Ultimate Biology Study Guide

1. Buy 200 (2 packs) of 3X5 cards and make flash cards from all the information on the study guide.
2. Dont put too much information on one card because that is not the point of flashcards. Put a question on the
front and the answer to that question on the back.
3. Show these completed cards to me.
4. I will randomly ask to see your cards, so you will bring them to class every day, and I will test you on your cards.
Take your cards with you EVERYWHERE and study them when you have down time. At least study your cards 10
minutes per day.
5. Questions from the current class material and from this study guide will show up on pop quizzes.

BIOCHEMISTRY
Water
+

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Adhesion
Cohesion

High specific heat

Universal solvent
Less dense when frozen

Water is polar. The end of the water molecule with the hydrogens is
partially positive, while the opposite end is partially negative.
The polarity of water creates HYDROGEN BONDS. The partially positive
ends of one water molecule hydrogen bond with the partially negative end of
another.
Hydrogen bonds between water molecules make special water
properties.

PROPERTIES of WATER
Waters ability to stick to
other things
Waters ability to stick to
Creates surface tension so water gliders can glide
itself
on water; involved in capillary action so plants can
get water from their roots to their other tissues
Takes a long time to heat up This is important because it means it takes the
ocean a long time to heat up. This is important for
climate and ecosystems.
Hydrophilic substances
The cells living things are filled are water solutions
dissolve in it.
because many things dissolve in it.
Ice floats.
This means that fish can live UNDER the layer of ice
in lakes and ponds.

WATER VOCABULARY
Hydrophobic
Hydrophilic
Osmosis

Afraid of water.
Loves water.
Diffusion of water across a
membrane.

Fatty acid tails of the cell membrane.

How water get into and out of each cell

Macromolecules

The most common elements found in living things are: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur
(CHNOPS)
Macromolecules
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acids

Monomers
Monosaccharides
Amino acids
Fatty acids + glycerol
Nucleotides

Examples
Bread, vegetables, fruit, sugar
Meats, beans
Olive oil, butter
DNA & RNA

Enzymes

Enzymes are made of protein and their functions are to either put things together (build) or digest (take apart)
by lowering the activation energy of the biochemical reaction.
The names of enzymes sometimes end in -ase
Important Enzymes and Their Functions
Adds nucleotides to a growing DNA strand
Adds nucleotides to a growing RNA strand
Unzips the DNA double helix
Enzyme found in liver that breaks down hydrogen peroxide
that builds up in the body.

DNA Polymerase
RNA Polymerase
Helicase
Catalase

CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

CELLS

The Cell Theory states that: All living things are made of cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; all cells come from
preexisting cells.

Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells

Lysosome
Chloroplasts

Mitochondria

Types of Cells
Single celled, very small, do not
have organelles
Can be multicellular, large,
contain organelles

Bacteria are prokaryotic cells

Yeast, humans, plants, algae, insects, birds,
etc.

Cell Organelles / Parts

Breaks down worn out cellular parts into
monomers
Collect energy from the sun and converts
it to chemical energy (sugars)
Creates energy for the cell by converting
sugars into ATP.

Contains enzymes that help it break

things down
Does this through photosynthesis. Only
exists in photosynthetic organisms
(plants).
This is called cellular respiration.

Nucleus

Ribosome
Endoplasmic Reticulum
(ER)
Golgi Apparatus
Vacuole
Cell membrane

Cytoskeleton
Cytoplasm
Cell wall
Centrioles

Controls what goes on inside the cell

because it contains the organisms genetic
code.
Makes proteins coded for by mRNA that
the organism needs.
Folds the newly made protein into the
correct conformation.
Packages, sorts and ships the proteins to
where they are needed.
Stores water and nutrients for the cell
Controls what enters and exits the cell

DNA and RNA are made here.

Ribosomes are free or attached to the

ER.
Sends proteins via vesicles to the Golgi

Large central vacuole in plants

Major cell part that is involved in cellular
transport. Made of phospholipids and
proteins.

Supports the shape of the cell

Everything within the cell except the
nucleus
Provides support to the organism.

Made of carbohydrates; only found in

plants.
Organize the spindle fibers associated with Not found in plants
Mitosis and Meiosis

CELL TRANSPORT

Ions and molecules need to move in and out of the cells for normal cellular function of the organism.
Movement of water and materials in and out of cells helps an organism maintain homeostasis.

Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated
Transport
Active Transport
Homeostasis

Movement of molecules from a high concentration to

a low concentration
Movement of water from a high concentration to a
lower concentration across a membrane
Movement of molecules from a high concentration to
a lower concentration across the cell membrane.
Movement of molecules from a low concentration to
a higher concentration across the cell membrane.
Cells maintaining an equilibrium that is optimal for life.

No energy required
No energy required; water and
membrane required.
No energy required; uses a transport
protein
Requires energy and a transport
protein.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS & CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Photosynthesis

Reactants
CO2 + water + sunlight

O2 + sugar

Cellular respiration

O2 + sugar

CO2 + water + Energy (ATP)

Anaerobic cellular
respiration
Autotroph

Sugar

Energy + CO2 + lactic acid (humans)

Energy + CO2 + alcohol (yeast)
Makes its own food through

Organism that makes

Products
Occurs in the
chloroplast
Occurs in the
mitochondria
Occurs in the cytoplasm
when O2 is absent
Plants, trees, algae, etc

its own food

Organism that cannot
make its own food

Heterotroph

photosynthesis
Gets food from by eating other
heterotrophs, or eating autotrophs.

Animals, insects, fish,

birds, etc.

CELL DIVISION

The cell cycle consists of Interphase, Mitosis & Cytokinesis

DNA duplicates itself in Interphase.

Where does it occur?

What is its purpose?

What are the phases?

What is the end result?

How many cell divisions are
there?

Mitosis
Body cells
Repair damaged cells; growth of the
organism; replace old/worn-out
cells.
Prophase; metaphase; anaphase;
telophase.
2 identical Diploid cells
1 cell division

Meiosis
Sex Cells
Creates gametes (egg & sperm)

Prophase I; metaphase I; anaphase I;

telophase I; prophase II; metaphase II;
anaphase II; telophase II
4 different Haploid cells.
2 cell divisions

Cross over occurs in prophase I

Diploid: 2 sets of chromosomes (paired)
Haploid: 1 set of chromosomes
Crossover: A gene swap between homologous chromosomes. Occurs only in Prophase I of Meiosis. This
increases the genetic variability of the gametes.

GENETICS
DNA Replication, Transcription & Translation

Name
Size
Shape
Bases
Sugar
Molecule
Monomer

Process
Replication

DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
GINORMOUS
Double helix Double stranded
Adenine Thymine
Cytosine Guanine
Deoxyribose
Nucleic Acid
Nucleotide

What does it do?

Makes a duplicate copy of DNA

Transcription Makes an mRNA copy of a

protein code from the DNA.
Translation
Converts the mRNA code into
Proteins

RNA
Ribonucleic Acid
Small
Single stranded
Adenine Uracil
Cytosine Guanine
Ribose
Nucleic Acid
Nucleotide

Where does it occur?

Nucleus
Nucleus
Ribosomes

DNA unzipped with Helicase, and

assembled with DNA polymerase
mRNA is assembled by RNA
polymerase
tRNA brings an amino acid to the
codons of the mRNA.

mRNA Made from a DNA template and contains the codons that code for amino acids.
tRNA Carries individual amino acids to a growing protein chain.
Codons 3 nucleotide code that codes for amino acids for protein production

REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction
Male and female involved. Male fertilizes female egg
with his sperm.
Results in a genetic combination of each parent.
Mom and Dad.
Performed by most eukaryotes
Increases genetic variability in the species as a whole,
and in turn increases their chance of survival.

Segregation
Independent
assortment

Homozygous
Heterozygous
Dominant
Recessive

Co-dominant

Asexual Reproduction
One parent. No fertilization required.
Results in an identical clone of the parent. (MITOSIS)
Performed by all prokaryotes and some eukaryotes
Not a lot of genetic variability. They all have the same
traits, thus all have the same weaknesses
Reproduce very quickly.
Mutation is the only source of genetic variation.

Genetics Vocabulary
The separation of alleles during gamete
formation
When making gametes the genes are
independently separated because the
chromosomes are randomly aligned and
separated.
When 2 alleles are identical
When 2 alleles are different. One is recessive,
one is dominant.
Strongest allele. Represented by a capital
letter.
Weakest allele. Represented by a lower case
letter. Expression of recessive traits only
happens when 2 recessive alleles are present.
Both alleles are dominant.

Incomplete dominant

One allele is not complete dominant over

another.

Sex-linked

A gene is attached to either the X

chromosome or the Y chromosome.

Alleles

Phenotype

It is a different form of a gene. Can be

dominant or recessive, or sex linked. They are
gene codes in your DNA.
A characteristic that you can inherit from your
parents.
Physical characteristics of an organism.

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an organism.

Traits

Allows your gametes to be haploid.

(NOT in pairs)
Each gamete is then genetically very
different from one another.
Increases genetic variability for a
species.
Ex: BB or bb
Ex. Bb
B
bb

Results in a trait where both

dominant traits are visible.
Results in a blending of the 2
dominate traits. A middle ground is
reached.
Affects males more than females,
and Y-linked traits cannot affect
females because they do not have a
Y chromosome.
An organism gets one allele from
mom, and one allele from dad.
Traits are coded for by alleles.
Alleles are gene codes in your DNA.
What the organism looks like based
on its genotype.
Which alleles it has for its
traits/phenotype.

Evolution
Vocab Word
Evolution

Artificial selection

Definition
Change in an organism over time; process by which
modern organisms descended from ancient organisms.
Takes a REALLY LONG TIME!
Humans selecting for traits in certain organisms.

Natural Selection

Selection of certain traits is performed by nature.

Mutations

A random mistake in the DNA

Adaption

Something that occurs from a mutation in the DNA that

can be advantages to the species over time when
natural selection selects for it.

Common decent
Fitness

We all originated from one single cell 4.1 billion years ago
Evolutionary fitness means you have passed on your
You exist in your DNA that you have
DNA, you have made babies.
passed on to your offspring and
they have passed on to theirs.

Fossils

Comparative
Anatomy

Lines of Evidence Supporting Evolution

Can be carbon dated to show approximate time. Can
also be compared to each other and modern organisms
to see how related they may be based on physical
structures
Looking at the anatomy of modern organisms, and/or
ancient organisms to find the similarities.

DNA comparisons

Comparing actually gene sequences in different species

to see how closely related they are.

Embryology

Compares fetuses of growing animals to compare their

development between species.
Organs and/or body parts that have no use for an
organism. They may have had a use in an ancient
ancestor.

Vestigial
Structures

Examples
We all originated from one single
cell from 4.1 billion years ago.
GMOs, Dog breeds, farm animals,
etc.
Predators, environmental changes,
natural disasters, etc.
Leads to a species developing a
different trait over time.
Mutation of a mouses coat color
randomly occurs, but becomes
beneficial if its coat color is similar
to the color of its habitat.

Many species and in between

species can be seen by examining
fossils.
Whales have metacarpals in their
fins the same way hippos have
metacarpals in their feet.
The more nucleotide sequences
they have in common, the more
closely related they are.

Wisdom teeth, arrector pili

muscles, appendix.

Ultimate Biology Study Guide Extra Credit