Tribology 101 Introduction to

the Basics of Tribology

SJ Shaffer, Ph.D. Bruker-TMT
Steven.shaffer@bruker-nano.com

Outline
Origin/Definition of Tribology (Term and Field)
Encompassing Fields
Fundamentals of Tribology:

Surfaces in Contact
Friction
Lubrication
Wear

Concluding Words
Upcoming Topics in Series
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What is Tribology ?
Tribology comes from the Greek word, tribos,
meaning rubbing or to rub
And from the suffix, ology means the study of
Therefore, Tribology is the study of rubbing,
or the study of things that rub.
This includes the fields of:
Friction,
Lubrication, and
Wear.
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Tribology is a new word

Coined by Dr. H. Peter Jost in England in
1966
The Jost Report, provided to the British Parliament
Ministry for Education and Science, indicated Potential
savings of over 515 million per year ($800 million) for
industry by better application of tribological principles and
practices.

But

Tribology is not a new field!

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The First Recorded Tribologist 2400 B.C.

Transporting the statue of Ti from a tomb at Saqqara, Egypt

Figure taken from

History of Tribology,
by Duncan Dowson.
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The First Recorded Tribologist 2400 B.C.

Transporting the statue of Ti from a tomb at Saqqara, Egypt

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The First Recorded Tribologist 2400 B.C.

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The first recorded tribologist pouring lubricant (water?)

in front of the sledge in the transport of the statue of Ti.
7

A more famous Tribologist 500 years ago

Sled Friction Test
Geometry

4-Ball Test Geometry

Leonardo Da Vinci

Ball Bearing
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A more famous Tribologist 500 years ago

Sled Friction Test
Geometry

Leonardo Da Vinci

4-Ball Test Geometry

ASTM D1894 Static

and Kinetic COFs of
Plastic Film & Sheeting

Ball Bearing
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ASTM D5183 - COF

ASTM D2266, D2596 EP
ASTM D4172, D2783 - Wear
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A more famous Tribologist 500 years ago

Sled Friction Test
Geometry

Leonardo Da Vinci

4-Ball Test Geometry

ASTM D1894 Static

and Kinetic COFs of
Plastic Film & Sheeting

Two Observations:
1. The areas in contact have no effect on
friction.
2. If the load of an object is doubled, its
friction will also be doubled.

Ball Bearing
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ASTM D5183 - COF

ASTM D2266, D2596 EP
ASTM D4172, D2783 - Wear
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Tribology 101 - Basics

Applications and Fields which

Encompass Modern Tribology

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Tribology is All Around Us,

In Applications from Simple to Complex
and Scales from Small to Large

Individual Components
Assemblies or Products
Manufacturing Processes
Construction/Exploration
Natural Phenomena
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Individual Components

Gears

Brake & Clutch Pads

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Bearings
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Assemblies or Products

Rock Climbing
Shoes

Pocket Watch

Engines

Curling Stones
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Manufacturing Processes

Turning
Rolling

Stamping
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Grinding/Polishing
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Construction/Exploration

Mine Slurry Pumps

Excavator

Chunnel Digging Drill

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Oil Drilling Rig

Space Shuttle
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Natural Phenomena
Wear
Water Erosion

Friction
Wind Erosion

On/Off Stiction:
Gecko Feet

Superhydrophobicity:
Lotus Leaf

Plate Tectonics
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Tribology 101 - Basics

In Parallel to these different Scales,

There are Many Areas of
Engineering and Industry which
have a Need to Use/Understand Tribology

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Tribology is also in Virtually every Area of

Engineering and Industry
Aerospace
Agriculture
Automotive

Engine: Piston ring/cylinder,

Bearings, valve seats, injectors
Brakes/clutch
Tooling/Machining/Sheet metal
forming

Coatings Providers

Low Friction
Wear Resistant

Thin Films or Hardfacings

Cosmetics/Personal Care
Dental Implants
Energy

Nuclear
Wind
Fossil
Solar

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Fabric/Clothing
Flooring
Food Processing
Highway/Transportation
Depts.
Lubricant Manufacturers
Medical Diagnostics
Medical Implants
Military
Pharmaceutical
Shoe Manufacturers
Sports Equipment Companies
Universities/Educators

Mechanical Engineering
Materials Science Engineering
Physics
Chemistry
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Commonality in Tribology

What do All These Diverse Fields

and Applications have in Common?
What do we need to think about as
engineers and scientists when we
design products or friction/wear
experiments?
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Commonality

Every Application has:

Surfaces in Contact, and
in Relative Motion
(e.g. sliding, rolling, impacting)

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Tribology Basics - Surfaces in Contact

So lets begin by looking

closely at a surface

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The Surface is not Simple

Lubricant
Adsorbed
Contaminants
Oxide
Surface Properties
Disturbed Material
Bulk Material
Properties
Handbook
values

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The Surface is not Simple

Lubricant

nms - ms

mms - cms

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Adsorbed
Contaminants
Oxide
Surface Properties
Disturbed Material
Bulk Material
Properties
Handbook
values

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Nor is it Flat!
Lubricant
Adsorbed
Contaminants
Oxide
Surface Properties
Disturbed Material
Bulk Material
Properties

All engineering surfaces have a roughness, and this

roughness plays an important role in tribology.

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Nor is it Flat!
Lubricant
Adsorbed
Contaminants
Oxide
Surface Properties
Disturbed Material
Bulk Material
Properties

All engineering surfaces have a roughness, and this

roughness plays an important role in tribology.
Surface Roughness comes from all prior history of the
part: Manufacturing, handling and prior use in application.
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We need to think about

2 Aspects of a Surface:
Physical - Surface Roughness
Dictates Contact Area
Dictates Contact Stresses
Lubricant Paths or Reservoirs

Chemical - Intervening Layers

Chemical Compatibility
Shear Strength
Lubricant Properties, e.g. Viscosity
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We need to think about

2 Aspects of a Surface:

Ground

Physical - Surface Roughness

Dictates Contact Area
Dictates Contact Stresses
Paths or Reservoirs for
Lubricants/debris

Bead Blasted

Chemical - Intervening Layers

Chemical Compatibility
Shear Strength
Lubricant Properties, e.g. Viscosity
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We need to think about

2 Aspects of a Surface:
Physical - Surface Roughness
Dictates Contact Area
Dictates Contact Stresses
Lubricant Paths or Reservoirs

Chemical - Intervening Layers

Chemical Compatibility
Shear Strength
Lubricant Properties, e.g. Viscosity,
EP or boundary-forming
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Surface Characterization
Variety of Methods available, if needed
Physical Characterization
Roughness
Macro Waviness and Form (CMM)
Micro Surface Roughness
Stylus Profilometers (contact)
Optical Profilometers (non-contact)
AFM (sub-micron)

Hardness
Indent, Scratch

Chemical Characterization
Infrared, XPS, Raman, Auger
Lubricant Shear propertiesViscometry
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Tribology 101-Basics

Summary of Surfaces in Contact

Tribo-Forces are Dictated by Interaction of
Asperities
Asperities have Mechanical and Chemical
Properties
Methods Exist to Characterize these
Properties

Asperity Geometry and Distribution result

from Manufacturing Method, Handling and
Prior Rubbing History
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Friction
Fundamentals

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Friction Fundamentals
Conceptual Definition of Friction

Friction is the resistance to

relative motion between two
bodies in contact.

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Where does the resistance come

from?
When objects touch there are forces between them.

Microscopic
forces of
molecular
Adhesion.
(includes electrostatic,
Van der Waals, metallic
bonds)
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Microscopic
forces of
mechanical
Abrasion.
(includes elastic and
plastic deformation)
34

Where does friction come from?

Remember, there are also contaminants at the interface

Oxides,
Adsorbed films,
Adsorbed gases,
Foreign or
domestic particles
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Friction Fundamentals The COF

The Coefficient of Friction: A simple

constant of proportionality.

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Friction Fundamentals The COF

The Coefficient of Friction: A simple

constant of proportionality.
Or is it?

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Friction Fundamentals
Measuring Friction:
The Coefficient of Friction

Very Simple Relation:

F=N
N
F
= F/N = COF
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Friction Fundamentals The COF

Suppose a colleague wants to know:

What is the
COF of steel?

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Friction Fundamentals The COF

A: Well, dear colleague, you can use from

0.1 to 0.6. Take your pick.
What is the
COF of steel?

Is that close enough for your needs?

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Friction Fundamentals The COF

Well not really.

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Friction Fundamentals The COF

Well not really.

?
Then I guess well need a bit more
information.
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Friction Fundamentals The COF

What we need to know

What steel?

Stainless steel: 304, 316 , a 400-series or hardened 17-4PH or the like?

Carbon steel: if so is it pearlitic or martensitic?
Tool Steel?

Well I need to use it in water, so stainless steel, I guess.

What is the function? What is the mechanism?

Im designing a gear-driven mechanism, and I need to size the motor, assuming some
frictional loss in the gears, so I need the COF.

Gears Then, it needs to be hardened. How about the driven gear, whats its material?

The same, I suppose.

Im not sure thats a good idea, depending on the contact stress, sliding velocity and
surface finish. Do you know these parameters yet?

Not yet, Ill probably use standard values from my gear design handbook.

OK, I gather you need low friction, how about lubricant or use of a lubricious coating, are
these permitted in the design?

A coating is OK, but I dont think a liquid lubricant is permitted in this application.

OK, a coating then. How long will it need to last?

For the life of the mechanism. Cant you just tell me the COF?

Really, I need more information, because Ill likely need to run a test, depending on how
precisely you need the COF.
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All things considered,

The COF is Somewhat Complicated
Surface roughness plays a role
Lubricant plays a role
Surface chemistry plays a role
Contact Stress plays a role
Contact geometry plays a role
Environment plays a role
Temperature plays a role
Sliding speed plays a role

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All things considered

Its not so bad after all

Fortunately, while it appears complicated,

friction is relatively easy to measure,
(Only two things: Normal Load and Friction Force)

But, we have to measure it under the right

conditions.
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Summary of Friction Fundamentals

The equation is simple, but measuring it correctly
requires care:
When assessing a systems tribology need, we must consider:
Materials, Coating, Lubricant
Contact Area, Geometry, Stress
Surface Roughnesses
Sliding Speed
Sliding Mode (unidirectional, reciprocating, multidirectional)
Duty Cycle (continuous contact, intermittent contact)
Environment
Temperature, Humidity,
Atmosphere (air, exhaust gases, vacuum)

Friction is NOT a Material Property

Friction is a System Property
No such thing as the COF of steel, or the COF of rubber
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Lubrication
Fundamentals

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Lubrication Fundamentals

The role of a lubricant is to:

Reduce Friction
Prevent / Minimize Wear
Transport Debris away from Interface
Provide Cooling

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Lubrication Fundamentals:
Lubrication Regimes, with liquid present

In Liquid Lubrication, Regimes can be based

on: Fluid Film Thickness
The Lambda Ratio is defined as the ratio of the
fluid film thickness to the composite surface
roughness*
> 3 full film (thick film) lubrication,
hydrodynamics
1.2 > > 3 mixed or thin film lubrication
< 1.2 boundary lubrication
* - composite surface roughness = (rq12 + rq22)1/2
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Lubrication Regimes:

The Stribeck Curve

Thin Film,
Mixed
Boundary

Journal Bearing

Thick Film

Speed*Viscosity
Load
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Lubrication Regimes:
Boundary Lubrication Solid Lubricants

Solid Lubricants

Compounds with Low Shear Stress

MoS2, Graphite, WS2, HBN
Behave like a deck of cards

Bonded Films
DLC
Resin-bonded PTFE
Impregnated porous anodizing
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Summary of Lubrication
Fundamentals:
Key Factors in Lubricant Effectiveness
Fluid Shear Properties
Viscosity, Viscosity Index
Pressure-Viscosity Index

Chemistry

Reactivity with the Surface

Boundary Film-Forming Properties
Extreme Pressure Constituents
Shear strength of solid lubricant or coating

Thermal Conductivity/Heat Capacity

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Wear
Fundamentals

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Wear Fundamentals
Conceptual Definition of Wear

Removal (or displacement) of material

from one body when subjected to contact
and relative motion with another body.

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Wear Fundamentals - Wear Modes

6 Primary Wear Modes:
1. Abrasive Wear, Scratching
2. Adhesive Wear, Galling, Scuffing
3. Fretting/Fretting Corrosion
4. Erosive Wear, Cavitation, Impact, Electro-arcing
5. Rolling Contact Fatigue, Spalling, Delamination
6. Tribo-Corrosion

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Wear Fundamentals
Abrasive Wear, Scratching

The harder material

scratches the softer
material.

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Wear Fundamentals
Adhesive Wear, Galling, Scuffing
Begins as local welding
10 mm

Material compatibility is
important for adhesive
wear.

Galling of Stainless Steel Samples

Stacking fault energy,

crystal structure, natural
oxide formation all
influence adhesive wear.
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Wear Fundamentals
Fretting/Fretting Corrosion
Small
amplitude
displacement
(< 50 m).
Experiments generally have zones of no-slip,
and slip.
Small adhesive pull-outs occur at the boundary.
Often these oxidize, so sometimes called
fretting corrosion.
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Wear Fundamentals
Erosive Wear, Cavitation, Impact, Electro-arcing
Dependency on
particle size, shape,
composition, angle of
impingement, as well
as ductility of target

Particle Classification

1 cm

Fluting Damage
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Steam Control Valve

Cavitation Damage
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Wear Fundamentals
Rolling Contact Fatigue, Spalling, Delamination
Reversing sub-surface shear each
time the roller or ball passes over
the surface.
Propagation to surface of
sub-surface-initiated cracks

Accumulation of these stresses

leads to subsurface crack
formation, usually at a
microstructural inhomogeneity.
Cracks grow toward surface and
particle spalls off.

Spalled Bearing Inner Race

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Debris typically gets rolled over,

creating additional damage.
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Wear Fundamentals
Tribo-Corrosion

Wear in the presence of corrosion

can have synergistic effect.
Can happen with erosion or
sliding wear.
Bio-tribo-corrosion is major area

Erosion-Corrosion

Down-hole drilling environment is

another
ASTM Method G119 Standard
Guide for Determining Synergism
between Wear and Corrosion

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Wear Assessment
The Wear Coefficient, k
k volume of material removed per unit load and sliding
distance
Units of k are:

mm3/Nm
Please do NOT reduce the units of k to mm2/N or 1/kPa
This has no physical meaning

k can be used to predict component lifetimes, providing the

tribosystem does not change wear modes
Duty cycle and directionality can influence wear
Start-stop can be much more damaging than continuous
motion
Unidirectional sliding is very different from reciprocating
sliding
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Summary of Wear Fundamentals

Like Friction, Wear is a System Property, NOT a

Materials Property
There are several distinct wear regimes, though
some can operate simultaneously, or sequentially
Observed abrasive wear can results from initial
adhesive wear

If you properly simulated the system and wear

mode, the wear coefficient, k, can be used to
predict lifetimes

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Some
Final Words for
Todays Webinar

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Tribology Fundamentals
Key Concepts
1. COF is not a material property, it is a system
property.
2. Wear Rate or wear resistance depends on the wear
mode, which is a function of the Tribosystem.
3. If we properly characterize and understand the
Tribosytem, the odds are better that we will
succeed, because we can make the right choice for
materials, contact geometry and chemistry, and
make the appropriate measurements to give us
the answer we seek for our design.
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Means to Assess
Tribo-systems

Tribology & Mechanical Testing (TMT)

Universal platform for Tribology studies: Wear, Friction,.. when 2

surfaces meet.

Large load range

Wide variety of environments (corrosion, HT, liquid)
Wide variety of configurations (rotating & translating motions)

Many different Tribology tests

Linear Stage

Reciprocating Drive

Block-on-Ring Drive

Rotary Drive

Indentation & Scratch Testing

Indentation & Scratch Tester

Scratch test example

Large load range: nano & micro

Wide variety of imaging options

(AFM, profiler, optical)

Indentation example

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