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HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

What is Human Resource Management?

1. Organization’s methods and procedures for managing people to enhance skills and
motivation
2. Activities to enhance the organization’s ability to attract, select, retain and motivate
people
3. An integrated set of processes, programs, and systems in an organization that focus
on the effective deployment and development of its employees.
4. The concept of fit with the strategic thrusts of the organisation
5. HR strategies exist to ensure that the culture, values, structure and processes of the
organisation, and the quality, flexibility, motivation and commitment of its members
to contribute fully to the achievement of its objectives… should match the business
strategy

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 6. The attainment of business objectives through the contribution it makes to the
creation of an environment in which people commit themselves to and effectively
accomplish the tasks assigned to them.
7. Strategic HRM is largely about integration; to ensure that HRM is fully integrated into
strategic planning; that HRM policies cohere across policy areas and across
hierarchies and that HRM practices are accepted and used by line managers as part
of their everyday work.

Why to study HRM

1. Line managers responsible for effective use of people in organization:
2. Need to understand human behaviour
3. Need to be knowledgeable about systems and processes that help build a committed
workforce
4. Need to be aware of constraints

Features of HRM
• Strategic i.e. planned, deliberate, seeking to achieve set objectives
• Capabilities i.e. people or resources with potential (knowledge, skills, and attitudes)
which can be developed to contribute to organisational success.
• Competitive advantage – by tapping into and developing these capabilities
organisations give themselves an edge over their rivals
• Integrated – that the range of things under HRM (recruitment, selection of
employees, their training and development, how they are rewarded) is looked at
together not as separate things.

HRM is very important to us for the following reasons:

1. Development and Growth of the organisation:-

HRM paves way for development and growth in the organisation. But how? Can you
come out with some answers? By improving the individual capabilities, acquiring

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necessary cooperation and developing teamwork HRM makes sure that the organization
develops and grows well. Goals of the organization are met by HRM by effective
motivation and excellent utilization of employees.

2. Creation of healthy culture in the Organization:

HRM creates and maintains excellent culture in the organization and it makes people
develop and grow.

3. Maintenance of Human Resources:

The development, care of Human Resources is done by the HRM.

4. The concept of Human beings is a very crucial and vital factor of production;
HRM is gaining more and more importance day by day. It also has important implication in
societal development also. IT IS THE HEART AND SOUL OF MODERN MANAGEMENT.
Objectives of Human Resource Management: -

What are the objectives of the human resource management?

1. The first and foremost objective of human resource management is to have a highly
committed, eligible, talented, and happy workers.
2. Development of employees:- An employee does not come alone into the organization.
What does he bring? He brings with himself abilities, attitude, behavior, personality etc..

Individual has the objective of enhancing his personal growth. He seeks the organization
for realization of his personal growth. Organization needs employees for fulfillment of
organization objectives. There is an element of mutuality of interests here. Individual and
organization need each other for fulfillment of their objectives.

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There is a need for encouragement of employees in an organization to develop and grow.
If sufficient is given for growth it will leads to the efficient working, proper maintenance,
motivation and retention of work force.
f the personal growth of employees are hindered absenteeism, turnover will increase and
performance and satisfaction will come down. Hence HRM aims and strives for the
development of the employees.
3. Growth and development of the organization:-
HRM objective is to bring about the overall development and growth of the
organization. The HRM department serves all the department of the organization. Behavior
analysis of employee is focused at individual, group, and organizational levels. Integration
of individuals and groups is done in an organization structure is maintained. Overall the
objective of organizational development is kept at the forefront.

4. The development of HR function and climate:- The objective of HRM is to develop an

effective
HR functions for development and maintenance of human functions. HRM also has the
objective of maintaining an excellent HR culture.

What do you understand by culture?

Culture is our philosophies, faith and beliefs. By organization culture we mean the
philosophies, practices and the codes of practices which are prevalent in the organization.
A culture with innovative ideas and opportunities for humans to develop and grow will pave
way for all round development of humans and organization. The objective of HRM is to
develop HR function is according to the organizational needs and see that good culture is
established in the organization.

5. Objectives for the welfare of the society: - Our society as you know very well
consists of all our systems and their beliefs. Every organisation faces the societal impact.

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HRM seeks to do maximum good to the society and also tries to minimize the effects of
the so called social events.
Human Resource Planning: -
Human resource planning is the process of anticipating and carrying out the movement of
people into, within, and out of the organization. Human resources planning is done to
achieve the optimum use of human resources and to have the correct number and types of
employees needed to meet organizational goals.
Thus, it is a double-edged weapon. If used properly, it leads not only to proper
utilization, but also reduces excessive labor turnover and high absenteeism, and improves
productivity.
Lets discuss definitions of HRP as given by different experts. Vetter opines that it is
the process by which management determines how the organization should move from its
manpower position to its desired manpower position to carry out integrated plan of the
organization. According to Geisler, “Manpower planning is the process – including
forecasting, developing and controlling by which a firm ensures that it has-
• The right number of people,
• The right kind of people,
• At the right places,
• At the right time, doing work for which they are economically most useful”
“HRP is a kind of risk management. It involves realistically appraising the present and
anticipating the future (as far as possible) in order to get the right people into right jobs at
the right time”.
Why HRP
• Ensures optimum use of man (woman, too nowadays?) power and capitalize on the
strength of HR. The organization can have a reservoir of talent at any point of time. People
skills are readily available to carry out the assigned tasks, if the information is collected
and arranged beforehand.
• Forecast future requirements (this is done by keeping track of the employee turnover.)
and provides control measures about availability of HR labor time. If, for example the
organization wants to expand its scale of operations, it can go ahead easily. Advance

5
planning ensures a continuous supply of people with requisite skills who can handle
challenging jobs easily.
• Help determine recruitment/induction levels. Let me explain this with an example: you as
a manager want to determine what kind of induction the organization will require at such
and such date. If you have a ready HR plan, you will have fairly good idea what kind of
people are being recruited and at what position. Thus you can successfully plan your
induction level.
• To anticipate redundancies/ surpluses/obsolescence. Remember Geisler and
Wickstrom’s definition??
• To determine training levels and works as a foundation for management development
programmes
• Know the cost of manpower if there is a new project is being taken up, example: in cases
of expansions or a new factory, one would naturally requires more human resources,
hence a budgetary allocation can be made in advance for this upcoming corporate
strategic move.
Planning facilitates preparation of an appropriate manpower budget for each department
or division. This, in turn, helps in controlling manpower costs by avoiding
shortages/excesses in manpower supply.
• Assist in productivity bargaining. For example, if a firm is going fully automated, it can
negotiate for lesser workers as required for the same amount of the job by using the
manpower predictions regarding the same. It can offer higher incentives (VRS) to
smoothen the process of voluntary layoffs.
• Help assess accommodation requirements (?? - You must be wondering how that can be
related to HRP? A good HRP can assist in solving many problems of the firm, from day to
day ones to very strategic ones, too.) for example: an organization decides to establish its
production center in a remote area, an accurate HR plan can help it to decide how many
people will be required there, and thus start the process of establishing a township for
them in advance. The physical facilities such as canteen, school, medical help, etc., can
also be planned in advance.

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• Management decisions. Now!! Lets see how this can happen. Example, suppose the
question is to outsource an activity or not? An HR manager knows what is the distribution
of workflow, and whether the present available staff can accomplish these. If it is realized
there is no one available for the job in question, and training cost is coming out to be more
or in some cases the skill is not going to be of much use, then such activities can be
subcontracted or outsourced.
In addition, HRP (as already pointed out) prepares people for future challenges. The stars
can be picked, mentored and kept ready for leading positions in future. All MNC’s have
such policies and programmes (Wipro InfoTech has a leadership development
programmes), where a “hot list” of promising candidate are assessed and assisted
continuously for future management positions. This selection is possible only through a
thorough HR plan.
Major reasons for the present emphasis on manpower planning include:
• Employment-Unemployment Situation: Though from the above excerpt we can construe
that in general the number of educated unemployed is on the rise, there is acute shortage
for a variety of skills. This emphasizes the need for more effective recruitment and
retaining people.
• Technological Changes: The myriad changes in production technologies, marketing
methods and management techniques have been extensive and rapid (e.g.. introduction of
HRIS). Their effect has been profound on job contents and job contexts. These changes
cause problems relating to redundancies, retraining and redeployment. All these suggest
the need to plan manpower needs intensively and systematically.
• Organisational Changes: In the turbulent environment marked by cyclical fluctuations and
discontinuities, the nature and pace of changes in organizational environment, activities
and structures affect manpower requirements and require strategic considerations.
• Demographic Changes: The changing profile of the work force in terms of age, gender
participation, literacy, technical inputs and social background have implications for
manpower planning. The workforce is more diverse than ever before. And the trend shows
it is going to be on the rise even more!!

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• Skill Shortages: Unemployment does not mean that the labor market is a buyer’s market.
Organizations have in general become complex and thus, in turn require more specialist
skills that are rare and scarce. The result is more dependency on the professionals. Thus,
problems may arise when such people if they are employees decide to leave or switch to
more lucrative employment or if they are freelancers decide to shift their business
somewhere else. Please note that these are example of implications of what is most
happening in the business world today.
• Governmental Influences: Government control and changes in legislation with regard to
affirmative action for disadvantaged groups, working conditions and hours of work,
restrictions on women and child employment, casual and contract labor, etc. have
stimulated the organizations to become involved in systematic manpower planning.
• Legislative Controls: The days of 'hire and fire' policies are gone. Now legislation makes
it difficult to reduce the size of an organization quickly and cheaply, especially in the
presence of strong politicalised trade union scenario in India. It is easy to increase but
difficult to shed the fat in terms of the numbers employed because of recent changes in
labor law relating to lay-offs and closures. Those responsible for managing manpower
must look far ahead and thus attempt to foresee manpower problems. .
• Impact of Pressure Groups: Pressure groups such as unions, politicians and NGO’s
displaced, from land by location of giant enterprises have been raising contradictory
pressures on enterprise management such as internal recruitment and promotions,
preference to employees' children, displaced persons, sons of the soil etc. remember the
ASSAM TEA case!!!!!
• Systems Concept: The spread of systems thinking, the advent of the PC’s and the
upsurge of people management concept which all emphasize the planning and having
common and transparent personnel records.
• Lead Time: The long lead-time is necessary in the selection process and for training and
development of the employee to handle new knowledge and skills successfully.
Thus, HRP is all the more imperative. One needs to think strategically, to be ahead of
others in acquiring human resources.

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 Hence we can now easily come to a conclusion on why HRP is necessary? An attempt
to look beyond the present and short-term future, and to prepare for contingencies, is
increasingly important. Some manifestations of this are outlined below.

• Jobs often require experience and skills that cannot easily be bought in the market place,
and the more complex the organisation, the more difficult it will be to supply or replace
highly specialized staff quickly. It takes time to train and develop technical or specialist
personnel (say an airline pilot or computer programmer), so there will be a lead-time to fill
any vacancy. The need will be have to be anticipated in time to initiate the required
development programmes.
• Employment protection legislation and general expectations of 'social responsibility' in
organizations make staff shedding a slow and costly process. The cost must be measured
not just in financial terms (redundancy pay and so on) but in loss of reputation as a secure
employer and socially responsible organization. This, in turn, may make it more difficult to
recruit labor in times or skill areas where it is required - and may even alienate customers
and potential customers.
• Rapid technological change is leading to a requirement for manpower which is both more
highly skilled and more adaptable. Labor flexibility is a major issue, and means that the
career and retraining potential of staff are at least as important as their actual qualifications
and skills. They must be assessed in advance of requirements. (In fact, 'train ability' as a
major criterion for selection is one of the most popular innovations of the HRM era of
personnel management.)
• In term of international markets, the scope and variety of markets, competition and labor
resources are continually increased by political and economic moves such as the
unification of Germany, the opening of Eastern Europe and continuing progress towards
European union.
• Computer technology has made available techniques which facilitate the monitoring and
planning of manpower over fairly long time spans: manipulation of manpower statistics,
trend analysis, 'modeling' and so on.
From the above discussion we get to the following conclusion.

9
'Manpower planning has maintained its imperatives for several reasons:
(i) A growing awareness of the need to look into the future,
(ii) A desire to exercise control over as many variables as possible which influence
business success or failure,
(iii) The development of techniques which make such planning possible.'
Levy, Corporate Personnel Management
Aims of employee compensation:-
a. Attract capable employees to the organization.
b. Motivate them toward superior performance.
c. Retainment of their services over an extended period of time.

The aim of employee compensation can further describe as under: -

1. Attract capable employees to the organization:-
Every organization looks for retaining capable employee with the organization. Infact,
retaining an employee is the most difficult function of HR Department. So for retaining an
efficient employee with the organization, he has to be provided with better compensation.
That compensation that he is going to be provided should include better salary perks,
increments, promotions etc. So, a better compensation package is going to attract the
efficient employee who is very useful to an organization.
2. Motivate them toward superior performance:-
For any employee, money is the main motivator. If every employee of an organization is
provided with better compensation, every body will be motivated to exhibit superior
performance. The better the pay, the better the performance. The compensation that is
going to be provided to the employees should include better salary, perks, increments,
bonus etc. Even though the remaining components like promotion are going to motivate
the employees, but the basic motivator is better compensation.
3. Retainment of their services over an extended period of time: -

10
Retainment of the services of an employee with an organization is the most difficult job of
HR. So, the retainment of the employee’s service over a long period of time is possible
only by providing them with better compensation.

Human Resources planning

In simple words, HRP is understood as the process of forecasting an organisation’s future
demand for, and the supply of, right type of people in the right number. It is only after the
HRM dept can initiate the recruitment and selection process.
HRP is a subsystem in the total organizational planning. Organisational planning includes
managerial activities that set the company’s objectives for the future and determine the
appropriate means for achieving those objectives. HRP facilitates the realization of the
company’s objectives by providing the right number of personnel. HRP is variously called
as Manpower planning, personnel planning or employment planning.
A few definitions of HRP are worth quoting here…
…. Includes the estimation of how many qualified people are necessary to carry out the
assigned activities, how many people will be available, and what, if anything, must be done
to ensure that personnel supply equals personnel demand at the appropriate point in the
future.
…. Specifically, human resources planning are the process by which an organization
ensures that it has the right number and kind of people, at the right place, at the right time,
capable of effectively and efficiently completing those tasks that will help the organization
achieve its overall objectives.
Human resource planning translates the organization’s objectives and plans into the
number of workers needed to meet those objectives. Without a clear-cut planning,
estimation of an organisation’s human resource need is reduced to mere guesswork

Importance of HRP:
1. Future Personnel Needs:
Planning is significant as it helps determine future personnel needs. Surplus or deficiency
in staff strength is the result of the absence of or defective planning.

11
2. Coping with Change:
HRP enables and enterprise to cope with changes in competitive forces, markets,
technology, products, and government regulations. Such changes generate changes in job
content, skill demands, and number and number and type of personnel. Shortage of
people may be noticed in some areas while surplus in other areas may occur.
3. Creating highly talented Personnel:
As was mentioned earlier, jobs are becoming highly intellectual and incumbents are
getting vastly professionalized. L & T, an engineering giant, has MBA’s, engineers and
technicians who collectively constitute 70 percent of the other employee strength of
20000.The HR manager must use his/her ingenuity to attract and retain qualified and
skilled personnel.
These people are known for job hopping, thereby creating frequent shortages in the
organisation. Manpower planning helps prevent such shortages. Furthermore, technology
changes will often upgrade some jobs and degrade others.
For e.g. Indian Telephone Industries had a stronger technology to start with, which later
developed into crossbar telephone system. This was later changed to electronic
technology?
Another facet of the high talented personnel is management succession planning. Who will
replace the retiring chief executive? From what pool of people will top executive be
selected and how will these individuals be groomed for their increased responsibilities?
HRP is an answer to these and other related questions.
4. Protection of Weaker sections:
In matters of employment and promotions, sufficient representation needs to be given to
SC/ST candidates, physically handicapped, children of the socially politically oppressed
and backward-class citizens. These groups enjoy a given percentage of jobs, not
withstanding the constitutional provision, which guarantees equal opportunities for all.
5. International Strategies:
International expansion strategies depend upon HRP.

12
The department’s ability to fill key jobs with foreign nationals and the re-assignment of
employees from within or across national borders is a major challenge facing international
businesses.
With the growing trend towards global operation, the need for HRP will grow, as well as
the need to integrate HRP more closely into the organisation’s strategic plans.
HRP will grow increasingly important as the process of meeting staffing needs from foreign
countries and the attendant cultural, language, and development considerations grow
complex.
Without effective HRP and subsequent attention to employee recruitment, selection,
placement, development and career planning, the growing competition for foreign
executives may lead to expensive and strategically disruptive turnover among key decision
makers.
6. Foundation for personnel functions;
Manpower planning provides essential information for designing and implementing
personnel functions, such as recruitment, selection, personnel movement (transfers,
promotions, layoffs) and training and development.
7. Increasing Investments in Human resources
Another compelling reason for HRP is the investment and organization makes in its human
resources. Human assets, as opposed to physical assets, can increase in value.
An employee who gradually develops his/her skills and abilities becomes a more valuable
resource.
Because an organization makes investments in its personnel either through direct training
or job assignments, it is important that employees are used effectively throughout their
careers. The rupee value of a trained, flexible motivated and productive workforce is
difficult to determine, although attempts are being made to do so, as in HR accounting
(HRA).
8. Resistance to change and Move:
There is a growing resistance among employees to change and move. There is a lot a
growing emphasis on self-evaluation and on evaluation of loyalty and dedication to the
organization. All these changes are making it more difficult for the organizations to assume

13
that it can move its employees around anywhere and anytime it wants, thus increasing the
importance and necessity of planning ahead.
9. Other Benefits
Following are other potential benefits of HRP:
• Upper management has a better view of the HR dimensions of business decision.
• Personnel costs may be less because the management can anticipate imbalances
before they become unmanageable and expensive.
• More time is provided to locate talent.
• Better opportunities exist to include women and minority groups in future growth
plans.
• Better Planning of assignments to develop managers can be done
• Major and successful demands on local labour markets can be made.
TRANING AND DEVELOPMENT
Steps in the Training Process
1. Organizational objectives
2. Assessment of Training needs
. Organisational analysis
. Task Analysis
. Man or HR Analysis
3. Establishment of Training goals
4. Devising training programmes
5. Implementation of training programmes
6. Evaluation of results

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I. Organizational Objectives and Strategies:
The first step in the training process in an organization is the assessment of its
objectives and strategies. What business are we in? At what level of quality do we wish to
provide this product or service? Where do we want to be in the future? It is only after
answering these related questions that the organization must assess the strengths and
weaknesses of its human resources.

II. Needs Assessment:

Needs assessment diagnosis present problems and future challenges to be met
through training and development? Organizations spend vast sums of money (usually as a
percentage on turnover) on training and development. Before committing such huge
resources, organizations that implement training programs without conducting needs
assessment may be making errors.

15
Needs assessment occurs at two levels- group and individual. An individual obviously
needs training when his or her performance falls short of standards, that is, when there is
performance deficiency. Inadequacy in performance may be due to lack of skill or
knowledge or any other problem. The problem of performance deficiency caused by
absence of skills or knowledge can be remedied by training.
Faulty selection, poor job design, improving quality of supervision, or discharge will solve
the problem.

Assessment of training needs must also focus on anticipated skills of an employee.

Technology changes fast and new technology demands new skills. It is necessary that the
employee be trained to acquire new skills. This will help him/her to progress in his or her
career path. Training and development is essential to prepare the employee to handle
more challenging tasks.

Individuals may also require new skills because of possible job transfers.
Although job transfers are common as organizational personnel demands vary, they do not
necessarily require elaborate training efforts. Employees commonly require only an
orientation to new facilities and jobs. Jobs have disappeared as technology, foreign
competition, and the forces of supply and demand are changing the face of our industry.

Assessment of training needs occurs at the group level too. Any change in the
organization’s strategy necessitates training of groups of employees.

Needs Assessment Methods: How are training needs assessed? Several methods are
available for the purpose. Fig shows some of them for Organisational level and individual
level.

16
Benefits of Needs assessment: As pointed above, needs assessment helps diagnose
the causes of performance deficiency in employees. Causes require remedial actions. This
being a generalized statement there are certain specific benefits of needs assessment.
They are:
• Trainers may be informed about the broader needs of the training group and their
sponsoring organizations.
• The sponsoring organizations are able to reduce the perception gap between the
participant and his or her boss about their needs and expectations from the training
programmes.
• Trainers are able to pitch their course inputs course inputs closer to the specific
needs of the participants.

III. Training and Development objectives

Once training needs are assessed, training and development goals must be established.
Without clearly set goals, it is not possible to design a training and development
programme and, after it has been implemented there will be no way of measuring its
effectiveness. Goals must be tangible, verifiable, and measurable.

17
This is easy where skills’ training is involved. For example, the successful trainee will be
expected to type 55 words per minute with two or three errors per page. Nevertheless,
clear behavioral standards of expected results are necessary so that the programme can
be effectively designed and results can be evaluated.

IV. Designing Training and Development Programme

Every training and development programme must address certain vital issues

1. Who participates in the programme?

2. Who are the trainers?
3. What methods and techniques are to be used for training?
4. What should be the level of training?
5. What learning principles are needed?
6. Where is the program conducted?

Who are the trainers: Trainers should be selected on the basis of self-nomination,
recommendations of supervisors or by the HR department itself. Whatever is the basis, it
is advisable to have two or more target audience. For example, rank-and-file employees
and their supervisors or by the HR department itself.

Several people, including the following may conduct training and Development
programmes:
1. Immediate supervisors
2. Co-workers, as in buddy systems,
3. Members of the personnel staff,
4. Specialists in other parts of the company,
5. Outside consultants,
6. Industry associations, and faculty members at universities.

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V. Methods and Techniques of training

On-job training

“Training that is planned and structured that takes place mainly at the normal workstation
of the trainee- although some instruction may be provided in a special training area on site
- and where a manager, supervisor, trainer or peer colleague spends significant time with
a trainee to teach a set of skills that have been specified in advance.”

Advantages
1. Tailor-made course content with use of REAL company situations/examples.
2. It is usually less expensive than off-job training
3. Learning will take place using the equipment which will be actually used
4. Trainees learn more rapidly
Disadvantages
1. Possibility of poor instruction and insufficient time
2. Trainee may be exposed to bad work practices
3. A large amount of spoiled work and scrap material may be produced.
4. Valuable equipment may be damaged.
5. Training takes place under production conditions that are stressful, i.e. noisy, busy,
confusing and exposing the trainee to comments by other workers.

Off-job training
Advantages
1. A specialist instructor enables delivery of high quality training.
2. Wider range of facilities and equipment are available.
3. The trainee can learn the job in planned stages.
4. It is free from the pressures and distractions of company life.
5. It is easier to calculate the cost of off-job training because it is more self-contained
6. Cross-fertilisation of ideas between different companies.

19
Disadvantages
1. Can result in transfer of learning difficulties when a trainee changes from training
equipment to production equipment.
2. No training can be entirely off-job as some aspects of the task can only be learned
by doing them in the normal production setting, with its own customs and network of
personal relationships.
3. Can be more expensive carrying out the training
Everyone involved in the training should be informed well in advance of the training
session(s). It is equally important that the person(s) delivering the training – whether in-job
or off-job training - are well versed in what has to be achieved and the most suitable
techniques to adopt.
On the Job Training Methods.
• Orientation training
• Job-instruction training
• Apprentice training
• Internships and assistantships
• Job rotation
• Coaching
Off-the –job training: are used away from workplaces.
1. Vestibule 2. Lecture 3. Special study 4. Films
5. Television
6. Conference or discussion
7. Case study
8. Role playing
9. Simulation
10. Programmed instruction
11 Laboratory training

20
1. Vestibule Training: This training method attempt to duplicate on-the-job-situation in a
company classroom. It is a classroom training that is often imported with the help of the
equipment and machines, which are identical with those in use in the place of work.
This technique enables the trainees to concentrate on learning new skill rather than on
performing on actual job. This type of training is efficient to train semi-skilled personnel,
particularly when many employees have to be trained for the same kind of work at the
same time. Often used to train – bank tellers, inspectors, machine operators, typists etc.
In this, training is generally given in the form of lectures, conferences, case studies, role-
play etc.

2. Demonstrations And Example: In this type of training method trainer describes and
displays something, as & when he teaches an employee, how to do something by actually
performing the activity himself & going on explaining why & what he is doing. This method
is very effective in teaching because it is much easier to show a person how to do a job
than tell him or give him instruction about a particular job. This training is done by
combination with lectures, pictures, text materials etc.
3. Lectures: Lecture is a verbal presentation of information by an instructor to a large
audience. The lecture is presumed to possess a considerable depth of knowledge of the
subject at hand. A virtue of this method is that is can be used for very large groups, and
hence the cost per trainee is low.
This method is mainly used in colleges and universities, though its application is restricted
in training factory employees. Limitations of the lecture method account for its low
popularity. The method violates the principle of learning by practice. It constitutes a one-
way communication. There is no feedback from the audience. Continued lecturing method
can be made effective it if is combined with other methods of training.
4. Audio-visuals: Audio-visuals include television slides, overheads, video-types and
films. These can be used to provide a wide range of realistic examples of job conditions
and situations in the condensed period of time.
Further, the quality of the presentation can be controlled and will remain equal for all
training groups. But, audio-visuals constitute a one-way system of communication with no

21
scope for the audience to raise doubts for clarification. Further, there is no flexibility of
presentation from audience to audience.
5. Programmed Instruction (PI): This is method where training is offer without the
intervention of a trainer. Information is provided to the trainee in blocks, either in a book
form of through a teaching machine.

PI involves:
1. Presenting questions, facts, or problems to the learner
2. Allowing the person to respond
3. Providing feedback on the accuracy of his or her answers
4. If the answers are correct, the learner proceeds to the next block. If not, he or she
repeats the same.
6. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI): this is an extension of the PI method. CAI
provides for accountability as tests are taken on the computer so that the management
can monitor each trainee’s progress and needs.
CAI training program can also be modified easily to reflect technological innovations in the
equipment for which the employee is being trained.
This training also tends to be more flexible in that trainees can usually use the computer
almost any time they want, thus get training when they prefer.

7. Apprenticeship: This method of training is usually done in crafts, trades and in

technical areas. It is the oldest and most commonly used method, if the training is
relatively for a longer period. Here a major part of training is spent on the job productive
work. Each apprentice is given a programme of assignments according to a pre-
determined schedule, which provide for efficient training in trade skills.
8. Simulation: A simulator is any kind of equipment or technique that duplicates as nearly
as possible the actual conditions encountered on the job. Simulation then, is an attempt to
create a realistic decision-making environment for the trainee. Simulations present likely
problem situations and decision alternatives to the trainee. The more widely held
simulation exercises are case study, role-playing and vestibule training.

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9. Conference: In this method, the participating individuals confer to discuss points of
common interest to each other. It is a basic to most participative group centered methods
of developments. This emphasis on small group discussion, on organized subject matter
and on the active participation of the members involved.

There are three types of conferences,

* Direct discussion: - Here trainer guides the discussion in such a way that the facts,
principles or concepts are explained.

* Training Conference: - The instructor gets the group to pool its knowledge and past
experience and brings different points of view to bear on the problem.

* Seminar Conference: - In this method instructor defines the problem, encourages and
ensures the full participation in the discussion.

10. Case Studies: This method is developed in 1800S At the Harvard Law School. The
case study is based upon the belief that managerial competence can best be attained
through the study, contemplation and discussion of concrete cases. When the trainees
are given cases to analyse, they are asked to identify the problem and recommend
tentative solution for it.
The case study is primarily useful as a training technique for supervisors and is specially
valuable as a technique of developing discussion-making skills, and for broadening the
prospective of the trainee.
In case study method the trainee is expected to master the facts, should acquainted with
the content of the case, define the objective sought in dealing with the issues in the case,
identify the problem, develop alternative courses of action, define the controls needed to
make the action effective and role play the action to test its effectiveness and find
conditions that may limit it.

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11. Role Playing: In role-playing trainees act out the given role as they would be in stage
play. Two or more trainees are assigned parts to play before the nest of the class. Here
role players are informed of a situation and of the respective roles they have to pay.
Sometimes after the preliminary planning,
The situation is acted out by the role players. This method primarily involves employee-
employer relationship – Hiring, firing, discussing a grievance procedure, conducting a post
appraisal interview etc.
12. Programmed Instructions: This method involves a sequence of steps that are often
set up through the central panel of an electronic computer as guides in the performance of
desired operation or series of operations.
This method involves breaking information down into meaningful units and then arranging
these in a proper way to form a logical and sequential learning. The programme involves–
presenting questions, facts or problems to trainees to utilize the information given and the
trainee instantly receive feedback on the basis of the accuracy of his answers.

To be really effective, the training methods must fit in training programme needs to find out
how effective the methods are in accomplishing their goals of modifying skills, attitudes
and ultimate behaviour.

V. Points in Planning Training Evaluation

Why Evaluate?
1. To monitor the quality of training
2. Provide feedback
3. To appraise the overall effectiveness of the investment in training
4. To assist the development of new methods of training
5. To aid the individual evaluate his or her own learning experience.

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John Dopyera and Louise Pitone identified eight decision points in planning training
evaluation. They are:

1. Should an evaluation be done? Who should evaluate?

2. What is the purpose of evaluation? There are mainly two purposes of doing
evaluation. They are justification evaluation and determination evaluation.
Justification evaluations are undertaken as reactions to mandates. Other purposes that will
make evaluation efforts more fruitful. These purposes include training needs assessment,
programme improvements and impact evaluation.

3. What will be measured? The focus of the evaluation will be on training and delivery,
programme content, materials, impact of training on individuals through learning,
behaviour or performance change. Learning can be measured through pre-test and post-
test. Evaluate the effects of training after the trainee returns to the work place using
changes in between or the work results as indicators.

4. How comprehensive will the evaluation be? The scope or the duration and
comprehensiveness of the evaluation is influenced by available support,
communication and evaluation purpose.

5. Who has the authority and responsibility? Who has the authority and responsibility
at different stages of evaluation will be determined by the factors like personnel, credibility
of internal staff, communication, objectivity of internal staff to do an evaluation regardless
of results.
6. What are the sources of data? The most common sources of evaluation data are
reactions, opinions and/ or test results of the participants, managers, supervisors,
production records, quality control, financial records, personnel records, safety records,
etc.

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7. How will the data be collected and compiled? Data can be collected before training
for needs analysis or pre-testing purpose, during training programme to make
improvements along the way and after training for evaluation.
Next step is selection of treatment or control groups and determination of nature of
samples. Data can be complied either manually or by computers.
8. How will the data be analysed and reported? First reporting issue is concerned with
audiences like participants or trainees, training staff, managers, customers etc. Second
and third issues are concerned with analysis and results and accuracy, policies and format
respectively.

These decision points are intended to increase awareness of and interest in u. evaluation
of training, to improve planning skills and to encourage more systematic- evaluation of
training.

Methods of Evaluation

Various methods can be used to collect data on the outcomes of training. Some of these
are:

Questionnaires: Comprehensive questionnaires could be used to obtain opinion

reactions, views of trainees.
.
Tests: Standard tests could be used to find out whether trainees have learnt anything
during and after the training.

Interviews: Interviews could be conducted to find the usefulness of training offered to

operatives.
Studies: Comprehensive studies could be carried out eliciting the opinions and judgments
of trainers, superiors and peer groups about the training.

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Human resource factors: Training can also be evaluated on the basis of employee
satisfaction, which in turn can be examined on the basis of decrease in employee turnover,
absenteeism, accidents, grievances, discharges, dismissals, etc.

Cost benefit analysis: The costs of training (cost of hiring trainers, tools to learn training
centre, wastage, production stoppage, opportunity cost of trainers and trainees) could be
compared with its value (in terms of reduced learning time improved learning, superior
performance) in order to evaluate a training programme.

Feedback: After the evaluation, the situation should be examined to identify the probable
causes for gaps in performance. The training evaluation information.(about costs, time
spent, outcomes, etc.)should be provided to the instructors’ trainees and other parties
concerned for control, correction and improvement of trainees' activities. The training
evaluator should follow it up sincerely so as to ensure effective implementation of the
feedback report at every stage.

Please note that no training is complete without its evaluation. That is, the follow up of a
training programme is very essential.

Impediments or problems in Training Process:

• Management’s commitment is lacking
• Aggregate spending on training is inadequate
• The trainers may lack skills
• Poaching
• No help in case of downsizing

JOB ANALYSIS
Following definitions will help you to understand the concept of job analysis better:

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A defined data collection and analysis procedure through which information about job
tasks and job requirements are obtained.
Job analysis is the procedure for determining the duties and skill requirements of a job and
the kind of person who should be hired for it.

Organizations consist of positions that have to be staffed. Job analysis is the procedure
through which you determine the duties of these positions and the characteristics of the
people who should be hired for them .The analysis produces information on job
requirements, which is then used for developing job descriptions (what the job entails)
and job specifications (what kind of people to hire for the job).
Six Steps in JOB Analysis

Step 1
Identify the use to which the information will be put, since this will determine the types of
data you collect and how you collect them. Some data collection techniques like
interviewing the employee and asking what the job entails and what his responsibilities are
- are good for writing job descriptions and selecting employees for the job.
Step 2

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Review relevant background information such as organization charts, process charts, and
job descriptions. Organization charts show how the job in question relates to other jobs
and where it fits in the overall organization. The chart should identify the title of each
position and, by means of its interconnecting lines, show who reports to whom and with
whom the job incumbent is expected to communicate.

Step 3
Select representative positions to be analyzed. This is done when many similar jobs are to
be analyzed and it is too time-consuming to analyze, say, the jobs of all assembly workers.

Step 4
Next actually analyze the job by collecting data on job activities, required employee
behaviors, working conditions, and human traits and abilities needed to perform the job.
For this, you would use one or more of the job analysis techniques explained in this
lesson.

Step 5
Review the information with job incumbents. The job analysis information should be
verified with the worker performing the job and with his or her immediate supervisor. This
will help to confirm that the information is factually correct and complete. This "review" step
can also help gain the employee's acceptance of the job analysis data and conclusions by
giving that person a chance to review and modify your description of his or her job
activities.

Step 6
Develop a job description and job specification. A job description and a job specification
are usually two concrete products of the job analysis.
The job description is a, written statement that describes the activities and
responsibilities of the job, as well as important features of the job such as working
conditions and safety hazards.

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The job specification summarizes the personal qualities, skills, and background
required for getting the job done; it may be either a separate document or on the same
document as the job description.
Why JOB Analysis? Job analysis is a systematic procedure for studying jobs to determine
their various elements and requirements.
The job analysis for a particular position typically consists of two parts.
A job description is a list of the elements that make up a particular job.
A job specification is a list of the qualifications required to perform particular job.

Job Description Vs. Job Specification

1. Job Description - written narrative describing activities performed on a job;
includes information about equipment used and working conditions under which job
is performed.
2. Job Specification - outlines specific skills, knowledge, abilities, physical and
personal characteristics necessary to perform a job - What about physical and
personal characteristics? Strength, patience, intestinal fortitude, risk-taker.

It is essential for you to understand that Job Analysis helps to find information about the
following:
Work activities. Information is usually collected on the actual work activities performed,
such as cleaning, selling, teaching, or painting. Such a list may also indicate how, why,
and when the worker performs each activity.
Human behaviors. Information on human behaviors like sensing, communicating,
decision-making, and writing may also be collected. Included here would be information
regarding human job demands such as lifting weights, walking long distances, and so on.
Machines, tools, equipment, and work aids used. Included here would be information
regarding products made, materials processed, knowledge dealt with or applied (such as
finance or law), and services rendered (such as counseling or repairing)

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Performance standards. Information is also collected regarding performance standards
(in terms of quantity, quality, or speed for each job duty, for instance) by which an
employee in this job will be evaluated.

Job context. Included here is information about such matters as physical working
conditions, work schedule, and the organizational and social context-for instance, in terms
of the number of people with whom the employee would normally have to interact. Also
included here might be information regarding incentives for doing the job.
Human requirements. Finally, information is usually compiled regarding human
requirements of the job, such as job-related knowledge or skills (education, training, work
experience) and required personal attributes (aptitudes, physical characteristics,
personality, interests).

Let us now have a look at the areas in which Job Analysis Information is used

1. Recruitment and Selection

Job analysis provides information about what the job entails and what human
characteristics are required to carry out these activities. Such job description and job
specification information is used to decide what sort of people to recruit and hire.

2. Compensation
Job analysis information is also essential for estimating the value of and appropriate
compensation for each job. This is so because compensation. (such as salary and bonus)
usually depends on the job's required skill and education level, safety hazards, degree of
responsibility and so on-all factors that are assessed through job analysis. Job analysis
provides the information determining the relative worth of each job so that each job can be
classified.

3. Ensure Complete Assignment of Duties

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The job analysis is also useful for ensuring that all the duties that have to be done are in
fact assigned to particular positions. For example, in analyzing the current job of your
company's production manager, you may find she reports herself as being responsible
for two dozen or so specific duties including planning weekly production schedules,
purchasing raw materials, and supervising the daily activities of each of her first-line
supervisors. } v fissing, however, is any reference to managing raw material or finished
goods inventories.
On further investigation you find that none of the other manufacturing people is
responsible for inventory management either. Your job analysis (based not just on what
employees report as their duties, but on your knowledge of what
4. Training
Job analysis information is also used for designing training and development programs
because the analysis and resulting job description show the skills-and therefore training-
that are required.
5. Performance Appraisal
A performance appraisal compares each employee's actual performance with his or her
performance standards. It is often through job analysis that experts determine the
standards to be achieved and the specific activities to be performed.

Impact of Behavioural Factors on Job Analysis

While carrying out the job analysis, managers must take note of certain strong behavioural
responses from the employees. Employees may not always like the idea of someone
taking a hard look at their jobs. Let's examine the reasons behind such negative
responses more closely.
a. Employee fears: Most employees’ fear that job analysis efforts may put them in a
'Straight Jacket', limiting their initiative and inability. Another reason for the negative
attitude is the feeling that" as long as someone does not know precisely what I am
supposed to be doing, then I am safe".

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A searching examination of jobs may uncover employee faults, which might have escaped
the employer's attention so far.

b. Resistance to change: When jobs change in tune with changes in technology, there
is an urgent need to revise job descriptions and job specifications -to make them more
meaningful. This would have a significant impact on the safe and secure job worlds,
employees used to live comfortably. Employees resist such changes because when jobs
are redefined, they may have to handle difficult tasks and shoulder painful responsibilities.
To ward off such threats, managers must involve employees in the revision process,
stating the reasons for incorporating latest changes clearly.
c. Overemphasis on current employees: Job analysis efforts should not place heavy
emphasis on what the employees are currently doing. Some employees may be gifted with
unique capabilities and given a chance they may expand the scope of the job and assume
more responsibilities. The company may have difficulty in finding someone like that person
if he or she were to leave the company. Therefore, "the job description and job
specifications should not be merely a description of what the person currently filling the job
does".
d. Management' Straight Jacket: Job analysis efforts may put managers in a ' straight
jacket', limiting their freedom to adapt to changing needs from time to time. To avoid this,
they may even refuse to appropriately describe what an employee is supposed to do in the
company - creating, of course, further confusion in the minds of employees.
Important Terms:
Task - meaningful, discrete, unit of work activity generally performed on job by one worker
within some limited time period; represents composite of methods, procedures, and
techniques
Duty - area of work that includes several distinct tasks - e.g., preparing operating room
for surgery, monitoring patient
Position - set of tasks and duties performed by single individual, Chief surgical nurse
Job - group of positions that is identical with respect to their major significant tasks;
sufficiently alike to be covered by single analysis - surgical nurse

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Occupation - general class of jobs - nurses
Career - sequence of jobs held by individual throughout lifetime

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