
effect of low, 267,
effect
268
Dehydrators, 297
motor, 418-427
298-333
temperature, 231-236
Conversions, energy,
8,
pressure-enthalpy, 89
Dilution, of oil
21
by
pressure, 83
pressure, 4, 5
service valves,
temperature, 13
temperature, 83
290-292
head
heat-work, 21
Convection, natural, 15
232
refrigerant,
head-pressure, 275
in
valves,
Discharge
78
337-341
lines, 372-375
311-314
Domestic refrigeration, 122
Double-pipe condensers, 255
Distributor, refrigerant,
reach-in, 140
walk-in, 140
297
260
216-218
over-all,
reverse, 392
system, 97
216-218
volumetric, 206-208
407-416
subcooled, 112-117
Electric motors,
superheated, 107-112
equation, general, 30
heat, 10
Dalton's law, 58
internal, 10, 11
kinetic, 7, 11
391
frequency, 388, 389
hot gas, 391-395
multiple evaporator systems, 391, 392
electric, 390,
off-cycle, 388,
537
389
21-23
molecular, 10
potential, 7, 11
Enthalpy, 50, 51
of air, 62
Enthalpy-pressure diagrams, 89, 93, 98, 101, 107,
113, 116, 118, 119
timers, 389
Entropy, 51, 52
Entropy-temperature diagrams, 103
INDEX
538
Equalizer, crankcase
external,
170-172
pressure, 5
Finned
pressure-head, 275
temperature, 13, 14
inner, 172
Flammability of refrigerants, 285
coils, 168,
Evaporation, 47
Evaporative condensers, 264, 265
Film,
185-187
low
air,
oil,
321-323
side,
149, 171
in evaporator, 291
274-278
Fluid, flow,
181
278
friction,
Baudelot, 188-190
pressure, 274,
circuiting,
coil
and
175-177
baffle
defrosting,
275
346
Fluorocarbon refrigerants, 287, 288, 294-297
Foaming, oil, 347-350
Foods, absorption of odors by, 132
assembly, 181
388-395
double-pipe, 188
chilling,
132
dehydration, 131
forced
air,
185-187
and
shell-and-coil, 191,
195-197
192
temperature of water, 12
192-195
shell-and-tube,
Friction, fluid,
losses in piping,
278
278
head, 278
Fusion temperature, 19
of water, 12
24
Gages, 3-5
Gas(es), 12
of gases, 25-28
of solids and liquids, 24
adiabatic expansion
polytropic, 39-41
processes,
throttling,
PV diagrams of,
34-36, 38, 39
93
and compression
of,
37-39
26
constants, 29
critical
INDEX
Gas(es), ideal or perfect, 31
isothermal expansion and compression
28,
of, 27,
35-37
law, general, 29
liquefying of, 49, 50
polytropic expansion and compression of, 39-
41
processes,
PV diagrams
of,
34-39
properties of, 50
specific heat, 32,
percentage, 60
33
59
60
Hydrocarbons, 297
Ice, banks,
relative,
specific,
167
melting temperature, 12
Hand
refrigeration, 72,
73
specific heat, 17
Ideal gas, 31
pumping, 279-281
static, 275-277
total, 275-277
velocity, 275-277
centrifugal
pump, 278
Heat, 10
intensity, 12
measurement
of,
of, 17
21-23
Insulation, thermal, 71
Intercoolers,
total,
396-399
Internal energy, 10
kinetic, 11, 33
respiration, 155
potential, 11
20
sensible, 18,
146
Infiltration,
latent, 18, 19
quantity,
539
Isentropic compression,
21
219
equipment, 147
lights, 147
motors, 147
occupancy, 147, 155
factors, 148
transfer,
14-17
conduction, 14
convection, 15
radiation,
357
seal,
150
Heat
Labyrinth
15-17
Hermetic motor-compressors, 79
High pressure control, 236
High side float, 321, 323-325
of air, 62, 63
of fusion, 19
of
ice,
19
of vaporization, 20
Leakage, air into refrigerated space, 148, 149
piston
and
valve,
chillers,
188-197, 201
intercoolers,
396-399
lines, refrigerant,
Horsepower,
risers,
6,
209
Liquid, 12
376
375, 376
INDEX
540
Liquid, saturated, 43
290-292
subcooled, 43
subcoolers, 114
slugging,
Low
Low
346
347-350
difference, 173
Performance, coefficient
Percentage humidity, 60
of,
97
327-328
Pilot valves,
Manometers, 3, 4
Marine refrigeration, 122
fittings,
Matter, 10, 11
joints,
Mean
effective
372-375
discharge,
368-372
supports, 366
365
types,
366, 367
in,
127
Moisture, in
278
365
vibration
molds, 128
yeasts,
air, 59,
in,
127
60
Piston, clearance,
pins,
indicators, 383
rings,
278
203
337
337
289
removal from system, 297, 383, 384
Mold, 128
Molecular theory of matter, 10
Potential energy, 7, 11
Molecules, 10
Motor
Pour point of
416-422
magnetic starters, 419-422
manual starters, 418, 419
controls,
337
types,
oil,
415
measurement of mechanical,
factor, 413,
416-418
Multiple compression systems, 395-401
Multiple temperature systems, 402-406
starting relays, single phase,
bleed
lines,
381, 382
380
cloud point, 344
chillers, 379,
dielectric strength,
dilution
by
6,
atmospheric,
Oil,
344, 345
Power, 6
50
defined,
345
347-350
290-292
refrigerant, 290-292,
345
foaming, 347-350
miscibility with refrigerant, 290-292
moisture in, 288, 289
floe point, 344,
fluid,
274, 275
gages, 3-6
losses in refrigerant system,
losses in water piping,
measurement of, 12
422-425
saturation, 43-46
static, 274, 275
oil,
278
117-120
INDEX
Refrigeration loads, 71, also see Heat loads
Pressure, vapor, 58
velocity, 274,
275
Relative humidity, 59
Rotating magnetic
fields,
409-412
evaporator, 331-333
selection,
384
high pressure, 236
low pressure, 236
oil pressure, 422-425
fusible plugs,
rating
Saturated vapor, 43
279-281
57-69
343
Seals, crankshaft,
Quick
labyrinth, 357
freezing, 135
Sensible heat, 18
calculation of, 17, 21
Separators,
oil,
292, 379-381
Service valves, 78
Shell
Shell
284-297
butane, 297
Slip, rotor,
Sludge formation in
thermodynamic properties
Refrigerating effect, 83-85
Refrigerating systems, 78
applications of, 121
commercial, 122
domestic, 122
industrial, 122
marine, 122
transportation, 122
256
ammonia, 293
Refrigeration, 71
541
of, 285,
413-415
412
Sodium chloride
oils,
brine,
288, 290
200
200
Specific heat, 17
of
air,
246
of gases, 32
of water, 17
60
volume, 24
Specific humidity,
287
Specific
of gases, 21
of liquids, 20
of solids, 18
Speed, compressor, 220, 221, 362, 363
motor, 412
Spoilage agents, 124
control of, 128
Spray-type evaporators, 195, 201
Squirrel cage rotor,
412
422
INDEX
542
Staging,
395-402
Standard
58
Starters, motor, 418-422
air,
416-418
412
Static head, 275, 276
Static pressure, 274, 275
Stator, motor, 408, 409
Starting torque,
mixed, 131
Thermostats, 231-236
refrigerated, 130
Torque, motor
Total heat, 21
rating
diseases, 131
frozen, 133-139
temperature, 130
Strainers, refrigerant line,
384
Subcooled
liquid, 43,
112-117
starting,
412-415
of air, 62-64
Towers, cooling, 259-261
Timers, defrost, 388, 389
Subcoolers, 114
Sublimation, 49
Superheat, 21
tube manometers,
3,
capacity, 85
vapor compression, 78
compressor, 337-341
Tank-type
chillers, 190,
191
Temperature, absolute, 13
centigrade, 12, 13
compressor discharge, 83
condensing, 49, 83, 101-103, 105, 253
constant, processes at, 27, 28
float,
controls,
231-236
conversions, 13, 14
critical,
dew
50
point,
328
384
receiver tank, 334, 335
service, 78
solenoid, 328-331
pilot operated, 327,
58
dry bulb, 61
eutectic,
float,
199-201
evaporating, 20
Fahrenheit, 12, 13
freezing, 19
pressure
relief,
Vapor, 12
fusion, 19
clearance, 203
condensation, 49, 50
Kelvin, 13, 14
measuring instruments, 12
Rankine, 13, 14
saturated,
43
superheated, 43
tables,
wet bulb, 61
52-56
543
INDEX
TABLES
Vaporization, 47
ebullition,
47
evaporation, 47
20
sublimation, 49
Rooms, 452
185-187
368-371, 373
254
282
356
pumps, 275-277
in centrifugal
on
oil,
290, 291
heat on, 24
specific, 24
Volute compressors, 357
Water,
188-197
chillers,
effect of
Drop Correction
Factors, 471
gages, 3
Properties of Saturated
defrosting,
389-390
intercoolers,
399
432
20
pumps, 278-282
Guide, 444
specific heat, 17
vapor in
air,
57-62
Wax
254
345
Wet
bulb depression, 61
temperature, 61
490
erant-717, 494
Refrigerant Line Capacities for Intermediate or
Yeasts, 127
480
FactorsWater, 469
544
INDEX
CHARTS
Btu per Minute
Condensers,
Btu per Minute
Condensers,
Btu per Minute
Condensers,
Minimum Gas
Minimum Gas
Removed
in Refrigerant- 12
497
Removed
in Refrigerant-22
497
Removed
in Refrigerant-717
498
Resistance to
Tubing, 498
Resistance
Rough
to
Pipe,
499
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