Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature Review
Marissa C. Mizuno
National University

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

TED 690 Capstone
Stacia Levy

LITERATURE REVIEW

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Abstract

This paper provides a review of literature that supports the idea that learning tasks should have
high cognitive demand for diverse learners. This is addressed in Standard 2 of the Instructional
Practice Domain of the Nevada Educator Performance Framework.

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Literature Review

According to the National Science Education Standards, teachers must differentiate

instruction in order to address the diverse interests, knowledge, understanding, abilities, and
experiences of students (National Academy of Sciences, 1996, p. 30). Learning outcomes are a
reflection of the teachers ability to recognize students cognitive potential, developmental
level, physical attributes, affective development, and motivation (National Academy of Sciences,
1996, p. 31). In science education, students are likely to be disengaged by work that requires
time and effort without being intellectually demanding (Taber, 2010, p. 6). Instruction should be
cognitively demanding and be perceived as relevant to the unique interests of all students.
Howard Gardner supports the idea that human intelligence is comprised of distinct
domains. Gardner refers to these domains as multiple intelligences and suggests that an
individuals intelligence should be understood in terms of a profile of strengths and weaknesses
across these different faculties (Taber, 2010, p. 7). Robert Stenberg further supports the idea
that students have different thinking and learning styles (Taber, 2010, p. 7). Positive learning
outcomes can be achieved when teachers address these learning styles by implementing a variety
of teaching and learning strategies in the classroom.
Lev Vygotsky introduced the idea of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The
ZPD is the zone around the things an individual child can currently achieve alone, and
encompasses what they can do when supported by the teacher or a more advanced peer (Taber,
2010, p. 8). This supports the idea that students depth of knowledge can progressively increase
when instruction is scaffolded. Effective scaffolding enables students to develop their initial
understandings of course content through structured support. Students will become increasingly
independent as more cognitive demand is placed upon them (Taber, 2010, p. 8).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Teachers should emphasize high cognitive demand and critical thinking rather than rather
than memorizing facts (Taber, 2010, p. 12). High cognitive demand will vary from learner to
learner because the level of challenge should be appropriate to the ability of individual students.
Ultimately, instruction should challenge and extend knowledge for students of all academic
abilities.

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References

National Academy of Sciences. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
Taber, K. S. (2010). Challenging gifted learners: General principles for science educators and
exemplification in the context of teaching chemistry. Science Education International,
21(1), 5-30.