‘Mathematical Pedagogy: An Historical Perspective Frank Swetz The Pennsylvania State University Introduction (Old mathematical texts can tell us many things. Certainly they provide information on the development of mathemat- ical knowledge and procedures. the uses of mathematics, and the types of problems that were important to our fore- bearers, They provide insights into the culture and times within which they were writen and give us hints as to the forces that shaped and controlled mathematical concems. But if we look beyond the mathematics itself, and attempt to discem the author's intentions. “What is he attempting to teach?", “How is he doing it?", a perspective of early ‘mathematical pedagogy emerges. ‘An examination and analysis of didactical trends in historieal material can take place along several lines 1. The organization of material: the sequential ordering ‘of topics and specific problems, ‘The use of an instructional discourse and techniques of motivation contained within the discourse. 3. A.use of visual aids: diagrams. illustrations and colors, to assist in the grasping of concepts on the part of the learner, 4. The employment of tactile aids. either directly or by reference, to clarify a mathematical concept. It is impossible, in a limited discussion of this nature. 10 consider all of these aspects in some historical depth. but | would like to survey a few examples of pedagozic prac tices evident in old texts. Hopefully. other researchers will pursue more detailed investigations The Organization and Format of Mathematical Presentations “The teaching of mathematics has a structure that proceeds from the simple tothe complex from the concrete to the ab- stract, For example. contemporary school ehildren are intro- ‘duced io the natural numbers before they encounter the con cept of integers: simple fractions before rational numbers: geomeric proofs involving triangles before those consier- ing circles and citeular relations and s0 on. Tt appears that authors of mathematical texts have always followed such a scheme. British Museum cuneiform tablet 15285 trom the Od Babylonian period (1800-1600 BCE) contains a series of geometrical diagrams. Each diagram presents a problem 9 its viewer I is belived that this tablet orginally con- tained over 40 systematically arranged exercise problems; however, only 30 are wholly or partially preserved.” These problems are reminiscent of present-lay geo- or peg-board exercises. Early Assyriolossts who studied the tablet and its contents were confused as to its purpose. Initially it uw12 Using Histry to Teach Mathematis: An International Perspective ‘was described as a surveyors manual: however, later intr: preters determined that itis a series of exercises for math- ematical scribes.* Each problem involves & square whose side measures 1 US. and each scuare is partitioned into smaller regions by the use of straight lines and cireular arcs ‘The partitioning is accomplished by the use of equal and symmetric divisions of the area. Accompanying text enu: rmerates the resulting regions and refers to them by name, Students are requested “to put down” or “draw” and “to touch” the regions in question, Whether this latter direction refers to the physical sense of touch, urging a multi-sensual approach to problem solving. or merely indicates an intel- lectual “touch” ie. think about. is open to speculation ‘Much of the Babylonian shape-designating terminol- ogy is readily translatable into familiar figures: thus the tablet's author speaks of squares. rectangles and circles Dut other terms describe “double bows”, “ox eyes” and “deep-going boats” and require the use of a modern reader's ‘imagination, One particular class of regions known (0 the Babylonians as abusamikku is especially interesting (Fig- ure Le}. A modem viewer might describe them as concave ‘equilateral tangles or squares bounded by the tangents of three or four congruent circles. Finding the area of such re> ‘gions makes its historical debut as a problem in BM 15285. Later consideration of these concave regions would appear in the works of Heron of Alexandria (c. 75 CE) and the In- dian mathematician Mahavira (e. $50). The tablet's student user is required to find the area of a specific region within cach square (my black shadings in Figure 1). Geometric inition and problem solving skills are challenged. The problems are seauenced from the simple to the complex and a student-leamer must work his way through prerequi- site problems before the later. more complex. problems can be solved. It appears evident that the author of the tablet sequenced these problems in a pedagogically purposeful Iris also evident in the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus of 1650 BCE that a series of problems has been arranged in a controlled order to facilitate learning. Problems 41-60 of the Chace translation concern geometry! Computations of volume are required (problems 41—46); area calculations follow problems 48-3); finally. problems 56-60 require the application of triangle knowledge in work with pyra- ‘mids, Just as children interact with three-dimensional solids before they appreciate the geometrical properties of plane shapes. the author of the Rhind problems has his scribes consider simple problems of volume before they attempt ‘more intricate calculations involving triangles and applica tions of triangles. Leaming/Solution Sequence Earlier problem -> latter problem ~ Be a) inscribed triangle b) ox eye! LAVA a INZNZ) “concave square” (abusamikki) LAVAY NZNZ Indicates chipped or damaged tablet surface Bh creates FIGURE 1 Old Babylonian Geomeuy ProblemsPethaps the most comprehensive collection of prob- tems from the ancient worl, in terms of both scope and mathematical content. isthe Juhang suansiu [Nine Chap- {ers of the Mathematical ar] (¢. 100 CE) from Han China “The Jiuchang is comprised of 246 problems divided into nine chapters according to ther methods and applications. In each chapter the sequencing of problems carefully pro- esses from the basic. demonstrating the principles 19 be learned or techniques to be mastered 1 the theoretical and complex, were problem solving strategies are sharpened ‘A pedagogical analysis has already been undertaken on the contents ofthe ninth chapter conceming right triangles Letus briefly examine the organization of the eighth chap- ter, entitled fang cheng (square tabulation), which teaches methods of solution for systems of simultaneous equations. ‘The “squafe tabulation” method involves the use of algo sithmic cohputing rod techniques and parallels what today is known ag the method of "Gaussian Elimination”. OF the eighteen problems ofthis chapter cigh (problems 2. 4-6, 9-11) involved two equation in two unknowns Sx (Ob lems 1.3.8, 12.15.16) concer three equations in three un iow, and two (4. 17) four equations in four unknowns. Problem 13 involves five equations in six unknowns—an Mathematical Pedagogy: An Histo Perspective 13 indeterminate situation.® and the last problem (18) has five equations in five unknowns. Note how the complexity of the situation is gradually increased throughout the sequence until eventually the student is introduced to an indetermi- nate situation, Use of Visual Aids: A Chinese Example ‘The mathemati I classies of ancient China contain many pedagogical features that are recently being recognized, ‘Commentaries on the Zhoubi swanjing [Mathematical clas- sic of the Zhou gnomon] (c. 100 BCE) contain one of the first documented proofs of the “Pythagorean theorem" I's ian thu diagram employs the use of 3-1-5 right triangles, 1 superimposed grid network, and colors (red and yellow) {o assist in its dissection proof strategy. Liu Hui (c. 263). one of the great mathematical cor ‘mentators and mathematicians of old China, urged his read- cers to make diagrams on paper and to cut and rearrange the pieces in order to justify mathematical statements. For the Chinese, paper cutting and folding was a readily accepted \ aap a FIGURE R Y RED = YELLOW— FIGURE 3 2—— I method of mathematical demonstration." A further illus- tration of this technique is provided by Liu’s algebraic- geometric justification of a solution formula for the six- teenth problem of the Jiushane’s ninth chapter. where the reader is asked to find the diameter of the largest circle that could be inseribed in a right triangle of given dimen- sions. Using modern notation, let the length of the legs of the triangle be given by A and B. the hypotenuse by C and the unknown diameter of the circle by D. Liu con- ceived of the right tangle as being one half of a rectangle fof area AB. He used two such rectangles partitioned into sets of congruent right triangles and squares. then cut and rearranged the pieces to obtain a visual statement ofthe re- lationships of the unknowns. Liu's diag-ams demonstrated D=2AB/\A+ BC), the correct result. ‘The manipulation of plane rectilinear shapes to con- firm algebraic relations conforms to an ancient Chinese methodology of the “out-in complementary principle."* “This form of visual mathematical thinking is also employed. in early Babylonian and Greek works. The puzzle-game of Tangrams, which is operationally similar, originated in China. An interesting question arises. “Were there peda- ogical designs in the conception and use of Chinese tan- Visual Aids and the Printed Image When the first printed edition of Euclid's Elements ap- peared in Europe in 1480, it attracted much attention not only for its contents but also for its visual impact, particu larly its prolific use of diagrams and illustrations.® With the advent of printing, books moved from the realm of being passive repositories of information to becoming vehicles for active learning, In the transition to the geometry book, ry to Teach Mathematics: An International Perspective the geometric diagram became firmly implanted as @ ped agogical tool. As the printer's art developed so too did the complexity and scope of illustrations. diagrams and collec- tions of mathematical exercises for the readers themselves to solve. ‘Almost a century later (1570) when the first English language version of Euclid was published in London, it ‘was obvious that the book was composed with the learning needs of the reader firmly in mind." In his preface 10 the reader, Henry Billingsley: its author. comments on the feature Whereunto I have added easy and plain decla- ration and examples by figures, or definitions. In which book also you shall in due place find ‘manifold additions, Scholia. Annotations. and In ventions: which I have gathered out of many of the most famous and chief mathematicians, both of old time, and in our age: as by diligent read ing it in course, you shall well perceive, The fruit and gain whieh I require for these my pains and travail, shall be nothing else, but only that you ‘gentle reader. will gratefully accept the same: and that you may thereby receive some profit and moreover to excite and stir up other learned, to do the like, and to take pains in that bebalf."™ ‘The volume abounds with diagrams and explanatory notes and includes folded paper pop-up figures. These three dimensional solids allow the reader to interact with the polyhedra discussed, Thomas Heath in his review of the ‘book noted: ‘The print and appearance of the book are worthy of its contents: and. in order that it may be un= derstood how no pains were spared to represent ‘everything in the clearest and most perfect form, | need only mention that the figures of the propo- sition in Book XI are nearly all duplicated, one being the figure of Euclid, the other an arrange: ‘ment of pieces of paper (triangular rectangular, fete.) pasted at the edges on to the page of the book so that the pieces can be tumed up and ‘made to show the real form of the solid figures represented.!? ‘A copy of Billingsley’s geometry housed at the Prinee~ ton University Library still contains 38 operational pop-up ‘models. Originally, the volume contained more: how many more is not clear. Since Billingsley makes no special men tion of these models in his preface. it ean be assumed that such mathematical teaching aids were known and used in sixteenth century England."Colors were also effectively used as a visual and dis criminatory aid in later British geometry texts as explained in the title of Oliver Byme’s 1847 book. The First Six Books of the elements of Euclid in witich Coloured Di- agrams and Symbols are Used Instead of leters for the Greater Ease of the Learner. In his text Byme employed the colors of red, yellow, blue and black. Using these col- ors, he visually coded the geometric elements under con- sideration and placed the colors systematically throvghout his discussion and proofs. For example, wien he states the Pythagorean theorem, a right tiangle is depicted with a red hypotenuse and blue and yellow legs. When he men- tions the hypotenuse, a red line is shown: similarly, blue ‘and yellow lines in the text represent legs of the triangle, ‘An accompanping illustration then shows the squares con- structed on thf sides of the triangle: a zed square. a blue square and a yellow square. Byrne's book has been de- seribed as “one of the oddest and most beautiful of the whole {nineteenth} century." Its use of color in teaching mathematics was revolutionary. Mathematical authors of the early European Renais- sance were truly imaginative in their use of picturesque schemes 10 import to their readers the techniques of sl- ‘sorithmic computation employing “Hindu-Arabic™ numet- als. Pacioli (1494) offered his audience eight different schematic techniques to obtain the product of two multi- digit numbers.4> Multiplication of two wo-digit numbers could easily be accomplished per crocerta or “by the cross.” ‘The computation to multiply 32 by 57 was done mentally and goes as follows: 27 = 14: write down the four retin the one: “by the cross” (3x T)+(5 x2) +1 = 3262 write the two retain the three: (5 = 3)+3=15+3= 18, swrite it down, Thus, the product is 1824 product 1824 An increase in the number of digits and the result- ing increase of partial products often caused place value confusion. To help remedy this situation. numerical con- figurations were devised to assist in ordering the partial products. These configurations were associated with com- mon objects. In a sense they became visual algorithms. Now a probiem suiver cout ra cation could obtain a correct product with the aid of "the title castle,” per castellucia, “by the chalice." per coppa or “by the bell.” per campana.*® The following example of finding a product of two three-digit numbers illustrates the benefits of employing a visual algorithm. (To under- Mathematical Pedagogy: An Historical Perspective 15. stand the processes better. the reader should attempt fo re- Construct the partial products for the original information sive): Cross multiplication ‘with three digsts by the bell” 3 6 aa! 4 14 ° Lo vs re7i2 4 Such mnemonic devices had pedagogical designs. Conclusion Mathematical pedagogy. that is a conscious. organized ap- proach to imparting mathematical processes and concepts to 8 leamer, has a long and multifaceted history. It appears that from earliest times mathematical teacher-authors were devising techniques to facilitate the understanding of their discipline—to make mathematics learning easier. By em- ploying diagrams. using color and tactile and visual aids, they incorporated the leamer’s senses of sight and touch into the processes of understanding and inereased the re ceptive dimensions of learning. Concrete operational teac ing is not a product of the twentieth century! Also obvious in old mathematical texts is 2 purposeful and sequential ordering of topics and problems allowing the students to construct their own edifice of understanding. As heirs and perpetuators of ths history, we should be both mindful and ‘proud of the traditions of associating good pedagogy with mathematics learning and teaching. Endnotes ‘The author is indebted to Toran Friberg of the University of Gothenburg ior sharing nis impressions of tis tablet un Sts content with me. For more specific information on this tablet see. H.W. Saggs. “A Babylonian Geometric Text.” Revue Pasryrgiogic er d archeologic oriental (1960) 34: 131-143, 2 See CJ. Gadd, “Forms and colours” and R, Caratini “Quadra- tore du Corte er Quadarures des lanales en Msopotamie”. Revue16 Using History to Teach ta oF oxssriologic et d° archeologic oviemate (1992) 19:148-159: (1957) Si: 11-20 respectively, 5 tn the Babylonian metrology of the period: | US ex + A.B. Chace, The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, Reston. VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 1967 (reprint of 1927-1929 edition, > See FJ. Swetz, “Right Triangle Concepts in Ancient China” History of Science (1993) 31: 421439. A complete translation ofthe ninth chapter is available in FJ. Swetz and TLL. Kao. Was Pytagoras Chinese? an Examination of Right Triangle Theory in Ancient China, University Patk, PA: Pennsylvania State Uni- versity Press. 1977 60 gar "2eubits. where a cubit in contemporary measure is 46-80 There is @ common well belonging to Five families: [if we take) 2 lengths of rope of family . the remaining part equals 1 length of rope of family ¥: the remaining part From 3 ropes of ¥ equals | rope of Z: the remaining part from 4 ropes of Z equals rope of 1°: dhe remaining pan from 5 ropes of V equals 1 rope of C': the remaining part from 6 ropes of €° equals | rope (oF Xf all instances if one ges the mising length of rope. the combined lengths will reach [the water. Find the depth of the well and the lengths of the ropes TFs allowed robe the depth of the well. then the situation wey ew aY +221, AZ4VeW eux * MLK. Siu, "Proof and Pedagogy in Ancient China—Examples from Lui Hul's commentary on Jiuzhang Suanshu", Educarional Studies i Mathematics (1993) 24: 345-387, The Chinese “out-in complementary principle” applies 10 sita- ations involving rectangles and depends onthe fact that the com- plements of rectangles about a diagonal ofa given rectangle are ‘ual in ares. This concept was formalized by Euclid as Proposi- ‘ion 43 in Book If his Elements, See cicussion in Wu Wenchun, “The Outn Complementary Principle” in Ancient Chinese Tech nology and Science. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1983. pp. 66-8, pmatce: An International Perspective © The Johannes Campanus tansltion Preclarssinus liber ele: imentorum Euclides Venice: Ethard Retdot, 1482. For discussion ‘of such texts, see: Charles Thomas-Stanford, Early Editions of Eucld's Elements, London: The Bibliographic Society. 1926, °© Henry M Billingsley. The Elements of Geomerrie of the Most Ancient Philosopher Euclide of Mesara. London: John Day 1870, See R.C. Archibald, “The first Translation of Euclid's Ele ‘ments into English and its Source.” The American Mathematical ‘Monthiy (1980) 57: 443-452 ® Billingsley. op eit, p. 2 of “Translator to Reader” ‘Thomas L. Health, The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements Transiated from the Text of Heiberg, New York: Dover Publ tions. 1956, p. 110 (reprint of 1926 edition 'S Billingsley's pop-up solids appear to be historical fist in book publishing. Mechanical devices, that is, movable pans in corporate into illustrations. appeared in texis as early as 1345, Founeenth century anatomical books conttined illustrations with layers of superimposed plates that when lifted revealed interior Pans of the body and movable wheels or “volvelles” appeared in fortune-telling books and in material on secret codes. Historians ‘of book design have ignored Bilinsleys innovation. Peter Hai ing in his Movable Books: An Hlustrared History. London: New English Library. 1979 claims there were no movable books before 1700, see also, Edwina Evers, "A Historical Survey of Movable Books.” AB Bookman’'s Weekly (August, 1985) 76: 1204-1205, Russi MeLeun, Vietrian Book Design and Colour Printing, New York: 1963. p. /1 25 ‘The techniques Pacioli discusses are: Per seacheri, Venetian foe tsselated Castlluco, Florine for “ile caste” A Travelena oper colona. by the table or column. Per quadrilnero, by the quadrilateral Per cracetta or cazella, by the cross or pigeonhole. Per eelosia 0¢sraricola, method of cells er repieeo, method of decomposition of factors, ‘A scapesca. disinbuiing, separating. and multiplying by the pans, For further information on these techniques see: Frank Swetz Capitalism: and Arihmetic: The New Math ofthe [Sth Century La Salle, IL: Open Coun 1987, °© For information on these various visual algorithms see D.E Smith. History of Mathematics. New York: Dover Publications. 1958, 2: 101-128 tteprint of 1923 edition)