THE CHEMICAL EARTH

1. THE LIVING AND NON-LIVING COMPONENT OF THE EARTH

CONTAIN MIXTURES
1.1 Construct and balance equations of chemical reactions
Text book page 7-73

1.2 Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of
the particle theory.
Matter

Pure substances constant

composition

Elements
not
separable
into smaller
substances

Compounds
two or more
elements
chemically
combined in
fixed
proportions

Mixtures variable
composition

Solutions
homogeneou
s mixtures
(uniform
composition
and
properties
throughout

Homogeneous uniform composition throughout

e.g. pure water, sugar, aluminium, petrol
Heterogeneous non-uniform/variable composition throughout
e.g. strawberry jam, wood
A mixture:

Can usually be separated into 2 or more pure substances

Can be homogeneous or heterogeneous
Properties change due to variable composition
E.g. sea water, air, coffee

Solutions
heterogeneo
us mixtures
variable
composition
and
properties
throughout

A pure substance:

Some can be decomposed into simpler substances, others cannot

Is homogeneous (e.g. crystals of sugar)
Has properties such as appearance, density, colour, melting and boiling points which
are constant throughout the whole sample
Properties do not change
Fixed composition
E.g. table salt, sugar, copper, aluminium, diamond, gold

An element is a pure substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances

A compound is a pure substance which can be decomposed into simpler substances
e.g. water, table salt (sodium chloride), sugar, alcohol
-

Made up of 2 or more elements

Always has the elements present in the same ration by mass

Changes of state
-

Solid liquid (melting)

Liquid gas (vaporisation, evaporation, boiling)
Gas liquid (condensation, liquidation)
Liquid solid (freezing, solidification)
Solid gas (sublimation)

Properties used to identify pure substances

Colour
Physical state
Melting/boiling points
Density
Electrical conductivity
Solubility in different liquids
Mechanical properties

Density = mass/volume
mass per unit volume
measured in g/mL
1.3 Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain
mixtures of elements and compounds
Layers

Inner core (solid)

Outer core (molten)
Mantle (semi-solid)
Crust
Atmosphere

Atmosphere mixture of gases

Hydrosphere consists of different mixtures, compound water e.g. rivers, lakes, fresh water,
sea water, ground water

Lithosphere diverse range of mixtures. Rocks, sand, soils, mineral ores, coal, oil, natural gas
mixtures contain predominantly compounds
1.4 Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally
occurring mixtures of:
- solids of different sizes
-solids and liquids
-dissolved solids in liquids
-liquids
-gases
Separation of solids of different sizes: sieving
Solids and liquids: filtration

Liquid/solution that passes through filter paper is the filtrate

Sedimentation if the process in which solids settle to the bottom of container
Decantation is process of pouring off the liquid and leaving the solid undisturbed at the
bottom of container

Dissolved solids in liquids

Vaporizing off the liquid (evaporating, boiling)

Only keep solid

Distillation

Separating two or more liquids from one another or separating the liquids from solids
Liquids of sufficiently different boiling points
Process in which a solution or mixture of liquids is boiled with the vapour formed being
condensed back to a liquid in a different part of apparatus and so separating from the
mixture
Liquid changes to vapour, rises up neck of flask and diffuse down the side arm and into
the water-cooled condenser, where the vapour is cooled and condensed back to a
liquid, which is collected in the beaker
Distillate: liquid collected (one with lower boiling point)

Volatile able to be converted to vapour

more volatile of two liquids is the one with the lower boiling point
Fractional distillation

Separate liquids with boiling points fairly close together

Expensive
Has a fractionating column
Repeated condensations and vaporization up the column, effectively giving many
separate distillations
E.g. crude oil

Immiscible liquids

Immiscible liquids do not mix, do not form homogeneous liquid, two layers
E.g. water and oil
Separating funnel
More dense liquid comes out

Separation based on solubility

If one solid is soluble in a particular solvent while the others are not
Sufficient solvent is added to the mixture to dissolve the soluble component; then the
insoluble component/s are filtered off
The soluble liquid is recovered by evaporating the filtrate to dryness

Separating gases

Property used to separate: Differences in boiling points or differences in solubilities in

liquids (water)
Fractional distillation: if gases are similar boiling points

Separation method
Sieving
Vaporisation (evaporation, boiling)
Distillation
Fractional distillation
Filtration
Adding a solvent, then filtration
Separating funnel

Property used in the separation

Particle size
Liquid has a much lower boiling point that the
solid
Big difference in boiling points
Significant but small difference in boiling
points
One substance is a solid, the other a liquid or
solution
One substance is soluble in the chosen
solvent, while the others are not
Immiscible liquids

1.5 Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of

earth materials, identifying the differences in properties which enable these
separations
Ex 11-12 (CC)

1.6 Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for
chemists and other scientists
Chemical
Analysis
Qualitative
Analysis what
substances are
present?
Gravimetric
Analysis
involves

Quantitative Analysis
How much of each
substance is present?
Percentage
Volumetric analysis
composition
involves
measuring the
volumes of solutions

Reasons for gravimetric analysis

Determine composition of soil in a particular location to see if it is suitable for growing a

certain crop
To determine the amount of particular substances in water/air to decide how polluted
the samples are

E.g. A team of geologists discovered a new mineral in a remote desert location; it was a
mixture of barium sulfate and magnesium sulfate. Its composition was determined as follows.
They first ground up a 3.61g sample with water, magnesium sulfate dissolves, barium sulfate
does not. The barium sulfate was filtered off, dried and its mass determined to be 1.52g. They
evaporated the filtrate to dryness to recover the magnesium sulfate and determined its mass
to be 2.07g. Calculate the percentage composition of the sample.
Percentage of barium sulfate = mass of barium sulfate present / total mass of sample x 100
= 1.52 / 3.61 x 100
=42%
Percentage of magnesium sulfate = 100-42 = 58%
1.7 Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the
laboratory

1.8. Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered

2. ALTHOUGH MOST ELEMENTS ARE FOUND IN COMBINATIONS ON

EARTH, SOME ELEMENTS ARE FOUND UNCOMBINED
2.1 Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood
of it existing as an uncombined element

Most elements are chemically reactive when they come into contact with certain
other elements they react to from compounds
The more reactive and element, the less change of finding it uncombined
Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, fluorine and chlorine are very reactive
elements
Elements that occur uncombined are gold, silver, platinum, sulphur, and noble gases
argon, helium

2.2 Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their

physical properties
Metals

Are solids at room temperature (except mercury)

Have a shiny or lustrous appearance
Are good conductors of heat and electricity
Are malleable (able to be rolled into sheets) and ductile (able to be drawn into wires)
E.g. aluminium cobalt, copper, gold, iron, lead, magnesium, nickel, potassium, sodium,
silver, tin, zinc (LHS of periodic table)

Non metals

E.g. argon, bromine, chlorine, hydrogen, iodine, nitrogen, oxygen

****Mercury has a shiny appearance and is a good conductor of electricity but is a liquid
****Carbon in the form of graphite is a fair conductor of electricity and it is a solid but
resembles the non-metals more than the metals
Semi-metals (metalloids) e.g. boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium
2.3 Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical
properties
Physical properties and uses of elements

Melting point, density, electrical conductivity, hardness and tensile strength

Uses of iron, aluminium, copper, lead building materials (cars, planes, machinery,
electrical wiring, household goods)
Aluminium used for making aircraft because of low density and adequate mechanical
strength
Iron high tensile strength, used in cars and trains, moderately high density
Copper electrical wiring, high electrical conductivity
Tungsten filaments in electric light bulbs because of its high melting point
CHEMICAL REACTIVITY AND COST ARE IMPORTANT FACTORS TO CONSIDER
Carbon as graphite significant electrical conductivity, dry lubricant, slipper/soft nature
electrodes in common dry cells (batteries)
Carbon as diamond jewellery, extremely hard, high refractive index
Liquid nitrogen cooling agent, suitability of its freezing and boiling points

2.6 Process information from secondary sources and use a periodic table to present
information about the classification of elements as: - metals/non-metals/semimetals, solids/liquids/gases at 25 degrees and normal atmospheric pressure

Similar properties in each vertical column (groups)

Transition elements, middle of table

Horizontal rows are called periods

There is a gradual change in properties as we go across any one period
Non-metals occur near the top right of the table
Semi-metals : diagonal band separating metals from non-metals (boron, silicon,
germanium, As, Sb, Te)
Two liquids at room temperature: mercury, bromine
11 gases, rest are solids

Groups on the periodic table

Group 1
Group 2
Between 2-3
Group 3
Group 4-6
Group 7
Group 8
*****Group headings indicate how many electrons

Alkali metals, highly reactive

Alkaline earth metals
Transition elements/metals
Metalloids
Mixed properties
Halogens
Noble gases
are in the outer shell of each element.

3. ELEMENTS IN EARTH MATERIALS ARE PRESENT MOSTLY AS

COMPOUNDS BECAUSE OF INTERACTIONS AT THE ATOMIC LEVEL
3.1 Identify that matter is made up of particles that are continuously moving and
interacting
Particle nature of matter

All matter is made up of small particles

Solids particles are packed closely toget

Solid

Definite volume and shape

Difficult to compress
Low kinetic energy
Particles vibrate at same spot
Strong forces between particles
Greater densities than liquids

Liquid

Some rotational/translational movement

Takes shape of container
Difficult to compress
Moderate kinetic energy

Gas

Particles are spread out

Expand to fill volume available rapid translational movement

Takes shape of container
Easily compressed
High kinetic energy
No significant forces between particles

3.2 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms

Energy increases as number of shell increase.
Maximum electrons in each shell level 2, 8, 18, 32, 50
The arrangement of electrons in energy levels is called the electron configuration of the atom.
SEQUENCE FOR PUTTING ELECTRONS IN ENERGY LEVELS/SHELLS
DRAW DIAGRAM HERE

3.3 Describe the atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number
Atomic model

Atomic number number of protons

Atomic mass number of protons + neutrons
Number of electrons in outer shell column number
Number of shells- rows down (periods)

An atom is the smallest particle of an element which is still recognizable as that element.
An atom consists of an extremely small dense nucleus or core which contains the bulk of the
mass of the atom and carries positive electrical charges.
The nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of rapidly moving extremely light particles carrying
negative charges electrons.
The amount of negative charge carried by these rapidly/randomly moving electrons is equal
to the amount of positive charge on the nucleus so that the atom is neutral overall.
Protons are small positively charge particles.
Neutrons are small neutral particles
3.4 Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons
Stable electron configurations

Noble gases undergo no chemical reactions completely filled or semi-filled energy

levels. They have extremely stable electronic configurations.
Alkali metals are very reactive 0 have one more electron in the next outer shell than
the nearby noble gases
Alkali metals tend to lose one electron to obtain the electron configuration of the
nearby noble gas
e.g. sodium loses on electron to become like neon
Halogens gain one electron to achieve the electron configuration of the nearby noble
gas
(ATOMS TEND TO LOSE OR GAIN ELECTRONS IN ORDER TO BECOME LIKE THE NEARBY
NOBLE GASES)

Valence electrons

The electrons in the incompletely filled highest energy level (outermost shell) are called
valence electrons
Outermost energy level is called the valence shell
Noble gases have no valence electrons

3.5 Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and nonmetals
Formation of Ions

Ionic bonding is the outright transfer of electrons from one atom to another to from
what are called ions positively or negatively charged particles
E.g. sodium and chlorine combine to from the compound sodium chloride.
Sodium loses one atom to become like neon, chlorine gains one atom to become like
argon. One electron is transferred from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom. When the
neutral sodium atom loses one electron it becomes positively charged positive ion
cation
Na becomes Na+, Cl becomes ClPositive ion cation, negative ion anion
Strong electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions
Between metal and non-metal
Metals generally from positive ions (cations), non-metals generally from negative ions
(anions)

SIMPLE IONS electrically charged species formed when atoms gain or lose electrons
POLYTOMIC IONS electrically charged groups of atoms
3.6 Apply Lewis electron dot structure to:
- the formation of ions
-the electron sharing in some simple molecules

3.7 Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of
opposite charges
If one atom wants to gain electrons while the other wants to lose, the compound will be ionic.
If both want to gain electrons, then the compound will be covalent.
E.G.

3.8 Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other
3.9 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and
molecules with more than one atom.
Molecules:

Compounds substance composed of two or more different types of atoms. Consist of

two or more elements combined together in definite proportions by mass.
Molecule two or more atoms bound together, capable of existing alone; smallest
particle of a substance that is capable of separate existence.
E.g. hydrogen and oxygen from the compound water. Water is made up of molecules.
Each molecule of water has two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. All
molecules of water are identical.

Molecule of elements

Oxygen exists as pairs. A diatomic molecule, 2 oxygen atoms chemically bonded

together. This goes for all gas elements except for noble gases.
These molecules can be broken into separate atoms in chemical reactions.
Noble gases e.g. helium, neon, argon can exist as independent atoms. Noble gases
consist of monatomic molecules.

3.10 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing electrons

Covalent bonding

Formed between pairs of atoms by the atoms sharing electrons.

Between non-metal and non-metal
Covalent bonds are as strong as ionic bonds
Covalent bonds are a strong electrostatic force between the shared pair of
electrons and the nucleus of the atoms.
Anything with H hydrogen, is covalently bonded

E.g. 1 -2 chlorine atoms combine to form a chlorine molecule. They will share a pair of
electrons.
E.g. 2 Hydrogen and chlorine combine to from hydrogen chloride.

Covalent/simple molecular

Between atom covalent bond

Strong electrostatic force between the nucleus and shared pair of electrons
Low boiling and melting point
Change of state involves breaking the weak intermolecular forces
E.g. hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide, water
Most molecular covalent dissolve in water, except for acids (e.g HCl)

Covalent network

E.g. graphite, diamond, quartz

No intermolecular forces
Only strong covalent bonds exist
High boiling and melting point >2000 degrees

Covalency and the Periodic Table

Covalent bonding occurs when both of the elements forming the compound need to
gain electrons to attain noble gas configurations
Elements in the centre and to the right tend to form covalent bonds
Number of covalent bonds is the number of electrons that an atom needs to gain to
acquire noble gas configuration
Position of an element on the Periodic Table tells us how many electrons it needs to
gain to achieve noble gas configuration

3.11 Construct formulae for compounds formed from:

-ions
-atoms sharing electrons
Formulae for ionic compounds

We can deduce the charge on the ions they form from their position in the Periodic
table
Criss cross method

e.g.

Formulae for Covalent compounds

3.13 Construct ionic equations showing metal and non-metal atoms forming ions
Half equations

4. ENERGY IS REQUIRED TO EXTRACT ELEMENTS FROM THEIR

NATURALLY OCCURRING SOURCES
4.1 Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of
rearrangement of particles
A change in which no new substance is formed is called a physical change
Physical changes

Changing the state of a substance

Changing physical appearance
Dissolving a solid in a liquid
Separating mixtures

A change in which at least one new substance is formed is called a chemical change
e.g.

Heating green copper carbonate to form a black solid and colourless gas
Burning silvery magnesium ribbon to form a white powder

Signs of a chemical change

Gas is evolved
A precipitate if formed
Change in colour
Significant change in temperature
Disappearance of a solid
Odour is produced

In a chemical change the starting substances are called reactants.

Substances that are formed are called products.
In all chemical changes
-mass is conserved (balance equations)
-the number of atoms of each type is conserved.
The law conservation of mass/matter: Matter can be neither created nor destroyed, but
merely changed from one form to another.
4.2 Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an
example of the difference between chemical and physical change.
Electrolysis of water (decomposition)

Two 10ml measuring cylinders filled with water are inverted over a pair of inert
electrodes in a beaker of water containing sulphuric acid (acid is necessary because
water is a poor conductor of electricity)
The electrodes are connected to a voltage source and a current is allowed to flow
After several hours we can see a colourless gas has collected in each cylinder with the
volume above the negative electrode being twice that above the positive electrode.
Pop test shows that the larger volume of gas is hydrogen, and splint test shows that the
other gas is oxygen.
Shows a chemical change.

Differences between boiling and electrolysis of water

Electrolysis produces two new substances (hydrogen and oxygen gas), boiling does not
produce any new substance just converts liquid water to gaseous water
Electrolysis is difficult to reverse, boiling is easily reversed
Electrolysis requires much more energy that boiling

Bonds broken
Amount of energy required
Chemical reaction
Physical reaction
New substance formed

Boiling of water
Weak intermolecular forces
Less
No
Yes
No

Decomposition of water
Covalent bonds
More
Yes
No
Yes

Breaking bonds requires energy

making bonds releases energy
4.3 Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be
released or absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and
identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday life.
Heating copper nitrate

Copper nitrate is a blue solid and is soluble in water

When it is heated in a crucible, a brown gas is evolved and a black solid remains
The black solid is insoluble in water (different substance from copper nitrate)
Copper nitrate has be decomposed into 2 substances a brown gas (nitrogen dioxide)
and a black solid (copper oxide) , and a third substance
A chemical change has occurred

Decomposing substances with electricity

Electrolysis of molten lead bromide

Lead bromide is a white crystalline solid

Is a pure substance, melts at 373 degrees without decomposing
If an electric current is passed though molten lead bromide at about 400 degrees, a
choking brown vapour is formed at the positive electrode and drops of silvery liquid at
the negative electrode.
Lead bromide has been decomposed into molten lead (silvery liquid0 and brown
bromine gas
A chemical reaction has occurred

Decomposing pure substances with light

Some pure substances can be decomposed by sunlight

Silver chloride is a white solid, when exposed to sunlight it turns purple, then black
After several hours of exposure, the sample has a smaller mass than the starting
material
Sunlight has decomposed silver chloride into a black solid and a gas (chlorine)
Decomposition of silver compounds by light is the basis of photography

Direct combination reactions

A compound is formed from its elements

Elements combine directly to form compounds and energy is released
E.g. hydrogen and chlorine gases react vigorously to form hydrogen chloride gas, HCl
Silvery magnesium burns in air (oxygen) to form a white powder, magnesium oxide
MgO. This reaction liberates much light energy and also releases a lot of heat.

Everyday applications
Decomposition reactions

In air bags in motor cars, sodium azide is decomposed to sodium and nitrogen gas
Calcium carbonate (limestone) is decomposed to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide by
heating it to make lime, cement and glass
Aluminium is extracted commercially by electrolysing molten aluminium oxide

Direct combination reactions

Rusting of iron and steel to from iron (III) oxide from direct combination of iron and
oxygen
Burning of coke (carbon) releases heat energy that can be used
Lightning creates a localised high temperature that nitrogen and oxygen gases
combine to from gaseous nitric oxide, NO.

4.4 Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is
an indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond between them.
Explanation for energy changes

Decomposing a compound into atoms requires a large input of energy because it is

necessary to overcome the strong chemical bonds holding the atoms together in
compounds
There are strong electrostatic attractions (ionic bonds) holding ions together in ionic
compounds and strong covalent bonds holding atoms together in covalent molecules
and in covalent lattices

The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy that is required to
break the compound into atoms

4.7 Analyse and present information to model the boiling of water and the
electrolysis of water tracing the movements of and changes in arrangements of
molecules
In terms of particles

Boiling water does not alter the particles/molecules: it just separates them from one
another: the water vapour contains the same water molecules as the liquid
Electrolysis breaks the particles water molecules are broken up and hydrogen and
oxygen molecules are formed
Physical changes just rearrange the particles without changing their nature
Chemical changes break up particles (molecules) and rearrange the atoms into new
substances
Conservation of mass

5. THE PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS ARE

DETERMINE BY THEIR BONDING AND STRUCTURE
5.1 Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements,
compounds and mixtures
Physical properties

Melting and boiling points

Density
Appearance
Electrical conductivity
Heat conductivity
Hardness

Chemical properties

Ease of decomposition by heat

Effect of light
Reactivity with other substances such as oxygen, chlorine and sulphur

5.2 Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or

covalent molecular of covalent network
Properties of covalent molecular and ionic substances
Ionic substances are always compounds. Covalent molecular substances can be elements as
well as compounds.
Ionic substances
Solids at room temperature

High melting points >400 degrees. High

boiling points >1000 degrees.
Hard and brittle
As solids do not conduct electricity

Covalent molecular substances

At room temperature are generally gases
(e.g. nitrogen gas), or liquids (e.g. methanol)
or solids
Low melting points <200 degrees. Low boiling
points <400 degrees.
When solid they are soft
Pure covalent substances do not conduct
electricity either as solids or as liquids

When molten or in aqueous solution they do

conduct electricity

In aqueous solution do not conduct electricity

(unless they actually react with water to form
ions)
Solid
Melting
Point
Low

High
Not
covalent
molecul
ar
substan
ce
Conducitivty
of solid

COVALENT
MOLECULAR
SUBSTANCE

Nonconuducting

Conducting

does not
conduct
in solid
and
molten
state

Conductivity of
molten state

METALLIC
SUBSTANC
E
Conducting

IONIC
SUBSTANCE

Nonconducting
COVALENT
NETWORK
SUBSTANCE

5.3 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Covalent molecular
Held together by covalent bonds (atoms sharing pairs of electrons)

Low melting and boiling points; many are liquids or gases at room temperature
Non-conductors of electricity in both the solid and liquid states
Form solids with waxy appearance

Covalent network (covalent lattice)

Include elements such as carbon and silicon. 3D network of strong covalent bonds between
the atoms which hold the lattice together.

Very high melting and boiling points

Non-conductors of electricity in the solid and liquid states (no delocalized electrons)
Extremely hard and brittle
Chemically inert
Insoluble in water and most other solvents

Ionic compounds
Oppositely charge ions held together by electrostatic attraction and arranged in regular 3D
lattices. Metal combined with non-metal.

Hard and brittle

Non-conductors of electricity in the solid state. Good conductor of electricity when
molten or in aqueous solution.
High melting and boiling points.

Metals

Relatively high densities

Good conductors of heat/electricity
Malleable (can be beaten into sheets) and ductile (can be drawn into wires)
Shiny surface (lustrous)
Relatively high melting points

Element
Non-metals

Bonding
Covalent

Metals and nonmetals

Ionic

Metals

Metallic

Nature
Sharing of electrons
Bonding is to strong electrostatic attraction between the
positive ions and the shared pair of electrons
Transfer of electrons and formation of cations and anions.
Bonding is due to strong electrostatic attraction between
the positive and negative ions
Bonding is due to strong electrostatic attraction between
the positive ions and the delocalized electrons.

5.4 Describe metals as three dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons

Metallic bonding

Metals with the exception of mercury are solids at room temperature

Relatively high melting points, fairly hard
Good conductors of electricity
Consist of an orderly 3D array of positive ions held together by a mobile sea of
delocalised electrons
Valence electrons break away from their atoms, leaving behind positive ions
Free electrons (delocalised electrons) no long belong to particular atoms, they move
randomly through the lattice, are shared by numerous positive ions and provide the
chemical bonding that holds the crystal together
Delocalised electrons moving freely through the lattice allow metals to be good
conductors of electricity.
Electric current through a metallic wire is a flow of electrons
Metals can bent, are ductile, and malleable possible because when the orderly array
of positive ions is sheared , the mobile electrons are able to adjust to the new
arrangement of positive ions and hold the whole assemble together

Types of solids and their properties

Molecular solids

Melting and
boiling points
Conduct
electricity
Hardness/workab
ility

Lattice solids
Metallic

Ionic

low

variable

High

No

Yes

Soft

Variable
hardness;

As solid no,
molten yes
Hard and brittle

Covalent
network
High
No
Hard and brittle

Forces holding
particles
together

Weak
Intermolecular

malleable and
ductile
Delocalised
electrons
(metallic
bonding)

Strong
Electrostatic
forces

Covalent
bonding
throughout the
crystal

5.5 Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of

ions
5.6 Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula

Ionic substances consists of orderly arrays of positively and negatively ions in a

repeating 3D lattice
For ionic compounds, specify the ratios in which the atoms (or ions) are present, not the
composition of discrete molecules
Such formulae that give the ratio by atoms of elements of a compound rather than the
actual number of atoms in a molecule are called empirical formulas
Formulae for ionic compounds are therefore always empirical formulae because there
are no molecules

5.7 Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices

Element as covalent molecules or covalent lattices

Hydrogen gas, chlorine gas, oxygen gas are diatomic gases

Br2 is a diatomic liquid while I2 is a diatomic solid
Carbon exists as a diamond which is a 3D lattice and as graphite which is a 2D lattice
Semi metals B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te closely approximate to covalent lattices through
their bonding electrons are not as firmly localised as in diamond.
The noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn exist as monatomic molecules; no chemical
bonding

Covalent network solids in the earth

Many substances in the lithosphere are covalent network solids:

Sand and quartiz silicon dioxide

Gemstones may be silicon dioxide with traces of impurities which provide colour while
others e.g. emerald, aquamarine, topaz, garnet are silicates/alumina which are covalent
lattices with some ionic parts incorporated
Mica, talc are also silicate lattices
Clays are alumino silicate lattices, again with some ionic portions

5.8 Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness
and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures
Properties of ionic substances

Melting an ionic substance means breaking up the orderly arrangement of ions

As the electrostatic forces between ions are strong, much energy and high temperature
is need to break the bonds
Boiling an ionic substance means producing a vapour that consists of well-separated
ion pairs. This requires an even greater amount of energy
The strong electrostatic attraction between pairs of ions makes ionic substances hard

If the orderly array of ions is disturbed by applying a strong force, then ions of the same
charge come close together. They then repel each other and this causes the crystal to
shatter. This means that ionic crystals are brittle.
Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity because in the solid the ion are tightly
bound into an orderly array and therefore unable to move towards a charged electrode.
Not all ionic substances are soluble. When ionic substances melt, the orderly
arrangement of ions is broken up and ions can move about relatively freely molten
ionic substances conduct electricity
When ionic substances are dissolved in water, the crystals are broken up and the ions
are free to move about and hence conduct electricity

Properties of covalent molecular substances

Bonding forces holding atoms together within a covalent molecule are strong,
intermolecular forces are weak
Boiling involves separating molecules from one another breaks intermolecular forces
not covalent tbonds
Melting just disrupts the orderly arrangement of molecules
The stronger the melting and boiling point of covalent molecular compounds, the
higher the melting and boiling points
Covalent molecular are neutral species, they cannot conduct electricity either as pure
substance or in solution
Some covalent substances when mixed with water actually react and form ions e.g. HCl
these conduct electricity

Covalent network solids

Covalent bonding extends indefinitely throughout the whole crystal

Covalent lattice solids/covalent lattices
Lattice: infinite orderly array of particles
Carbon in the form of diamond is a covalent network solid
Since carbon is in group 4, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon
atoms
Silica is also a covalent lattice (silicon dioxide)
Silicon wants to form 4 covalent bonds, oxygen wants to form 2. Therefore in silica each
silicon atom is covalently bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, and each oxygen atom is bonded
to 2 silicon atoms to form an infinite network of covalent bonds
The chemical formula for covalent lattice compound represent the ration which the
atoms are present in the compound empirical formula
Melting covalent lattices breaks many covalent bonds that are very strong. This process
requires lots of energy and only occurs at high temperatures. Covalent lattices have
extremely high melting points above 1000 degrees
Except for graphite, covalent network solids do not conduct electricity because they do
not contain any ions and all their electrons are tied up either being held by individual
atoms, or shared by pairs of atoms (no free electrons)