Flo-=6;T*

Z2
i
!

THEN[tl!ODYl\lA[tl|IOS

HIPOLITO B. STA. MARIA

COIVTENTS
vii

Preface

Chapter
1 Basic Principles, Concepts and Defrnitions

Mass, Werght, Specilc Volume and Density; Spe-

- Weight, Pressule,
cific
Conservation of Mass.

Conservation of

Energy

Zg

Potential E_1ergy, Kiletic Energy, Internal Energy,

$eat, Work, Flow Work, Enthalpy, General EnergT
Equation.

3 , The Ideal Gas 87

Constant, Specific Heats of an tddal Gas.

Processes of

Ideal Gas

5f

Isometric Process, Isobaric process, Isothermal

Process, Isentropic Process, polytropic

Gas

do""sr.

Cycles 81

Camot Cycle, Three-process Cycle.

Internal Combustion Engines gg

Otto Cycle, Diesel Cycle, Dual Combustion Cycle.

Gas Compressors

ll5

Single-Stage Con pression, Twestage Compression,

Three-Stage Compression.

Brayton Cycle 16l

PREEACE
The purpose of this text is to present a simple yet rigorous
approach to the fundamentals of thermodynamics. The author
expects to help the engineering students in such a way that
learning would be easy and effective, and praetical enough for
workshop practice and understanding.

Chapters 1 and 2 present the development of the first la'ar

of thermodynamics, and energy analysis of ope:r systems
Jhapters 3 and 4 give a presentatign of equation of state and
involvingideal gases. The second law of thermodynamics andits applications to different thermodynamic cycles
are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. Chapter ? deals with gas
compressors andits operation. Chapter 8 develops the Brayton
eycle which can be omitted if sufficient time is not available.
;he process

The author is grateful for the comments and suggestions

received from his colleagues at the University of Santo Tomas,
Faculty of Engineering.

The Author

vll

1
I

Basic Ppq"iples, Concepts

and Definitions

Thermodynamics is that branch of the physical sciences

that treats of various phenomena of energ-Jr and the related

properties ofmatter, especially of the laws of transformation of

heat into other forrns of energy and vice versa.

Systems of Units
Newton's law states that 'the aceeleration of a particular

body is directly proportional to the resultantforce acting on

and inversely proportional to its mass.o

"-

hE, F= D8,
m
k

it

k =+F

k is a proportionality constant
Systenns of units where k is unity but not dimensionless:
cgs system: I dyne forcre accelerates 1 g mass at
1 cm,/s2

mks system: 1 newton force accelerates

kg mass at

m./sz

fps system: 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at

Nsz

l--t;]*ldyne I t -* i*l newton [T,,'*-l-'r,0"

/777r/7mrV /7furm,h n77v77v?rrvr
1 cm./s2 _+
1m/s2
1&,/sz
t=r,4'cm-cyne.s"

o=t#;p

Systems of units where k is not unity:

k=rw

47
If the same word is used for both mass and force in a given
system, k is neither unity nor dimensionless.
1 Ib force acceierates a I lb mass at 32.L74 fVs2
1 g force accelerates a I g mass at 980.66 cm/s2
L kg force accelerates a 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2

f-.,.-f*

,0, l- t ,. l-.

d7mzm'V /72zv7m77

[-t u*.

f-,

rz.tllthP

1 poundal = (1 lb_) (1 fVs2)

F is force in poundals

a is acceleration

[T**

l*
/7V7V7mV ',0,

k = e80.66-*F k = e.80668#

L fVs2 --------+
.U

=r-8.
l(

ks .m

k=1k#

k = e.8066
Ets"

k#

= e.8066

1 pound = (1 slug) (1 fvsz); 1 slug

H#

is -ass in slugs
a is acceleration in

k= 32.r74ffi

t*5& = 82.r74ffi
L

The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it.

The weight o,f a body means the force of gravity F, on the
lrody.

Acceleration
A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a
body of unit mass.

:.._l

poundal

fl;/s2

mFF"
k =t=g-

slug = 32.L74Lb

s2

Mass and lVeight

where

I
I

-lr-

S
K

Relation between pound psss (lb-) and slug

k=1#

= 1 lb"

F is force in pounds

1kg"= 9.8066 N

Therefore,

in ftls2

--'-+

Relation between kilogram force (kgr) and Newton (N)

Therefore, t

tr mass in pounds

nr'

/7V7v77v77v7

32.L74 fVsz----+ 980.66 cm"/s2 -------> 9.8066 mlsz

k=

r=f,a

fvs2

--)

AL or

g
a

= acceleration produced by force F*

= acceleration produced by another force F

near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically

,.r1rr:rl, so are m and

F-

1(
Problcms:

lb

tion?

m=66k9-

F"ok Fto.lF'
mo=-?-=
Bosg_.-

2. The weight of an object is 50 lb. What is its mass at

standard condition?

= (o

Total

ro,r"er

mass

Solution

r rb!rf-

FK

* =d-=

Fo

32.L74

ft
P

So lb_

3.Fivemassesinaregionwheretheaceelerationdueto
grr"itv i. 30. 5 fVs2 are as follo**t m, is- 500 g of masq rq, y^eighs
[oo eim, weighs 15 poundals; mo weight-g.lli mu is 0'10 slug
;i *]',r. trnuf iu theiotal mass expressed (a) in grams, 16) in
pounds, and (c) in slugs.

(t') Total mass

in/ft)

(2.54 cm/in) = 929'64 cmls2

e2e.64

= 843.91

g;

"f*J

rtrJ

= 1435.49 g-

= 1459.41 g,"

9'83

g^

= g.EB lb-

ils
]!-o'

32.174;ifis

= 0.306 slug

that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level

rr s = 32.088 fpsz and that its variation is - 0.003 fps2 per 1000
(a)
l't, :rscent. Find the height in miles above this point for which
llr:, gravity acceleration becomes 30.504 fps2, (b) the weight of
,r lsivcn man is decreased by \Vo. (c) What is the weight of a 180
I r,,, rn an atop the 29,131-ft, Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to this
I

,\til

rr

L'?

tr

tion

(;r ) change

F't [roo4frro.uuM

g,,,

4. Note

por

Solu,tion
g = (30.5 fVsz) (12

= 222.26

= mr + m2 + na + m4 + m5
= 500 + 843.91 +222.26 + 1435.49 + 1459.41
= 446t.07 g^

453.6

lb.rrl

fztz+14s'j

fz.rt- U|nu-r

(b) Total mass = 446L.0J

g= 32.L74ftlsz

F, = 5o lbr

^"J

t*tfufl

= 9.8066 m/s2

'L

Bo.b+

Solution

(a) mz =

.ft

--'l- J
ls-PI,l
S'=
0.4e tu.ll+se.o#-l
=l
K s

l.Whatistheweightofa66-kg-manatstandardcondi-

in acceleration = 30.504 - 32.088

p:; = 528,000 ft or
llcight, h = - I lP* fps'
0.003
- -T0008

1.584 fps2

100 miles

+T
(b) F = 0.9b Fg

-t

Specifrc Volume, Density and Specifrc Weight

Let Fg = weight of the man at sea level

.a

FF=
-ag
0.95 F" F"
a =g

The density p of any substance is its mass (not weight) per

unit volume.

____q

h
I

rl=D
rv

a = 0.959 = (0.95) (32.088) = 30.484 fps2

-L 'Fg

The specific volume v is the volume of a unit mass.

g = 32.088 fps2

" --

t.,

lt

(30.484

- 32'088) fps'z= b34,6z0 ft or tOt.B miles

o.oosTS;r
_

-Tmorr

,vF

g=

29.1.31

Tk orY ='fr
os
P='g

r_.6 F8

g = 32.088 fps2
m = 1801ba = 32.088 fps'

=T-=

Since the specific weight is to the local acceleration of

gravity as the density is to the standard acceleration,Tlg= pk,
conversion is easily made;

ft

ma

V1

mp

The specificweightTof any substance is the force of gravity

on unit volume.

(c)

----

rIto

1"1 {}l

fTdriil [0'003

tlso lb-l

At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically

cqual, so are p and y

-1

fpsz] = 32'001 fpsz

pz.oor&l

#=179.03
32.174F"1T"

Problems
r

_^ ^^ lbr
,,

1.

What is the specific weight of,water at standard condi.

tion?

Stilution
g = 9.8066 m/sz

*_pg
I- E--

kg_
P = 1000 n5.

[*,SE**d
e.8066ffi#

kgF

= looo mo

ry
Pressure

densities (p, = 1500 kg/m3,Pzi^

500 kg/m3) are poured together into a 100-L tank, frlling it' If
the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/mt, frnd the
respective quantities of liquids used. Also, find the weight of
the mixture; Iocal g = 9.675 mps2.

2. Two Iiquids of different

The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mm

Hg or 29.92 in. Hg at 32"F, or 1"4.696 psia, or 1 atm.

Measuring Pressure

Solution

1.

mass of mixture, mm = pmvm = (800 kg/m3) (0'100 m3) = 80

kg

By using manometers

(a) Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure.

mt+m2=mm

po

PrVt+PrV,=D-

q = 80
V, + V, = 0'100

1500 Vr + 500

p =
Po =
D
'lt p" =
'
I

(r)
Q)

solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously

Vt = 0'03

p =

absolute pressure
atmospheric pressure
gage pressure, the pressure due to the liquid
column h
Po+Pg

mg

(b) Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure

Ve = 0'07 m3

m, = P,Vr = (1500 kg/m3) (0.03 m3) = 45kg

mr= prY2= (500 kglm3) (0.07

m3) = 35

P=Po-P,

kg

The gage reading is called

vacuum pressum or the vacuum.

weight of mixture,

re-=x"=@

e.8066*#

=?8.esksr

ll"y using pressure gages

A Jrrt:ssure gage is a device for

pressure,

rilr,,1||llr rt ng gage

'l'lrin picture shows the

rrr,vr.rn(.1)t, in one type
!, I r r

. l::ll{(',

ofpres-

nown as the single-

'l'hc f'luid enters the

lnlrr, llrrrrrrglr t,lrc thrcnded
,
',,rur.r'lrorr. A$ t.hc prOssur:e
I

rr

lrr.

p1i

r13..

Fig. 1 Pressure Gage

ry_
increases, the tube with an elliptical section tends to straighten,
the end that is nearest the linkage toward the right. The linkage causes the sector to rotate. The sector engages a small
pinion gear. The index hand moves with the pinion gear. The
whole mechanism is of course enclosed in a case, and a gpaduated dial, from which the pressure is read, and is placed under
the index hand.

Solution

["*S

pr=*#= FuuS
', kg-'4
' N.sz

(30 m)

= b48,680 N/mz or b43.6g pps(gage)

(p=po+p")
+Pt

Atmospheric Pressure

,=O,P=Po)

-P,

A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

(p=p"-pr)

Absolutet Pressure

(p=0,Pr=P")
Gage Pressure
po

--T--ps

P=Po+Pg

_ F" 1V yAhPr=*-A-=:6l
P, = Tb,

=ry'=*

Problem

A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density 1878 kg/ms) is

located where g = 9.65 mps2. Find the pressure at the base of the
column.

IO

P.=Y\
Where ho = the height of column of liquid supportedby atmospheric pressure {

l)roblems

1. A vertical column of water will be supported to what

lrcight by standard atmospheric pressure.

Absolute Pressure

Solution
P=Th

At standard condition

yh"-* h = ho * hr, the height of column of liquid supported

-by absolute
pressure p.

\* = 62'4lblfts Po = 14'7 Psi

;-l
T ..-rr
lu.z
*l
lt++'#l
,t'= p,, - L----:n!-!_--!t"! = 33.9 ft

t;

If the liquid used in the barometer is mercury, the atmospheric pressure beconoes,
= THshs = (sp S)H, (T*) (h")

P"

62.4Y
-'- ft3

trg.ol

Thespecificgravity(*pg')ofasubstanceistheratioofthe
spccifrc weight of the substance to that of water'

Fz.+

H rL'" i',1

1728H

^{

sps=T
po = 0.491
is 9.5 kg/cm2. The}arometric
pressure of the atmosphere is 768mm of Hg. Find the absolute
p".*r,r"* in the boiler. (ME Board Problem - Oct' 1987)

2, The pressure of a boiler

where

then, ps
= 9'5

kg/cm3

ho = 768 mm

Hg

l4

ho = column of mercury in inches

Solution
Pg

h"

and,

= 0.491 n-

=0.491 hP-=
ln."

At standard condition
T* = 1000

po

l)roblems

kdmt

l. A pressure gage regrsters 40 psig in a region where the

l,irrometer is 14.5 psia. Find the absolute pressure in psia, and
'rr kPa.

(ynr) (h") = (sp gr) nr(T*) (h")

(13.6)

Fooo

10.000
'm'

to.?68 m)

c!*

_ 1.04

kg
cm-E

Srilution
p = 14.5 + 40 = 54.5 psia

= po

* p, = 1.04 + 9.5 = 10.54#

t-t k-+'r newton

/Tnvrnh

a=

l2

[ , "[-ft,

,0,

/vTTvvmmiV

m./sz

a=1fUs2

1Tlkgn

1+

-tE KgJ P.

Solution
= 0.06853 slug

(a)p =
Pr=

= FS][tr'fl =8.28$

Po

* Ps = 14.7 + 80 = 94.7 Psia

ao

Ps]L

t7 Psla
r,.
I':t. | --:-

= S.A4atmospheres

af,m

F,lbf
h = 9.92 in. Hg abs
a = 3.28 Nsz

t = ff

lrg = 2o

in.
P = 0.491

h"= Z9.tilt".
= (0.06863 slug)

[.za {l=

llth' -1f-

o.zzas tb,

$..

(0.491) (9.92) = 4.87 psia

newton = 0.2248Ib"
1.1b"

p8 = 4.7

= 4.4484 newtons

(1rb)

rl4
ln'
114=

ps = (4.7

F**H lrr.ut;]
ln-

osgs\
mo

= 10 psia

(rl)

h =15in.

psi vacuum

esi)

o"_l

l:8e5;-s!

=32,407 Ps(gage)

h = 29.92 + 15 = 44.92 in. Hg abs

= 375,780 Pa or 375.78 kPa

2.

Given the barometric pressure of L4.7 psia (2g.g2 in. Hg

abs), make these conversions:
(a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere,
(b) 20 in. Hg vacuum to in. Hg abg and to psia,
(c) 10 psia to psi vacuum and to Pa,
(d) 15 in. Hg gage to psia, to torrs, and to pa.
(1 atmosphere = 760 torrs)

t4

P, = 0'491 h,

=[r"H F"!F*'H
= 50,780 Pa(gage)

15

.lF
I'empcraturc

It follows that,

1. Derive th. r.l:rtion between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Centigrndo. (FlE Board euestion)

1Fo=1Po
and

100"c

T212.F

*uu

*r".
I0".

tl

,r""

lc.-1K"

t.F -32 _.= t"C-0

212

toF =

toC =

lbb:

Solution

t"C + 32

5( t.F

t.F + 460, degtees Rankine

TK=t"C+z71,Kelvin

Degrees Fahrenheit ("F) and degrees Centigrade ("C)

indicate temperature reading (t). Fahrenheit degrees
iFJ) and
Centigrade degress (C") indicate tempertu""
or differ"h"ogu
ence (At).
180 Fb = 100 C"

1p"-5g"
9

1 C. =!-1l,"
o

Btu
(lb) (r")

Btu - cal
-Ir-IEXD
=IG'(E

32)

, Absolute temperature is the temperature measured from

absolute zero.
Absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which all
molecular motion ceases.
Absolute temperature will be denoted by T, thus
TbR =

2. Show that the specific heat ofa substance in Btu/(lb) (F")

is numerically equal to caV(g)(C").

Conservation of Mass

'l'lr. law of conservation of mass

states rhat

,tr ttr.ltltl.e.
'l'lr,r.

mass is inde-

rluantity of fluid passing through a given section

is

,'r\ r'n t)y fne lOfmUla

V=Au

-: VAu =Aup

III = i__

v v-

Wltcrc V = volume flow rate

A = cross sectional area ofthe stream

l) :, ilvcrage Speed
rir ,., m:rss llow rutc

16

t7

F7---

\t

Applying the law of consewation of mass'

--

\-

ArDrpr =

=-n;

=' *T4=ff =Erf,El

a,E4zftz

tank is receiv(p
ing water
= 62.1 lb/cu ft) at the rate of 300 gpm and is
discharging through a 6-in ID line with a constant speed of 5

\rtrPz

I
I

2. A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height vertical

I
I
I

Problems
Two gaseous stre?ms enter a combining tube and leave
single mi*trrr". These data apply at the entrance section:
as a
-fot
6rr" gur, A'r= 75 in,z, o, = 590 fps,-vt] 10 ft3llb
For the other gas, A, = 59^i1''.:T, = 16'67 }b/s
P" = 0.12lb/ftg
At exit, u.. j 350 fPs, v, = 7 ftaAb'
Find (a) the speed u, at section 2, i- 'd
ft) the flow anii area at the exit section'

1.

Solution

:j:rlil"ffJrr;,'frh'iisfilTil;1lo' I
I

rs,

f___ _

_]=

t__

I l=:-:_-_*--l -l-,
I F'--=- -:-1J tiu'
e""" =-f, (10)2 = 78.54 ftz

tu'",=il'i,=ffi

=4oorps
r\lirrur lr,,w

(b)

mr

Aru,

= --vr

-[.'9!d=2604+
--------r6Tt3=

rate enreri", =

[ffi]

r\t,r'* tuwrateleavins=Aup=

ib
rh, = rh, + rh,
18

= 26.04+ 16'6? = 42'?1+

[rr

fi

= z4so.\

? Bd'F.uo*J F +
ru* S*

Mass change = (3658

volume ch^nge

17'51-l:-!b

Decrcased in height

62.1#

Review Problems

2490.6) (15) = 17,511 lb (decreased)

282

= 3'59

ffi#

Water level after 15 min. = 7.5

1.

ft'

What is the mass in grams and the weight in dynes and

in gram-force of 12 oz of salt? Local gis 9.65 m/s2 1 lb- = 16 oz.
Ans. 340.2 g-;328,300 dynes; 334.8 g,

ft

3'59 = 3'91

ft

2. A mass of 0"10 slug in space is subjected to an external

vertical force of4 lb. Ifthe local gravity acceleration is g = 30.5
fps2 andiffriction effects are neglected, determine the acceleration of the mass if the external vertical force is acting (a)
upward and (b) downward
Ans. (a) 9.5 fps2; (b) 70.5 fps'?
3.

The mass of a given airplane at sea level (g = 32.1 fps2)

is 10 tons. Find its mass in lb, slugs, and kg and its (gravital.ional) weight in lb when it is travelling at a 50,000-ft elevation.
'l'he acceleration of gravity g decreases by 3.33 x 10-6 fpsz for
r,rrch foot of elevation.
Ans. 20,0001b-; 627.62 slugs; 19,850lbr

4. A lunar excursion module (LEM) weights 150[r kg, on

r.rrrth where g = 9.75 mps2. What will be its weight on the
rrrrrface of the moon where B. = 1.70 mpsz. On the surface of the
,noon, what will be the force in kg, and in newtons required to
',,'ttlerate the module at 10 mps2?
Ans. 261.5 kg; 1538.5 kgr; 15,087 N
systenis 0.311 slug, its density is 30
and g is 31.90 fpsz. Find (a) the specific volume, (b) the
(c) the total volume.
"1,,'r'ific weight, and
Ans. (a) 0.0333 ft3Ab; (b) 29.75 lb/ft3; (c) 0.3335 ft3
,l-r. The mass of a fluid

ll,/l'1,:r

{;. A cylindrical drum (2-ft diameter, 3-ft height) is filled

*'rllr :r tluid whose density is 40lb/ft3. Determine (a) the total
,,,lrrrno of fluid, (b) its total mass in pounds and slugs, (c) its
,'1r'r'rlit: volume, and(d) its specific weight where g = 31.90 fps2.
Ans. (a) 9.43 ft'; (b) 377.21b; 11.72 slugs; (c) 0.025 ft3l
lb; (d) 39.661b/ft3.

'i

A wuathcrman carried an aneroid barometer from the

! r "t, ir l llrxrr to tris ofl'icc atop the Sears Towcr in Chicago. On
20

2l

the ground level, the barometer read 30.150 in. F,Ig absolute;
topside it read 28.607 in. Hg absolute. Assume that the average
atmosphdric air density was 0.075 lb/ft3 and estimate the
height of the building.
Ans. 1455 ft

8. A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser reads 0.66 m

Hg.What is the absolute pressure in the condenser in kPa when
the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa?
Ans. 13.28 kPa

9.

Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa absolute, assuming that the barometer reads 760 mm ltrg: (a) 90 cm
Hg gage; (b) 40 cm Hgvacuum; (c) 100 psiS; (d) 8 in. Hg vpcuum,
and (e) 76 in. Hg gage.
Ans. (a) 221..24 kPa; (b) 48 kPa; (c) ?90.83 kPa; (d)
74.219 kPa; (e) 358.591 kPa
10. A fluid moves in a steady flow manner between two
sections in a flow line. At section 1:A, =10 fLz,Dr= 100 fpm, v,
= 4 ft3/lb. At section 2: Ar- 2ft2, pz = 0.201b/f13. Calculate (a)
the mass flow'rate and (b) the speed at section 2.
Ans. (a) 15,000lb/h; (b) 10.42 fps

Consenration of Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy (P)

The gravitational potential energ:y of a body is its energy
due to its position or elevation.

p=Fsz=ry
AP

P,

P, =

ff@r- zr)

AP = change in potential energy

Datum.plane

If a pump

discharges 75 gpm of water whose specifrc

weiglit is 61.5 lb/ft3 (g = 31.95 fpsz), frnd (a) the mass flow rate
11.

in lb/min, and (b) and total time required to fill a vertical

cylinder tank 10 ft, in diameter and 12 ft high.
Ans. (a) 621.2lblmin, (b) 93.97 min

Kinetic EnergT (K)

The energy or stored capacity for performing work pos'
Hrls$ed by a moving body, by virtue of its momentum is called
kinetic energy.

K=#
nK=4-K,=fttoi-ui)
AK = change in kinetic energy

22

23

qT
Internal EnergY (U' u)

Flow lVork (Wr)

Internal energy is energy stored within a body or substance

by virtue of the r"ti.rity an-cl configuration of its molecules and
ol thu vibration of the atoms within the molecules'

Flow work or flow energry is work done in pushing a fluid

across a boundary, usually into or out of uy*L-.

u = speci{ic internal energy (unit

mass)

Au = tlz

- ul

fJ = mu = total internal energy (m mass) AU = Uz

"

13orr

nrll

lr'_

lVr=Fi=pAL

;1=Area of Sur.face

Wr=PV

Ur

Work (W)

l"ig. 3

FIow Worh"

work is the product of the displacement of the body and the

component of the force in the direction of the displacement.
w,r.k is energy in transition; that is, it exists only when a force
is "moving through a distance."

Work of a Nonflow SYstem

Cylinder

---.

The work done as the

piston moves from e to f is

Final Position of Piston

dW=F,d*=(pA)dL-pdv

Piston
At ea = .zl

'"**F

which is the area under the

curve e-f on the pV plane.
Therefore, the total work
done as the pistonmoves from

lto2is

AW, = change in llow work

Ideat (e)

lleal is energ'y in transit (on the move) from one booy or

'::1"11.1'ry1 to another solely because of a temperature difference
I'r'l wr:err the bodies or

systems"

,{,.-.

Classificati.on of Systems
rI
'

l,or r ntlaries.
.\ r | (
system

r'lrr.se

d' system is one in which mass does not cross its

'r,t'n

is one in which mass crosses its bounda-

which is the area under the

curve 1-e-f-2.

Cnnservation of Energy

The area und.er the curue of the prrcess on the pV plnne

rcpresents the work d'one during a nonflow reuersible process.

:. r.ti, I r r'rtlr.tl ttttt't/t,St,nlyeCli l,, f u:,1 l;rw ol'l.lrr:r'modynarnics states

:::i:':. , !tttt \. ltt. (..,ttIt('t.l((1. i.n.l.O U.nOthCf.

nV
Fig. 2

woRK

ot

EXPANSIoN.

Work done by the system is positive (outflow of energy)

Work dnne on the system is negatiue (inflow of energy)
24

u{-_.

t) is poslfiue when heat is added to the body or system.

(l is negatiue when heat is rejected by the body or system.

'
w =Jlndv

AW,=Wr,-Wrr=pr%-FrV,

|1,, l.riv ol r:orrservation of energy states Lhat energy

ls

that one fornt oI

SteadY Flow EnergY Equation

of steady flow system'

Characteristics
-

i. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of mass

within the sYstem'
2. There is neitier accumulation nor diminution of energy
within the sYstem
3. The state of"the working substance at any point'in the
system remains constant'

Problems

t. During a steady flow process, the pressure of the working substance drops from 200 to 20 psia, the speed incneases
from 200 to 1000 fps, the internal energy ofthe opeh system de.
creases 25 Btu/lb, and the specific volume increases ftom I to
8 ftsnb. No heat is transferred. Sketch an energy diagram.
Determine the work per lb. Is it done on or by the substance?
Determine the work in hp for 10lb per *io. (t hp = 42.4Btu/
min).
Solution

peia p, = 20 psia
o, = 200 fps
rlr = 1000 fps
vc=8 ffnb
n vr=lfts/lb
pr = 200

Kl
Fig. 4 Energy Diagram of a Steady Flow System
Energy Entering System = Energy Leaving System

P, + K, + Wr, + U, + Q = Pa*

t-l

W,,

II,

Wl"+ U" + W

Au=-25Btu/lb Q=0

Energy Diagtam

d=l"P+ak+l-wr+aU+W

,F, +

(SteadY Flow Energy Equation)

llrrnis

K, + W' + U,

A,=Pr+

+ W* + U, + W

I lb2

lr"3 ]

EnthalPY (H, h)
fluids
Enthalpy is a composite property applicable to all
and is defined bY

h=u+pv and H=mh=U+PV

The steady flow energy equation becomes

+K'+H'+Q-l;..?J*ril*

fi,
W,,

ffL

,lf = Offiimi=le.e?r+b
l',v,

llr V.l -*

26

= o.8o

E*'ii,lE-Hl
(20) (r44) (8)
=
778

= sz,o2

Bfi

2e.6rff
27

-T'r-(a) Basis

Kr+Wrr=Iq+W,r+Au+W
0.8 + 3?.02 = 19.9? + 29.61

w = 13.24

-25

lb'?n'

K,=S= ,Cffio,,

+W

ff,0t,

,q =*=

t-

lr s24ffi["*il

w:

L-

Wr, = PrVr =

= 3,12 hp

turbine bt 200
2. Steam is supplied to afully loaded 100-hp
ftsAb and u'.=^19'0 fp*'
priu *itft
= 116'bT nl"/lb,"t, ::'1U
"r at r prl" *ilrt * J ozs Btunb, Y,=-29! ft3Ab and
is
Exhaust
-=
turbin is L0
fps.

(1100)2 = Z+.t7 BJu

(778)
rb-

(32.174)

(200) (144) (2.65)

779

tne heat loss from the steam in the

(a) the
"glJu.
enersy change and determine
*o"t p"" tU steam and (b) the steam flnw rate in lb/h'

PzYz=A+#@=s+'z+ff
K, + Wr, + ur + Q- IL + Wo + u, + W

;t.20+ 98.10 + 1163.3 + (-10) =24.L7 + 54.42 + 925 + W

il;;ipor""tiur

w=

Solution
p, = 200 psia

p,

-l

Psia

u, = 400 fPs

--'-- #E

= 98.lC lb_

42.4(mi#)hp)
wrz=

rioo

(z',)

=3'20ff!

(roo

u, = L163.3 Btunb v, = 2'65 ftsnb

u" = 925 Btunb

vr= 294

u, = 1100 fps

Q = -10 Btu/lb

(b) Steam flow =

Eru-l
hp) P544lrr)
trro)

251 Btu

---

fts/l.b

Fl{
251ff

E;

= 1014

:t.

An air compressor (an open system ) receives 272kgper

r r l of air at 99.29 kPa and a specific volume of 0.026 m3/kg. The
nr r" llrws steady through the compressor and is discharged at
frrllf l-r kPa and 0.0051 mslkg"The initial internal enerry of the
,r r rrr | 594 Jlkg; at discharge, the internal energy is 6241ilkg.
'l'lrr.<'rxrling water circulated around the cylindercanffis away
.l:ul:t .f/kg of air. Thc change in kinetic energ"y is 896 J&g
rr{ n.nso. Sketch an enerry diagram. Compute the work.
rr

W=t00hp

/r+Kr+

2B

Wr, + Ur +

Q=/r+ Iq + Wo + U, + W

29

Solution

P, = 99.29 kPa
v, = 0.026 m3/kg
u, = L594 J/kg
Q = -4383 Jlkg
h = 272 kg/min
Pz = 689.5 kPa
vz = 0.0051 m3/hg
uz= 6241J/kg
AK = 896 J&g

r4
wo
u2

Solution

fr =

2270 k'elmin
0.1524 m

=
Pr = 82,740Pa
p
1000 kg/mg
q == 0.1016 m
275,800 Pa
Pz r
dr

C
1

EnergY Diagrom

y'r*Kr+

W., + U, +

Q=/r+ 4

+ Wo + U, + W

Basis 1kB-

W,,

:p lvr =

Area at entrance, A, =

'l; l== 2.583 kJ&e

,![I
).026 ol
'm1.l
F
IIP9.29
e
mil
t- - kl\i r
,Ia- = 3.51.6lnl/kg
t0.00
005 ,0il
68e.

2270k9^

KS
b-l

lI

I
'o mz L
t_
F

;1

H1r,r,if

at entrance, Dr =

u2-+ w
+Q= AK+'wlzf2z* uz
vflr
\w.
t*1 -1 +G

ilgxrcd at exit, D, =

q4--4. 383 = 0.896i+333.516

;16-+ 6.2,
6.24 1+W
2.582 + 1. 594
'
llnHis 1

t- kr-l l- _ ke_l
w - j_- to.se6gJ

K, =;ik=

Vzztry)

4.

I
II

IL

30

P'0t824

=2.074m1s

2270160
= 4.667 mls
(1ooo) (o.oo81o7)

Q.orni]'

Fffi

N.m

2.151q;

(4.667Y
K
= (zxit= to.gg T.-DE'" =D?
ks-

\[I = - 2954*
A centifugal pump operating under steady flow condi'
tions delive rs 2,270 t glmin of water from an initial pressure of
82,740Patoa final p"essore of 2?5,800 Pa. The diameter of the
inlet pipe to the pump is .15.24 cm and the diameter of the
ilischaree prpe is 10.16 cm. What is the work?

U*
Pr-l= #
[oootrl

kg-

\{ = - 10.g6H

(0.1524F = 0.01824 mz

Area at exit, Ao =ftO.rOro)2, = 0.00810? mg

'J

wn =pPzv
'zYz=

,,
.,
l)'vr

t21o*'

-l. =;;E=E

82.24+,.rts
= oL''*
kgm

3l

Basis 1kg,

Pr=?= fs.eooof'(B

fm_l

2.L5L + 82.74 = 10.89.+ 275.8 + W

Kl=

W=

5. Aturbine operates under steadyflow conditions, recei

iag steqm at the following state: pnessure 1200 kPa,
tue 188"C, enthalpy 2785kJ/kg, speed 33.3 m/s and elevati
3 m. The steam leaves the turbine at the following
pressure 20 kPa, enthalpy 25L2 klkg, speed 100 m/s
elevation 0 m. Heat is lost to the surioundings at the rate of 0.
hVs. If, the rate of steam flow throughthe turbine is 0.42
what is the power output of the turbine in kW?
Solution

.4_ L33.3g:l

-o.zey

;F-

zz= 0m

E
IKg

ur=33'3fl

ks

= 0.55a4 K
s

,hI
=

s.o00E

{).6eo5H

Pr+Kr+hr+Q=%+4+ L+W
Pr+Kr+hr+Q=4+\+W
0,0!fg4 + 0.5544

+ 2785+ ({.690b) = b.000 + 2bt2 + W

W = ZG?.gg

*_

w=, l:^-

zr=3m
h. = 2?85
'

a-

m-

q=;i =1#f

kI

-4b8.1ffn

= 0.0294

.TT.F
'E-E

Kr+Wrr=Iq+\{Io+W

[-,'"ffiE*H

m)

hrl I- k;

roT.eEl 19.42fl

W = 112.52 kW

4=2512H
u, =

100*
'

l&I

Q = -O.29 s

32

fi = 0:4#
88

T
Review Problems
1.

fric'
Assuming that there are no heat effects and no

tionaleffects,nnatnekineticenerg]andspeedofaS220.lb
starr wfth the steady flow
;;d**; iiiar, 778 ft,from rest.which
are inelevant'
deleting energy terms

a;;til,

fPs l
. - ? ,:"?l:..

Ans. 224

The discharge conditions are 0.62 ms/kg,-100 kpa, and 270

m/s. The total heat loss between the inlet and discharge ie g
kJlkg of fluid. In flowing through this apparatus, does the
specific internal energy increase or decrease, and by how
rnuch?

' 2. A reciproc"ti"e di"pressor draws in 500 cubic feet per

ft and discharges it

mir'rte of air whose density is 0.0?9 lb/cu

*iiit au"sity of 0.304lUcu ft' At the suction' p, = LS.psia; at
"
in the specific-internal
ait"ftt"g",
Pz = 80 psia' The increase

the air by
enerm/ is gAS Btudb anrl the heat transferred from
in
ri et"nU. Determine the work on lhe air Btu/min
u"a irittp. Neglect change in kinetic energy'
Ans. 56.25 hP

;ft

In a steady flow apparatus, L3b lc.I of work is done by

-6..
each kgof fluid. The specific volume of the fluid, p""*s.r"*, und
speed at the inlet are 0.37 mslkg, G00 kpa, and 16 m/s. The inlet
is 32 m above the floor, and the discharge pipe is at floor level.

Ans. -20.01 kJ/kg

7. Steam enters a turbine stage with an enthalpy of 862g

k.l/hg at 70 m/s and leaves the same stage with an entharpy of
:ltl46 kr&g and a velocity of L2a n/s. calculate the work done
l,y the steam.
Ans. 776.8 kJ&e (ME Board Problem - Oct. 1996)

Steem enters a turbine with an,enthalpy of 1292B,h,1|b

an enrhalpy of 1098 Btu/tb. The transferred
hp for a
heat is 13 Btu/lb. what is the work in Btrlmin and in
flow of 2 lb/sec?
Ans. 512.3 hP

3.

*dl;;;;;h

A thermodynamic steady flow system receives^4'56

n"ii where n1 1JBQ0 T?.Y'= 0'0ll-8:-]1
p"" Li"
J", aod ,r, = 17.16 k nte' The fluid leaves the sys
i.-=
ui u t"""aary wheie Pz = 551'6 kPa, v, = 0'193 m3/kg' o, =
DurFs pasiage through tbe sv
%. ="sz.eo uttfite
inu nnid receives 3,000 J/s of heat. Determine the work'
Ans. -486 kJ/min

4.

tii "i"

;;ffi

5. Air flows steadily at the rate of 0'5 kg/s through qn

compressor, entering at 7 mls speed, 100 kPa pressure

0.95 m3/kg specific volume, and leaving at 5 m/s, 700 kPa,
0.1"9 m34rg. The internal energy of the air leaving is 90
greater t[an that of the air entering. Cooling water in
io*p""rror jackets absorbs heat from the air at the rate of
kW. Compute the work in kW.
Ans. -122 kW
l

it4

lfl-r

The rdeal Gas

An ideal,gas is ideal ronly in the sense that it conforns rc

llrc simple perfect gas laws.

Boyle's Law

lf' the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held

,,rr'l,irnt, the volume of the gas varies inversely with the
rrl*rolute pressure during a change of state.

l or V=9
V* pp
pV=C or prV, =prYz
Charles'Law
r I r lf' thc pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held
,,,*irt;rrrl., t,hon, with any change of state, the volume will vary
rlirr.r tly :rrr lhc absolute temperature.

V,."1

or

V=CT

v (:
L-IL
' or q=q
'r'
r,:r

ll

tlrr.volurnc of a particular quantity of gas is held

th nny change of state, the pressure will vary
,f i* e' | !r' 1ri lli,' lrllsll utC te mpe ratUfe.
, r,1 1e |

;1 1,

. | | rr. r r, wi

,tt

-7
P-T

or

or
fr=c

used, the pressure was 200 psia and the temperature was 85oF,

P=CT

(a) What proportion of the acetylene was used? (b) What

volume would the used acetylene occufiy at L4.7 psia and fl0'F?
R for acetylene is 59.35 ft.lb/lb."R.

t=+,

Equation of State or Characteristic Equation

Perfect Gas

of a

Solution
(a) Let

+=ry =c,aconstant
pV

=
=
Be =
Pr =

oz

Combining Boyle's and Charles' Iawg,

frr

Tr =90oF+460=550'R

Pz = 200 Psia
Tz =85oF+460=5451R

=mR
volume of

pV = mRT

V
v
m

T
R

English units

ffiffi

= 0.6545 cu

RT,

= absolute pressure
= volume
= specific volume
= maSS
= absolute temperature
= specific gas constant or simply gas constant

}F

dr,r* =

(25cD $44)
ml= PrV, =
(59.35)

pv =RT
(unit mass)
where p

rlrBss of acetylene initialiy in the drum

ltrass of acetylene left in the drum
rllass of acetylene used
250 Psia

ft3

lb_

oR

m3

kg

mz =
ms

(0.6545)
(550)

ft

= 0.7218Ib

o-E= (200,)=911)!9.6j45)

ifq'=

- ml

(bgsb)

lb
"'""-- -(54b) = 0.b828

mz= 0.72L8 - 0.5828 = 0.1390Ib

Acetylene used =

#i = 3+#

= 0'1e26 or re'26vo

tlr) p, = 14.7 psia

'f.=80oF+460=540oR
i

SI units

;t

Vr=

EltTr
Pa

(b=e.Bit t5+01
\roils$l
' (r4.7)
= 2.'0b fr3
(L44\

:l

Problems

1. A drum 6 in. in diameter and 40 in. long

acetylene at250 psia and 90"F. After some ofthe acetylene
I
-t

3rl

'l'lrc volume of a 6 x 12-ft tank is 339.3 cu ft. It contains

psig and 85"F. How many l-cu ft drums can bc fillcd
l' rru 1rrr1.f :rnd 80'F if it is assumed that the air temperasturtt
irr llrr' lrrrrh remains at 85"F? The drurns have been silting
*,iurrl rrr l.hu atmosphere which is at 14.7 psia anrl [t0"1"

sir rrl

'.1(X)

;t 1)

r
Solution

Solution

Let

Dr = IIlBss
Dz = rnoss
Ds = mas$
ha = rnsss

of air initially in the tank

of air lelt in the tank
of air initially in the dmm
of air in the drum after filling

20,000 kg

l
I

P,Vr
RT,

(2L4.7)(r44) (33J.3)
= _*-(SmtGaSI
= 360.9Ib.

(64;3),(l*t)=(?gie'3)
(53.34)

(545t-

mass of air that can be used = 860.9

- 10g.? = 252.2Ib.

"p=

0.0?gb = 0.25Ib

= 1009

3. It is planned to lift and move logs from almost inaccessible forest qery by means of balloons. Helium at atmospheric
pressure (101-.325 kPa) and temperature 21.1oC is to be used
in the balloons. What 6inims6 balloon diameter (assumo
spherical shape) will be required for a gross lifting force of 20
metric tons?
40

p-V
101.32bV
'nu=ili" = tffirl

=l'2oolvkg

f','t lltt'heliUm
&r" = 2,077.67

#R

P11" = 101,325Pa

=o'3235rb

2#

E__

T,=21.t +273=294.iK

mass of air put in each drum = 0.323b

Numberof drums filled

= 287.08
P, = 101,325 Pa

= 108.? lb

p.v. (t4.7) (r44) (1)

m3 = 'ff = 'GBiJAIGadf
= o'0735 lb

Sf =ttf#[]l*}$i

Itor the air

For the drums

"'o=

of air displaced by
the balloon
EH" = mass of Helium
v = volume of the balloon
= "mass

ms

RT, -=
-z= R"S
IDo

mr

EH.

For the tank

[l=

It

+ 14.7 = 214.7 psia p, = 14.? psia

Tr = 85 + 460 = 545.R
T, = 80 + aOO = b40R
Pz = 50 + 14.7 = 64.7 psia
Po = 50 + 14.7 = 64.7 psia
Tr=8S+460=545oR
Tn=80+460=540R
Pr = 200

T""=21.1 +278=Zg4.lK

,,,

_
rrrrl,,=

Pn.v = _101,325 V
ffiT"" qOngZffim

=0.1658Vkg

fr,=DH,+20,000

V =0.1658V +,20,000
V = l9,BB7 mJ
.l rf = 19,337
.l

1.200f
1

r = 16.6b m
d

2(16.65) = 3B.B m

4l

G{
4.

TVo vessels A and B of different sizes are connected by

a pipe with a valve. Vessel A contains L42L of air at2,767.92
kPa, 93.33oC. Vessel B, of unknown volume, contains air at
68.95 kPa,4.44"C. The valve is opened and, when the prcperties have been determined, it is found that p- = 1378.96 kPa,
t- = 43.33'C. What is the volume of vessel B?

solving equations

L and 2 simultaneously

Vs = 110.4 liters

Specifrc Heat
specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity
_ _The
of heat required to change the temperature of unit mase

through one degree.

In dimensional form,

Solution
For vessel A

c__*

Po= 2,767.92 kPa

In differential quantities,

Yn= L4?liters
TA = 93'33

+ 273= 366'33 K

c^
e= ;ffif

For vessel B
nrr<l

for a particular masg m,

Ps = 68'95 kPa
TB

a=* !'.ar
I

=4.44+273=277.44K

(The specific heat equation)

For the mixture

ll llrr: mean or instantaneous value of specific heat is used,

P- = 1378.96 kPa

T-

= 43.33 + 273 = 316.33

Q=

4.36

p^V^

RTn*

(2767.s2)

V- = 1072.9

!'u,
l-

= mc (T,

- T,)

I'orrnltnt Volume Specifrc Heat (c,)

bY!
RTu

(yLD , 68.e5 VB

+ 0.25 Vu

V-=142+Vn

mc

(constant specific heat)

III,,,=IIIO*IIIU

p-v*
RT_
(13?8.e6)V
^

or dQ=mcdT

(1)

^uI
Volume
(

lorrstant

Q"=aU
I

Qu = mcu (T2
I

(2)

- Tr)

, ---l

a,
42

4:l

-y'r
Relation Between

Constant Pressure Specifrc Heat (co)

Qn

mco (T,

Qn

AU+W=AU+

-Tr)
al
pdv
-l\

codT = c"dT+RdT

= AU+p(%-Vr)
= Ur-ur+pz%-prV,
Q, = I{-H'=AH

Joule's law states that "the change of internal energy of an

ideal gas is a function of only the temperature change." There.
fore, AU is given by the formula,

=Eh

Htilution

AIJ = rtrc" (T2 _ Tr)

""',,

whether the volume remains constant or not.

#ig

,. -% = T3#

Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas

The change of enthalpy of an ideal gas is given by
formula,

ll,r

su.4z**" oro.aotffi

0.868#"

pV _ (75)
(1114) (rb)
-6ffi
-= ffi=
r

whether the pressure remains constant or not.

V lScuft, p=75psia T=80+460=b40o3

T1)

44

c"

1. For a certain ideal gas R = 2b.8 {t.lb b..R and k - f.09

(r) What are the values of co and c,? (b) What
mass of this gag
worrld occupy a volume of l5 cu ft dt ZS psia and gO"F? (c) lfgO
lll.rr are transferred to this gas at constant volume in (b), what
nrr. the resulting temperatur,e and pressure?

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

tIt

-c,+R

lfroblems

c
k=d:>r

., t
Eiil

co

-B
^ -k-l
'p

Ratio of Specific lleats

AH = ECo (Tz

and c,

Fromh =u+pvandpv=RT
dh = d11+ RdT

Qn

cn

I tf

'ilr

=11'631b

n,c" (T, _ Tr)

I

t.63 (0.3685) (T, _ 540)

4{t

T
where:dQ = heat transferred at the temperature T
AS = total change ofentropy

Tz = 547"R
Pz

= Pr (Tuftr) = 75 (5471540) = ?6 Psia

as--fu

2. For a certain gas R =320 Jll<g. K and c, = 0.84 kJlkg. K"

and k. (b) If 5 kg of this gas u4dergo a reversible non

flow oonstant pressure process from V, = 1.133 m3 and Pr = 690
kPa to a etate where tc = 555"C, find AU and AH.
(a) Find

co

as =

cp

mc hr _&

T1

(constant specific heat)

Solutlon
(a)

-lftl

= c" + R = 0.84 + 0.32 = 1.16

k= &+1=
cY

f#

kI

IFF

'l'emperature-Entropy Coordinates
dQ = TdS

t ='t.3st

a2

(b)r-

'r

= jTds
I

pr[.

(6901909[!.133)
= 488.6 K
-= mR =- (5) (320)

AU = rnc, (T,

T1) = 5 (0.84) (828

'The area under the curve

ofthe process on the TS plane
represents the quantity of
heat transfered during the

488.6)

= 1425.51r.I
AH = trrcn (Ts

process."
T1) = 5(1.16) (828

488.6)

= 1968.5 k I

I lt

lrr.r Enerry Relations

Entnopy (S, s)
Entropy is that property of a substance which
constant if no heat enters or leaves the substance, while it
work or alters its volume, but which increases or dimini
should a small amount of heat enter or leave.
The change of entropy of a substance receiving (or deli
ing) heatis defined by

dS=
46

-2

or As

=JF
I

12

-)VdP=W+AK
I

(Reversiblesteadyflow,AP= 0)

"The area behind the

curve ofthe process on the pV

planes represents the work

ofa steady flow process when
AK * 0, or it represents AK
when W' = 0."
47

-{
Any process that can be made to go in the reverse direction
by aninfinitesimal change in the conditions is called a nrersible
process.
Any process that is not reversible is irreversible.

Review Problems
1. An automobile tire is inflated to g2 psig pressurs at

60"F. Alter being driven the temperature rise to

zb"F. Determine the final gage pressure assuming the volume remaina
constant.
Ans. 84.29 psig (EE Board problem)

2. If 100 fts ofatJnospheric air at zero Fahrenheit tenperacompressed to a volume of 1 fts at a temperaiuoe or
lrlrj""
?00oF, what will be the pressure of the air in psi? Ans. 2109 psia (EE Board problem)

3. A 10-ft3 tank co-ntains gas at a pressure of b00 psia,

l.rnperature of 8b"F and a weight of 2b pounds. A part
oithe gas
w^s discharged and the temperature ind p""**"
.t
to
70"F and 300 psia, respectively. Heat was applied "og"d
and the
I.rnperature was back to 8b"F. Find the nnd weight.
volume,
nrrrl pressure of the gas.
Ans. 1b.48 lb; 10 fts;808.b psia (EE Board problem)
4. Four hundred cubic centimeters of a gas at ?40 mm Hg
alr"lut'e and 18oc undergoes a procss uotit ttre pr?ssune
lp.rmes 760 mm Hg absolute andihe temperature 0"c.
what
tr l,hc final volume of the gas?
Ans. 36b cc (EE Board problem)

fi.

A motorist equips his automobile tires

with a relief-tlpe
that_the pressure inside the tire never will exceed 240
::]u,:(sage).
ll'^
He starts
1tlp wilh a pressru of 200 kpa (gage)
e.rrrl rr uemperature of 2B"c in the tires. During
the long drive,
lf*r l.mperature of the air in the tires reaches-g8"c. nich
tire
xrrrlrrins 0.11 kg of air. Determine (a) the mass
of air escaping
eer lr l.ire, (b)
lhe pressure of the tire when tfre tempe""t"""
uo

relrrr.rrH to 28"C.

ArrH (a) 0.006,1kS;

{i

ft)

192.48 kpa (gage)

A 6-m3 tank contains helium at 400 K and is

F,nr rrl,mospheric pressure to a pressure of 240evacuated

mm Hg
te,

urrrn. I)etermine (a) mass of helium remaining

in the tank;
kf rrrrrHs of helium pumped out, (c) tfre tempei*ui"
of tfr"
l*r'rrrr^g helium falls to 10"C. What is the pi*u*rr"" in kpa?
f

48
49

Ans. (a) 0.01925 ke;

ft)

0.7L23 ks; (c) 1.886 kPa

An automobile tire contains 3730 cu in. of air at 32 psig

and 80"F. (a) What mass of air is in the tire? ft) In operation,
the air temperature increases to 145''c .If the tire is inflexible,
what is the resulting percentage increase in gage pressure?
(c) What mass of the 145"F air must be bled off to reduce the
pressure back to its original value?
Ans. (a) 0.5041 Ib; (b) 17'53Vo; (c) 0'0542lb
7

Processes of Ideal Gases

8.

A spherical balloon is 40 f,t in diameter and surrou

by zrir at 60"F and29.92in Hg abs. (a) If the balloon is filled
hydrogen at a temperature of 70"F and atmospheric pressure'
what iotal load can it lift? (b) If it contains helium instead of
hydrogen, other conditions remaining the same, what load can
itlift? (c) Helium is nearly twice as heavy as hydrogen. Does it
have half the lifting force? R for hydrogen is 766.54 and for
helium is 386.04 ft.lb/lb."R.
Ans. (a) 2381 lb; (b) 2209 lb

A reservoir contains 2.83 cu m of carbon monoxide

6895 kPa and 23.6"C. An evacuated tank is filled from I
reservoir to a pressure of 3497 kPa and a temperature
Lz.4}C,while tfe pressure in the reservoir decreases to 62
kPa and the temperature to 18.3"C. What is the volume of
tank? R for CO is 296'.92 J/kg.K".

9.

Constant Volume process

An isometric process is a reversible constant volume proc.gs- A constant volume process may be reversible or irreiersrlrle.

2T
I

T_

Pz
I

'l

Hl

Ans. 0.451 m3

F-_sz

initially at 15 psia and 2 cu ft undergoes a

psia
and 0.60 cu ft, during which the enthalpy in
to 90
by 15.5 Btu; c" =2.44Btunb. R". Determine (a) AU, (b) cn,
10. A gas

Fig. 5. Isometric Process

(c) R.
Ans. (a) 11.06 Btu; (b) 3.42 Btunb.R'; (c) 762.4ft.lVlb.
11. For a certain gas, R = 0.277 kJ/kg.Kandk= 1'
(a) What are the value of co and c,? ft) What mass of
gas would occupy a volurire 6t O.+ZS cu m at517.l'l kPa
26.7'C? (c) If 31.65 kJ are transferred to this gas at
volume in (b), what are the resulting temperature and

sure?

Ans. (a) A.7214 and 0.994 kJ/kg.R"; (b> 2'M7

(;r) Relation between p and T.

Tt

Pz

;fr- =It

Pr

(b) Nonflow work.

,'2

W.=JpdV=0

(c) 43.27"C, 545.75 kPa

50

5l

For reversible nonflow, Wn = 0'

For irreversible nonflow, Wo + 0'
W = nonflow work
!d = steadY flow work

(c) The change of internal energy'

6{J = rtr'c" (T2

Tr)

(d) The heat transfened'

l': oblemg

(Tz - Tr)
Q = Itrc'

(e) The change of enthalPY'

6tl = mco (T2 -

(0

T1)

"oittatpy,

The change of entroPY'

lS = mc"h

l.TencuftofairatS00psiaand400.Fiscooledtol40"F

(a) the final pressure, (b) the

<.onstant rroto*". Wnat are
energy' ( d) the' tralsferred heat'
w o rh, (c) the change of internal
ana (0 ihe change of entropy?
i,,, ,.r," .frurrg" of

*t

ft

Hululion
ll

I
I

volume'
(g) Reversible steady flow constant

ta)

=16+AK+AWr+W"+AP

W"=-(AWr+AK+AP)
W"=-AWr=V(Pr-Pr)

t z-- +=

(AP=0'AK-0)
/2

&)- -llVdP=W"+lK
-V(Pz-Pr)=W"+AK

llr)

W=0

Ir

"' = S'=

v(Pr-Pr)=W"+AK

,\lI=
.

v(Pr-P')=w"
166 = 0)
volume process'
(h) Ireversible nonflow constant

V
Ag#q

i0 cu ft
300 psia

V
Pr

400+ 460= 860'R

140+460=600"R

Tr
T2

= 2oe psia

l##li6?#)

=g'4?tb

mC"(Tr-Tr)
(s.4L7) (0.1?14) (600

860)

-420 Btu

r,tr

(,f

mc" (T,

Tr) = -420 Btu

Q=AU+W"
53

(e) AH =

=
=
(0

mcn

(T,

Tr=60+273=

Tr)

(9.417) (0.24) (600

(a) ,p _ T,p, gPS652

= DOI.O
'2
Pr

860)

-588 Btu

= 999 K

(b)"vv - R
377 =1b0g-J==
kg.K"
k-l -= 7.25-1-

os = -...1o
'
lr

333K

AU=

(e.4tz) (0.1?14)

t"

=
=

333

= -0.581H

mc, (T,

Tr)

(1.36) (1.508) (999

333)

1366 kJ

W"=Q-AU=105.5-1366

2. There are 1.36 kg of gas, for which R= 377 J/kg'k a

k = 1.25, that undergo a nonflow constant volume process
pr = 551.6 kPa and t, = 6OC to p, = 1655 kPa. During the proc
tlie gas is internally stirred and there are also added 105'5
of heat. Determine (a) tr, (b) the workinput and (c) the

(")

ls

-1260.5 kJ

l"

= mculn Tr = (1.36) (1.508)

q99

l" i=g

=2.2ffiY

ofentropy.

:t.

Solution

//
/

k =
R=
m=

1.25

of 0.2 cubiC meter. The room has an initial presstrrc ol'

lo t tt hPa and temperature of 16"c. calculate the roortt lcrrr
ll)f't4 )
1u r ;rlrrre after l0 minutes. (ME Board Problem - April
vnl11111o

377 Jlke.k
1.36 kg

Q = 105.5 kJ
Pr = 551.6 kPa
Pz

A group of 50 persons attended a secret meeting irr rr

,,u,rrr which is 12 meters wide by 10 meters long and a ce ilirrll
ill ,l rneters. The room is completely sealed off and insulrtl'r'rl
l,lirr.lr Jrerson gives off 150 kcal per hour of heat and occultit'r, rr

= L655 kPa

lit,l

rr

lion

z rl
ll/Pr
ll/

ll/r,
I l','
L

z
= 101"3 kPa

= 16 + 27:f

',tt{lf l(

Vg

lrlr
t-r4

c, = 0.1?14

#.

W= (-1 hp) (h) =r(-lhp) (0.74G kWhp) (h) (8600 n/lr

0.1714# = 0.r7r4ffi

Q = (50 persons) (150 kcaVperson.hour) = 7500 kcal/h

AU = Q - W = -850

(0.2) (50) = 350 m3

-4 =(0.28708)
. = RT,
,(191,31(l5ol
(289)

mass of air, m

1250 = (427.34> (0.1714) (T,

306'1 K

tz =

33.1"C

AT =

289)

constant-vorum,e system receives r0.5 lr.I of

Gn

Board problem _ April

lg,

l"ggg)

Solution

2T
I

p,v

/
Vs

Irreversible Constant Volume Process

(-850 kJ/h) (1 h) = -50 kJ

Tr = 278 K

Tz=400X

vs
q

p, = _344 kPa
V-0.06ms

,/

,\lr

a=

lt

c.

:1 = 0.6SgS kJ(kc) (K)

= 2b9.90 J(ks) (K)

Solution

56

(22.7 kS) @.t87 kJ/kg.C") = 19.3 C"

k.mperature is 400 K.

is applied to a tank contai

22.7 kg of water. The stirring action is applied for I hour
the tank loses 850 kJ/h of heat. Calculate the rise in
ture of the tank after I hour, assuming that the process
at constant volume and that c" for water is 4.187 kJ/(kg) (

kI

rffi5.6 kJ

-AU.
DC"=

5. A closed

4. A l-hp stirring motor

-l
'l

(-2685.6) = 1835.6

lrrrddle work. The system.coSt-ains o*yg"r, at B44kpa, 2?g K,

rr.d occupies 0.0G cu m. Find the t eat (gain or loss)
#e nnat

mc,T2-Tr)

T, =

AU = mc" (AT)

= 427.34kg

a = Ll-ruooealt-l9
h llliO hl
I = rzsok.ul
a =

-2685.6 k I

a = AU+W

volume of room = (L2) (10) (3) = 360 m3

volume of air, V = 360

_
=

(344)

(0.06) = 0'2857 ke
_

id:t500n?s)

mc" (T,

Tr)

Q.2857) (0.6595) (400

22.99 kJ

278)

AU+W
22.99 + (*r0.5)

t2.49 kJ
fr7

(g) Steady flow isobaric.

Isobaric Process

(a)Q=AP+AK+AH+W'

An isobaric process is an internally reversible prccess of

substance during which the pressure remains constant.

W =-(AK+Ap)
W" =

(AP = 3;

N\
\s\:i\

(b)

.2
JVdp = W + aK
I

0=W"+AK
W" =

Fig.6. Isohric Process

(a)

Relation between V and T.

Tz

Vz

Tr=vi
(b) Nonflow work.
W"

t2

{,ndV

= F(V2

AIJ = rDC" (T2

Vr)

(c) The change of internal

Q = mcn
(e) The change

(T,

from b cu ft and
to 15 cu ft while the
remains
constant at lb.b psia. Compute (a) T", (b) AH,
trrcsgutre
(r') AU and (d) AS. (e) For an internally
reversible'nonflow
f r'ocess, what is the work?

Solution
T

__>_2

mcohfr

/
,/

Tr)

p=
V, =
%=
T, =

15.5 psia

5cuft

l5cuft

80+460=540"R

vc

ofenthalpy.

Tr)

(f) The change ofentropy.

58

A certain gas, with c, = 0.b29 Btu/lb.R" and R 96.2 ft.lV

.lh."R,
l. expands
=
g0"F

-Tr)

AH = rlc, (T,

-aK

l'roblems

energ:y.

(d) The heat transferred.

aS =

-aK

,^)'r',

=1:,=

'r'\,,

g+lP

=r620R

ffi i##ffif)

=o.2r48rb

51)

=
=
=

mce(Tz

_ Tr)

(0.2148) (0.529) (1620_

540)
122.7

Btu

(c' c" co-R=

=
0.b29-W=0.40ss#S
(n\

AU=

2. A perfect eas
a
If 120 kJ *" \1s value of R = 319 .2 Jlkg.lfurrrtt lt

r.2G.

iaggJ-fi;ik;

Solution

mc, (T2 _ Tr)

=
=
=
a =
Tr =

= (0.214s) (0.40$;(1620 _ b4o)

= 94 Btu
(d)

os

mcorn

ftI

= (0.2148) (0.52e) h
=

of this gas ar

c''r.rlrrrrl
,fiTre):f: jli.i?Ttlmrnlm{:m1t,'i,i,t?,,,,,

ffi

(a) co
=

Btu

1.26

m
R

2.27 kg
319.2 J&g.K

f20 kW
32.2 + ZZg

-(1.2gxo.a1e2)= t.b46e

a = mco (T, - T,)

0.1249 oR

BO5.Z

f{_

kg.Ku

r20 = (2.27) (r.b469) (T, _ g05.2)

(e)

p(%

\=

- v,)

(r5.5) (144) (15

778
=

28.7 Btu

Ta

5)

(b)

aH=

(c) cv

s39.4

mco (T2 _ Tr)

=

l20

h=ffit$

=r.22??#h

kI

AU- mc, (T, - Tr)

=

(d)

(2.27) (r.2277)(33e.4 _
305.2)
95.3 kJ

plg,_--tri]
-ITl =mR(Tr*T,)

W = p(%- V,) =
' ^LP,

=
=

(2.22) (0.8192) (Js9.4 _ g0s.z)

Z4.Zg kJ

-Fr

Isothermal process

G) Steady flow isothermal.

isothermal process is an internally reversible

constant
temperature process of a substance.

(a)Q = Ap+AK+AH+W

w"=e-Ap-AK
W"=Q

(AP-0,4K=0)
ft)

'i!:{t

From pV = C, pdV +
Vdp

F-o'-{

-,!'uoo=-l;,i
I

Fig. Z. Isothermal process

P'\1n

(a) Retation between p and V.

W"=W"

ft) Nonflow work.

(AK = 6;

0, dp = -

#l

pdv

-v/2

j oou
I

)2

Cln5= n,v,rr *
vr ' v,
{v

w" = Jpav=l$Y=

-_

-w

PrVr = Pz%

f2

(c) The change of internal energy.

AU=9
(d) The heat transfenred.
Q= N + W" = p,Vrln
(e) The change of enthalpy.

AH=9
(f) The change of entropy.

^s=+-mRrn$j
62

.2

JVdp = W + aK

'r'olrlcms

l)uring an isothermal process ggoF,

at
the pressurc orr
drops fr.om g0 p.i" tol
gsic. For
*r,,r.11;i[lls process,
lfru ipaV and the work of a
i,,,i1ll1v1y process, (b)_d:,tennile fal
the-_ JVdp;ndllie *o"k of
a steady llow
f 'r , !,
'.,,:, rluring which AK = 0, ("i e, iai aU
oS.
rr tt,

.t''ir

"rilJ"lr",,

il;fi,;liii

*=r -nrrn&
Y

Pz

Tl
r
t pV,=[
,'ul
I

\l

\\.2
I

-L
V

1*--__r.__2

T
m
pl
Pr

88+460=54fi,,lt
8tb
80 psia
+ 14.7 = 1.9.? 1lsi1

r.t

(a)

= mRT

r"

*Pz

= tltt#ftQ

t"

f#

lndv

p,V,tnV'

Vr

= 42L.2Btu

V,

In vl =
"r-

W,= jOaV=42l.2Btu'
jvap

(d)

= p,V,ln

.f,

= 42L.2Btu

v,

m#oO =-r.80
= 0.1653

= (0.1653) (0.30r) = 0.0498 m3/s

P,t, - (b86) (0.

--To:oa#l) =3542kPa

AU=0
AH=0

(e) m=

Uft

%
= -1.80
q

(c) a = ryt *W"= 421.28tu

(b)

v2

Q = Prvrlo

(b) Since AP = 6 and AK 0, W" lV"

=
=
= e = -B1Z kJ/s

(t)ns=

3=W=0.2686#

+=

Solution

=-1.ob8kJ/r(.s

AH=0

2. During a reversible process there are abstracted 317

kJ/s from 1.134 kg/s of a certain gas while the temperature
remains constant at 26.7'C. For this gas, cD = 2.232 and c"
1.713 kJ/kg.K. The initial pressure is 586 kPa. For
nonflow and steady flow (AP = 0, AK = 0) process, determine (
Vr,% and pr, (b) the work and Q, (c) AS and AH.

:l

Air flows steadily through an engine at constant tem_

K.Find the workperkilogram ifthe exitpressure
i,',, r' l.hird the inlet pressure and the inlet pressure is zoz
kpa.
Arrarrrro that the kinetic and potential energy variation is
111'plrplible. (EE Board Problem
- April lggS)
u'r rrl,'re,4_09
r

tlnlttlitttt

a=.
fi=
Pr=
,n

-317 kJ/s

1.134 ks/s
586 kPa
26.7 +273=299.7

vs
(a)

c, = 2.232 - 1.713 = 0.5L9 kl/kg.K

(1.134) (0:5_U)) (299.7)
= 0.301 m3/s
= _*xTl=
pr
586

T
R

Pr

'\2

=
=
=

400K
282.08 kJ(ke) (K)
2O7

kPa

Pr

p, =$
V

R - cp

\i.
64

tT
\ l)V=C

R't'I

l),

-_.(9,?87_q8)

207

gog)

= 0.5547 m,t/kg
(;5

(c) Relation between T and p.

W = prvrl" t=nrvr1nfl

=
=

(20?) (0.5547)

ln

12

126.1 kJ

2.

Adiabatic simply *"t"t-"theat'

of constant entroPY'

[p,l rLP-'l

Nonflow work.

Fromp\A=C,p-C1r-r

IsentroPic Process
An isentropic process is a

k-1

W"

reversible adiabatic process'

A reversible adiabatic is one

,2

rz

,2

= lpdv=J CV+dV= C { V-ndV

t'Itl

Integrating and simplifing,

w-

l-k

pvn=9

l-k

'fhe change of internal energy.

.pv=Q
tJl

AIJ = ncu (T2 - Tr)

'l'he heat transferred.

Q=0
'l'hc change of enthalpy.

Fig. 8. IsentroPic Process

1.

AI{ = mcp (Tz * Tl)

Relation among P, V, and T'

'l'lrr: change of entropy.

(a) Relation between P and V'

ns=0

P'VI=PrVb=C

I iI

(b) Relation between T and V'

From p,VT = pr$u,td

T,= lvt-

T,
(i(;

q =+'

r.rrrly flow isentropic.

,,,r(c,.AP+AK+AH+W"
we have

wo,,_-AP_AK_AH

k'l

W. -AH

LqJ

\l'

O,

Al( = 0)
67

T-

(lr) _ p,V, (800) (t44)(100)

m=

.2

(b)- lVdp=W"+AK
t'

ftfr=-6f6ffi

1-L

LetC=pIVorV=Cpk

AII

'.2.1

- t'lVap =!C pk dp

AL.I =

Integrating and simPlifYing,

- t'fiao' -

= ms,

k (P'v'

- P'v') r.
=
f'nav
l-k

Problems

1.

From a state defined by 300 psia, 100 cu ft and 240"

helium undergoes andisentropic process to 0.3 psig. Find (a)V
and tr, (b) AU and AH, (c)JpdV, (d) -5vdp, (e) Q and AS. Wha
is the work (f) if the process is nonflow, (g) if the process i
steady flow with AK = 10 Btu?

(f, * Tr) = (1b.99) (1.241) (211.8 _70{)= _9698 tstu

mc, (T,

tt')6av

=l5'eelb

Tr) = (15.99) (0.74b) (211.S

&!;f,J'

- 200) = _5822 Btu

=ffi

= b822 Btu

rrlt *!Vdp = kjpdV = (1.606) (b822)= 9698 Btu

lr,)a=0
As-- 0
rlr a = AU+W"
W"= -AU= 1-5822) =b822 Btu
Irir

JVdp = W" + AK

1Xj9g=W"+10

Solution

W" = 9636 31rt

Pr

300 Psia
+'l'4.7 = 15 psia
0.3
Pz=
V, = 100 cu ft.

T, = 240+46A=700'R

'.', An adiabatic expansion of air occurs through

a nor,zlt,

"rrr ll28 kPa and ?1oc to 1Bg kpa. The

initial kinetlc energy i"

For an isentropic expansion, compute the spcr:if i.
.r,lrnnr), temperature and speed at the exit
section.

..'11lr1lible.

titi rr lion
s

I
(a)

v,

1'666

H$t= 1oo[,!9f

= 608.4 rtg

l?r

T
lr2
-2--T^'Lpil
I

t"=
68

\z

r.-_T r.666

= 7001__{q_l
Lsool

pVk= 6

1.666-1
k-1
-'l-k-

828 kPa
7L + 273 = i|44 l(
138 kPa

211.8'R

-248'7"F
(il)

k-r

ll2l
'Lpil

T"=T,
-

r.4_l

-k

tnl

-.-1.4
344lHgl

18281

= 206 K

;,,\

it>\
't.h^I

tz= -67oC

",

#,

_ (0.287q8X344) = 0.1193 m'/ks

., // i,

22Q..,

'Zzt

75yty:;
'iivr2i

lI

ve = vr
-

Ah =

= 0.429m'/ks
[g'l. = 0.1198 lHgl'n
LprJ
11381

cp

(T,

* Tr) = 1.0062 (20G -

Fig. 9. Polytropic Process

344) = -188.9 kJ/kg

A =&*aK+Ah+/"

Itelation among p, V, and T

AK--Ah=136,900J/kg

(a) Relation between p and

V.

AK=4-^r=*
D2r=

1Jz

(2k)(AK) = zf r

P,vi = Prvi

ffil

(b) Relation between T and

V.

1rg,966S ) = 277,800 m

To

= 527.1m/s

T
t,

/-vJ "-t

=1q1.

li.elation between T and p.

*.1

Polytropic Process

A polytropic

rn
Le

Ra
'r',

procebs

during which

is an internaliy

pV" = C and prVl = prVl = p,I"

reversible

r-lP.
l:--

-lp.

t_^ t--l

Nonflow work
It,

where n is any constant.

I

(paV = PrY, - P,V, " ,'l-n

mR (T,

'l'hc change of internal

energy
AIJ = mcu (T,

70

r-

I
I

T1)

T,)

4.

The heat transferred

(b)-

a = AU+W=

mc" (T2

- T,) +

mR-(T,

- ,fvao = {&t:!&
-n
T_n-- =

Tr)

,2 .
JPdv

1-n

Ic -nc +Rl (r2-r,)

= *Lffj

I'rohlems

- lffl

,n." f-!- "-j (T, _ T,)

Lr - I}_l

polytropic process, t0Ib of an ideal gas,

whose
l.^
3X"^1u: and
40 ft.lbnb.R
cop = o.-zs
__:_ _vwrv.r!, luau6,cs suate Irom zu
lrlr;r and 40'F to 120 psla
ra and 340"F. Determine (a) n, (f;4g
urr4
dY, (? (g) rf the pi"*,,
,iuuav
;ll,l
l,'rv !ilil,-(11'9:l"ljf
<luring which AK= 0, whaf is w"i]wuut
i. axirw"s
\Vlr;rI is the work fo, u

mc. (T,

Se

[c -

a=

cn =

D.

Juao=W"rAK
I

cu

nTl

(r'?-rr)

Tr)

-;l
lfrl
l'-t

, the polytropic specific heat

The change of enthalpy

AH = mcp (T2

It

etju.&1;;;;;;il l#;;
il{t
i

J;it1

"o"n*-p."i"rrZ

ilution

l',

ilO psia

ffn

120

l"

,10

l'"

it4o + 460 = g00"R

psia

R=40**

+ 460 = 500"R

Tr)

The c.hange of entropy

m = 10lb

cp

= o.2b

n_l

ln It
"T,

AS=mc
7. Steady

l),

=T'
Tr

l),

flow polytropic

(a)Q=AP+AK+AH+\
w"=Q_AP_AK_AH

w = Q_AH
(AP=0,aK=g;

n-l

liio
:ro

tr

J_ -_

g00
b00

ln6=ln1.6

tl

l 0.4700
rr =-1.7918

rr-

n = l.Bbo
72

'/3',

(b) c,

- cp

R = 0.25

AIJ = DCu (T2

#=

0.1986

(h) W" = JpdV = -433.3 Btu

Tr)

(800
= (10) (0.1986)

5oo)

= 595.8 Btu
AH

(c)

mcp (T2

=
=

(10) (0.25) (800

\,

- T1)

500)

2.

Compress 4 kg/s of COrgas polytropically (pVr.z C)

=
{ro3 pr = 103.4
= 60oC to-tr- zzT.C.Assumingideal gas
!lu,-t,
tction, frld pr,
ry, e;lS (a)g.as ionflow, (b) as a stleady flow
where
AP
l)rocesg
= 0, AK =

750 Btu

k = 5=
^9'^4 =r.25s
q 0.1e86

Solution
Pr = 103.4 kPa

AS

?= (10) (0'0541) r"ffi=

= -c" lt d,

0'2543+#

Tr = 60 +273 = 333
trr

(d)Q

=
=

mc"(Tr-Tr)
(10) (0'0541) (800

*#,

500)

eE+*L)-ffi
=

-433.3 Btu

(0 -JVap = nJRdV = (1'356) (-433'3) = -587'6 Btu

T, =227 +Z7B = b00K

) Nonflow

o, =

o,

L62.3 Btu

(e)Jnav-

fi=4\gs

[+..|
L rl

(10s.4)F$$]

w = ,hR %u
=

Lgo'-l

= r184.e kpa

__,4),0,1T16):900

- 33o

KJ

-631.13

c =c ll-d
" "Ll-ul

;-s

=ro.osorffi;]

(g) W" = -fVdP = -58?.6 Btu

AK

74

-JVap = -587"6 Btu

-0.2887

[]*
IT,

TIIF'

7. If 10 kg/min of air are compressedisothermally from p,

=, 96 kPa *{Vr.= 7.G5 ms/min to p, = 620 kpa, find tie worh,
ofentropy and the heat for (a) nonflow process and
flow proce-s-s_with or = lb m/s and u,
='60 Js.
Ans. (a) -tBZ0 kJ/min, _b. gbo kJK.min;iU)_f
386.9kJ
min

:he change

.b) a steady

8.

Gas Cycles

One pound of an ideal gas undergoes an isentropic

pf9c9s9^fr9m gb.B psig and a volume of 0.6 {tr

to a final volume
of 3.6 ft3. If c^ = 0.1,^2{3nd c, - 0.098 Btunb.R,
----'--' what
a.eia)
\
'!-asw *rv
(b) pr, (c) AH'and (d) W.

t'

Ans. (a) -2.r"F; (b) 10.09 psia; (c) _21.96

(d) 16.48 Btu

Fleat engine or thermal engine is a closed

system (no mass

.r'osses its boundaries) that exchanges

only heai

9. A certain ideal gas whose R = 22g.6 J/kg.K and c- = 1.01

HAg.X expands isentropically from lbt? kFa, ie8"t t" gO

kPa. For454 glsof this gas determine, (a)W",
fljV'i.iAU
(s) AH.
Ans. (a) 21.9 kJ/s;(b) 0.0649b m'/s; (d) 80.18
kJ/s

10. A polytropic process ofair from lbO psia, 800.F, and 1

occurs to p, = 20 psia in accordance with pVt.g - C. Determir

t, *d -%,- ft) lU, AH and AS, (c) JpaV and 9)

Compute the heat from

JVap. 1
the polytropic splcific heat and cl
by the equation Q = AU + fpdV. (e) Fina tne nonflow work
(f) the steady flow work for AK 0.
=
Ans. (a) 17.4"F, 4.71t ft3; (b) -2b.8f Btu, -86.14
0.0141Btu/"R; (c) 34.4f Btu,44.78 Btu; (d) g
Btu; (e) 34.41Btu; (0 44.?B Btu

rts surrounding and

lrlrr [;

3. a heat sink (also called a receiver, a cold body, just

or
rrrrk), to which the working substance can
reject rr""i; *a
4 ' an engine, wherein the
working substa'nce
*""r.
lr. lurve work done on it.
"rr"h"
A thermodynamic cycle occurs when the
working fluid of a
rv'l.t'm experiencer, u.ly.*,ber of processes that
Jventuaily
nrlrrrn the fluid to its initial state.

Cycle lVork and Thermal Effrciency

11. The work required to compress a gas reversibly accon

ing to p[r'ao = C is 67,790 J, if there is no flow. Detennine A
3"d Q if the gas is (a) air, (b) methane.For methane, k 1

R = 518.45 J/kg.K, c, = 1.6lg7, co= Z.lB77 kJ/kg.K'-

-"rr. *itr,

""a
that operates in cyclls.
Illements of a thermodinemic heat engine
with a fluid as
I lrr. working substance:
a working substance, matter that receives
heat, rejects
.lu,rrl,I and
does work;
2. a source of heat (also called a hot body, a heat reservoir,
,r'.;ust source), from which the working zubstancei*.*iuuc

Ans.(aiso.gi KI, -ro.esokl;ruiog.bo kJ, 4.zgkJ

-

(1.

QA

heat added

Qn

heat rejected

W-

net work

ftl

Available energy is that part of the heat that was converted

into mechanical work.
Unavailable energy is the remainder of the heat that had
be rejected into the receiver (sink).

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

AII energy receiued as heat by a heat-engine cycle cannot
conuerted into mechanical work.

Work of a Cycle

(a)W=IQ
W=Qo+(-Qn)

(Algebraic sum)

W=Qo-

(Arithmetic difference)

Q*

(b) The net work of a cycle is the algebraic sum ofthe

done by the individual processes.

W= LW

Operation of the Carnot Engine

A cylinder C contains m mass of a substance. The cylindor
head, the only place where heat may enter or leave the subgtance (system) is placed in contact with the sounoe of heat or
hot body which has a constant temperature Tr. Heat flows from
the hot body into the substance in the cylinCler isothermally,
l)rocess l-2, and the piston moves from tr' to 2'. Next, the
t:ylinder is removed from the-hot body and the insulator I ie
placed over the head of the cylinder, so that no heat may be
l,ransfemed in or out. As a result, any further process is
ndiabatic. The isentrppic change 2-3 now occurs and the piston
moves from 2' to 3'. When the piston reaches the end of the
sl.roke 3', the insulator I is removed and the cylinder head is
placed in contact with the receiver or sink, which remains at a
ronstant temperature T". Heat then flows from the substance
t,rr the sink, and the isothermal compression B-4 occrut while
tlrc piston moves from 3'to 4'. Finally, the insulator I is again
lllnced over the head and the isentropic cor.npression 4-1 ret,urns the substance toits initial condition, as the piston moves
ftom 4'to 1'.

W=Wr-r+Wr"r+W'n+..
The Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle concei
There are otherideal cycles as effrcient as the Carnot cycle; but
none more so, such a perfect cycle
forms a standard ofcomparison
for actual engines and actual cycles and also for other less effisient ideal cycles, permitting as
to judge how much room there
might be for improvement.

H'
m

Fig. 11. The Carnot Cycle

82

Vm
Fig. 12 Canrot Cycle

Anulysis of the Carnot Cycle

(ln

= Tl (S2 - Sr), area l-2-n-m-1

(1,, = T3 (S4 Ss), area B-4-m-n-B
83

-TB (Ss

w-

Qn

(Tl

S. ) = *Tr (S2 - Sr)

Q* = Tr

Ts) (S2

(Tr

(Sz

Sr)

S1), arca

- T3) (Sz -

Ts (S2 - Sr)

L'2-3'4'l

Tr-T,

g=

e = ---Erl
The thermalefficiencye is definedas the fractionoftheheat
cycle that is converted into work
; supplied to a thermodynamic

Work from the TS Plane

Q^

mRTrfn

Qn

mRTrln

g=

(Tt

mRl"

Tr)
(Tr

w
a;

mRTrh

+-v

Ts) mR

ln fvl

kL
,V,

mRT.

Tt-Tt

-T,

Work from the pV plane.

W = IW

V.-V3

w = p,v,l"

1;

\[ = A^ - a- = mRTrtnt

w-

Sr)

o"= - r;s;;r

e=

Q* = -mRTrt"

-mRTrln

= Wr_, + Wr-, + Wr-n + Wr-,

t. &+: :J,+ p,v,rnf,.&tJ{.

From process 2-3,

T3 l-v, l*-'

=Lv'J

Mean Effective Pressure (p_ or mep)

P-=W
VD

From process 4-1,

T,

-l-v,J.-'
11 -lfJ
but Tn = Ts and Tr =T2

- | =
therefore,l V"-k-r

LqI

then,

84

&

%
=vr
v,

Vp = displacement volume, the volume swept by the piston

rr one stroke.
Mean effective pressure is the average constant pressure
l,ir:rt, acting through one stroke, will do on the piston the net
work of a single cycle.

Ratio of Expansion, Ratio of Compr.ession

I,)xpansion ratio

vglute,3t

end of expansiql
-.,
the
= volumeattheffiili
ft5

Point
Isothermal exPansion "atio

,:-

ratro =
IsentroPic exPansion

naRT. (2) (53.34) (960)

vr = -E-

VL

1;

% =
of

EH*#

lsothermal comPression ratio

--*

[:t:^ = 11ee.7''b-d
L.aJ

l-sso-l

na

= 24.57 psia

mRT"

(2) (53.34) (530)

=-(24,s7) ( lll*4) = 15.72

%= -Ti

Overall comPression tutio = \t

f13

Point 4:

ratio
ratio rn is the compression
The isentropic compression
most commonlY used'

Problems

on 2 lb
A Carnot power cvcle operates

{l*j::?*ii?
'ffi
b;:.
"ttffi
n""q;l"^:l
Ho"n
#
ri*i,
:l: *,".':t'H :f
;bd n* ilu^* 11:, : 11 :'-' i;1'":ff31
l'ffi:S J'";n#J'#*ff;;il;
?qif vorume at the end
rD rvu ]'"'b' - - ffilT.f#H;
lX"-lff
?xpallsrv[
' isothermal process,
proce
nS durine an
-.";^- rlt
G) lP
isothermal compression,
$"t"q: - ^r ^-aanoinn rlrrrine
(h)
iil'6::?.i' 6Ji";fi:ie
ffil,3
:, g*:
:** or"*pansion,
$""#"ffi:T and
ft;;rr iutio
h[fi;
lll,?*,$*;1il*
,

the mean effective Pressure'

[q = (1b.?2)F-ffi =

v4=

v,

(a)

= 7.849 ftg

(b)

^s,-,

mRln

t=

Q.%19

2.84e rtg

h*ffi = o"oeoz{fi

(c) Qo = Tr (AS) = (960) (0.0952) = 91.43 Btu

(d) QR

- -T,

(AS) =

{530) (0.0952) = - 50.46 Btu

(e) W = Qn - Qn = 91.4g -50.46 = 40.97 Btu

Solution

m= 2lb
Pr=
Tr=

400 psia

Pz=

199.7 Psia

Tr=

ft(;

+=ti$ffit#,=8.b61

Pg= p,

rr. Y^Isentropic compression ratio' = 1;

1.

-I4OOXI4;JI= = L.778 ft,3

Point 3:

Point 2:

Overall exPansion 'utio = h

Compression ratio =

1:

960'R
530'R

(o

o'4481 ot
" l[=4s
a^ fl'43- =
=

(8)I*oth""-al

44'8Lvo

expansion ratio =

* =ffi =,
87

s
o
15

<r
oq

rt

MI
to9

,-E!vv a EF
osoo{r

dE

6lIOtirO

ilillllttl

.d

bo

rn
c\r
oO

(a

o
tl

3lv
allt?
<{ lv
st3

ilo
FIE

OJ

oi
o,
tl

lolol
'lC'l'
o

-l

ro

!i{

-l-,:
tl

RIE

tl

,RlAl

>1+
dltr
ll

rt

19

-l ;

fi
|r)

cl

a
a

Io

ca

-q

o?
tl

Hla
l-lvfl

I
tl

ll

fl

le."le''*.

<l

c,a

tl

t=---r
6It=
I l*l
tl

{.r
r;
rRlR
t'

ll
*{
0r

d le
o

-lH
lj

-@

eqq
ct?
"ql
Frl
il

AIA
vtyJ

I,_ 116l
lOrt

coA

F'lro
rO
sv.:v

il"

vll

i./

)!c

f;
HJ_l-d
co

cld

I-

^:t{

-t,'

'II

qolH
(ol
@l '

rlq

lF-l
'. lro

@la tll

Fl

NlOIr

tl

fl a

II
rlatA,I lJlrl

-*
,-()

lt

.ol

rtE

[E! E

E'E:E

:;

of;E-EAES8

if Fil" * dF" H g e iAE*q

,r
r
T
""
{
H H,FEd
"o o''
o g i 'EHd i'

B*EE,

?:3+

Ei gt

s
E
fi;JE
;
3
HE
' 3 TB.
H-ti-L$* EiiE}
(0

E{

1l

il'r*;

-lu

c..i

X'a

c
.H

Ef

ronoJ
t-O<r
CQ rO

r.E

lr:

FB

drlF

illlll

Er

C-

d
R
o
ts
,fa
rb
B
3

sa

ll

rr:<

Fa
o
O/?

l<t
^lFr

colY
FIA

6I.i

$E
9ii
.ab

E
gh

Eg

t:

('JI

f.ll
:l\
c-lFi
-o
b0d

3l-l

+t9{
el\
lF{

,-

t>

Bl
ti'

E;O
tssd

.5x a_

<EE
9.X
..EE

o
u)
$

F{

cO

a
g

ddt'

"olQ
ll

--r

g{l!o
\Itr
rril\

'liil

.X

.d. d
>"b

,
l^lrO

5
'E

r
llv
IcE
lrrll

|lr
|I
IpI,
lxrl
IOA

laBl;
lHrl
IO)
lAd
lv
.E
IV

I
I
I

I
I

II

Qe

=
=

en=

(m) (c") (T3 -

Tr) = (0'1382) (-0'6808) (540

939'9)

c_ 1.0411
ro={=yiffi,=1'3ee

37.63 Btu

mRr.rn{=,Wt"*h

Point

n
=
'!{ =

1:

v.
'' =
-

-27.82FJttt
Qo

c, + R = 0.7442+ 0.2969 = 1.0411 KI

EAIF

cp =

Q* = 37.63 -27.82 = 9'81 Btu

o -A sz
As.ir:fl=-bao

-IT, - (2.5) (q396e) (e50) = 0.8522 m3

827.4
&

Point 2:
Qn = mco (T,

_o.osrdlg
=

Tr)

-132.2 = (2.5) (1.0411) (T,

(9.8!X179)w
p-=ql172=
ffi-v'LvEe'

= B.lb psi

Tz = 899'2

gas with- R = 2963 Jfte)

2. T\vo and a half kg of an ideal
kPa and a
(K) and c" =6i++i r'"lltr'?Xrc11i a-ryJt:y""
9f 127 't
heat at constant pres'
temperatrfe b6Fc *J*t 132.2 kJ of
C to a point

to nJis =
"f
sure. The e""1;it""-"d;a*a "tto"ails
back to its
bring-tle
wil
p"ot"tt
where a constant volume
100 Hz'
for
poier in kW
original ttateS;t"rttil; er;q' *d the

e:

%=

- 9b0)

u,F,]

(0.8b22)ffi21 = 0.8066 mg

rsro.rlffi"u-'

Point 3:

r, = r,

H]"''

= 880.e K

Solution

Qo = mco (T,

Tr) + mcv (Tr

Qn = (2.5X-{.4435X886.9

v
Pr=
rF
11 -

Q*=

827.41,Pa
677 +273= 950K
- 132.2 kJ

Qn

'![

T3)

S99.2) + (2.5>(a.7442)(950- 886.9)

131 IGI

= Qo-Q*=131 -L32.2=-L.2kJ

- if r#iFosgfl

=-12okw
1)

Review Problems
l.ThbworkingsubstanceforaCarnotcycleis8lbofair.

feginning of isothermal expansion is.9 cu ft

during the
*a tn" pressure is 360 psia. The ratio of expansion
is
uaaiuo" of heat is 2 and the temperature of the cold body
(h)
(g)
(0
the
P-,,
;0"F, Fi;J (a) Qe, o) QR, (c) vr, (d) pr, (e) vn, pn,
(i)
the
and
process'
isenlropic
ratio of u*purrsion duffng the
overall ratio of comPression.
(d)
Ans. @) gia.a, Btu; (b) -209.1 Btu; (c) 63.57 99.ft;
(h)
3"53;
25.(/-p*iu; t"> ef.Zg cu ft; (f) 51.28 psia; (g) 13'59 psia;
The volume at the

(8) 7.06

in
Gaseous nitrogen actuates a Carnot power -cycle
whict the respective iolumes at the four corners of the cycle,
Vri
rt"*frtg ;tlnetUegittning of the isothermal expansion' arg cvcle
L
3
r57'7
zza.r+!, *1 Yr
ib. iit i; v, = 1 4.bI L, v
Jhc
"Z
Determine (a) the work and (b) the
it"it.
t<.1
of
receives zi.r
mean effective Pressure.
Ans. (a) 14.05 kJ; (b) &'91kPa

2.

fnternal Combustion Engines

Internal combustion-engine'is a heat engine

deriving its
power from the energy liberated by
the exploJion oi" *l*trr"
of some hydrocarbon, in gur*o.r, or vaporized form,
with
atmospheric air.

Spark.Ignition (SI) or Gasoline Engine

Erh06l

the thermal efficiency of the carnct cycle in

3. show
-of thatisentropic
compression ratio rk is glven
the
terms

bvg=l- .

1.

L-l

rk
Two and one'halfpounds of air actuate a cyclecomposed
urith n =
of the following pro"u*t"*t polytropic compressiol Y'
known
The
3-1'
1.5; constant pressure 2-3-; constant volume
Btu' Determine (a)
au1,a *", p, = i0 p.iu, t, = 160'F, Q* = -1682
plane' in Btu;
i^
iul th;;;;k'of the cvcle'using the pV
(e)
efficiency, and
(J) ""a
. -: -.
'-' Q^,' (ai tne thermal
(a) itzo'R,4485'R; (b) 384'4'Btu; (c) 2067 Btu;

4.

t-

p-'

- Arrr.

Infoh ttrcb

Comprarrlcn Strol.

Ittr.u!t lkol.

Fig. lB. Four-stroke Cycle Gasoline Engine

A cycla beginr wilh the intoke slroke or fhe pirlon move3
down the cylinder ond drows in o fuet.oir
mixlure' Next, the pisron compresse3 rhe mitture
whire rnoving up ri,. iyiiJ"r.-iiri.'i"o
or n.
comprersion ttroke. fhe spork prug ignites rhe mixrure.
Br:rning gq!es puth ,he pirton down for fho
piston rhen,o"1, ,p the cytinde-gJ", prrhrg
rhe'burneJ
ori!"rins

i".ilTrili?ii;lte

for",

*,o

(d) 18.60%; (e) 106.8 Psi

1'0et
5. Athree-process cycle of anideal gas'.forwhi*.htr=
compresisentropic
an
*aI." = 0.804 lr,yl*e.K', tl-tTlt"FibyIiPa. A cbnstant volume
t

sion 1-2 from rog.a"kpa, 27 "C 1060g. 1

3:l 11ll n= L'Zcomplete the cvcle'
p"".*t Z-S and a
(a) Qa, ft) W'
Circulation ir rtiuiv raL of o.go5 kg/s, compute
"
(c) e, and (d) p-.
Ans. (a) 41.4 k'ys; &) - 10 kJ/s; @\ 24'157o; (d) 19'81
kPa
92

The four-stmkg cycre is one wherein four strokes

of the
piston, two revolutions, are required to complet"
u.y.l".'

*-ftti*t

9:i

,V

wnere

Otto Cycle
The Otto

cYcle

is the ideal prototype'of spark-ignition

engines.

the isentrcpic compression ratio

"* =vr.,

Derivation of the form ,la for

e
Process l"-2:

5_
Tr- t-rl-l

LVol

T, = Tr"oo-t

'

(2)

Process B-4:

FiS. 14. Air-standard Otto CYcle

Air.standardcyglemeansthatairaloneistheworking
medium.
1-2: isentroPic comPression
2'3: constant volume addition of heat
3-4: isentmPic exPansion
4-1: constant volume rejection of heat

&
I-v;l*''
=F
T=
Lr*J

L-l
(3)
T, = Tn"*
Substituting equations (2 ) and (3)
in equation

'-E4rffi

a - ,

=
Qn =
\{ =

mc" (T,

- Tr)
mc, (T, - Tn) = -mc" (Tn- Tr)
(T4 Qn - Q* ' BC" (Ts - Tr) - BC'

e=fr=ffi
r-#+F

e = 'rr - rz
e = 1-+
rl

94

(1)

Tn-T,

e = 1_n+
-t

Analysis of the Otto CYcle

Qe

tI

IVorh from the pVplane

Tr)

W=

IW = Pr%'- 9rV, * O,? - -%

O,

Clearance volume, per cent'clearance

"*=f=q;r=Hg6
_l+c

".*c

(t)

lrr
where

(a) Point

= pr cent clearance
% = clearance volume
Vn = dsplacement volume

v,

t:

s"-

*rt

fV
p, = prLfrJ
= P, (r*)h = (13) (5.5;r.e = 119.2 psia

Cold-air standard, k = 1.4

Hot-air standard, k < 1.4
The thermal elficiency of the theoretical Otto cycle is

Tr=Tt

Increased by increase in r*
Increased by increase in k
Independent of the heat added

l.l

el

(r*)h-r

= (590) (b.b;r.s-r = ggB.9.R

tz = 523.9,F

The average family car has a compression ratio of about 9:1.

The economical life of the average car is 8 years or 80,000

miles of motoring.

Problems

1. An Otto cycle operates on 0.1 lb/s of air from 13 psia and

13trF at the beginning of compression. The temperasture at
the end of combustion is 5000oR; compression ratio is 5.5; hotair standard, k = 1..3. (a) Find V' p2, t s, ps, V3, tn, and pr. (b-)
Compute Qn, Qj,'W, e, and the corresponding hp.
Solution

m=
^k
k=

Pr=

Tr=
Ts=

96

= 1.oar

Point 2:

Ideal standard of comparison

1.
2.
3.

(0.1x-.94)l_5eo)

0.1 lb/s
o.o
1.3
13 psia
130 + 460 =
5000"R

li

l'6=81
v-z-t
= 5.8 = o.Bob6 &i
=
s

Point B:

%=%=0.3056ts

Point 4:

l-ti : r'r
r. = 4Li-J
=(boo)m"'
tr = 2538"tr'
o, =

[+J=

(2ee8)H=

66.r psia

= 2998"R

Btu
R =53.34 ==0.22t(h)c=
v'o'c'o l6.R"
\u'f cv =
L11 (zzgfitm
Qo = rhc"

Qn =

(T,

Tr) = (0.1) (0.2285) (5000

c'=

Qn =

Tn) = (0.1) (0.2285) (590

"*

2998)

Q*

91.77

=f= tdi%to =,,

(a) Point 2:

-55'03 Btu

W = Qo

55.03

o =W =3!'75=0.4005

36.75

ry

'

v, 0.0!
'"' =T=
#

W'=

Pz =

BtuX60+)

'smrn

n'*t#ftnr

= o'003455 m3

T, = Tr"*t't = (805)

ot4A.O1Vo

tl

(36.?5

=o'8444*k

-=*+ =ffi=o'o43e6lce

983.9)

sr.zz ntrt

Qp = rhcu (T,

E*=m

Pr{

{ll;t't-t

= (101.8)

(tt;

= 6g9 K

t'e

= 2blg lipa

Point 3:

=52hp

Q^ = mc" (T,

2. The conditions at the beginning of compression in an

Otto engine operating on hot-air standard with k ='1.34, are

101.3 kPa,0.038 m3 and lz'C.The clearanceisL0%oand 12.6hI
are added per cycle. Determine (a) V' T*P* T3, Ps, Tn atd p.'
(b) W, (c) e, and (d) p-.

Tr)

12.6 = (0.04396) (O.UU)(TB

Tg

689)

= 1028 X

Ps =

Solution

r,ltJ=

(2518)

t8rfl

= BZbzkpa

Point 4:

t =t{W"'=r&l'],r*r{*J
P, = 101.3 kPa
V, = 0'038 mg
Ti=32"C +273 =306

n,

=n,ffi:r,91]ruzuaftl'

1.t4.1

=455K

= 16l kPa

(0'8444) (305
(b) Qn = mc" (T1- T1) = (0'04396)

455)

Q* = -5'57 kJ

W = Qn

,\
(c)
(d)

Qn

kJ
= L2'6-5'5? = ?'03

- W - 7.99-= 0.558 or 55.87o

e=q=
12Sp.

12.6

=#" = #T,= o55s -

oso3455

(b)

(")

= 364.7 kPa

Fig. 16. Air-standard Diesel CYcle

1-2: isentropic comPression

2-3: constant-pressure addition of heat

3-4: isentropic expansion
4-1: constant-volume rejection of heat

or Diesel Engine
Compression-Ignition

Analysis of the Diesel CYcle

Qn = mcn (Ts

T2)

I -."

Tn)

Q*

ln|!l.

Sl.ok.

ComF.trlon
ComF'trlon

Sftok'

?ow'r Stlol'

Crh!urt Sitol'

Diesel Engine
Fig. 15. Four-stroke Cycle

the piston moves

with the intake stroke when
and draws'"t1':-:ini'".-""ussion stroke' the tem''
downanddraws"ilffi
down
when o' is
:H3:j!rye?tio"'
1l
n*J,ffi";
it -i*"t *iift ttt" hot air and
the
into
iniected
"tU"a"1
'U'"
rra$tru
Prvuuvv- -"
burnsexplosivelv'e;'";;;;'"'*:Jg1*;if
burns explosrvery'
During the exhaust
do*o ror the Power strt,k". the burned gases
forces
*t*k", the piston #"; ;;Jt; ""d
out of the cYlinder'
A cycle begins

ll:

ffi;"tfit"oo

iil;t;*:: j*:t:-::f".1fit:11
Htr

W = Qe -

(T,

QR = mcn

-DC, Tn - Tr)
(T,

-T,

-DC"

"=frW
e=

.1- T.-T

Fd:fJ

(T1

Tr)

(4)

=1-

::f,1f'l
where

"*

""

=F
=

+,

the comPression ratio

the cutoffratio

l0l

Point 3 is called the cutoffPoint.

Derivation of the fornula for

efficiency ofthe Diesel cycle differs from that of.th* ( )r,r.r,

-The
cycle by the bracketed factor".o'1 . This factor i*iit*,,vu

trFT

greater than 1, because r" is always greater

than l. Thus, lirr rr
particularcompression ratio rn, the otto cycle
is more efficiont.
However, since the Diesel eigirr" compresses
air only, thr,
compression ratio is higher than in an otto engine.
An actual
Diesel engine with a compression ratio of lb is
mo"e efficierrt
than an actual otto engine with a compression ratio of
9.

Process 1-2:
'- *k-l
T"=Lv^,l
lv,
q
k-l
T, = Tr"*
I

(5)

Relation among rLr r.r and r" (expansion ratio)

Process 2-3:

t-

ft={;

=f"

rk-

Ts = Trrrk'tr.

(6)

L% -L
-%

t =[+][q

' \=f"f"
Process 3-4:

Problems

t=F;-'=m-'=*'
Tn=Trrnk-l
Tr = Trr"k

H
(7)

1' A Diesel cycie operates with a compression ratio of l3.b

and" with a outoffoccuring at 6vo of the stroke.
state 1 is defined
ta psia and 14OF. Foithe hot-air standard with t<
!f
= f .ga ana
for an initial I cu ft, comp-ute (a) tz, p2,,.Uz,tsn
po,
,rrl-tn, {b)
%,
Q*, (c) w, (d) g uttd p-. (e) For aratlof"ciic,riauon irrooo.r-,
compute the horsepower.
Solution

Substituting equations (5), (6), and (7) in equation (4)'

T.t"ni.-e=1-m\f-'r--ffii)

'.,'4^

rn = 13.5

= 1.84
p, = 14 Psia
Tr=140+460=600'R

y, =lcuft

. 1 f-t"*-rl
e=r-,r-rlq:11l
r02

Io;l

c,

53.34
= (078) (1.34 1)
-

=FIf

cn =

kc" =

(1

.34) (0'2016)

(144]jp

p,V, _
* = alf
= (b&lr+,1 (buu)
(14)

=OrOtUffi
0'2702

ffi"

Qn = 8.52

= o.68o rb

(13.5)1 31-t = 1454oR

pz = prrr.k = (14) (13.5I'34 = 457.9 psia

Point 3:
(Vl -V2)
% = V, + 0:06VD = % + 0.06
ftc
(1
% = 0.0741 + (0.06) - 0.0?41) = 0.1'297
0.L297
- r\il = G454) i,^g?A
r, = Trl_C

= 2545"R

(l

-.0:,0741) (144)

ft''l
nin-l
[""ir*f
fo*
w_
42.4 lltu

'= 287 hp

min.hp

2. There are supplied 317 kJ/cycle to an ideal Diesel

engine operating on227 g air: p, = 9?.91 kPa, t, = 48.9oC. At the
end ofcompression, pz = 3930 kPa. Deteruineia) ro, (b) c, (c) r",
(d) W, (e) e, and (f) p-.
Solution

Point 4:

lli2gfl

L1J

o. =

l)oint

n,lt'J

oo., IgJZgZl'''n = 29.7 psia

= (45't.e)

[-T.]

m = 0.227 kg.
P, = 97.91 kPa
Tr = 48.9 + 273 = 321.g K
Pz = 3930 kPa
Qo= gf7 kJ/cycle

'''n-' = 12?1"R

tr = 811oF

54.L2Eo

a^
P- = (10.05) (778) = 58.64 psi

r-v-r

T.) = (0.063) (0.2016) (600 -72i:l1r)

Btu

\------(
\\

t, = 2085'F

= (2545)

- iaga)

18.57

(e)

r, l_sf''
LvrI

(d) e = W = f0.05 = 0.54L2 or

tz = 994oF

rn =

Tr) = (0.063) (0.2702) (2545

(c) W= QA- Qn = 18.57 -8.52= 10.05 Btu

T, = Tr#-1 = (600)

Btu

Qn = mc" (T,

v,=1fS = 0'0741 ft3

=#x

DCo (T3

Qe = 18.57

(a) Point 2:

V,

(b) QA =

..

1:

v --r
'l-

mRT.
ll
.:l

* (0.227) (0.28708) (32r.e) = 0.2143 mg

97.9r
10s

ryPoint 2:

(d) QB - &c, (T,

1

Qn = -136.9

1.1

u, =

urffl

= (0-2143)

0.0153 m3

ffi

W = Qo

(e) e =

Tr=T, lo;l+'=(821.e)

IJil

Hfl1f

= sz4lK

Point 3:

vr,if

((
i= ).olb3)

L-2)

- 924.4)

fg6.g = lg0.l kJ

P= lao.t = 0.b6g1 or 56.glvo

QA 317

1fl P- =g=

l0o.l _=
vD =.w
vr_%=o-zr+s:00rog

9ob kpa

In modern compression ignition

engines
constant during the.combristio" p"o"ess the pressure is not
manners illustrated in the ng"*.-ili;*J but varies in the

il ffi* ol" *

lW1=

o.oB8B mg

P24A

,,=*b{'=(rrrr) B*?H"

combustion can be conside*dt";il;ach

a constant-vorume
process, and the late burning,
u *;rilunt-pressure process.

= 1161k

-V--o.oi^re -'
"'* =vr=0.2143_14

(b) f,=-*c

Fig. tZ. Air_Standard Dual Cycle

1+c

1+c
1r
I4t
=-

c
(c)

106

= 0.0769 or 7.69Vo

0.0383 t
f-c= v^
-!iL =--:-::= - 2.50

v,

0.0153

kI

Point 4:

(a)

-tt6t

DuaI Combustion Engine

3r7 = Q.227) (1.0062) (T3

v,

Tr) = (0.227)(0.2186) (B zt.g

- QR = 317 -

Qn = mco (Ts - T2)

T, = 2312I(
Im|

l-2: isentropic compression

2-B: constant_volume addition
of heat

3-4: constant-pressure addition

of heat
4-b: isentroplc expansion
5-1: constant-volume rejection
of heat

Analysis of Dual Combustion Cycle

Qo = mc, (T,

Tr) + mcp (T. _

fr)

Q* = me, (T1
W = Qe

g='W=

T6) =

-mc" (Tr

- Qn = mc" (\ - Tr) + mco (T1 - Ts) - DC" (T6 - Tr)

mc" (T,

\QA

- Tr) + mc, (T, - Tr) - mc, ('t'o

mc, (T, - Tr) + mco (Ta - T, )

e=l-

where

Procesg B-4:

Tr)

\/v t

^g

il= f,=""

T,)

Tn =

Trrr

t'lr;{"

, (lt)

(8).

=S,' the pressure ratio during the consant volume

poii"" of co-U"stio"
v the
rr
ratio
""o P,

compression

=titr,
,2

r.'

tn
4a

\r

=#,
Y3

the cutoffratio

thernal,efficiency of this cycle lies between that of the

ideal Otto qnd the ideal Diesel.
Th'b

Derivation of the formula for e

Proccss 1-2:

Tu =

Trr*'t-l ror.

Tu=

Tpor"r

(r2)

too"otuting equatirins (9), (10), (11),

and (12) in equation
or.

l-T

=l-

*L

o=lProblems
the *tllpg
.bustion
L. At
cvcle, the

-lv,l

-k-1

T"
q=LrJ /

d:op-p."*rsion in an ideal dual

com-

n"ia-ir i ru
"irri"i-iijT#"
at the end of ""a
:.ilI i il"- p"*rru*
tlre

w.orki"ng

The compre*io.l

99:F..
constant
volume addrtion or n*ullrito
added 100 Btu
th;,;il;;ilpor*,ro expansion. Find
(a) ro, (b) r", (c) the percentage
cfearence, (d) e, and 1e) p_.

uA*

T" = Trr*I'r
Process 2-3:

;;i""#;;#;

"*

t=#="
T, = Trrrk-t

rn

(10)

r0g

*'
Point 5:

Solution

m = llbair
p., = 14.1 psia
T, = 80+460=540oR
pa = 470 psia
rk= 9
Qr-n

t,

= 100 Btu

r" =t=
v,

!g!tg = L.Zr
1.576

(c)r.-1+c
*c

u,=-3l'-=%#ffi#=la186rt3

9=1+c
c

Point 2:

v.

14.186

%=t=-t-=
rir-'l
Tr= T,

l+
I
L'rJ
l-v,l*

= 0.125 or ]'Z.EVo

(d) QA =

1.576ft3

Q-, + Qr.n = (m)

= (540) (9) ''n-' = 1300R

= (14.1) (9)

1'4

Qn = (mXc"XT,

- lB00) + 100 = 219.8 Btu

Tu) = (1X0.1714X840- 1082)

=

-92.9 Btu

"

w
P*=V,-%

Tr=T, [pJ

Tr) + 1oo

W 219.8-e2q o'5773 0r
^=Q;=
57 '73Vo
--fts-=:: =

= 305.6 psia

Point 3:

= ffi (126.e) (778\

=54.3?psi

2. An ideal dual c'ombustion cycre operates on 4b4 g of air.

At the beginning ofcomp_ression, the airis at g6.b3 p",?g.g"c.
t
Itet ro - 1.5,,r..= 1.!-0, an{ r* 11. Determine (a)
the percentage
=

LF;J

Point 4:
(T.
Qr-n = (m) (co)

(e") (T,

= (1) (0.1?14) (1999

k-l

l, = n,l_if

100 = (1) (0.24) (T4

('lea.rance, (b) p,
(d) s, an6 (e) p-.

Tr)

Tn = 24J.6"R

= v,R] = o.b?o)

f+f

V, and T at each corner of the cycle, tc) e-n,

Solution

1999)

I'

il0

= 1082"R

+!y = L.54
=g=
Pz 305.6

1:

v.

t l+ln.'= (rnru)
L_'I-J
E&1"

(a) r^
P
(b)

Point

= 1.905 ftg

'f-\.
t,\:

,-/i

A'

'/ -""
,2'

m = 0.454kgof air
P, = 96.53 kPa
T, = 43.3 + 273 = 816.3 K
rp = l'5
r" = 1'60
rr = ll

ill

W = Qr

(a)-rk--1+c

11

"=6o=

1+c

=-;

g = 0'10

or

(0.28?08) (316'3)

vt- --11
o.42t]*,
vr =T;-=
l-v-lr'-r

,, = t,FJ*-'=
I-vlF

ft'1

278.3

474

= 0.5871

or 58.7lVo

278.3
= 716.8 kPa
o.427L - 0.03883

= e.427r ms

= o.oB88B m3

8254K
T, ("n) *-'= (316'3) (11)'n-' =

(96.b3) (11) ''n =2770'81.Pa

= pr(roy =

ps = (Pz) ("n) = (2??0'8)

(t'5) = 4156'2 kPa

,, = r,fog

ffi

Vn = (Vr)

Q* = 474-L95.7 = 278'3 kJ

w
(e,p_=Vr5,=

IUVo

mRT, (0.454)
(b)Vr=-p;=re

p, = n,

= (82b.4)

K
'288.1

(r.) = (0'03883) (t'60) = 0'06213 m3'

l-ri-l
K
rn = t'L+l= (1238'1) (1"6) = Le81

I-vln',
,, = -r.LirJ
pu =

= (1e81)

Bm''n-'

= e16.2

l-m-l (e6.53) e1g.?

=27s .6 kpa
p,l+l=
'L'

316'3

(c) Qe - (m) (c") (T,

Tr)

(0.454X0.?186X1238'1
=

* (m) (cn) (T4 825'4)

T3)

(0'454X1'0062X1981-1238'

l)

= 474kJ
(d) QR = (m)(c"XT,

-Tu)

= (0'454X0'?186X316'3

- 916'2) = 195'?

I t:l

-l
Review Problems
the hot'air standard
An ideal Otto engine, operating on
ratiJof 5' At the beginning of
with k = 1.34, h^t
and
uor"-"is 6 cu ft' the pressure is 13'?5 psiaheatconstant'volume
the temperature i. fOO"f' Ouring the (u) (b) T" (c) p" (d) e'
c'
ritta
cvcle'

1.

;;;;;;tfi

;;;;t;;;irt"
uaJJp"t
t"g, il;'Bl"
^t"
and (e) p-.
Ans,

7 ""s Compressors

(a) 257o; (b) 5209"R; (c) 639'4 psia; (d) 42'14Vo;

(e) 161.2 Psi

operates
2. An ideal Otto cycle engine 'lrrtlnll%o clearance
The
i"Lx" !tut". is 100'58 kPa' 37'7oC'
on 0.227 kg/s of
is 110 kJ/s' For hot-air
energy released d;l;;;*bustion
(a)
p'
V' and T at each corner'
standard with k = isi,-"o-pute
(b) W, (c) e, and (d) P-'
t"1t':f:
*'r., o
kPa;
;6. + x, zazo.t r<P a, 5s2,1K 19 1'71
kPa
301'1
(b) 52'7 kJis; (c) 47 '9LVo;(d)
is from 14'7 psia'
3. In an ideal Diesel engine compression
Btu/cvcle are added as heat'
80"F, 1.43 cu ft to 5d0;tt* i"hi" tu
and find (a) T" V2' T3'
Make computatio,', f* cold-air standard
and (d) the hp for 300 cvcles/
v3, Ta, and pn, ft)
mrn.
ft3' 2113:l' 0'1&6 ft3' 890'I
Ans. (a) t4?9"R,0'1152
gt"; (e) 60'637o' 39'9 psi; (d) 68'

"ii

a";.*Ai;.idig

i.pili

029?qm'hl:9:*

Operation of Compressor
Discharge

Di5charge

Valve

Intake
Valye

Compressbn

w;i;;""Jp-'

l rtruenlionol Diogrom without Clearance.

Conuenttonal Diagram witn

Fig.

zi.ipui^;(Ujg'Z
hp

overall value of k =
For an ideal Diesel eycle with the
gi'g kPa' find P2 and p,"'
1.33.' r,- = 15, r. =2.l,Pr=
^Anr. 35-89 kPa, 602 kPa

4.

t,

is pJ = 1 atm
State 1 for a dual combustion engine
Joo.g;Cfrn = 18; a! th9
i' zogr kPa'-r" = 1'5' tsase on l kg/
standard with k = 1-31,.deiermine 1")!l-^P:1
(b) p, v, andr at each corner point on the

5.

;t;J,"o;;J;ilp*til" "i*{*::"Y?L::t:*",?fr

;ilil;i-;r

;;;;i;;.""ce,

(c) W, (d) e, and (e)

P-'

ilJ.*-a);.EEq";&) 0.e443 m, Q'!szjo^3i *9q

;;4.; n, i ilio.zK, 0.0?869 Ti' ?^19e;3.*
(e) 900
f.p"pZO.g K; (c) 803.5 kJ; (d) 57'a3%;

114

18.

v
Clearance.

Fig. t9

Figure 18 shows a conventional indicator card for

a compressor without clearance. As the piston
starts the stroke 4-r,
the inlet valve opens and gas is drawn into
the cylinder arong
[he line 4.'1. A-t point 1, th; piston starts
ttr"
ui"nr.", u,l
va ves being closed, and the gas is compressed"e1,r*
along the curve
t-2. Atz,the discharge valve opens und th";;pGfigas
is
<lclivered to the receiver.
The events of the d"iagr"m with clearance are
the same as
with no clearance, except that since trre piston J* ,rot
lirrce.all the gas from the cylirrdu" at the pr"rrrrr"-o.,
tfr*
rcmsifilg gas must re-expand to the intake p"urr".*,
irL*r,
it 4, before intake starts again. without
clearance, th* ioi r-o
l'lrose

Il5

r^, p,V,,

Preferred Compression Curves

"'=f;4=

(lob) (6)

= 5.722 kg/min

(ozmtGoo

The work necessary to

drive the compresor decreases
as the value of n decreases.
Polytropic compression and
values of n less than k are
brought about by circulating
cooling water.

(a) Isentropic compression

w- E#

Comparison of work for

Isothermal and for Isentropic

Compression.

I rp,t-

-l

Llp;j

t.67-

T_

'630y1

ffi

rsz

105,

- 1652 kJ/min

Another solution:
k-l

The heat rejected during compression 1-2 is,

Tr)

T2

-,r
- ^t l&l*
lP,
I-'J

= -AH =

Problems
=

1. A rotary compressor receives 6 m3/min. of a gas (R = 410

J/kg.K,c- = 1.03 kJ/kg.K, k = 1.67) at 105 kPa, 27"C and delivers
it at 630 LPa. Find the work if compression is (a) isentropic' (b)

Solution

Tr=
Pr=
Pz=

6 m3/min.
27 +273 = 300 K
105 kPa
630 kPa

= (300)

-fi'c e (T2 -

= 615.6

Tr)

(5.122) (1.03) (615.6

=+Fffi.,1*
=

vf=

300) =

1665 kJ/min

(b) Polytropic compression

polytropic with pvt'r = C, and isothermal

(1.a) (rOs) (0)

1-1.4

I
1.4-l

f-

l1f3gl

_.1

" -11

1474

kJ/min

Another solution

Tr=T, l-p]
LEJ

118

"'-t

r-r

(1.67) (105) (6)

1-1.67

Heat Rejected

Qr-, = mrcr, (T,

f-

_ l.,l-l

= 300

iogol'n

F'ql

= 500.5 K

il9

off

c- l'oq = 0.6168 ry
cv =f =
kg.k"
L.6z

rh' =

cn= c [-t -rr-l= 0.6168 I r.oz - r.el = 4.41G8 kI

"Lr*l [-T:T-.a J
[sF

r,=r,

\if =

-afr* 6=-th'co(Tr-Tr)+ fi'co(Tz-Tr)

-(5.L22) (1.03) (600.5

L*J'=(E4o)

L#t=

=64r.eeR

Ll-tful =-o.oaze ffi

540) = bB9.B Btu/min

a -nqTr-T,)
= (22.05) (- 0.0429)

w = p,tf r"[*-l
LP?-i

_r.32_r

= (22.05) (0.24)(641.9

(c) Isothermal compression

n r*

AH = drbp (Tz Tr)

-

S00)

=-1486kl/min

=(105)(6)rn

!#}.r-ffi = 2*.o'rb/min

s c"v U-qJ
k-l -=(o.lzr4)' fILl

co

3oo)

+ (5.L22)(-0.4163) (500.6

o*

tffi

m'*

(er.g

_ 540) * 96.4 Btu/min

=

u'J

ffi

1129 kJ/min

6 =#*ar(+ali+W

A centrifugal comprcssor handles 300 crr ft per ninute

of air at t4.7 psia and 80"F. The air is compressed to 80-psia.
The initial speed is 35 fps and the final speed is 1?0 fps. If the
compressionis polytropic with n = 1.32, what is the work?

2.

w = Q-aK-aH

Solution

f;=

300

ctu

Pr = 14.7 Psia
Pz = 30 Psia

- 96.4 _ tZ.Z_ bBg.B

fl47.gBtu/min or _ lb.2g hp

Volunetric Effidiency
Conventional volumetric effciency
=

ffi

n,=$=kX
"VDVD

Tr=80+460=540R
u, = 35 fps
u, = 170 Ss

l,he

Displacement volume Vo
is the volume swept by the
face of
piston in one etroke.

l4r

The clearance ratio or per cent cleararrce, c =

then,D"=1+c-c

Free

t,

[+-]t
LP'J

Free air is air at normal atmospheric

conditions irr
particular geographical location.

r' j

twin-cylinder, double-acting compressor

with

a crear=
ance of ,vo handles 20 ms/min. of
nitiogen from roo i.i", az"c
Uo
ggrypression.ana urp""Jio" .r" p"fyt""pil
!Z!
n = 1.30. Find (a) the work, (b) the
hialre5ected, and (c) the bore

={ortN

.itf,

^H*.

and stroke for I"b0 rpm and UD f

= .gO.

where:

D
L
N
N

=
=
=
=

N=
n =

diameter of piston
length of stroke
number of cycle completed per minute
(n) (1) (number of cylinders), for
single'acting compressors
(n) (2) (number of cylinders), for
double-acting compressors
compressor speed, revolution per min., rpm

Solution

PVt's

V;
Pr

"

P2

Tr

=
=
=
=

20 m3/min.
100 kPa
725 Wa

37+273=Bl0K

e=\Vo
n = lbO rpm
IID = 1.39

A single-acting compressor makes one complete cycle in one

revolution.
A double-acting compressor makes two complete cycles in
one revolution.

(a) W

=T#[A*

-_l

Fie. 20. Single-acting Compressor

,

Pision rinRs

7l ,''"on.

Connecting rod
nk pin

,-- Crank
! Crankshaft

-J/

Crosshead

Wrist pin'

t
L

Crosshead guard

= -5023
mrn

(b)n, =1+c*c l-pJ

l!-,J

Fig. 21. Double-acting Compressor

722

Problens

If the compression process is isentropic, let n = k.

vo

Air

l2:l

I
= 1 + o.ob

(o.ob) lzzq-l

p-T 3ld 381 mm, respectivery with a percentage cre'r'rrr.o

5?o, rf su'oundins air ar* it r00 kFa
zi-.c *hJio

fi

"'Llo0l

= 0.9205

n.'

20

vo=n'.,=o8Do5= = z+.ss

t,

= Vo

'f

tt,,,
compression and expansion processes are pVr.s
""a _ C. Dutor,r,,,,u
(a) Freg air capacity in mtZs.
iU) power of the **pr"rro" i" f, W
(ME Board hoblem Oct. 19S6)
-

Solutian

P, = 100 kPa

T =293K

V, = Vo + cVu = Vo (1 + c)

25'60
= (24.38) (1 + 0'05) =

C=

-T

+.

*,=*=#Hffi=27.''*t

It

f%o

P=$SSmm
L = 381mm

n=150rpm

Pr = 97.9 kPa

Tr=300K
rn
,,

\!,rvl Fz{lst =
-= rt, I-Cl+ : (s'o)
[ool
l_n, |

o, =

."ffi

6r-, = rhrc" (T,

$.7442)Fffi#:l

48s.7

4'4b'#

(a) n" = 1 +

[#J*

I + 0.0b-(0.0b)

Tr)

= (27.83) (-0.2456) (489.7

vD =-tDpLN

310)

Y
= {ZZsmrn
(c) vo

c-.

={nrlN =tD',(1.3 D) (r50) (2) (2)-

=f, {o.essft0.Bsl) (r50) = s.osz

V;= (n,) (Vo) = (0.9094) (b.6bz) = 5.r+a

612.6

O'#

o.

vr

m]*=0.e0e4

F,]hl

= (b r44)

t+rtffi

-'

4.els#or 0.082$

24.38= 612.6 D3

(b)w

D = 0.3414 m or 34.14 cm

L = (1.30) (34.14) = 44.38 cm

t
ri

2:. A single.acting air compressor operates at- 150 rpm with

initial condilion of air at 97.9 kPa and 27"c and discharges the
air at 3?9 kPa to a cylindrical tank. The bore and stroke are 355

=T#'tre,J*:,]

ll
;

(1.3) (97.9) (b.

1- 1.3

t26

I
=

KJ
or 13.34 kW
mrn

800.3

W=
"-

3.

A single-acting air compressor with a clearance of 6Vo

takes in air at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 85oF,
and discharges it at a pressure of 85 psia. The air handled is
0.25 cu ft per cycle measured at discharge pressure. If the
compression is isentropic, frnd (a) piston displacement per
cycle, and (b) air hp of compressor if rpm is 750.
(ME Board Problem - March 1978)

-IF-to,/
_1J

'?i#iffifiea- [ia,z/

4' A single-acting compressor has a volumetic

effici'rt,y
500ipm. Il trk"r in air at 100 kpa nrrrl
esc\argel jr ar 600 kpa.
ai, rraodted is o .i * p,,.
l[CA!
mrn
measured at discharge condition.
If the comii#io' i,
isentropic,
of 87vo and operates at

iil

d;;pi;;;;;t

find (a) piston

(b) mean effective pressure
in kpa.
(ME Board p"otrem

=
=
%=
T, =
Pr

,Pz

Solution
14.7 Psia
85 Psia
0.25 ft,3lcYcle

85+460=545oR
Pr

fz
V2

Tr

(a)r,=r,H*
-' = #,, =

=(545)

[q*

(%###

D"=L+c-c

[r;tt
LP'-J

ra)

= o.o68z4 ib/cycte

lfi

h47l

vi

=o,Fno

looo
= (6)

v^ =&=?rs

" q,

=o'87i4ftvcYcle

-1+0.06-(0.06) l-ar

(h)

l'''

Lrooj

6 ms/min

3O+273=B0BK

= 21.58 m3/min

It

24.8
o.87 =
mrn

T'
_ 24.8mrn

= 0.8499

= 1'o3o n3lcYcre

tbl V; = (0.8754) (750) = 656'6 ft3lmin

126

100 kPa
600kPa

_J

UOO

=3f;3#

=
=
=
=

= 900"R

ni RT. (0.06374X53.34X545)
v,=ff=ffi

v"

per stroke in cu m, and

:ep"riliilal

Solution

'l

96hp

,-L

0.M9G
stlgkes =
stroke
mln

w= ++lZ+r+
r-k l\p,/ -

I
t",,7

_@ffi@Kml*_!

(b) Barosetric pressure at 6000

ft = 1r.?g psia or 23.gg in rlg
New intake pressure, pr*
=

Y
= -sosa.g mln

ll.Zg psia

New discharge pressur, pz* g0.B + ll.Zg

=
= 102.0g psia

bob3.g
n
rn=_li{_=
vD 24.9 = 208.8 kpa

New volumetric
DvN

6. A compressor is to be designed ntith 64o clearane tn

handle 500 cfin of air at L4.7 pcia and 70pF, the state at the
beginning of compression stroke. The compression is isentropic
to 90.3 peig.
(a) What displaoement in cfu is neessary?
iU) f tU" co*presso"is used at an altitude of 6000 ft and if
the initial temperature and dischargp pressure remain the
same as given in (a), by what percentage is the capacity of the
@mpressor reduced?
(c) WUat snouldbe the displacement ofacumpressor at the
altitude of 6000 ft to handle the sa-e mass of air as in (a)?

efliciency,

= 1 + o.o6 -(0.06)

ffiff"o

New capacity, Vi* = @.7795)(6tB)

o.77e|

fr:
= 472.8mln

Percentage decreased in cqpacity 5010:j[r?.8

=
= 4.44Vo

(c) pr = 14.7 psia

R, at 6000

Vi = 500 cfu

ft = 11.78 psia

T, at 6000 ft = 530"R

Tr = 530'R

Solution

14.7 psia
90.3 + L4.7 = 105 psia
500 ft3/min

Tr

70+460=530"R

Pr

V, at 6000 ft = capacity to handle the same mass

of air
as in (a)
vD at 6000 ft = displacement volume to handle
the same
mass of air as in (a)

-,=#,=
Vl at 6000 ft = q+{H00) = ozs.g

1+c-"[fl*
*', lr0ilfr
=I+0.60-(0.0_.1;14.fl

y-=Yt==5=ry==
-

'o- o"

0.91b6

Vo at 6000

ft =

ffi=

800.4

4*

= 0.8156

-=orgqmin.
l2{,

Compressor EfficiencY

Adiabatic overall efficiency

is

ideal work
In general, effrciencY = actual work

^{. Mechnnical EffrciencY

The mechanical elficiency of a compressor is

- indica@
n*
If the compressor is driven by a steam or internal combus'

tion engine, the meehanical efficiency ofthe compressor system

is

"-'-

indicated work of compressor

indicated work of driving engine

B. Compression. EfEciencY

adiabAtic ideal work

,,oc%
.. =

Isothermal overdll efficiency

is

- isotherlpel ideal *"*

or%

o^,

Polyhbpic overall efficiency

is
no, =

ideal worli
(n-) (n") =
Sltpolvtmpic

Adiabatic compression effieiency is

S-

-c

adiabatic ideal work

indicated work of compressor

Isothermal compression efficiency is

isothermal ideal work
-'t -- indicated
work of compressor
Polytropic compression effrciency is
oolvtropic ideal work
= indicated work of compressor
"p

c. Overall Effrciency
Overall elficiency is
no = (mechanical efficiency) (compression efficiency)

130

Indicated workjs the work

done in the cylinder.
Brake work or sh"n *o"r.lr
tn" i"* delivered at the shaft.
Adiabatic compressio"
ciencycommonryused.c;p;;i;;;ffi
"E"i"i.r r, ,t " compression effrmean adiabatic compressi;
"tr;;y;h";;;*,wo.,td

"ffi";;;

Problems
J

1. A twocylinl":f:gl:__actils air
compressor is direcily
coupled to an electric motor
*rrrririg at 1000 rpm.
Other data are as follows:
Size of each cylinder, lbO
mm x 200 mm
Clearance
f OZ.of Jirpfacement

"?\-9,
Exponent (n)
for both comp.e5ri""
process, 1.6

Airconstant,k= t.{
Air molecular mass, 29

""J

*-expansion

Calculate:
(a) The volume rate of air delivery in terms of standard
air for a delivery pressure of 8 times ambient pressure
under ambient conditions of 300 K and 1 bar.
(b) Shaft power required if the mechanical efficiency is
81%. (ME Board Problem - April 1984)

Solution

2. A 12 x 14_in., dollle-acting air compresor

with 6.6*"
clearance operates at lS0 ,p*,
ari*ing air at l'.'pnin en'
dischargin g.it at 62' p; i;thu .91
9,u^ _":"d
n"".rion an d ex pH I r,
sron
processes are polytropic
with n = l.Bi. Determini i"l tfru
volume of free air irirnarea
if atmospheric condi.
tions are 82'F and r+.2 psia,
,r,,
indicated work of the-.o-p."rror
iitit" compression e-fficiency
is 87Vo, and (d) the ideal *ort .

pJ;i;;e,

?tiil t";;fiffi;i"l

Solution

pr = lbar=100kPa

Pz=

Pr

P" =
T =
Pr =

=tryLN

={to.rso)'?(0.200x2x1000) = ?.06e

tr, =

I * . -.pf

Vl=

rr"Vo = (0.?332X7.069) =

Lru

= 1 + 0.10

(b)w=T#R)*

0.0864

l&i

m3

-l

(1.6) (100) (0.0864)

1-1.6

vD =4'-D'?LN =

= r.ob5

- o.obb

m]*

= 0.8e2,4

t H' frq (1b0x2) = 274.e crm

Vf = (o,) (V;) = (0.8924) (214.g)=

248.8 cfm

(v/

(P,) (r")
(542)
9'" - --In"Jnt-= 84!I(14.s
-liz:7t6) = 240'6 cfm

[t,*-t]

27.2L
Shaft power =
= 33.59 kW

ffi

(a)n"=1+c-c lP,-LI'

(0.10X8)t = 0.?332

5.183#ot

14.5 psia

Tr=85oF+460=b4b.R

(a) vo

14.7 psia

82"F+460=542"R

= 27.ZlkW

(b) \ir = Vn

* % = Vo + cVo = Vo(l

+ c)

= (274.9) (1 + 0.0bb) = 290.02 cfm

. P,V, = Q!.5) O44) (2s0.02)

lP
m, =
= 2o.ss
(53.34) (545)
1i1;
mln

r, = r,

[t]"

co = c"

= 545EH

F=;

= (o.tz14)

\51

= ?88"R

ftfrfl=

o'3025ffi

3. There are compressed g.4g kg/min of oxygen by a g!,0

x E5. 5 6-cm, double -actin g, motor d"irre' co-p"essor
oporetlnf
at L00 rpm: These data apply: Fr = 101.9b kpa, t, Z$.ZA
inE
=
p,'310.27kPa. compression and expansion
polyt"opic wt&
n = 1.31. Determine (a) the con-uentional volumetricefliclency,
"t"
heat rejected, (c) the work; and (d)the XW inpui by tfd
9ltlt.
driving motor for an overall adiabatic elficiency of ittir.Solution

(788
= (20.83) (-0.03025)

545)

.,-o'' Btu

= - IDO.I ::::'
mtn

OYt'a

D'=

.br

(c) iV,"",, =

k4{&fiq* - rl
r-K

L\pr/

4)F_V:
'vo '

-J

fr'=
Pr=
Pz=

Tr=

L = 0.3556 m
8.48 kg/min
101.35 kPa
310.27 kPa
26.7

273

2gg.7

(1.4) (14.5) (144) (245.3) t7g) * -r

=@lrr+.rt
)
=

- 1185

BtP
mln

adiabatic
,n.i@

=H#=

(14.5) ]44)(245.3) lTsz-t'*g

=@l\r+si

Blu or - 27 -29 hP
= - 1157 mln

0.9227 or gl.z7vo
vo W^
"=*2.068 =

32:15 hP

o"

- -*:!.
(b) 12 = r,l+4= eee.7)

=ryreil{-']
(1.34)

v, =fD,tN =t0.Bbb6), (0.sbr6i (100) (z) = 2.068

vf=+=W=6.bu#

ideal wor!

Indicated work

(d)w

(a)

o" -27.97 hP

- il

."

Lrrl

=.,p3J

t!-lqfl+#=

Beg.b

L101.351
= (0.6beb)

H$H

= -0.1808

kJ(ks) (K)

D"=l+c-c F;r+
l-F;l

135

0.9227=1+c-cl

work input by the driving motor

= 20.41 hW

I-gro.2?l#

Ll0L5il-

Multistage Compression

c = 0.0573 or 5.737o

Multistagingis simply the compression

more cylinders in place of a singffitinaerof the gas in two or
como"Jrro". l, iu
usedin reciprocatingcompressors
in order to(l) save power, (2)
limit the gas discharge temperaru"q
differential per cylinder. 4 ------r -

rrt3

V, = Vo (1 + c) = (?.063) (1 + 0.0573) = 7.468 -*

mrn

,- p,v,

(101.35\ tn

aRR\

'l',=ffi=idffiffi=e.717

;;?JiilililJ;;:r"""

kg

;ff

rvater

Q,-, = rhrcn (T,

Tr) = (9.717) (-0.1808) (390.5

in

water out

-ZggJ)

I-r
= _159.5 ^1
mln
(c) W= nth'RT,

T.n

l(tl -rl

IIP cyUnder

= (131) (8.48) (0.25ee) (zss.7> [7

Tl\lolsb/

srO.ZztttJil

.'l
-:l

Y o" -14.1 kW
-846.1 mln

(d)w,"*=qPR)*-!
[121s.2711fH
=(1.3eb) (8.48) (0.25ee) (2ss'7) l!0135i

g-

= -..309.b mrn or -14.49

'
'^oc

adiabatic ideal work

brake work

' = 14'49 = 20.41 kW

0J1

DraKe wofK

Cards,
IiS ?2. Conventional
'rwo-Stage,
No pressure Drop

v
_Fig.,23. Conventional Cards,.
Two-Stage, with pressure Diop

kw
The figures abov-e-show the bvents
ofthe conventional cards
of a two-stage machin", *itl ifr*
nigh pressure (Hp; srpe.posed on the low pressure (Lp).
suition il th; ilp.ji"a*"
begins at A and
pry"Vai;
in. Compression t-2
occurs and the gas is
The discharged gas
passes through the $yharc.ei
interc*te"
cooled by circulating
water

through the

Ii"*r

"*ir-".

interc*t." ".rd"is
i"U"r. Co"uu"tio'Jfi,"it i,
t:f7

entering the

Pr = P'

el
rrpcvrindeTiu.ir,?,u-g*g;;^iil:;tt*mi*""1i$

gas leaving the intercool:l

assumed that the

'*
Hft
*u*kil*t=P**T'*'-**fr
r
must reexpand F-E
fromtheGuuv^'--ot Iearance and
;

l#,Kkl*-1.#[ft]*-tr

of multistage
adjust ll:.o*tution
to
practice
Itis common
works are donejn the
work tbr comcompressor, *o

tr'uiipii#;;*y:f
ti":*imum
cvlinders, p"u"""Jiil"t oru
"^"'otf
*: :liiiT:H:ftff#Til:
"
pressine . gi*'u" q;"iG
weltave
#T- = i- ;d
l;,,h toitrat of the HP stage' or
of P, = Pr =.P*'

#trf,*{=+[tlt'i
p,=

i,
i
I

The heat rejected in the intercooler is'

Qt" = m'cn (T,

cvlinder)'

high
cylinder + W of the
loLPlessure
the
W of
Pressure cYhnoer

!\f =

Heat Tlansferred in Intercoolor

c
each cylinder because
pe (LP

iirp tvu'ii"'i"*a

yTF*'-

work
pressure for minimum
intermediate
where: P, =
sane' tlre t?la\work
of eachcvlila"iillh"
work
cvlinder' or
the
since
the workin each
#;;;tJtwice
for the two-stage

-1\
;1
='+Pfel*
1-n
l9'/ r
w= "iffiLft,? _J
2nm'Rr,f-1P,$

tllrtll
-- l'rtrHFllrlr

- T')

the intercoolor
where m' is the mass of gas passing through
byifrgif .ili"der and delivered bv tho
i Jro tfr" mass clrawnin
HP cylinder).
Problems
l.Therearecompressedl'1'33m3/minofairfrom26'7"C'
are 8Vo'
L03.42kPa to 821.36 kPa' All clearance
(a) Find the isentropic power and piston displacement
for a single stage cornpresslon'
required
--=ft)-u*ing
the,"-, a""t , nnd the minimum ideal work for

t*o-ri"gr.oilpr"rrion

when the intercooler cools the air to the

initial
---6 temPerature.
Fi"h trr" di-splacement of each cylinder for the condi-

tions
: of part (b).
ial liow much heat is exchanged in the intercooler?
*p'"ttiin efficiency of 78Vo' what
(e) For *
""*"ff-is required?
driving motor outPut

Solution

vf=
Pr=

Pz=
rT
rl

11.33 m3/min
103.42 kPa
827.36 kPa
26.7 + 273 = 299.7 K

on each
could be spread
intercooler
the
in
A pressure drop

"ide

oi this ideal value'

Pressure droP

Pr=P,*--T--

139

r =IilFR)*
_(1.4) (108.42)

ftzgz.szttft;l
-

N-mtz-t-il-J

(i,l.BBi lTga.BqtY/

1-1.4

(1.a)11s3.a2) (11.33)
1-1.4
L\

- 1416 #
mln
Tqtal work

- 3327# ot -55.45 kw

(c)n"=L+c--c

o" -28.6 kW

(2) (23.6) = -47.2 kW

l-&1

LP'l

tr"=1+c-c

1o&42l |

=1+0.08-(0.08)

= 0.9119

vnrp=#=## =12.42#
' lezz'361.r
=1+0.08-(0.08)h1ffi1

tr.
vo=#=

11.33

mffi

*' = n#, =,+ffiffi$?,

*t
_r^*o
-'"'"Y

min

,l-=- -,BT '3

Pa

V;
r/
vnur

(b)

=;jf

p
Pr

103.42 kPa

Pa

827,36 kPa

= 18.62

(13.62) (0.2q2q81j299.7)

4006

292.52

4.006 T3

mln

rn3

ffig = 4.393;fr

(d) Qrc = th'cn (Ts Tr)

(13.62) (1.0062) (299.7403.4) _ 1427 l&I=

min

(e) Outpur of driving motor

=!7:? = 60.5 kW
:
0.79

p,=y'[];=@

**=+#F)*

292.52kPa

lb/min of air from l4.B psia and gb,r to a final pressurer tf I gn

psia'. $e lormal barometer is 29. g in. Hg and the tempern t rr ro
is 80"F. The pressure drop in the intercooler is B paiand th,
temperature of the air at the exit of the intercooler is g0,,1., tho
speed is 210 rpm and pVt.er = C during compregeion und
expansion. The clearance is E% for both cylinders. Ths temperature of the cooling water increase by iA F". Find (a) the
volume offree air, (b) tlie discharge pressure ofthe low pr*rruro

t4l

cylinder for minimum work, (c) the tempprature at discharge

from both low pressure and high pressure cylinders, (d) the
mass of cooling water to be circulated about each cylinder and
through the.intercooler, (e) the work, and (f) if, for the low
pressure cylinder, IJD = 0.68 and if both cylinders have the
sam: stroke, what should be the cylinder dimentions?

(d) c, =

90lb/min

po

(29.8) (0.491) = 14.63 Psia

To

80+460=540oR

Pr

l"

L4.3 psia

Tr

90+460=550oR

Pr

185 psia

ffi|$)

r-* I + 0.0b{0.0b) Fzslt

c-clfil
=
= 0.9178

tfffi#ffi#P

;,

r42

t#.f

b50)

(rh*) (c,") (At*)

= er.z

678 Btu

rh*=----414-l f Btu\ (18F")

\6F/

=37.5 lb
mrn

= BZ.E

Intercooler

,n ,rr
l-p, |
(550) [Bzd #'
''"" -= ,767 oR
t,
- ,,trR^\
- t,b:l
=
=

[*{*

High pressure cylinder

= 51.4 -9= +g.gpsia

= (bbo)

Tr) = (10S) (-0.0302 ) (767

-675 Btu/min

.ll"

r, = r,

= 1oB rb/min

Heat to water = Heat from air

a*

Lffi]

= rB98 cfm

=$1f= tra,'f*ggxpzr

= 12Bo crm

pz= 5!.4+&= 52.9 psia

ps

s]

V, = VD (1 + c) = (1393) (1 + 0.0b) = L46Z cfm

(b) p- = ilFm, =J043) (185t= 51.4 psia

(c)

[a

ru ;g
0.9173
' =*=

Pr

vn

6'RTr _ (90) (bB.B4) (bb0) 1Zg2 cfm

(a) Vr=
=
,
(143t(144) -'

v" =

Q"z = frrc" (T,

Vi*:--l

dhi

Low pressure cylinder

D"

Solution

*-ffi = (0.1?r4)Htf = -{.0302

'#'

7G7'u,

Q," = rir,co (\

- Tr)

= (90) (0.24) (bbo

- 767) =+osz Blt

mln
l4lj

mass ofcooling wate" =

{y

4L2.3 D2 = 400.5

lb

D = 0.986 ft or 11.88 in.

= 260.4 min

L = 15.01 in.

(e) Low pressure cylinder

Three-Stage Compression
nrh'RT,
\i/.
"LP -= l-n l7gt+ _ il

L\prl

(1.34) (e0) (53.34) (550) 1-t52.effi

=@l\ra.si
-jl

'1

b2G5

Total work,

(0

mrn = -L24.2hp

fr

IP cylinder

LP cylinder

B!t'

Fig. 24. Three-Stage Compression

= (2) (-124.2) = *248.4 hp

pV=C
pV"=C

Low pressure cylinder

py

y^D44
=3.D2LN =!pe (0.68 D) (210) (2) = 224.3 D3 cfm

Condltlone

nlnlnum rork
1) wr,p = wrp %p

PV"=C

2-P,

224.3 D3 = 1398

-PV" =

D = 1.84 ft or 22.08 in.

L = (1.84) (0.68) = L.25 ft or 15.01 in.

High pressure cylinde

v
":

(eg)
(?50)
_ fi'Rr3 _
!5giq1)
= 36?.4 cfm
(49.9) (144)
p,

\r'D --i;n-,- gal

Ufr*

= 400'5 cfm

V^u44
=ID2LN =3D2 (t.zb) (210) (z) = 4Lz.g D2 cfm

for

e)TS =T3 =Tl

Fig. 25. conventiorrut cu"arlThree-stage, No pressure Dr'p

,,1'T,r,

nm'Rro Zluf+il =,,p'or. f&\.'-l = --1*-L\&i

If+l+- l=-I-n-[\d/
l-n l\Pr/
-l

11

Pr P"
P,

Pn

=F, = P,

P, = (PrPr)

P, = (P,Po)

(1)

(2)

ft)T3-Tr=BgbK

Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously,

p,=\/ir'p,

and p,

n-l

T
/&\ -- =,ruc /3ss'olff/ = 411 K
'z = Trrgf/

=t6trJ

"no

1-n [gf#-il
l\P'r l

3nm'Rr,

Heat rejected in the first intercooler,

Qrc=

Problem
Air is compressed from 103.4 kPa and 32"C to 4136 kPa by
a three-stage compresor with value of n = 1.32. Determine (a)
the work per kg of air and (b) the heat rejected in the intercool-

(ib3;)

m'co

(\ - Tr)

(1) (1.0062) (305

- 4rr) = -106.2 kI

Total heat rejectred = (Z) (_t06.7) _218.4

kJ
=

ers.

Solution
p

lke

Pr

103.4 kPa
4136 kPa
32"C + 273 = 305 K

Po

Tr

(a) p, = (p,,pu)*= fioa.aX (4136j#= 353.6 kPa

-1

l-n 7&.*
l\P,)"-1.J

,.,
_ 3nm'RT,
vY-

(3) (1.32) (1) (0.28708) (305)

1-1.31

L.IZJ
l/353.6\ r'32-11
It-

l]103.4/

_1

376.2 kJ

t47

IT

il

Review Problems
,t

'

handles 1000 cfm of air

psia and t, = 80"F. The
14
where
intake
at
measured
P, =
psia.
the workifthe process
Cdlculate
discharge pressure is 84
(b)
(a)
polytropic
with n * L.25,
isothermal,
of compression is

1. A reciprocating compressor

and (c) isentropic.

Ans. (a) -109.5 hp; (b) -131.7 hp; (c)

2.

- 143 hp

A double-acting compressor with c = 7Vo draws 40 lb per

minute of air atl4.7 psia and 80"F and discharges it at 90 psia.
Compression and expansion are polytropic with n = 1.28. Find
(a) the work, (b) the heat rejected, and (c) the bore and stroke
for 90 rpm and UID = L.25.
Ans. (a) 77.68 hp;(b) -1057 Btu/min; (c) 18.96 x23.70

in'

4. A 14 x L2-in., single'cylinder, double-acting air compressor wit}'5.5Vo clearance operates atL25 rpm. The suction
pressure and temperature arc14 psia and t00oF, respectively.
The discharge pressure is 42 psia. Compression and expansion
processes are polytropic, with n - 1.30. Determine (a) the
volumetric effrciency, (b) the mass and volume at suction
conditions handled each minute, (c) the work, (d) the heat
rejected, (e) the indicated air. hp developed if the polytropic
compression efficiency is 75Vo, and (f) the compression effrciency.

Ans.

l4 f]

(a)92.7Vo;(b) 247.8 cfm,L6.72lblmin; (c) -18.93

hp; (d) -175.7 Btu/min; (e) -25.24 hp; (f) 77.42Vo

**

6.

ance of \Vo draws

3.

by a
engine, the following data and resurts
o-ut"i,r.,a,
capacity, 800 cfm; suction it t+.2 psia;
disch;d;;; iio pri,,;
indicated work of
compressor,'i5S
frp; indicated work ol.
lhe
steam engine, IZ2 hp^aCal..rlute
(u) tt u.";p;;i""im.i"n.y
and (b) the overall efficiency.
Ans. (a) 90,06Vo; (b) Bt.t6qo

An air compressor with a clearance of 4Vo

compresses
airfrom gz kpa, z7ic to 462r<pa.If the overail
adiabatic efficiency is 6rvo, d"t"r-i.r"
the indicated horsepower of the directly connected
driving steam engine.
Ans. 91.89 hp
14.73 ms/min of

A twin-cylinder, double-acting, compressor with a clear-

in oxygen at 450 kPa, 17"C and discharges it

flow rate is 20 kg/min, compression and
mass
The
kPa.
at 1800
polytropic
with a = 1.25. Find (a) the work, (b) the
expansion are
(c)
the bore and stroke for 100 rpm and
heat transferred, and
llD = 1.20.
Ans. (a) -40.23 kW;(b) -829 kJ/min/ (c) 2L.71x25'76
cm

5. From a testjf an.air compressor driven direcily

rt"uq

I
f

t
I'

7. Methane is compressed in a two-stage, double_acting

compressor which is electricaily driven
at rbb rpm. The row
pressure cylinder (3_0. E x Bb, b cm)
receive, O. S6
pe r-mirrute
of air at 96.b3 kpa,4B.B"C, *Jtfr"
""
x
!20..3 35.5 cm) discharges til" -"th* e at 7t7.06 kpa. The
isothermal overall efficiencyi szq,%-.inanu
and the kwoutput
of the raotor.

;
hish;;;iJ.r]ioa""

" Ans. 8O.02Vo,90.g6Vo

i,
i'i

A tw-ostage compressor with a clearance

of *Voreceives
14 psia and 8E"F and dcrivers ii
pri".
The comp,ressions
_
"i1io
1.g0,
and
the
inter_
cooler cools the air Td-polyt*pi;;th
" the worL, (bj li" rruut
Uact to ar"i.. ri"Jfrl
transferred in the various processes,
i.ith" ;;;il,f#;^.irer"_
gtage m achine, (d) the correspondiog percentage
s avin g for the
two-stage_machine, and (f) tle
water to be circulated
through the intercooler if its t"*p"i"l.rre
rise is 15 F".
Ans. (a)-17_1.0 hp; (b) -Soz.S Bru/min;
l.l _igie stu/
min; (d) _196 hp; (e) t2.4EVo; (ft igo lb/mi;

^^ ,9:
80lumin
of air at

-asiif

The Brayton Cycle

Operation of a Simple Gas T\rrbine power plant

Combustor
To

'*'/

Generator

lr?:
Compressor

Turbine
fi:-r-:i-::::i::a
1.,:".:':::Sinki.,'
r...: r:: i : :r't..i: ... .:l

F------

Open Cycle

Q*
Closed Cycle

Fig. 26 Diagrammatic Layout of Gas Turbine Units

Air continuously enters the compressor 1. After

compression, it enters the combustors, som'e
of it going u"o,rrra tfru
outside of the comhrrstion chamber proper
and the remainder
fulnish]1* oxygen for burning the fieljwhich ir-.orrti*orrrfv
injected into the combustioniha-ber.
Because of their temrise, the gases expand and enter the
ryTlure
turbine
3'
After expansion through the turbine, the exhaustin state
t. ilrt:
atmosphere is in some condition 4. In
an ordinary powor'r:r.t.
arrangement, the work of the turbine W,
is g"*i ,,,r,,,,gt, t,.,
drive the compressor W
delive.
U.ut ,, *,rrL W,, i,,',t,.iu,,,
_and
say, a generator or proptlllrlr;
W, __ W,, I W,. Arr ,,*..il,,,,l H()r(.(,
of power is needed to si lrrt :r
liirH l.rrr.l'r'rrrr. rrrril..

Derivation of the formula for e

Process 1-2:

T =H"=FJT
T2 =
Fig.27. ,Air-standard Brayton (Joule) cycle

L-2

2-3:
3-4:
4-tr;

(2)

rok-t = ro Y

(3)

isentroPic conPression
constant-pressure addition of heat
isentroPicexPansion
constant-pressure rejectionofheat

t=Fl*=

Analysis of the BraYton CYcle

Qo = mco (Tr

(Tr

- TJ
- T4) = *nrco (T4 -

Q*

= Q^ - Q* = mco'(Ts - TJ

DCo

Tr"an.t

Ta = Tn"*tt

Tr)

mco (Tn

- T,)

e = W = mc.(Tr-Tr)-mco(Tn-Tr)

q@
e=
+,-+

(1)

1_ rg t2
-

e-1- -11 =1-trL

=

+,

rppr= -P,

the comPression ratio

(4).

Substituttuig equations (2) and (4)

in

1
.:=
r-r

1-#I
"J

Total compressor work, W"=&

-AH

W.= -mco(T,
Total turbine work,

W,

={-AH

W, - -mc, (T. I ttre pressure ratio

(1).

=1-

"o*

where rk

L-l

l-p
LF

\)

W, = mco (T, - T,)

W--_
.,].
Net work, W or W" = W,

Point 3:

W"

Vg

= v2

tt.]
L

= e.7z)

Problems:

T3
p4

r.K

= 40,000 cfm
= L5 Psia
= 550'R
= 1900'R
= 15 psia
=5
=S
v2

n
Point

1:
v1

=*,t = --T5rilx550t

v,
--=
IiI

4o.ooo
2945

v2

Pz

Heat added,

T2

ll4

= Trr*k-r =

co

(0.24)(1900

W,

1047"R

(T,

- W" =

eesoR

119.8

Btu/lb

T.)

2L6.5

c, (T, -

(0.24) (1900

= 216.b Btu/lb

99S)

119.8 = g7.2 Btu/lb

6751 hp

Tr)

-1047)

= +Qo= V2204.7 =

2.72fbs/,b

(550X5)1:a 1=

l#l'o'=
124:Ll

2945lb/min

142'8 Psia

= W_Q945)
42.4

p.

W = -{o (Tz - Tr)

Turbine work, W,

13.58 fta^b

= Prf**-t = (15X5)"

= (leoo)

= - (0.24) (L047 - 550) = -

Point 2:

vl
13.58
= -=
rkD= --=- =

i+lL'rJ

Compressor work,

Net work, WB
(15x144X40,000) _

\^rvrlLlbI=@.94)ll+Z8lt"=
z4.Tfttnb

f-,, -lt -l

r.= r,
Pr
T1

t--*
v=v
l&l
.4 ,.LpJ

ll: ""'

v1

4.s4 rtsnb

Point 4:

an air-standard BrayThe intake of the compressor of

and 90oF' The compression
ton cycle is 40,000;;;it;sia
turbine inletis 1440"F'
ratio, rr = 5 andth-;;;;;'i""3t11"
is 15 psia Dgterminl
The exit pressure oiiftJi""tine
pressure'
efficiencv and the mean effective

1.

;;;;,;#;al

f+#fl =

0.4748

2A4.7 Btu/lb

or

47.48?o

g = =-lu- = (97.2) (778)

vD v, - % 6+7 _ zlz) tt,t,n

23.89 psi

2'

There are required 2288 kwnet from

r,rrr'rrrr* rrrrrl
lirr'prrmpi.g of crude oil from thc Nrrth Arrrrrkrrrr
'11:rs ,.rr,1*, .i*
'|'irt'(!r'$ thc compressor scction at gg"n?l-r kPr, ltzH ti, rrr* lr*ee
IFE