5DK W

wUF rOKF WOd

U?? ? ?eOH
uU _ nBK
wUMB wLKF

uHR*
WLOK u nODK b Wb
U bU bL
ZUM* ed dUO bL

5d qz
wOK WLU

UIM WJu ee

dOM rU
ZUM* ed dL U

5DK W w wUF rOKF WOd d

wb UF s
b UNb
w uU _ nBK UeOH U fb
UF d?
hL( u rOF

Z?UM* W?M' fOz

5U 

ZUM* ed
U db

ZUM* ed

ud d

hL( u dL

WOMH dzb
d?

Ud bz
UL
UL

WIM* WFD rOLB Vu; b

UJ U' b

rOL?B

rU WMO

bOCM

WMu UL

uG dd%

WuU WKdLK UeOH UNM* wMu odH

uD d

b U

UIMWJu ee

bI bL

d bO

ZUM*dUO bL

ZUM* dL U

WIM* WM d od

d U

dU U

uN d

dL U

U1d U

WIM* WOd WFD

?
ZUM* edwUF rOKF WOd u WuH l?D uI lOL
WMb* ed WN s 5LO vK U bUF* UuOB* w ZUM* ed
fU
uHK 5DK
tK
pcdc@palnet.com wdJ uMF www.pcdc.edu.ps WOdJ WHB

b?ONL
oOI WOMODKH WOuB) wd UNM l{ d{ wUF rOKF WOd
UM ULN UU bF wMODK
UNM UM
uFA 5 tUJ cQ v wMODKH VFA UuL
vK U rKF qO UM WOdI1b rOI aOd UU wMODKH VFAK WOMu UO
w Wb* WdA u* WOLM wU o u UO( UKD l wU qJA qUF
uK WOU* WOL) jD) U UN
cOHM vK u XKL U wFdA fK* q s wMODKH UNM* WD d cM
WUO o
d nOQ rOJ WCdF uD) WUO XKL qd b vK UNM* UM
wMODKH lL* UUD rEF s 5HR* 5ud s l UD d w
u
wu c lL* b oI UN s w rOKFK WOzd WKOu t w
UNM* WOL sLJ
UDO bB WOzd UNM* dUM s dBM bF tuwb* UJU WU WUM u
qN uKQ X{d UuKF UUO s tOK qLA U0 VUD rKF* bO v_ _ rKFK
WDA_ qzUu fb ozdD qB W{ dR sLC WuM d dO
u wIDM
WOK; W
UI uU( Xd rKF qzU s d dUM v W
U{.uI VOU
bU* jzUu s UdO d_ rKF
UNb uuI sc 5LKF* 5ud WUA0 UuM Ud UNOIM VJ WFd r
wb* UJ WLOI
WO
dF* WOuuMJ WOLKF dOG b* uD l w
U w
5BB* s sJ2 b d WUA s uN s tO
c U bI0 e wMODKH
WFu UOKLF s WOLOKF WOKLF w
Udu dOOG ub sc WOb* VJ b
c su w
d w
d nOQ wU w
ZUM* ed UN Wud WONM0 WFd* s
bOu vK qLF
ULEM* UR* v dbI dJA qe bI UNF wUF rOKF WOd
ZUM* dA* wU* UNLb UJOK WuJ WU WIbB WOdF b WOb
qLF c U$ w
XU w WO1U_ Wud WOMu UHJU dH u UL
vK rdJA UNzd WOb* VJ bS uI w Wud UK s wU wMu
UK ZUM* ed Wu ZUM* U' qLA tFu V q eOL* ruN rNUA
5LLB* qLF Uu 5UA* sd; d U'5HR* WCdF uDK WOMu
oOD UM bO* s WOb* VJ d w
5UA* 5FUD 5Fd* 5Ud

wUF rOKF WOd

ZUM* e?d

WOLKF YULK W
UF
U?? O

W
bI

bF 5Kd* UO_ -U vK  B 5*UF tK bL(

uJO 5DK
w
e_ UMK UMOLKF v wLKF uU _ nBK UeOH U bI UMS

w b WLd p WOU_ WKd* w

WUF uKF V w
WOzUeO
rOUH s U* LJ
uJ 5K UeOH Y* WCdF uD) w
UL _ wMODKH UNM* WD w
XF{
ud* b_ oOI% w
UMI
b
rKF c d
WOU j UNO
- UeOH rK w
Wb UU& vK UJ c WOM bL bI
WUD u b uNH sL{
b w
WUD uNH UJ c s _ e' ZU
UNu% WUD qGA wuNH Wd( uI rK UOU X{dF v_ bu
WU bu U WOu* Wd(U dF ULO
WUD UI d X{dF WOU bu
d( pd 5u Wd( WUD X{dFU

5b UJ c s wU e' sLC

bN' U* WOzUdNJ WMA rOUH WMU UdNJ UOU X{dF WFd bu
UNKOu d WOzUdNJ UFu* WF 5OzUdNJ
WKu* t WKu* u* rOUH WOdJ UeOH UOU X{dFWU) bu
s eu Ud X{d UL UNUuJ0 ndF WDO WOdJ dzb VOd d
UNKL b UNKOu UNOd d ued
w
WOU WK v W
U{ WOLOOI WK qB
qJ o( b uB
b b q XMLC
b q WUN
j od s WOLKF U* l tKUH vK WFA VUD WU UJ WG U b
WOO{u UJ_ WOUO Uud s dOJ vK UJ u UL WIU WIU t
dF
eeF bN WuM WK WK WOKL UUA v W
U{ WAUM* Y UUC UBI
WOKLF UO(U WdEM W
dF* j WOLKF rOUH*
WO
U{ UuKF WOO{u ud rOUH* eeF s UNM* d guN b - b
WuM WOM UUA
UB bF b U w
UJ wze Z bF UJ s WOU WOd WFD c U0
5ud 5
dA* 5LKF* UMz s qQ UMS
WKD 5LKF* UE vK UM rOUH* iF
w
tMO% UJ u l
d UM rbI rNUd rNUE0 Ube e_ UMK
WUI UFD
oOu w tK

uHR*

eF uI wU qBH

Wd( w suO 5u
YU qBH

W
UDq GA ld qBH

buW K

u_ e

WDO  WOI u Wd( _ qBH

uCW FO wU qBH

buW K

Wd( UJOUMb

WOe' Wd( WdE _ qBH

d( pd 5u wU qBH

buW K

WOuJ UdNJ

uu uU
WOzUdNJ WMA _ qBH

wzUdNJ U* wU qBH

wzUdNJbN ' YU qBH

UFu* WOzUdNJ WF  ld qBH

bu WK

WOzUeOH UOdJ

u* U _ qBH

WKu* t WOdJ dUMF wU qBH

bu WK

ld*

WOU bu

UN* _ qBH

WU bu

WFd bu

UJOUJO*

W
U) bu

v?_ bu

U?? u?L

UJO UJO*

b?????u

(Vectors)

UNL

Wb UOL U UN XdF UNu WOzUeOH UOLJ U IU X

UOL w WbF UOLJ Xd WN UOL U WOUO
W UD d W r q jI UO b bIL b
 uIM bI WKJ
uOOKO u d W mK
b b_U W U UOKLF UNOK oD r rKI u mK
uI Wd q U UO b bIL WNL UOLJ
dRL uI U d WUr Wd UO d uIM W
W U UOKLF UNOK oD _ ed u suO r vK
UNL d
UNOK UOKLF d r nO WNL UOLJ qOL r nOJ

cN p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c

vK U uJ qBH
rdU WNL UOLJ qL
UNL lL uNH dF
wUJb uL w UNOd v WNL WOLJ qK
UNUd lL od s WNL UOLJ lL
UNL d{ uNH dF
UNL d bU Wb WK q

WN* UOLJ qO9

U b WNL WOLJ bI l UNu VUM WN WLOI WFDI U OUO WNL UOLJ qL
WOLJ U vK WFDI

U
WO WNL UOLJ U OUO q 

dA u suO UbI u

dA UL suO UbI u

q(

U rd suOqL r VUM r UOI U

vK r UNu WLOI WFD rd r wUJb uL
UNL qOL qJA

dA UU UMO u

qJA dE dA l W lMB UU r UNu WLOI WFD rd

t* uJF
w tUF tL bI fH t t tQ tL uJF dF
qJA w UL U OUO qLU

R?
WO WNL UOLJ U OUO q 
wdG ULA UU suO UbI u

tL uJF qJA

v_ uI U fJF suO UbI u

WN* UOLJ lL
wH qJA w UL U r vK d Uu dR UbM
tOK dR w uI U r d l u U
WKBL u b dOQ WO r vK dR w uI wL
r tO U c UU UNU b uI
s WuL sOu qL qLF u w WKBL uI
WFL uI
uI WKB qJA

UNL pK WKB U C vL wzUeOH uM fH s d sON lL q U d db s

UL sOIdD UNL lL

WObMN WIdD
vK sONL b q VOd od s U ObM sOM sON lL sOM sON lL
r tUvK WEUL l rd UOI fHM d tL

ZUM tL uJOwU tL l _ tL q q

WKBL U U bI sONL uLL qLL tL u

d WOKL S uJF UL UNL d

tL uJF l lL WOKL U OKF w UNL

qJA dE
UNL lL qJA

U
b wdG ULA UU suO

dA UU suO uI UN pb

q(

 suO qL r VUM r UOI bU tL rd

qJA w UL dA UU

dA l UU rd UOI fH bU tL rd

vK q l{ r YO tL vK tL Vd
U vK UH l
ZUM tL uJO tL tL q sO qB
L
U U bI WKBLK

tKO W b dDLU ZUM tL u fOI

WKIMLU UMO u s

qJA w UL rd UOI fH bU tL rd

L ZUM tL uJO uD dJ
WKBLK
U U bI

UN b WKB U
?

tL q lI YO UNL Vd sON s d_ WKBL U

wU tL vK YU tL q _ tL vK wU

UN b lL qJA

qJA w UL dO_ tL _ tL q sO qB r cJ

L ZUM tL uJ
U U bI WKBLK

{_ u WId W ULNMO dB 5N WKB W

U WU
w UbI W ULNMO dB WDIM fH s Ud sU sOFKC sON qOL sJ

qJA

uLF eM U O{U WKBL WLO U

U {_ u dD S { u
dE U U bI WKBL qL WDIM fH s

{_ u WId qJA

tL qL c ? lKC b vK ?
? We rzUI YKL vK qBM

vK qB uUO WdE bU

? ? ? ?

dJ
? ? ? ? sJ
w WHK UN lL sJL q
wzUeOH uM

l Wd t lL sJL q
u t
WOL l Wb WOL lL sJL q
WN

? ? ?

? ? ? ? ?

U ? U ? k
U U ? ? U
U? ? U U
U ? ?

U + ( ) + ( )

k oU qJA s
U ? U ?

?
wK UL WIU W F rOLF sJL tS U U YO
U
U
We VO vK YKL w lK{ u WL q U S YK w sOFKC sON qOL sJ
WU WLO t WKUIL

U U U

R?
WO U w WKBL WLO bQ U r vK Uu d
U fHM UuI uJ UbM
sOUF UuI uJ UbM
sObUF UuI uJ UbM
W ULNMO dB bI sOU UuI uJ UbM

U
VK U r w dA l UU suO dA UU suO UuI dR
U U bI sOuI sOU WKB V

q(
U x ( ) x ( ) + ( ) + ( )

suO

suO

suO

uO uU oOD

U
U

qOK WId UOU

UU q WUu Wd d UB qJA w

uI qOK qJA

vK qOL WdF WbI k wI_ l W lMB

U U OI d WdF S p l _ u s
sObUF sOu TUJ UB b u v dOA c
U_ v WdF Wd V UMO u UU ULb
WbI O WbI O V UB u UU d_

vK WdF

b uI qOK WOKLF uI Ud U WOKL vL

qJA dE u vK sObUF sOuI uI

uI Ud qJA

U U

 W F s V UMO u l UNFMB w We

U
WbI l U WMU UL qJA w

suO q w bA u XU S UO

su

bA wu b wI_ s qOL UU

UO vK dR sOK WOI_ WuLF

q(

suO

suO x

U
U

R?
WOU UJ_ w WMOL UNL s qJ WUB WdL WOMO WdL V

O
su

r

rG

WU

qOK WIdD WDI w WO  u b WKB U

wQ UL uI qOK WIdD WDI w WO  u b WKB U
WUB WOMO UNOd v u q qK
wMO uL UU dRL uIK d uLL WOMO uI WKB V
UB uL UU dRL uIK d uLL WUB uI WKB V
sObUFL sOKBLK WOKJ WKBL V

U YO UMO u l W lMB UNU

 U
suO

UL qJA w WMOL uI WKB U bI V

suO

suO

U U
suO

suO

U U

,
uO

suO

suO

suO ,

suO

WU UI fJ VuL UMO u l ,

UN* d{
w UNL dC d b UM

Wb WOLJ WN WOL d{

bb WN WOL vK qB UMS Wb WOLJ WN WOL d{ bM
U fH UN WbF WOLJU U dC tNL WOLJbI U UbI

WOLJ WN WOL d{ qJA

Wb

WbF WOLJ XU U fJ Wu WbF WOLJ XU wK _

Wb WOL w UNL d{ WOKL `{u qJA WU

R?

tL tL r qJA vK UL

UNb U se w Wd t d{ s WUM WNL WOLJ U

Dot Product UODI UOUO Ud{ WN* UOLJ d{

wQ UL W ULNMO sON sOOLJ wDIM dC dF

tOK d tL jI w sONL b dC WOKLF c r

wDIM dC qJA

qJAdEWN dO bb WOL ZUM uJO

s WUM WOzUeOH UOLJ vK WK_ s tL vK tL jI w U k

t sO wDIM dC q U u U I tOK dF c wzUeOH qGA sONL wDIM dC
uI pK t c W t uI

R?
VOd vK b ULbI U sONLK wUOI dC q U WLO b
U ULNMO uBL We
?

W dH

Cross Product UOFUI UOU& Ud{ WN* UOLJ d{

wQ UL W ULNMO sON sOOLJ wFUI dC dF

wFUI dC qJA

U x
tL bI d{ q U U bI bb U N ZUM uJ
vK ULNM q vK U uL tU tOK WuLF wU Wd w _
U bb qJA dE UNL  tOK lI c uL
WHB s U U U bb tL
qLF WHB w
qJA w UL vMLO bO bU
U r _ tL UU vMLO b lU d vMLO bO bU

vMLO bO bU qJA

s ZUM tL U v UN dOAO W dG Q wU tL UU

U OFUI sONL d{ q U

R?
U d b U S UbI W ULNMO dB UNL
s q WLO bQ w dA ULA UU b
x

UcI* sbF w Wd(

wI `D vK UNM U U u rOI j w XU U dO w U_ Wd U IU X
UN dOQ X UMO u l We vK_ WcIL U_ Wd b vK v U O
u UU WLEM Wd sOU w Wd qOK sJL bN u UNuB bF WK d Wd q
UB u U w WO{_ WOU U U U bI XU U Wd UMO

wQ U WOU U w U_ Wd qLA

w We vK_ WcIL U_
UOb dOGsM UL d
q w WOd WOI_ r l{u
WE
U OI WcIL U_

We UcI*
qJA w UL wI_ l W lMB UU WOzb Wd Xc d dH

WU

WOMO sOd v WOzb Wd t qK

,)

UH vB
U

wI_ bL

We UcIL qJA

WuLF Wd(
UbI WOzb Wd w cI Wd tA qJA w dJK WuLF Wd
rOI j w XU U Wd sOu UNOK oDM U

UH vB UNu u? 5 v UNc WE( s dJ t dG c se U(

WuLF Wd Wd uJ UH vB bM
? U
UH vB v u uK dJ t dG c se YO ? U
U

fH v WOU UNu sO v UNc WE s qJA w dJ t dG c se U

U
oOK s oOK s uL
?
UH vB dJ UNFD w WOd W U
? U

dJ tKB UH vB YO ? U
U

WOI_ Wd(
WOI Wd t fO t qH U O t YO U U bI XU ? WO{_ WOU U
U WOzb WdK WOI_ WdLK WU WU WOI_ Wd WdL c
x U x
U

U x U

qJA w UL dJ tKB c wI_ bL YO

 U
b wI_ s We qOL lbL uU XU S Wd WHc lb oK
UH vB UNu v WHcI t dG c se
oOK s
WHcI tO XK UH vB
WHcIK wI_ b*

q(

U
U x

WOU ,

?
,

WOU , oOK s

U
U x

d,

?
, x

x U x

d , x U x

R?
 X
wQ UL
v WMOF Wd cIL r qB
We tc bM t wI b vB

bM cI r wI_ bL U

ULNuL sOe tc

UOI UcI*
UNd uJ WO WOI sOU lDI UNS UNM jI r WU `D vK d db UbM
sOU w dJ Wd qOK sJL WOI_ WOzb UNd ULMO dH U WuLF WOzb
w UL pO p `O{u XU U WO WU Wd WOI

 U
 b Wd _ `D s r UH vK UOI dOD dzU s WHc XDI
wQ UL
_ u UU w WHcI t dG c se
_ l WHcI UN bDB w Wd
WHcIK wI_ bL

q(
uJ dH WOd WOzb WHcI Wd S Wd U OI dOD dzU s WHc jI UbM
dzUD Wd fH w WOI_ WHcI Wd
UM u u _ `D dH

? x

r

x
x

,
?
WOU ,

?
?
, x, ?

x wI_ bL
d , x

 qBH WK
wQ UL q U UNL lL WObMN WIdD b

s q bI b

sOuI sO We bI U ULNM q WLO bILU UU Uu r vK dR

U U C ULNKB bI XLK
wd b dA UL Ub W UdO j lMB r Wd dOD dzU
dA ULA wUU Wd
UN UNU{ V w uI UL VuL UMO u UU suO UbI u d
VuL UB u UU suO sOuI WKB bI `B v

su

su

UL qJA w W{uL uIK WKBL uI U bI V

ULNMO We XU YO r vK bIL w UU Uu d

suO

s q bI V suO sOuI WKB XLK

WKBL U sOuI

WuLF Wd Wd dOG s dF UL wUO rd

cI W XU _ WOU U w cI r

V
r UN c w Wd bI
r tO qB UH vB
rK wI_ bL ?
V w Wd V UL qJA w

lbL Wu s WHcI UN oKD

, ? WMOH VOB wJ

eF uI

dOG c ZM dOG cN V

UM uJ lu pS U U bI r Wd dOG UbM

L r vK jOL dOQ s

X Ud lu pS d U_ UB bUA UbM
`D dOQ V p r t lu pS Wd s wI `D vK oeM r nu UbM UNd
r vK
l s U w u vL ULNOK U U bI r Wd w dOG V c dRL
c wdJ d UL nu v d nO UO_ d c UL r vK V
U uJ qBH cN p bF UNOK WU s sJL UdOd WK c tOK fK
vK
uI uNH `{u
uI UO b dF
uI s WHK u dF
WOL WuL uI s b dOQ X VKB r e d b
uI e uNH dF
tU b u u uI e bI V
sOu sOu WKB V
uNH dF
tU b e bI V

UNUO uI uNH

pd Wd{ uI
] bzU UI U uD bN cM Wd uNHL uI uNH j
v OL dA lU dI w U d vIO r vK UdOQ dL s b t U_
vIO r vK uI dOQ dL d{ t sO Wd rK bu wKOU uOKOU wUD rUF
bF
w W tMOu UF{ Wd rK W bF s suO qLJrOI j w WU Wd Ud
dOG b td U dL r Wd bI dOOG vK qLF wU dR uIU Wd rK U
buK wLUF UEM w uI UOI WOU_ bu suOM b bFtuA
r qJ s

uI s WU u
UNCF vK dFM uI s WHK u UM
Gravitational Force

WO{_ WOU' u

UNJ Uu UNc U_ lOL vK _ UN dR w uI

s r bF ULK qI r WK ULK uI c e UN
WFU vDF U _ c u b b _ ed
rU uOKOU
WOU s wUD
U_ lOL VJ _
XHK ULN tH U WDU
WKJ w

WO{_ WOU U ? r WK YO ? x

U uI uI s r lML W uI bI tQ r dF
d sU r WU w rK c u bI U d
? r S WU Wd

q w bA qJA

: bA u

Tension

U r vK uI dR q S b q r j bM
d
qJA dE bA u uI c vL q U w
w d dO r WK l W UI WKJ rb VUG w q bF

u q b UbM U U q e lOL w bA bF

WU c
e lOL w U U vI bA S WKJ WLb WHOH UK dJ

q w bA qJA
dJ u

qJA dE bA U dOOG vK dJ qLF q

Normal Force
WuLF f u

WuLF f u

UJ u UU WUFL uI vL U qJA dE

Uu V U U MU tOI w
tOK dR w WOU u sOuI dQ tS WUD vK U U lC UbM
UNUF bILU UNU d u _ ed UU qH v U uL
u vK U uL r vK dR w WuLF f u vL UU
d U D r f UbM dNE `D sbOF f

wI `D

vK WuL uJ f u S qzU `D vK r l{ U

qJA w `{u u UL qzUL `D
`D

:UJ u

Friction Force
qzU `D

WUL w `KH r _ vK bM l U u XU p b

WuLF f u qJA

WUF u vK VKG XFD v d uI dR pKF UL v_

UJ u vL puI
WU sOL sOD u qb V UJ u QAM
vK wU qJA bLF wN pc ULNCF vK e s ULNFM
sOD sc WFO
f u l U d VUM UJ u WdU b b

WuLF
UJ u YO
sOD sO UJ qUF U VUM XU
`D vK WuLF f u
`D_ sO UJ s sOu u vK WOKLF U X
UL WKB
Static Friction wuJ UJ
Kinetic Friction wd UJ
UJ u sOMU sO sOD sO wuJ UJ dR
UM pK s dRL beL uIdLU u dOG wuJ
uJ w WEK w uBI UNLO v qB r pd pU
dL r qF qN_ s `B UbM Wd p vK r UNO

wd UJ uI r d UbM UJ u vL Wd w

sOD sO UJ u dRL uI sO WF qL qJA

UJ u

wuJ UJ

w d UJ

uJ UM

Wd UM

sOD sO UJ u qJA

R?
sA `D vK u{u rG WK U L UL qJA qL
rG

dRL

qUF [ `D r sO wuJ UJ qUF YO

wuJ UNu UJ bI V [ wd UJ
suO dRL suO dRL uJ UbM wd

5D 5 wuJ  UJ qUF UO UA

WHK qJA WKOD WOA WFD wCU eO _ uL
qLF uD

U JK t j UNd b nBM w U Od dOG UL UN X WOA WFDI dC

wCUM eOL UD WUu UNIOKF UN qNO WIK qJ vK dOG
UN f wCUM eOLU WOA WFDI oK
I l{
j U WOA WFDI u u dF
WUu UNOK uuL qI WOA WFDI d bb
r `B UbM eOL d V wCUM eOL
Wd p vK
WHK UI bU WUL d
WFDI UI_ WuLF f u dRL uI eOL d sO WF U OUO q
wuJ UJ qUF rd s b r WOA

VKB r ' e
uJ UbM WDI w WO Wu u b dOQ X VKB r e
U MU uJ UbM e l{ w r uJ dH uI c WKB
r e b U d c bF
rOI j w WU Wd U d
dH U O{U WF c s dF
dJ
qzUL eO d jI r UL
uM c b vK

uL uJ e b dA tS WN WOL uI YO

.dH U WUB UdL uL dH U WOMO UdL
dH

dH

5O 5u  5uI Wu* uI U UA

_ uL

U eOdOG Wu eO dJ uO UD l WuIA UNUIK uI WU

qLF uD

Wu eO bU WUD u jC

WObF WIK w r wu UNM bu u uO W jd
qJA w UL WUD u u W uOK WdAL WIK lC
Zb vK v_ sJ dzb WUD U vK sOdJ X
q WMOF W vK WOU dHB
e sOUD vK WuIAL _ s U HK b lC
wCU eO bU tOK WL _ l UD q
dH WeU UL _ jOU UD WUu U oKF
WOU dJ vK UL jOU d U
WedL WIK e v bOU YU jO bA Q p sOuIK WuL uI U b
U UL WUD u u
WIK e v U t oKF UNOK YU jO dL WuL uI W bM WU dJ X
sOuIK WuL uI w WU uI uJ WUD u u U UL
bIL w WU uI U sOu WKB S Wu u dOQ X r e uI e
w bU uO uU UNOK oDM YK {Q uI c qOL sJL U w UNUF

 u WDI qI e d
tM e uJ UbM v U e UJ vIO UNU u ZbU tF WUD WU vK U U l{
u v c U UJ jI v tF w dL p dOH pMJL q WU U

qI ed WOU ed vL u WDI U_ lOL

dOGB ULO WKB dOQ WDI u UNO ed WOU dOQ b w WDIMqI ed
r UNM uJ w
w UAM dS r WDIM c lu bb
r qI e d bb% UA
_ uL

edL w uD lUI

UL u UI uO hI ud WFD

qLF uD
J h
udJ s U OzuA
d_ vK uI W tO VI
jOU u j
jO X U LOI U D r UL vK jO qJA oK
WU q w wd wuUA j r sd sOI s qJA oOKF b
WDIM c qL U W uD lUI WDI sO

U
sOK w bA wu V qJA w UL wI nI w sOK WUu oKF suO t r
r e UbM

q(
WUB WOMO UNOd v sOK w bA wu qK

WUB WOMO UdL vK e d oD

U
U

suO

dH
dH U U
, x =, x

dH
dH U U
, ,
, x ,

, , ,

suO , suO,

Torque eF

b U t V r vK uI UO_ iF w dR
w tJd s
UN nu c U U_ V c U rOI j
qBHL ub tKF tC vK dH uI dR pS U `H UbM
dR uI wb d_ bLF UJ WDI tOK lI t u u c
UNH uI bI vK UJ WDI s UdOQ WDI bF vK r w

uI e
r S tKI ed r e WDI s U dO uI qL j uJ U r vK u dR UbM
e uL u bK qUI r vK dRL uIK wb d_ vL XU u u b
t ed uI

WO WF s U O{U uI e U sJL

vMLO bO bU bU eF U b

x
U

YO

d suO bu UI b u u uI e
dRL uI
bu sO bF bI uIdOQ WDIM l{uL t

uI e qJA

uI dOQ WDI v bu s tU uI dOQ WDI

qJA dE sO We

 U
uL

uL u uI e V UL qJA w

q(

O
su

U x [ x
WU UI l suO

Wu u b dOQ X% VKB r ' e UA

WHK q wCU eO Wd dD_ uL
qLF uD
UL vK_ s X wCU eO WUu UNHBM s dDL oK
qJA w
I oK

dDL d w

dDL qF bF vK wU dD w d I oK

U OI We

wU qI _ qI f

dD

wCUM eOL d f
odL b w pzU qWU q w UI_ dOOG WIU uD d
eOL d

WUL r

WF oI UbM WU q w e dDL Wd s k

x x

dH dDL nBM w dL u u eF uL wMF c

dDL

sOuI WKB WU q w eOL d

UJ WDI s WHK UF vK UI b bU WIU uD d

ZM U WU q w e vK qB v dDL u vK UI_ d
w u b dOQ X VK r e Udu  dA k o UL
dH u u
dH

 U

Vu w UH WF UL qJA w

WFd u v YU qHD

UJ WDI bM WuLF f u
suO

suO

q(

qJA w UL UNM q b uI rd

sOIU e wd oD
dH WDIM u dA
dH x WuLF f u w x u w x x x
dH dH dH [ x x x
WuLF f

dH [ x

dH [
suO

suO

u w

suO [

dH wU dA WUF w iuFU

suO f f

u w WF UMKL

b w oK q U vK WDI w bM suO t tu rEM wbF VOC R?

I tOUN
UM WDI sO WUL b wI l{ w VOCI e S suO bI
oKFL qI

Uu U w UUF bIL w UU Uu dR UbM
S sOdA dO ULNKL UD
WOzUeO WOLJ r vK wb d_ UI U JA ULN U O uJO r vK ULdOQ
WU UI l WU UI fJF r V b c e vL WN
UL U qJA WO UJ_ w uI s R?
suO
suO

suO

suO

suO
suO
suO
suO
suO

suO

suO

suO

 e U
ULNM q WLO UU Uu tOd bM dR u u bK qU tu U K U L dH
e U U UUFL UUL UuI UU qJA qJA w UL
WO uDU uI WDIM u
sOuI u vK uL b u dH

we uL U sOuI s uJL e

b u UN dL w WDIM u sOuI

fJF sOeF U x x

e qJA

WU UI
U S vK WuL UL
_

ULNMO uLF bF

sOuI b

e YO

R?

uLF b vK WDIM lI UbM e V

b k qJA w UL sOuI qL wD sO qu

U fJF d WU UI UU sOeF

WU UI

U
suO ULNM q WLO Uu UNOK dR UNHBM w dL UJ u u bK WKU dD
dDL vK dRL V qJA w UL dDL u s UbI We ULNM q qOL

q(
x
suO

[ x x U
suO [

WU UI fJ U w dDL vK c qLFO

qBH WK
WO rOUHL s qJ uBIL U
r qI ed wuJ UJ u uI
U OLK dOH wQ U d
sOD fHM wd UJ qUF s d U sOD wuJ UJ qUFL uBI WLOI
r vK w d UN fO cK U u UNKL j uJ w uI

bM w dR Uu UL qJA w

We UMKK S UK WO{ vK WU Wd d

td vK vI rK U WLO dOOG s

V sO WU UNOI UNKKI be qN WU
bM dR suO ULNM q WLO Uu Uu
U u U S UL qJA w UL dD wd
w We b suO dRL e
dDL l sOuI s q qL j UNFMB

t tu VA s rEM u e
sOO sOK WUu wI l{ w oK suO

rG tK h n tOd bM sOud

 w bA u b tOd b s bF vK

suO

sOK
t U OA d qL VU qJA w
qOI r oK tb s WHK UU vK UUD
dL l w WuF VUD c tuO Ub w
W w
d WuF w UD

w WuFB YO s U OUM UUD

V
UNNuO

Wd w suO sOu

v pc U F rI U_ Wd w UJOUJOL rK Y

nBdL Wd rK UJOLMUJ rKUu{u
b
rK UJOU rK UNdOG
sO WF sO U_ Wd
UJO
UMb rK WMU U_ vK uI Wb hUOuJ
UNU U_ vK dRL uI w Y pd rK
suO o
bF
eOK w{U wzUeO
uBF d
vK sOOzUeOH rE s

UeOH uK w tUUA UJQ

UOU w pKH UO{Ud
Yb rKF

qBH cN UM u{u

u WOd
suO rUF UNF{ WOFO sOu W vK UJO
UMb rK eJd
r Wd w dOG uI sO jd w WF U
sOuI c UL
iF vK UNCF U_ dR nO
cN p bF UNM WU s
sJL UdO d WK_ c
vK U uJ qBH
U wc uBI uNH
`{u
W suO sOu dF
U r vK dRL uIbI
sO WF U OKL ZM
tJ c
wU suO uU vK WOU qzU
q
suO sOu vK WO{U WOKL UIOD dF
sOL sO U u UNOK bLF w q
uF `{u
WOU qzU
q w UF c uU b

_ suO uU
:UOU XK pu dE qu UO bF pO v U
u b pKF
r b vK uDM UF c U
u dJ q tU vK wI w q
WOFOD sOuI
ozUK U
_ e j vK dO sOu bA UL dJ q
d
_ cN VO s
nU UO rNu bM UC Ud
wQ U
d
bd U
 WKU d U
bM
nu U
bM nKK dUL
U
 uFbM Q

w tU Wd WdL U_ WMU vI WMU U_

wMF c WKB
WOU u UNOK dR rU
pc vI rOI
j
WOd WU dOOG u U WMU U_ pd u U UM
j UNd w dL UNKF u U UMMJ WdL U
WU Wd rOI

Wd( w _ suO uU

Wd fHM td dL rOI

j w WU Wd dL r U MU vI sU r
p dOOG vK d WOU u tOK dR r U
U
WOU ? dF U
c UdOOG WFUL
WOd UNU vK WEULK U_ qO
uUI c nB
WK vK bLF WOU c wc uBI uU _ suO uU vL c U wc uBI
uBI WK XU ULK VF uJ rK WOd WU dOOG wMF c UUU e rK uBI
d t
WOd tU dOOG U w uI b{ r UNb w WFULL bI
w uBI WK

U wc uBI UA

WObF
bI WFD UK
ud WFD Q _ uL
qLF uD
qJA w UL QJ Wu vK U OI UNF{ qJA WFd
ud WFD h
U dI udJ WFD ed
w bIM WFD l{
U OI tMJL
Wd vBQ udJ WFD dI V
tbU U
d bIM WFD XDI s

s qOL suO UbI

u dOQ X WU Wd sA wI `D vK d suO t r
s
q bI
V UbI
We o_
WuLF f
 u

UJ u

q(

O
su

e WU w uN WU Wd w dO r YO

dH U tOK uI WKB
wJO
UM
dH
dH U
suO [ x
dH
dH U

suO

suO [ x U

wU suO uU

Wd rOI
j td w dL r qF u U UM _ suO uU s
UMM
_ suO uU w UM U
l
UF c q UNK s
d bF dJ nu ULK WU
qJA w UL UJ rb wI `D vK WMU Wd UM dH WK_ c s WU
d q UNd qLL U u U
WMU vI qN UO u u UNOK d S
dOG
WU Wd
u qH v UN w u b dOQ X WdF lI
WuLF f
 u

WKB
YO UO v dRL uI vK v WuLF f

s UNU dH U wI_ U w WdF w dRL uI

X b uI uJ cN UO u U d q WMU vI

wU suO uUqJA

w dRL uI WKB

k rK WOd WU dOOG w
dH U uLF U
vK dRL uI sO WF `O{u wU suO uU h
uI WF c WdFL tU WOd tU w dOG U
r
w UAM dS

tJ c U r' vK dR* WKB; uI 5 WF UA

_ uL

dD
Wu eO
U eO
UNUIK
pb
d
w uuL WOzuN WJ
WOzu{ Wu

WOzu{ Wu
WdF
UK
dJ

oKFL qI

qLF uD

Wu eO
bU U b WOzuN WJ u j{
wM
e bF l
ULNK WJ vK WUM
WU
vK sOOzuC sOu V
eU d f WdF dN vK U d qJ vK eU X
WJ d vK dJ X
dOG UD tUN w jd dJ u dL nOH jO WUu WdF j
bF w U UO WHO vK wM
e bF qG
dRL uI qL c UN V d jO d w WdF
WK oK
r qI dOQ X sOOzuC sOu d WdF d WOzuN WCL qG
w wU
qJA bF WU vK dNE w  dI q
r eU d v_ WuK eU lD s
v_ dI
WOU WuK eU lD s
WOU dI
sOu sO dGL s
e WU dI

suO dRL uI

WUL

rWIU WIdD fHM U V WU

q w WHK
oOKF Wd d
rd s
WdF WK U pMJL q UuI vMM

wU tuU w UNU U C suO rUF UNO qu oU UAM w UNOK XKB w WOM
wU suO uU
UNU w uJ tOK dRL uI WKB l U d U UM r tJ c U VUM

wU qJAU VJ U O{U

uI

tU x r WK r vK dRL uI WKB

x
U

suOMU r w dRL WKBL uI YO

rGJU r WK

uI sO WF qJA
U

bu r tJ c U

uI b ndF sJL UM s

dRL uI UU bI
U U rG tK r U W
 uI suOM

UJ WLb WOI WO{ vK rG tK U bM d q

qJA w UL sOLO v suO UbI
uI
bMB tJ c U V
suO

td b s
u bF bMB UNFDI w WUL V
uJ s
Wd b tQ U LK

q(

wU suO uU b bMB tJ c U U

dH
x
x
sOLO v

U U bI
XU U k Wd UF
b r UNFD w WUL U

d
x x dH

R?

Wud
qJ s
WuL
vK suO UbI
u dR

XLK SqJA w UL WKJ WKLN

uO WUu
rG rG rG
 VU
uO s
q  w bA dHM
W U_ s
U tH u WuLL U s

YU suO uU

UL
b XU d
r qHI
U vK dD uI d d{ pU
bM b pL d
r
ULLU UN
bD bM u bd WdDL b WdD
WUu
dR w uI WFO w Y c YU tuU s
duE c qJ dOH suO b bI
r YU suO uU h WdFL U w WUF
WU
qJA bu w U_ vK
w UAM dS
qFH qFH UA
b wd eO
uL
V

qLF uD

qJA w UL d WIK w sOeOL b UD oK

ZM U
sOeOL d f
YU tuU w suO UNO U oU UAM w UNO XKu w WOM

dR U w UN WUF
bIL w UN WU
qF u qF u qJ YU suO uU
j fH vK LF sOHK
sOL vK

R?
qJ q w uI s
b s
d UM WO UJ_ w qFH qFH wu b

suO 5u vK WuM

WK

WO{_ WOU U d wzUdN bFB

WO{ vK rG tK h nI qUIL qJA w
bFBL uJ U
bM dUE t hA vK WuLF f
 u uJ r
WU Wd qH_ vK_ U d

bI
U vK_ U d

bI
U qH_ U d

q(

dA
ULNKL j U w sOUF
sOu dOQ X hA lI
bFBL s
WuLF f
 u hA WOU u UL
hA vK
wU suO uU oD
x

dH U S tU Wd qH_ vK_ d U

bM
suO
U vK bFBL d U
bM
x

suO

U qH bFBL d U
bM
x
x
suO

UbI
b uI wI_ s We qOL q WUu U bM d q
U qUIL qJA w
rG tK Q U LK bMB U V suO UJ u XU S suO

q(
qJA w UL sOb
UF
sOd
v q w bA u qK
dH `D vK WuLF uI WKB

WuLF uI

dH

O
su

U
suO

x U
x x
x

Wu
u tOK d wI_ s UbI
We qOL fK
`D qH u{u
rG tK r
V d
`D UH U S suO UNLO `DK
`D vK w r Wd

WuLF f
 uI

q(
tOK WuL d_ `DK Wu
ULb sOb
UF
sOd
v u qK
qzUL `D vK uLF UU

dH U

suO [ x x U

uO

Wd UU
U
U

, x

`D UH U

tu

Wd uU s

x x
,

UF c' uU

vK ULNM
q dR uJ w sOL d U wu WOU w tMOu suO U
wK U
vK hM c UF c uU U U Od UNU v qu c uI d
q UN dR w WOU u YO U u sOU
sOL q sO bu suOM UF c uU
ULNMO WUL ld
l
U OJ sOL wK d{ qU l
U d VUM d vK ULNM

WO{U WGOB
X
x

sOL sO U u YO

sOL q
sOL ed
sO WUL
rG suO x [ UF c XU

WUL rG x U _ WK U LK _ rG tK r sO U u V

r _ ed
v

q(

x x

suO ,

x x [
x[
r U uI c k

R?
U LK _ dLI sO WUL WOU u bI
V
x , _ s dLI bF
rG x , dLI WK
rG x _ WK

qBH
qBH WK
wQ U
qK
U
 WHc oKD U
bM nKK lbL uU
b
UL w eHI q vK eHI r b
WU
U id
sA wI `D vK sOLO v rG tK r WUL suO UbI
WOI u X
b
V [ sODK wd UJ q
UF
U Q
r U

WKBL uI WuLF f

 u

`D vK u{u
r vK UOI uI d qUIL qJA w

qzU

`D vK WuLF Wd

b
WuLF f
 u qKI be uI c u q
b UK
dJ u dL jO ud
suO t r qUIL qJA w
WO U w q w bA
WU Wd vK_ d r
bI
U vK_ d r
bI
U qH_ d r

`D vK u{u
rG tK r qUIL qJA w

d WK v ud
wI_ s qOL fK
qzU

WHOH dJ fK
wI `D vK Wu{u
rG

Wd U b suO WLO XU UK

jO w bA V r

rG rG XLK qUIL qJA w

V UK
WHOH U C dJ fK
qzUL `D
WuLL U U bI

jO w bA bI

WUL XHUC ULNMO U u `B r suO sOL sO U u d

ULNed
sO

Work and Energy

WUD qGA

w b fUM WObMN UIOD UOuuMJ w WOzUeOH rOUHL r s WUD qGA bF

WOuuMJ WOUMB UL WU w UNb WUD UB s Y

UNu WUD u X b WHK L UMUUO UMUO Vu uM UNUJ WUD UB uM
v qJ s WUD u UA dL WOKL u U UOuuMJ aU Xd WIU uH w
WUD U WOzUeOH dEM WN s qGA UL wM wUL bN c wMF UO w qGAd
qBH cN p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c qGA uNHL UN U
vK U uJ
bI WUD qGA s q uNH dF
U O{U WU u qG V
bI dOG u qG UW uI vMM b 
iU w e L qGA V
td WU wdOG r vK cL qGA sO WF ZM
tF{ WU wdOG r vK cL qGA sO WF ZM
WUD qGA WdE dF
de w We L WOdL l{u WU V
WOJOUJOL WUD kH uU dF
WUD kH uU vK Wb qzU q
bI bF uU oA
WOEK bI bI bF sO eOL

qGA
UMFL qGA ZM U UL tF oUD tMJ t wuO vMFL tA qGAK n vK uOzUeOH oH
r { r l w U d VB pL pNM bI WMOF WU t U r vK u dOQ bM wzUeOH
G Xc b uJ pS tUJ s tJd w `M UbM pMJ
qU tQ qGA dF c U OzUeO
uI dOQ X r UNd wW t w WL uI tL wDIM dC
WU u dOQ X W rOI j vK d wDI r vK cL qGA S U O{U
WFU vDF
U
YO

cL qGA qJA

WU u s

r vK dRL uI bI

uI dOQ X r UNd w W bI
W uI sO We
W uI sO We V dH U U U u qGA uJ b

buK wLUF UEM w u bu c vL dsuO bu qGA UI

UNUU UbIW r pd w suO UbI u t
c c
qGA
u u

U
UNUU UbI WOI WU td U r vK suO UbI u tc c qGA V
u dH U x x U q(

R?
suO

qJA w UL bIL w WU u fL dOQ X lI wDI r

suO

V dA UU d WU lDI

suO

suO

WL  uI WKB
WKBL uI qG
u q s cL qGA

suO

cL wKJ qGA

wd w pU s ZM U

 U
WuLF f u

suO UbI uI vK v t q rG tK r j

wI_ s UbI We qOL d tu fK qzU `D vK

v `D qH s r d S qJA w UL
U

rdU UNM q U b r c vK dRL uI U

uI c s q qG V

r vK cL wKJ qGA V

q(
qJA dEWuLF f u V u r w u r vK dR
u x x dH U uI qG
dH U WuLF f u qG
k
U U

u , x x U u qG
b vK u q tc c qGAK d uLL wKJ qGA
u

WO{_ WOU' qG
G tOK c WOU u S WO{_ WOU U w r d
WO WFU vDF
U

wQ U w UNb U UM
W sO We uJ WOU u UU uJ rW S qH v U O r jI
dH U u

vK r Wd qJA
qzU `D

? dH U qGA
U fJF uJ r W S vK v U O r c
U u W sO We uJ WOU u
? U qGA
u vK WuL uJ r W S U OI r d ?
U u W sO We uJ WO{_ WOU

U qGA
qJA w UL WO WOI lD v UL rOI sJL tS qzU `D vK r d WE
dH U WOI_ U w WO{_ WOU qG uJ

R?
WU Wd rG tK r ld WOU b{ cL qGA V
vK_ U O UbI WU
wI_ s We qOL tu fK qzU `D vK
R c w WOzUNM WU WOzb WU sO ULU qGA dQ q
pU `{b WO WU tFd r vK cL qGA bI vK `D qO W dR q

dOG u s c* qGA

wDI r vK cL qGA v X

bIL WU u dOQ bM rOI j vK d

U tU WO{U WGO v UMKu tOK
U w WU bIL w dOG u tc c qGA
wQ UL uI r vK

w UL U OUO W uI sO WF qL

dOG u s cL qGA qJA

qJA

dOG OD v WUL c rI
WU UNM WU q U sJL YO UNu UNM q d b
qJAU W{uL WKKEL UUL uL U b U wKJ qGA
W uI vMM X uBL WUL dOG u s cL qGA

U
suO

u dOQ X fK wI `D vK rOI j r d

VUL vMML w UL r lu l UbI dOG

v dH s r pd w uI tc c qGA bI

q(
vMML X WUL U b U qGA

dML t WU qODL WU dML t WU qODL WU

x x x x qGA

iU vK c* qGA
iU w UGC WUD b W uI Xd u uU dUF nB w X
w td qUF
x

uI

iUMK WdL XU vL

YO

iUM w dRL uI

iUMK WU WUD
vMM sO uBL WUL iUM vK cL qGA
qJA w UL qJA WK w W uI
tUD
iU vK dRL uI qJA

UH x bUI x

qGA

R?
fHM r vK iUM tc c qGA bI U iUM vK cL qGA U

WUD

U
d, bIL UD t XLK suO td qUF iU vK cL qGA V

q(
u , x x qGA

WOd( WUD
UNHK w dbL U UHK WU vK s bU pKF
s ZM p b rUF s dO oUM w dOU_ Ud
WUD s dO WOL pKL WdL UOL Ud c p
rJ WUDU sJ r UNKLQ WOMJ UFL dOb wHJ
UNG sJL tS UNO rJ s U sJL U UNO
 UdNJ U w
UL cOHM UMOu pd od s
UdO uN sOu q d

WUD UNd V U_ UNJKL w WUD s qJA c vL

UNJKL w
W UD
w Wd
W U
bu UI td V r

pc lOD WOd WU pKL d r Q tOK WOd

G eM
WOd tU WO
r WK YO r Wd WU
r Wd

U
lHd w WDIMU dL UbI Wd WDIM s vK v U O rG tK r c
 V s
s

WDIM bM r Wd
WDIM w WOd tU

q(
?

x x


u x x

Wd sOu wU suO uU oD WOd tU r tc c qGA sO WF U
U bIL tU u dOQ X UbI WU lDI UbM v s td dOG r vK

wQ U vK hM w WUD qGA WdE v UMKu c
WOd tU w dOG U U r vK c c qGA uL

 U
XCH U qdH vK ozU jG{ WUr UbI WU td d rG UNK UO
VWUr v UNd
qdH vK ozU jG{ WE UOK WOd WUD
qdH vK jGC bF UOK WOd WUD
UOK WOd WUD w dOG
qdH vK jGC UM UO vK c c qGA

q(
x

u
x x x
x

u
x x

x

u

u qGA
Wd WU v u r Wd WU w hIM

l{u WU

J r pKL b
l{u WU vL tO We L WUD UJ s d
vK UL U qG U vK r bI UNQ l{u WU ndF UMMJL
dJ q d U_ WMU tFu vK iF s UNCF tUe lu
L WO{_
u w WUD b UMS iUM Wud WK V UbM
iUM w We  l{ WU v iUM vK c c qGA u iUM
WKJK WOd WU v l{u WU u d UNS WKJ UMd U S
UNCF iUM Ue lu w dOG s ZM c WUD s qJA c vL

w
W UD
w l{u
W U
tF{ V r
UNJKL
tKJ w qU
dOG

WOdL l{u WU iF s

G tFd c UMS _ `D u d ld UbM
WOU b{
`D v WMU tFu V l{ WU qJ vK qGA c e WO{_
c WO _ `D u jIO tS jI d UMd U _
UH sJL WOd WU v d w We L l{u WU u t _
lu w dOG s ZM c WUD s qJA c vL U q G U w UNM
WOc l{u WU  WMU r

l{u WU U

jGC UD iU vK cL qGA U IU pF d

e

WO WFU vDF WU

dH

l{u WU YO iUM XU YO

We L l{u WU S tOK cL qGA U iUM w
WO WFU vDF iUM w

WUD

dH

UNUN qB iUM w l{u WU WF c s k

d tUGC bI iUM WUD bI uJ UbM vLEF
WDI w dH uJ UbM dH uJ ULMO sJL U

iUM w l{u WU qJA

U
V [ UbI WU UDU iU vK u d
iUM vK cL qGA
tO We L l{u WU
suO iUMK WdL XU Q ULK

q(
x x qGA

x x
u [

u [ iUM vK cL qGA

UbI WU vK v U O _ `D s r l bM
G tFd c UMS WU Wd
WO WFU vDF
WO{_ WOU U ? r WK YO ?
WO WFU vDF r w Xe w l{u WU S tOK

_ `D

? tFd r vK cL

r l{u WU qJA

WO{_ WOU U w

 U
WOU uF q _ `D s UH v qu vK v UO rG tK r c
 WMU t UH vB bM r l{ WU V

q(
u x x ?
YO _ `D WMU r l{ WU w dOG qL c
dH

V oU UL w R?
r UNO c w WOzb Wd
tc WE r Wd WU
d UH v q UbM tF{ WU r Wd WU

WOJOUJO* WUD kH
tUe lu V l{ WU pKL U C sJL td V WOd WU pKL r U IU Xd
s sOKJA sc uL vL _ q d U_ WMU tFu V iF s UNCF
WOJOUJOL WUD WUD
l{u WU Wd WU WOJOUJOL WUD

WEU u dOQ X d r WOJOUJOL WUD bI b b

WOd WUD s q bI wMF c WE w WU WOL

r l{ WU w U q WE w XU l{u WU

WU WOJOUJOL tU vI `O fJF td WU w hI UNKUI

r k qJA w `{uL jO bM Wd UMF uK

WOJOUJOL WUD kH : qJA

d bM WDIM bM t UH vB bM vLE l{ WU pKL

qB WOd r WU e hUM l{u WU S cc r

l{u WU uL S WE w WDIM bM e l{ w r uJ UbM vLEF UNLO

ULNM _ vLEF WLOI U WU WLO Wd WU
XU bI

 U
qJA w UL UNUH d WK bFB r UNUH WK WL s rG tK r oeM
UJ ULS WOU WK WL v qB UbM r Wd U

q(

? ?

x x x x x x x x

U
XbD UbI tU Wd UJ rb wI `D vK d rG[ UbI WK
UNDGCM WU vB bI b qJA w UL U WU tDGC suO t WdL XU iUM
iUM

q(

UGC UB bF UGC q

UJ rb

d ,

U
_ fL UNUH UdD nB dz s u qJ vK e WF wL WMb w
V UL vK s uJ s e rG tK qH b S qJA w UL UNUN bM
UL qH v tu Wd
UL qH s UH vK u Wd

q(

? ?
x x

bI
UO pU WUM `D v U L s UNKI bd UOQ QF XML_ s s pb U
dB X w WLNL eM ULNQ WLNL U UL b  WFd b 
WUM `D v XML_ UO l w qLL uKDL qLF U WFd ULF s q lOD
c se dOJ uH UO_ qIM ULF tU c se WHK  WOM d VKD p sJ
bI vL d s nK ULNM qJ qGA U bF WFd tdG
qGA s b WOL U wMe bFL fOI w WOzUeOH WOLJ bI

qGA
eML
qGA
bI s dF bI

se
b w

eM t
r b u u

s w b u bI G
b WOU bI

S U qGA YO qGA c  se bI bF

U

bI bF

U bI bF
r Wd bF YO
Wd bF b WOEK Wd b  UMSWOEK bI U

WMOF WE w uI UNc w bI WOEK bI

U WOEK bI
u U u bu bI UI
wJOUJOL UB uKOJ u UHUC s

U
h A b bF V We wI_ s qOL suO UbI uI U bM h V
wu b w U WU fK `D vK U OI d r Q ULK

q(

bA

`D

bI bF

U bI bF
[ x x

qBH WK

rG tK r U UL wUO rd qL

qGA V VuL UMO u UU d

v WKBL uI q s r vK cL wKJ

d WU lDI

tK r vK UMO u UU bO u dR
V bI dOG UMO u UU d rG
suO

odL wUO rd

w dH bM r Wd XU S

UbM rK WOd WUD V

u rK WOd WUD uJ WU bM

sO r UNJ WOd WU vB V

dH

`D vK Wd d rG tK bM
qJA w UL fK wMM UL wNM fK wI
nu v vMML vK r UNd WO WU vB V UL

rG

Wd rG UbI WK d qUIL qJA w

WO{_ XU S XHu v U CU UNId w XDG{

fK

suO iUMK WdL XU UK iUM qH

iUM UNDGC w WUL UL
r WU iUM jGCM UbM WKJ Wd U

WL s uJ s td Ze b qUIL qJA w

w Wd b tUH fK wK lHd
d lHdL WL UN qBO

UO d b V WUr Wd dO v suO UbI u UO U

bu WK
wQ UL q w WOB WU e u dz r

ULNOU sO We uJ UbM sON WKBL WLO d uJ

WdHM

dH

WLOI ?

WLzU

ULNOU sO We uJ UbM sON WKBL WLO dG uJ

WLzU

dH

WLOI ?

ULNd{ qU U sOu UNL uJ

dHB U U bF
dHBK U U wU
dHB U U wU pc dHB U U bF ?
bu U U bF
WOU uI r vK dOQ v U UMS sA wI `D vK WU Wd r pd
_ p
WOU uI tOK dOQ bM WU Wd d r
sA  `D r sO UJ u dOQ UF WOU  uI dOQ
rK _ c u dOQ UF WOU  uI dOQ ?
U qJA Wd V w uI
bFBL q r dUE u S RU vK_ v bFB d UbM
wIOI t s dG uJ ?
dH U

wIOI t U
wIOI t s d uJ
S vK_ U O r c
U U bI XU tU

cI WDI v tu s U uF s
cI Wd U cI WDI v UN uF w Wd bI ?
dU lOL

vK bLF fK qzU u vK r t oeM c U bI

qzUL uL u ?

o_ vK uL qO W

r vK `D qF bI

rK _ c u bI

U W WK XU S UK dJ vK dL jO d s UOb UK

WE W w WKJ Wd S WK
Wd U WF U ?

Wd U W U

Wd U

Wd YK U

qFH qFH wu s WO WOU UF b

sOL s q vK U F sOuI dR
d r vK qFH u dR ULMO sOL b vK qFH u dR
d w dR jI sOL b vK UuI UK dR ?
qFH ubI s d U Lz qFH u bI
suO

dO r vK UbUF Uu dR qUIL qJA w

tJd w cL wKJ qGA uJO fK wI `D vK
U `D vK WU

suO

u ?

cL wKJ qGA S Ub WU lDI WLEM Wd d tK r

U r vK dRL uI WUu

dH

r Wd WU
?

dF uI c tc c qGA S WdHM W W t uI t sO We XU

U d

U bF
=
dF
] dO bI

WdK U IOF ?
S qH v vK s r uI bM

hUM td WU tF{ WU s
hUM td WU e tF{ WU
 ?
e td WU tF{ WU s
e td WU hUM tF{ WU

WO UKDBLU uBILU
wc uBI WOU WNL WOLJ iUMK WdL XU WOdL l{u WU u
U
tU b _ `D s UNUH WUM `D s uJ s suO t d jI
_ `D s UH vK WOd
WOU b s w UH vK WUM `D v rG tK q bF
qd c b b
s q bI UNOK nu w quF d
UJ u

sOL sO wKJ U u
s q b d d

VKB r e

uI e bF

bI XU U sA qzU u vK vK_ u uJ s td b rG tK bM

 V [ sOL sOD sO wd UJ qUF U S
s
bMB vK uLK WuLF f u

uL bMB wD sO UJ u
bMB vK dRL uI bI

td mK v uL vK bMB UNd w WUL

r l{u WU vMM qJA sO

WHK  UUH d U uI jU

WUD XU S _ `D s

u rK WOKJ WOJOUJOL

, , , , , , , , ,

lDIL j U WKL
 V
s
tuI WE l{u WU

[ UH vK uJ UbM rK Wd WU

sOK WUu oKF rG tK r UL qJA w

bA wu s q WLO V

vK UbI WU Wd r d

fK qzU uL wNM fK wI `D

uL vK r UNFDI w WUL V
nu q qzUL

uJ s UL qJA w WuLL Xd

fK wI_ `D rG XU S
 V
s

WuLL U
dU _U UNbD q Wd

_U bDB v tdG c se

WOU
,

se WdK WOd WdL vMM qL UL qJA

 b rd vK UL We cIL
wQ UL

UH vB w r bM uJ c se
WdK WOI_ WdL XU WHcIK wI_ bL

U
oOK s
r tKB UH vB

sO wd UJ qUF U UL qJA w

X U `D WKJ

WFU vDF WuLL U

WU Wd vK v U O d WU rG UbI WK ld d b V

WKJ pK w dL UN dR w uI V r u

U O rG tK r wJOUJO UB tb d UN ld sJL w Wd V

vK v

b?????u

u_ e
Oscillations & Waves

WDO WOIu Wd

qBH c w U WOUI Wd WIU uM w XdF

qWU WOM d w dJ w Wd s d U UL dF
uN Ue Wd Wu_ Wd tOK eF bM uF d Wd
U r pK v W dA UL u
Wu UNO dAM UbM
td dJ r qF c U Wd s UL_ c s

c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c

vK U uJ qBH
UL s UdO s UeOL WDO WOIu Wd dF
d_ Wd
We Wd uNH dF
bMK iU w Wud WKJ WDO WOIu Wd nB
jO
WO{Ud UNuB WDO WOIu Wd s dF
WDO WOIu Wd vK WDO qzU q

iUM Wud WK Wd

b d td X iU dD Wud WK qJA sO
s WKJ V bM UJ rb u  `D vK Wu{u w

c s UbI W d WKJ S UNe l{u

U u

e l{u u We Wd d UNS WKJ d bMl{uL

iUM Wud WK Wd : qJA

uI b b WU WOM d w UNH Wd c dJ YO

vDF W l VUM U u WKJ vK iUM UN dR w
WO WFU
YO
suO bu UI iUM U u
dsuO bu UI iUMK WdL XU
dL bu UI e l{u s WKJ W

W U fJF U Lz uJ U u wMF WIU WF w VU U UM k

iUMU WudL WKJ Wd vK wU suO uU oOD
b

Wd s uM c vL U w UNUF W bI l U d VUM WKJ U

WDO WOIu Wd
WDO WOIu Wd
U w UNUF W bI l U d WKJ U UNO VUM rOI j w We Wd w

jO bM Wd

WKJ W bM qJA w UL wI qU w X jO Wud WK s jO bM uJ
sOU vK Wcc d UNS UNd wd l{u s dOG
We
dOQ X WKJ uJ dH
U UNd S WDIM bM UN l{u vK w WKJ uJ UbM
fH vK qLF UNS U u WdL oKF ULO U UNJd vK qLF w U u Wd
r wd l{u w dH
`B v hUM We S WKJ d UbM jO w bA u j
WKUIL WN w WDIM bM WLO d v qB v UeU b

Wd( U& w uI WKB b$ wU suO uU w iuFU

w

S WO{_ WOU U ? ? WKJ YO

U ?

. U ?

dzbdbIU U S > dOG

W

UL

?
uI u
S
dzbdbIU We YO

dDI nB
?

W bI l U d VUM bM U bI UM k

jO bM : qJA

WOIu Wd d jO bM U w UNUF

WDO

WDO WOIu Wd( Wdzb Wd( 5 W F

b r c qJA w UL ed o dD nB dz U w dO U L dH
WU UI U fJF ? WDIMU U UMO u vK WDIM s Wd
uI c qK U uI c dHM edL UU U Lz uJ r vK dRL uI
sObUF sOd v

UL qH_ v UNU U k qJA s

WKJ vK WUF* wd WLI o S o U

w r' U o o vK qB
r' Wd jI S tOK W l U d VUM UB U&

Wdzb Wd qJA

vK tH Yb( oDM WDO WOIu Wd w UB u; vK

w Wd( p `{ wMO u; vK r' Wd jI
WDO WOIu Wd U C w wMO U&

We Wd

We Wd U qJA

w UbI W WLEM Wdz Wd w dO r lDI UbM

qJA dE o tu U u lDI tS bI s
WOMe dH vK uI u rI td bI U

UM r' UNFDI w We bI UNQ We Wd dF
se b w Wdzb Wd(

o WOD) Wd S tOK UM

o
o

o WLEM Wdz Wd w r' ed* U U IU Xd b

o
wQ UL WDO WOIu WdK U WUF WU UMMJL

U WKU w r UNFDI w WOKJ We WL q

U U We Wd

d tM

b s vK

U
q UbI W lDI U d dD nB rEM dz U w bI WU Wd r d

wQ U V u
b se?

d?

WOD Wd

We Wd

q(

:We Wd

x o WOD Wd

edO
d ?

WOU b se ?

WDO WOIu W d( UF
W l WDO WOIu Wd w U_ U jd w UF v oU bM w UMK
u
w uM vK XUJ rEM dz U w Wd bM iUM w u

tM

iUM w

?


bM w

Wdzb Wd w

o

vK bLF We Wd WLO k

iUM w r WK WdL XU
Wdzb Wd Ud qJA

bM w jO u WOU U

Wdzb Wd w bL dD nB r U
UB uL vK WU lDI tS ? WDIM w r uJ UbM qJA w
We dOG WOO Wb dOG WDO WOIu Wd d c r W S U o YO

sJL U qJA S s w r UNFD w We w We UL qJA w UL

wQ UL WDO WOIu Wd w W WUF WU

o U e WDI s WKJK WMJL W vB YO

WOU bu se

se uJ UbM r l{u buD XU W

td r l{u WdF s VdH
U

WMOF WE bM

sO bF U e WF qL qJA s k

u b se WdK WMJL WDI bF e WDI

w sOKUL sODI w r d sO qBH w WOMe dH
WDO WOIu Wd w W qJA

Wd U l{uL YO s uD

 U
suO td qUF jzU w X d td iU dD XD rG UbI WK
wQ U b WDO WOIu Wd fK wI `D vK WKJ Xd
d

WdK b se

We Wd

q(

We Wd

WOU,
WdK b se

d ?
edO ,

U
XU U WF o d r

b WOUU? se dLMU? UI

U OUO WF r ? d
e WF

q(

r e WF
edO

d

r U ?

qBH WK
WO rOUHLU wMF U
WDO WOIu Wd b se e WF We Wd Wb Wd
UNM WU UF u
r WU UN WzU
WO UF
oU uD wHF{ tu uJ UbM tOK U U wHF{ bMK b se `B
e WDI bM eNL r uJ UbM dH
U WDO WOIu Wd U uJ
U vL bu d UI ?
w We U Wb We VO Wb WDO WOIu Wd qOL bM dH uJ
jI uD XU bI
WDO WOIu Wd w e WDI bM dH
eNL r Wd uJ ?
iUM Wud rG UbI WK Wd UL qJA qL
r

UJ rb wI u vK WDO WOIu Wd d

wU U b
,

, ,

b se

WF

uD W

iUMK WdL XU ?

Wd qL

U [ WF XU

wU U b WDO WOIu
uD W XU

e WF

bM r l{u

WEK w r l{u ?

[ U WO{_ WOU U U WOU w WKU qLF jO bM

V
bM jO u
[ U dLI vK WOU U Q U LK dLI `D vK bMK b s

uC WFO

tuK UB Xd uC WIU uH

w X
q uC WFO U sJ UbF UdL w uB uJ
duE w uC uK dH nO Uu ULO s uJ
uO qb UJ UJF q WHKL

p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c

vK U uJ qBH c
WOOUMGdNJ u_ dF
wuL wLO sOuLM vK UM uC uK dH
WOzuC u qb uNH s oI
WOzuC u uO uNH dF
uO qbK WOKLF UIOD iF dF
wuL uK s oIK WOKLF U WDA_ iF cHM
uCK
WIU rOUHL vK WDO Wb qzU q

WOOUMGdNJ u_
WOLO WdEM XOI t WDdL duE dOH uC WFO rN bI cM ULKF WHH U
dA lU dI Wb v suO o wzUeOH rUF UUM w dGB WOUM ULO uC
c qA dO UJ UJFU uC uK rEF dOH w uOzUeOH tOK bL c U_ w
rUF U v tb tKbF b U ULKF l{ d_ WOzuC duE iF dOH w uLM
UJF wdU dOH UD uCK wuL uLM d (Huygens eMU bMuN
qb od s WdU X ,(Young mM rUF bF s U uLM c V UJ
WOu WFO uC uC
sOU s uJ WOOUMGdN u uC

Maxwell

quU rUF X U w

j vK UuL iF ULNCF vK bUF se l dOG wOUMG d wzUdN ULb

WOOUMGdNJ u_ uC sO dH qJA dEWU Wd UCH w dAM WuL UA
`
_ u sOuLM jI wuL d w u d_
s sOF b vK uC oKD
c wOUMGdNJ nOD
t U sOFK sJL

WOOUMGdNJ u_ qJA

We WFO uCK uCK UuK iF dOH `KB sOuLM  vK U X

u_ uK d U UO ULO uK U UO pK

wOUMGdNJ nOD
wOUMGdNJ nOD qLA U WH
h w dOG s sOF b s dOFK nOD WLK b
u wzdL uC u ndJOL ud uU WOOUMGdNJ u WHKL d
WF WOMO WF_ q UUF s UdO WOHM u u_ pc dL X uC
wQ UL w wOUMGdNJ nODK WHKL oUML sO qJA UU
ud u

UHK w Y w b r v r s wuL UNu d

ndJOL u

v r s wuL UNu d wuL uD dB YO s dU Wud u_ wK

UFD sO wND WU{ bF s UFA UB w b r [

UNM u_ e vK oKD ndJOL u wzdL nOD sO lI

ud u

wuL uD

dL X WF_

dB_ u_ b ULMO wKOK duB w b Wd u_

u
udU UHK uM w rJ q bF s rJ w
wzdL uC

s u q UNFOL u_ s Vd u{ fLA s UMKB c wzdL

X WF_
dL

t U wu u t nOD
WOHM u WF_

WOHM

lOD wuL uD YO s tM dB w wzdL nOD wK

iF uO UN U lOD b sJ UN U WdA sOF
 qMU dA

WB dC  u G s UHM u_ c iF lOD

ULKF UNb UNM d_ e UBU _ WI uI U
d

WOMO WF_ u WF_

UU WF

wzdL nOD

u
ndJOL

uC duU sO tu u d sOF t f

uM dLK wJKH duB w

WOMO
WF_

wOUMGdNJ nOD qJA

UbM WbBU U

Roentgen

s wUL_ rUF UNHA

hI ULK WF_ c WU e WdHL VOU_ vK tU d U

rKF q
Wd U u bB U r
wuL UNu dL X
O duB s sJL dJO

WFML d f wU_
s UNMJL UL WO U_ s
O UNzd UD

 u G d s UNMJL UNU sJ wuL UNu

UFL s nAJ UEF duB b U w b tUL
qJA dE
UU WF

WFAL c UbB WU Ud WOOUMGdNJ u_ dB

WO U vK db dOQ UN dL uM w WuM UH
WOUd U db UdU d_ WUF w ULKF UNb c
WOzUCH UdL vK l{u W
U U od s UU WF b
r
ULKF vF UdL s fJFM UN WF_ s UdO s nK
UU WF W vK UM tU bF tL uJ q
WdFL U OU
dL UNIKD w
WOMO WF_U u
qJA
UEF q
UH jd UL dNE

WOOUMGdNJ u w{Ud qOL

u U w WOOUMGdNJ u_ UuJ scK wOUMGL wzUdNJ sOUL s dOF sJL
WO WFU VuL UMO
U ? ?
U ? ?

wuL rd wOUMGL UL qL ? wzUdNJ UL qL ? YO

wzUdNJ UL WLO sO WM WuL UA j vK uL U w eN sOUL 

U dI x dH w UNLO ju w WuL Wd U WuLK wOUMGL UL
w WOOUMGdNJ u wuL uD d jd w WF fUL ju w WU w
wuL uD d WuL Wd YO x

U
WFU vDFWOO W qJ vK wzUdNJ UNU WOOUMGdN Wu
uN w UMO uL VuL UU dAM Xu x x
wuL uD ?

d

U ?

WF V

q(
UL bA WLO vB Xu WF
x WIU WF s k d
x UNM x

.edO x UNM

WIU WF s V wuL uD ?

u WOOUMGdNJ u_ s u q pKL

uK qUH dOG pc U F t U
U d U Ou
L WHKL uL l u_ c

d lOD UN l WKOK UuuH WU dO wuL UNu _ ud uQ UMMO f

UNUI eK wzuN sJL sJ UMU
u dL X u_ pKL
d v UNu uL q s UN
UB WUM WOu
UMzUJ r w WLUM W_ d UNKF UL b dOB WOu u UN WOMO WF_
UEF d lOD UNMJ UdO WO
v WHKL uL l tKUH tuK w wOUMGdNJ nOD hzUB b
UO U v w bFL WOuuMJ UIOD

uCK wLO' uLM

uC UJF
qJA dE U_ iF s fJFM uC sU nB w XLKF
UJF wuUI uJ UJF

vK UIL uLF fJFML UFA jU UFA _ uUI

b u w UNFOL lI fUF `D

uC UJF qJA

= UJF W U uI W wU uUI

w qB UL wLO uLM V UJF dU dOH sJL
 WdG WO{ jzU s Wd dOG
d b
UbMF qJA dE
uL qJA dJ bdWK
WOI WO{ vK uL qJA dJ jI
uLF j l U W qLF YO dJ UMF U UK WO{_ XU
uLFK d_ WN w We fHM bd dJ S `D vK
dUE c dOH w ` wLO uLM

rO UJF qJA

uC UJ
U s dM uC UF S d v j s uC qIM UbM

c qJA dE sODu wD sO q
UH b bM vUH qJA
wM UJ qUF vK UJ W bI bLF uC UJU dF U

uI W bI uC ULNMO qI scK sODu sO

u{ UJ qJA

dH w uC Wd

UJ qUF
ju w uC Wd

qM uU s UJ W bI bb UMMJL

U U
UJ W uI W

YO

wU juK UJ qUF _ juK UJ qUF

 U
qUF U UL `D vK UIL uLF l UbI We uN s WOzu{ We XDI

UJ W V
ULK uNK UJ

q(

U

U dI

U U b qM uU s

U U x

U x

uCK wu* uLM

rUF td c wuL uLM V UdOH U uC UOuK iF bM c w bM
duE c dOH UMOK qN w WDA_ iF dFM eMU
Huygens' Principle

eMU b

uLM d s eMU UOd wUL_ rUF bF

UL u s nK uC u
] uCK wuL
L UF_ WO UN sbF w qzU `D vK d w
s bF WCu c dOQ dAMO dH w WDI bM WC b
lI U FOL UN b WU UNM bF w UIM lOL v dOB
eMU b qJA

dLU l dJ c ucL WDIM Ued d jO vK

w WDI q (Wavefront) WuL WbI r eMU UNOK oK
qJA dE u U uU bB bF
WuL WbI
S uIB `D vK u qJA uC s We uI bM

eMU uL V UNu vK WEU fJFM We c

wQ UL UJF dU dOH lOD

pc `D s fJFM UFA qJA w k

uC UJF qJA

uJ tH ju w WU u_ Wd UL UFA

k? v s seK U U v s dGL se

U UNM ?
UIUD ? sOKL

tM U

wU UJF uU u c UJF W uI W

uC UJ wuL uLM dH nO sJ

u UL sODu sO q
UH `D WOzuC WF_ We qB UbM

uC UJ qJA

se uJ UU s dM u_ UbI S qJA w sO

dGL seK U U WUL jU UFA lDI w dGL
? dJML UFAK
U ?

qM uU vK qB WIU WF w iuFU YO

U U

uC qb
J WUM WuL cQ ju fH w Uu qIM UbM qb dU b
uJ bb
c U bI sbB s uCK qb b sJL qN WDI q bM U d sOuL lL q
U
uCK WOuL WFOD U U J R

mM Wd&
uLM r w mU d U mM Uu wzUeOH Wd U
uC d bM qbK sOF jL vK qB UbM p uCK wuL
qJA w UL sU sOI s
mM Wd qJA

ZM eU vK U WDI w tO bM sOIA s UI uC sO sUL u WO

qb oUM UCL oUML s d b qb oUM WLKEL oUML s dJ bbU DL
jU uC u vK bLF qb jL td w mM k b_ oUML c vLUM
pK b UL WDU WuL u l U d VUM sOUC sOIDM sO WUL bu oA vK
sOIA sO WUL l U OJ VUM WUL

b XU ULNMO uD w dH sOOzu{ sbB b dA tS qb jL uN ULC

bBL fH s sbBL mM c

uC uO
qzb s VI dOUJ w uB uJ U E uJ bF

bUAL iF UM dO WLOI uD w dO uC rb w

oUM uJ WIO{ W vK eO UF jI UbMF p l oH w
u uC uO qJA
W dH u

uO dUE c vL WH nK WUA vK WLKE oUM WOC

`{u qJA WLOI uD w dO s td uC
W dH u u uC uO

b o Wd s uO(
WdA nK WUA vK uO jL uJ tS b o Wd vK uK U u{ jI
pK uC U vK UdOH sJL dUE c WLKE oUM WOC oUM UM uJ YO
U Ou U uK

qBH WK
WOOUMGdNJ u_ WOJOUJOL u_ sO d W d
WO WOOUMGdNJ u_ s q t eN c d V
r wuL UNu ndJO
d dJO wuL UNu dL X u
d wuL UNu WOHM u u
d wuL UNu WOMO WF
WO WFU vDF WOOUMGdN WuL wzUdNJ UL U
b U ?
WuL cN wOUMGL UL WF
UN wuL uD
d ?
u_ c WUu Wd lOD q

bu WK
WOB WU e u dz r

se S WDO WOIu Wd d fK wI `D vK u{u WK iU UEM

wFOd c l U d VUM WdK b
iUM XU

WKJ

e WF

WOU U ?

wFOd c l U OJ d VUM jO bM Wd w

bM u

WKJ

e WF

WOU U ?

UK WOMO WdL WLO uJ WLEML Wdzb Wd w

U WLOI w dOG

U WLOI w WU

U w dOG WLOI w WU

U w WU WLOI w dOG ?

tH bMK b se S [ U dLI `D vK WOU U U

_ vK b tM l WUI dLI `D vK
dH
`B

dQ ?

qI

? UHB YO wOUMG d wzUdN ULb sOU s WOOUMGdNJ u_ uJ

U Lz Uu
iF ULNCF vK bUF
t s IM ju WU
WF fH ULN ?
d vK_ w wOUMGdNJ nOD e s
WOzdL

WOMO

UU

ndJOL ?

w WIO{ W WU V wzuC UFA U UNO dM w dUE

qb

uO ?

UJ

UJF

U ju UJ qUF S [ U j w uC Wd XU

[

[ ?

sU sOb sO WUL S sOIA mM Wd w

sOIA sO WUL l U d VUM
tuL u l U d VUM

wOzd bN s UbF ULK e

wOzd bN s UbF ULK qI ?

S [ UJ qUF c Ue v We uN s wzu{ UF jI UbM

U UJ W

U U b o W s ZUM wOzd bN d uJ

d b d wHF{

d b d nB

bN W vK bLF

d b dF U ?
wQ UL qJ wMF U

uO qM uU wuL uD WDO WOIu Wd

UNM WU u
r WU UN WzU
WO UF
rOK WK
U W U fH w WDO WOIu Wd d rO U uJ
x U WU U_ lOL w uCK Wd
U I buL UuLK U uU bB bF WuL WbI vK WDI q vK eMU b hM
O mM Wd bF
WOLO WFO uCK vK
d_ u_ u s Uu jI uC u_ uO qb qB

l{u s r iUM jG{ fK wI `D vK iUM Wud rG [ UbI WK
wU U b edO Ud UJ WDO WOIu Wd d WKJ Xd te
qB s sJL U vB

iUMK WdL XU

b?????u

Wd( UJOUMb
(Thermodynamics)

UGK WOe Wd WdE

uMF rNS UL s ULKF b UbM

s uJ w w q
WK t w q w UL UCH w r r{ v U U dG
eO qGA
WLz Wd w ULO c WIO ULO s UL nQ
c WUG WKzU WKB WU w UL XU u WOzuA
b dH nO WHK U w UL bu UL U v Uub
iF d UL UA bL UOKG d q WOFO du
qzu UOK W w dR w quF U d_ s d uL
qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO WK_ c
vK U uJ
WOd WdU uBIL `{u
WOe Wd WdE d dF
wUL UG dF
tL wUL UG jG{ sO WF ZM
Wb qzU q w tb wUL UG uU dc
td W wUL UG jG{ sO WF ZM
tL wUL UG d W sO WF ZM
WOe Wd WdE vK ULU WOFOD duE iF dH
UGK

Brownian Motion

WOd Wd(

WUG  WOzUeOH U s WU w bu UL U IU X

UL udJ bO wU U p vK WK_ s WKB WKzU
w WUF dE w udJ bO wU bu UL U b dJ
U uI p W U WKzU WU w UL bu ULMO WUG WU
Ue sO
UO WOzuA WLz Wd d d rUF k U w
Wd qJA
UL w UI WO WOzuAF

qJA w UL UL w WIKF dOG UI

Wd r UNOK oK WdE sUAM d rUF u U w
UIK u dU Wd sUAM d d rUFK U LdJ WOd
WOzuA Wd d dO_ c WOzd dO Ue s UUB v dF
UL WOd Wd UH bb v UN sUAM dOH WEL c
wQ
Uu qJ vK Ue Wd bLF
qzU We UBIM Ue Wd e

sUAM d wzUeOH rUF

qzU U u vK Ue Wd bLF

d v U s Ue Wd nK

WOe' Wd( WdE d

UJ u vK qzU We bLF
qzU UI Ue sO wKb
tUd UM

UuI w dH s WuL vK WOe Wd WdE ULKF vM

Wd u rOUHL duD ULKF UD bI bF bUA s
UO{dH vK WdEM c bM WOe Wd WdE v Ue

Wd ju
UG

sObON

uOKON

uOM

udJ bO wU

Ue Wd ju b
W bM UG iF

WO
qJA w WKULL Ue s qzU b s wIM UG uJ
Wd w suO sOuI UNd w Ue lC WKJ
w fU qJA UU lOL w U OzuA Ue d
UNu c Uu b l Wd UUB UB UNd UM
WLOI uD w bF UB q d Ue UL
b dE dO juL w Ud

rKF q
b wMF fUL UA
U sOF r w Ue
w Ue s bF fH
t U d r
s
sOe sO WUL c u
U b dOG sObON

w UUL l WUI b dOG UUD Ue UF ?

b dOG Ue sO WUL c u UL UNd
UB UM UNMO WUM uI l WUI UNUL sJL
sJL YO jI WOUI Wd vK Ue c Wd dBI

WU YO jI WOd WU e WU U
Wd c uJ e Wd e WK Wd

suO

WOzuA

wU* UG uU

sO_ sObON q UG iF w t dO WIU UO{dH lOL tOK oDM U bu
sJL tS iHM jG{ WOU d W d W jGC s b d X uOKON
wUL UG vK WIU UO{dH oDM WOU U UbF

UG uK rJ w ozUI WOd sOuI iF bM wUL UG uU v q uK

jGC s WOUOI dE wd ,bI U L qGA U s bu uL dUF nB w X
u U s bu uL b UL d W b u jG{ w d W
Uu b rd c vK oK x , U Ue s XU b vK
b w UG u b d{ q U bu UMS UG s WMOF WOL w Ue b U
.Uu

U
r sO WOuL WKJ XLK sO_ s r w uuL Ue b U

q(
u

UG WK

UGK WOuL WKJ

ue x , xu Ue b

ex ,

qu uU r( jGC dOG

td W u bM tOK dRL jGC uB U r b U
w UAM dS r p dF wJ
qu uU UA
u sOdD uH d oKG wU u _ uL
oz wUD
qLF uD
qJA w sO u UL _ V
u_ w lHd w uHL wUe u_ w oze VJ
tO uN s WOL dB oKGL
oKGL u_ UI l qH_ v U O uHL u_ d
w dH bI q sOu_ w oze u dNE v U U

u_ w uN uL u ULNMO oze u

bI WU q w q uHL u_ UH dO
w b w ZzUM V
r
qu uU qJA

r l jGC W qJA

ZM U sO WF U OUO q
sO WF UOUO q
XKB w WF qJ U
UNOK
UG r l U d VUM UG jG{ YO
uB ZM U l U d VUM uBL
Uud l pzU U tL UG jG{ sO WF
qJA w WOUO

U uL bM oze jG{

?x x
oze WU
WO{_ WOU U ?
YO

wQ U vK hM c qu uU oU UAM s ZM
td W u bM tL l
U OJ U UM uB
U jG{ VUM

wQ UL U O{U p s dOF sJL

uL b d W vK bLF XU YO x udU XU r xjGC
UMMJL tS tL tDG{ ` r tDG{ tL uB U UMb U
wQ UL qu uU s dOF

U
d W u u jG{ b tDG{ d, tL uB U
tDG{ `B rJ d[ tL ` v bL

q(

l jGC W qJA
r uJF

u jG{

, x ,x

d( W dOG
sOUFL UG uK bM n u oODK qU dO qu uU ` UG d W dOG
UL sOKBHM

UuKU jGC uU
tL q ULK e uBL UG jG{ qu uU s UM sO

l uBL UG jG{ W U U td W u bM

tL u bM td W
v UNUN w q u WIO bb U dS UuKU rUF U
U U tL wI td W lHd UbM e uBL UG jG{

d W l jGC W qJA

tDG{ s bIL e uBL UG jG{ UuKU b b

qJA b uOK W bIL td W UH bM wK _
tL u bM td W uBL UG jG{ sO WF `{u

w qJAU tuU UuKU U b

tL u bM WIKDL td W l U d U UM uB U jG{ VUM


uBL UG jG{

U O{U XU

WIKDL d W
s pc WO dOG tDG{ S v s uB U d W dOG d UF

wQ UL UuKU uU VJ UMS U U r UI dH v

vL W bM d W u lDI WF vMM b qJA s k

oKDL dHB W Wb c

U
V d Wb oz r jG{ X r XU U q uB U
td W X UG jG{

x
oz r,

q(

U r( uU
u bM tL l U OJ VUM uBL UG jG{ UM sO bI
WIKDL d W l U d VUM UG jG{ d W

td W uBL UG r sO WF s U
sO WF X{ WIO U dS U wzUeOH rUF U bI
tIKDL td W uB U s WOL r

uBL UG d W UH U c d bM sO b

U uU qJA

bIL uBL UG r U v R b uOK W bIL

jGC UI Ud l uOK dH W bM wK _ tL s

td W uB U r sO WF `{u qJA U U

w td W uB U r sO WF k qJA s
d W u lDI t b tUI vK j b bM WOD W

U uU qJA

dHB v Wb c bM uBL UG r R bM

qL c qJA k oKDL dHB W Wb c vL
WIKDL td W uB U r sO WF

w uM vK WF c U U bI
tDG{ u bM WIKDL td W l U d U UM uBL UG r VUM

uBL UG r
U O{U XU

WIKDL d W

tL ` v td W dOG r tL uB U d W XU

wK UL U uU s dOF UMMJL tS tDG{ u bM

U
uOK dH W bM UG r `B U Wb d tL eO uB U qGA
U U tDG{ wI

q(

d ,

wUL UG U vK qB UuKU U qu WIU UG sOu Zb

x x x
YO
sHKJU UI WIKDL d W
UG WK
UGK WOuL WKJ WF s V UG u b
uBL UG jG{

uBL UG r

u u [ U UF UG XU
uB vK `B wUL UG WUF S XU uL b WU UG WK XU

UNM XU

u u jG{ d buU UF UG XU bI b R?

 U
UJU x , jG{ X d W w sO_ s r tKGA c r U
u u , U UF UG XU r sO WOuL WKJ XLK

q(
u

UG WK

UGK WOuL WKJ

xxx

x,x

x ,

xx

U
`B r u jG{ U UNDG{ UNd W r UNL wU U s WOL

r v UNL v UNd W XCH UNDG{

u jG{ ,

q(

xx xx

WOFOD duE iF dOH
nUJ d 
b uJ WOL se s d bF k uAJ dOG U w uJ s WOL XF{
UH dH nO uJK qB UL XH
WU pKL UN dL WOzuA Wd WU w Ue s nQ UL WOe Wd WdE s Xd
u vK VKG lOD WOU WOd WU pKL w Ue S WUH UNUe Wd YO WOd
e UNd UM Ue UB dLU qzU `D s XKH d_ Ue sO UNMO pUL
qzU s vI v WOKLF dL qzU `D s  lOD d bb Ue WOd WUD
`D s XK w Ue U IKG Uu U b U sJ d b qzU uI UbM w
WOU qzU `D v uF UNCF WU UH v R UL iF UNCF l bDB tu vI qzU
U nUJ bFL U U qzU d bF `B UbM nUJ WOKL qzU v Ue u vL
nUJ d wOKL dL vMFL U OJOUM e c uJ U l e WU w qzU uI

UOKG
dF WMOF W bM WU td W vI WUG WU v WuO WU s uU qzU b UbM
U tO wKG U OU U X qzU e lOL w UUIH uJ Wd e UbM UOKG Wb
UNL e UNUH UM vK v UH w b r Uu qH w U UUI uJ k pS
WOe Wd WdE vK ULU p dH nOJ qzU `D qB v
uJ U U u vK u UUI uJ sOK WO c u vK u UL
b UbM wU jGCK U U wKb UNDG{ `B v UNL dJ dL Wd WU w
UL U UNM bUB dHM UL `D WUIH qB UbM UH l UNL e vK_ Wd
UOKGU b UL uI UM `D u

qBH WK
wQ UL qJ uBIL `{

wUL UG WOd Wd

wQ UL  qK
d UM iHM tUOK UM qzU d W X

U bI w UNH d W bM UL wKG

bB b WUF dUMDU WUI q se UFD UC vK jGC dUM qLF

se fHM tH d
sO W vK wKG ULK sJL

r `B roz r jG{ Wb r UNL uB wU U s WOL

U U tDG{ UI l td W X
oz r `BO tDG{ td W X
UNDG{ d U UNL uB wU U s WOL UNu w uL b V

Wb UJU x [ U
jGC V td W d tL U w uB sObONU s WOL
U OU UG Ud UG c s b u s TUM

Wb [ UNL WuD w rG [ UNK sO_ s WOL XFL

XU r U sO WOuL WKJ XLK WuD_ q jGC V
u u [ UF UG
XFH r WUIH r d W YO oL vK dO U w WOzu WUI
`D bM WUIH r V d W YO `D v WUIH

d pd sOu

WUDU WIKFL WOzUeOH dD Wb d pd rK vMF

ULb sOL f bMF ULK WOKb WUD qGA Wd
v sU r s qIM Wd WUD S U d sU
ULNOd W U v U r
WUD U vK U r UN w Wd WUD qLF
UL tU w dOG td W w UH p s ZM YO t WOKb
ZM t WOKb WUD s hIM Wd WUDK sU r bI
ULK WOKb WUD UL tU w dOG td W w UH
tM
WOKb WUD w dOG uIHL WJL d WOL sO WF U
ULK WOKb WUD UI U UN sJL w dD U ULK

cN p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c

vK U uJ qBH
d UE?M uNH dF
UQAM dH UEMK WOKb WUD uNH `{u
w qU dOG UEM vK cL qGA sO WF d c
WOKb tU
d pd w _ uUI h d c
e UdOe pUU Wd UOKLFU uBIL `{u
Ue u
Wd UOKLF vK d pdK _ uUI oD

WFOD w d pdK wU uUI WOL sO

d( UEM
US t jOL ju s WuBH WuKF b t WUD UL s b e u d UEM
U OU d UEM VFK jI Wd tBzUB W q s WbK tUC sJL sOF
UEM Ue WOzuAF W dU WDdL Wd WUD WOJOUJOL WUD sO WF Wb
rK u qGA Wd WUD sO WFU rN rK u Wd UJOUMb rK s t r
WOFOD bUAL U s WBK
 tUOU tMOu lOL wd
We dL Wb UE WU
 W Wd WLE_ vK WK_ s
U dL w bd UE nOOJ UE
UL Wd WLE_ s Uu bu
r t jOL ju s U UL eF UE u oKGL UEM
uB U q t jOL ju sO tMO Wd WU U
qJA dEU d eF U w
sO tMO Wd WUD U `L UE u uHL UEM
d U
dEWOKLF UO w Wd WLE_ rEF q t jOL ju
oKG UE qJA
qJA
sOIdD d UEM W r
W d WKUJ qOUH dS vMF (microscopic) WdNL Wb
UJOUJOL bO u UNMO UF UEM w Ue c
WOzUB
dOG sO WF Wb vMF(macroscopic) WdU Wb
WUD WKJ d W jGC r q UEM
d u
Wd UJOUMb rK bO u WOKb
uH UE qJA

? UEMK WOKb WUD

q td W c r v vK td W c r s qIM d uKFL s
sOL d W U v UI dL
UN d V WO d WU pKL UN dL W d WU w UL Ue U IU Xd b
WOKb WUD vL WUD s sOKJA sc uL UNMO WUL uI V l{ WU e

ULNOK sOOU sOIdD bS UEMK WOKb WUD U sJL c

d bB WUu Wd WUD UEM be
UEM vK qG c
G tH UEM c d s WOL UEM d U
qI WOKb tU S

d( WOL U
dOG UbMFuB wU U UbIH UNJ w Wd WUD WOL V nO dFM UMN
WO WFU vDF uIHL WJL d WOL S v s UG d W
YO

X X

UGK WOuL WOuM d

UG u b

UG d W dOG S UG tJK c UL vK bLF WJL d WOL b b

edU UNO ed r u bM WOuM d w UGK WOuM d S U U tL wI
jGC u bM WOuM d w UGK WOuM d S U U tDG{ wI d W dOG U
u bM WOuM d jGC u bM WOuM d sO w b edU UNO ed
UG iF r
sHK uu
sHK uu
UG u
uOKON
,
,
sObON
,
,
sO _
,
,
udJ bO wU
,
,
UG iF WOuM d r b
W ld W d WOL UNQ tDG{ tL u bM UGK WOuL WOuM d dF
tDG{ tL u bM b uOK W UG s u b d

U
XCH td W , tL UJU X tDG{ sObON s wU U
, UF UG XU XLK S X v U U tDG{ UI l UG d W
bQ u u , jGC u bM WOuM d u u

uIHL d WOL

UG u b

q(
u ,

, x x

x,

x
x

u x , x , x ,
uIH c d WOL wMF WU U k

uB; UG qG
qH v vK v W dK qU nOH fJL e uB U UN WuD UL qJA w
e WU w U Lz vI YO bb j bLO UG S d s WOLJ j UG S WuN
G cO
u jGC U UG jG{ S tOKbL UM
XU wU U
WUL x uI U UG tc c qGA S WU fJL d
x

x x
x
fJL WU

YO

uBL UG jG{

bu UI UG r w dOG
uJ UG r U u uJ UG tc c qGA k
uB U qG qJA
XU jG{ X

UG r hI U U

U
UJU x bI XU tDG{ d tL uB U
UG tc c qGA V
d tL `Q bL

d tL `Q hK I

q(
x

x ) x x
u x
x

x ) x x
u

U OUO qGA U
WOKLF qOL od s U OUO qGA U sJL oU UL w
UJU

r dOG bMF qJA w UL r jGC vMM vK

S XU jG{ vK v s

r w dOG x jGC UG tc c qGA

x

d

WKKEL WUL vMML X uBL WUL U b U

S tOK qOD WU w WKKEL WUL qJA w

XU jG{ vK UG qG qJA

qODL WU qGA

u x x

U* vK UG qG UL

? UL d v s UG qI qJA w

vML X uBL WUL U b U cL qGA S

?
?

dH
UL c d r U V dH ? YO

UL vK qGA UL qJA

WUL U qGA S dU UL d UG qI

vMML X uBL

tUH tObU c dML t WU U

c UL vK bLF q sOU sO UI uBL UG tc c qGA `{u c
t WUNM Wb WU vK jI bLF UEM tJK

WO
s tUI bM UEM tJK c UL vK bLF UbIH U UE UNJ w Wd WUD
qGA q p w UNK d WOzUN WU v WMOF WOzb WU
I U EH U uH uJ s ULNM U S UL vK bLF d qGA YO
d s
d pd WOKL w

d( pd 5u
d( e
W U v Wu
q_ UEM v sU UEM s qIM d S d UUE U UbM
q Wd WUDK wKF U UNO uJ WU w d e WU w UUEM `BO ULNOd
UEM e lOL w UNH w d W jGCU tU nB w dOGL uJ Q p UEM
t l e UEM UIO

dHB uUI
e WU w uJ UEM S ? YU UE l d e WU w UUEM U

UEM l d

d( pdK _ uUI U OU
w dOG S bb e WU v WMOF e WU s UE qI
UEM tJK c ULvK bLF WOKb tU w dOG td W
c UEM tc c qGA UbI UEM UN w d WOL sO dH b b
sOU sO UL vK bLF tOK
d pdK _ uUI u c UEMK WOKb WUD w dOG U dH c

uUI h
qGA UNM U dD UEM UbI UN w d WOL U UEMK WOKb WUD w dOG
UEM tc UEM vK c c
U O{U
d W XOI dH

pd U U WU UEM
W U w c uJ U IKG d
WKU oKG U

WOKb WUD w dOG YO
WU d UEM V Wu uJ d WOL
d UEM bI

G c U U
G UEM c U u uJ qGA
UEM vK

d( pdK _ uUI vK UE

WUD U sJL YO d WOL qGA sO eOL d pdK _ uUI
ULNOKJ tOK qG c d be U UEM WOKb

WUD UJ s qJ w U Q WUD kH uU u d pdK _ uUI

d qJ w hI tUB
s rd vK UEM tJK c UL vK bLF d qGA
U uH uJ s ULNM
I U EH
d pd WOKL W w d s
ULNMO UEM tJK c UL U ULN XU sOU sO WOKb WUD w dOG

U
UEM WOKb WUD w dOG V
XU r X u UbI d WOL bI
G UEM c u UbI d WOLJ UEM
u bI

q(
dH UG tc c qGA U U wI UG r UL

u
u

d( pdK _ uUI vK UIOD

qG c U sOIdD UGK WOKb WUD dOOG sJL t Xd
sO qIM UGK sJL d bB s d be UG vK
WO UOKLF b V sOU
b d pd WOKL w (Adiabatic) WLOEJ WOKLF
UEM uJ YO t jOL ju UEM sO d U UNO
U d WeF WuD w uB UG uJ U d U IKG
U c qG UJ W d d fJL e
d U

WOKb tU w dOG

WLOEJ WOKLF qJA

qG uJ r qI qb v fJL jG{ bM

U U UG
eF UEM _

dH S

rKF q
w b w UOKLF U sJL
WLOE UOKL U O dOB s
U LN WLOEJ UOKLF R
uJ WOJOUJOL WbMN w
WLOE UNUOKL rEF

vK cL qGA bIL e WOKb WUD wMF c

WOKb WUD YO UG d W U C e UG
jI UG d W vK bLF
U u UG qG uJ tL e UG bL
eF UEM _ dH

tOK

UG tc c qGA bIL WOKb WUD qI
UG d W pc U F qI

U
WOKb UG WU w dOG bI V uB U vK u U d eF U
.u bI UG vK wU qG c
G UG c
u bI

q(
eF UEM _
u

(isotermal) UdOe WU d W X WOKLF

d c WU td W UI l bLU UGK UML WuD w uB U UMb U

fJ WU d W X bLvL WU d W X

WU d W X hKI vL d c

X bL WOKL qL

s vMML qJA w

X hKI WOKL qL
?

? vMML ULMO WU d W

WOKL UNQ WOdOe_ WOKLF ndF sJL c WU d W

uUI S tOK WU d W X uBL UGK hKI bL

d pdK _
X UG hKI bL WOKL qJA
WU d W

WOKLF cN tM dH

isochoric ue XU r X WOKLF

qU dO U WuD w uB U s sOF r b

 sO
U d s WOLJ UEM c bLK
k

S qJA
dOG r r YO dH UG tc c qGA

WOKLF cN tM

XU r X WOKLF qJA

w Wd WUD bIL UEMK WOKb WUD e pc

UbIH w Wd WUD bIL UEMK WOKb WUD qI UNJ
jGC WO d UNU b Ue WU k
UO d q wKb d w ld TUHL UH UF uM c vK WK_ s
:isobaric Ue XU jG{ X WOKLF

WOKLF WOHO
WuN qH_ vK_ W dK qU nOH fJL e uB U u WuD
vK_ fJL l j UG bL d s WOLJ j UEM
U U vIO UG jG{ S tOK U OJOUJO U e UM S U OD U r w dOG _
qJA k U u jGC U U

UG tc c qGA

vMML X uBL WUL

WU
 W w r U uM c vK WK_ s

XU jG{ X WOKLF qJA

d( pd w wU uUI U U

WUD UJ s qJ w U YO WUD kH b d pd w _ uUI `{u
WOKb WUD U sJL WUD qGA sO dH t UL UNM d qJ w hI tUB UEM w
tOK qG c d be UEMK
fJF sJ Wd WU v U OK qGA u sJL qGA d sO rN d lu w bu
UEMU jOL ju w dOOG b qG v U OK d qu sJL  `O dO
sOO sOOUL dF p `O{u

r v sU r s qIM d S d W w UHK

 UL qB UbM
sU r v U r s d qIM sJL qO fJF sJ U
WUNM w oOKF WDI bM UJ uN Ue tbD qFH U Ob bM e hUM
qOL s Wd WU v U OK Xu b bMK WOJOUJOL WUD uJ t d nu
U Oze U OK Wd tU u sJL t vMFL tH UIK s t d bM nQ
WOJOUJO WU v
WOuJ UOKLF b U w U OFO U b b w UOKLF L sOIU sOUL k

tOK dF WKO UN b WMJL UOKLF w Y d pdK wU uUI

WOFU p s WI qd w qOBHU

qBH WK
jGC u WOuM d d W UEM WOKb WUD s qJ uBIL `{
d e oKGL UEM
U tb
sJL nO sO d pd w _ uUIK WO{Ud WGOB V
WuH eF d UE _ WOKJ WUD
wQ UL q vK WOKL WK j
XU jG{ X Wd WOKL

XU r X Wd WOKL

d UEM

WLOE Wd WOKL

U LKXU r X v s sOdOM U s rG d W XFH

V rG u Q
UG tc c qGA

UDFL d WOL
WOKb WUD w Ue

jG{ bI XU jG{ X [r s u UbI uOKON U s WOL bL

V u u [ Q U LK [ bI r v u
WOzb d W XU d W w dOG
UG v WUCL Wd WUD bI
UG s cL qGA
UEMK WOKb WUD w dOG

bu WK
wQ UL qJ WOB WU e u dz l{
WOU s U_ b w u{u eOL c uOK UbI d W d eO q
Wd uK Wd
dU U Q
wKGL UA s Q ?
wFO u w nB Wd U U
bOK S U v bOK u UbM
d hL
td W e
d bIH ?
td W qI
WOLEJ WOKLF w
tc c qGAK U UbI d WOL UEM hL
UEMK WOKb WUDK U UbI d WOL UEM hL
dH U UbIH UEM UNBL w d WOL ?
UEM d Wb U UEMK WOKb WUD w dOG
? r jGC vMM vK XU r X WOKLF qOL r
uL rOI j
wI rOI j
vK_ uH u ?
qH_ uH u
WU UG UbI w d WOL XU YO sOd wU U jG{ nUC U WOKL w
WOKLF c w UG r S wUU tOK cL qGAK
sOd nUC
nBM v hIM
U U vI ?
d l nUC

WUD s dEM iG q_ ju v d W vK_ ju s U OzUIK Wd WUD qIM
dF WIOI c j qJ WOKb
Wd UJOUMb w _ uUIU
Wd UJOUMb w wU uUIU
WUD UI kH uUI ?
WKJ UI kH uUI
bLK qU dO rJ U w td W c UL U
s u s

V sO
 b bM tOK U U wK tDG{ ` v
WOzUNM td W
U
 UNB w Wd WUD
U
K WOKb WUD w dOG
u u UL U
 Q U LK
Wb r tL U
v Wb UL s r u
UL bOFB WMUJ d XLK S UJU [ u jG{ X
V rG UL WU dF
qu WOKL w cL qGA
WOKb WUD w Ue

WOuJ UdNJ

b?????u

uu uU WOzUdNJ WMA

q WHKL WOFOD duE s bbF XE p b

pL pe bM WOzUdN WC pbUA WF d
u pUL
bO p bM WOzUdN WbB dFA b dF jOAL WO
uB
WOuJ WOzUdN UM rd UN duE c X
d b U
WOJOUdN UM

WM uM OL q XHA dU WOuJ WOzUdNJ

bI w
XLU w W UD UB r s b UdNJ bF uO
d U s UMMJL wN
tAOF c wuuMJ UC
d_ WOFOD dOQ s bbF v W
U{ Wd uC
bU UdNJU WDdL WOFOD duE rEF dOH sJL
UMA sO d
UM U u WOzUdNJ WMA ub
w
U OU UNMO ULO
WUL uI WOzUdNJ UMA VFK
UdJ jd w
rJ WOzUdNJ uIU
UL u bb
UNCF l c jd s WR UN UL c w
Uud
nO WOzUdNJ WMAU uBIL UL
UL Ue suJ U CF
U CF UNCF vK WOzUdNJ UMA dR nO UbOu sJL

p bF UNOK WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c

vK U uJ qBH cN
WOzUdNJ WMA uNH dF
WOzUdNJ WMA u dF
WOzUdNJ uI uNH v qu
uu uU v qu
WHK qzU q w
uu uU oD

WOU W;
UdNJ UA
rKF q
w WLdJ U_ s UdNJ
UdN WHK uQ WFOD w
bu
d
s ZM `UH wM  dH_
U iF c vK uuL mLB
duMB

k bI
U Lb WOzUdNJ duE iF uOUuO
WFDI UdNJ s WFD p bM t fOU uKOH
U WOMDI WO
uB uO uOD g c UNS
UL
ULKF qz s dK rO eOK rUF
pKL d u UM k WOzUdNJ duE uBI sc

v UNu uN s d d

UI d W
`D d W s d fL vK
bL V WOUF d c fLA
uB Wd uH dO Wd uN
ud nB V UL

s c WuNL c uI WOL dK o c WOU

c Uc dF s WOUuOU UdNJ r dJ WLK
UdN s UdN UIU
iF tO
U wdH wzUOLOJ b U w

tO
e pcd
UM d UNCF pb bF U U_
UO UdNJ Q
bu v_ UNM sOu pUM U u s
UdNJ p bM bu WOU ddU uK Ue p bM
UuM ULMO UU sOHKL sOuM dFA uBU
d
UM ULL
WOzUdNJ UMA dJ
d s sOKJd
sOUM U
UI u d sO UL dA sU dI w
WU WuL
Wb WHU w
WO dzU dOOD od s WMU WOzUdN UM
Wd pK w
k tHU b wzUdN mdH d vK tuB
uL s UMU
uL iF d sHO eOK sO
UdNJ qI UD b UNKu d UNCF UdNJ qu
vK oK b d s d tu wU u p s buL

sOKJd
Wd

u r UN UIU WOzUdNJ UMAK `L w uL

w VA gd UdNJ UeU d_ uL vK oK UL
rKF q
s U U sU_ d u UO q
dL uH UO qJO _ ouB
WKK od s _ `D v UdNJ
_ UO r sO qB

U r UN WOzUdNJ UMA dL `L

Electric Charge

WOzUdNJ WMA
WOzUdNJ WMA uNH

rKF q
dJ WM UOI UJKO rUF U
tLU dF Wd

Uud UdJ s c uJ s UL uJ

WuA dO U OzUdN WUF c uKFL s UduO
WU UdJ b U UNu w
WuL Uud bF

X UNUdJ s U CF c bI
uM u b w
WU X UdJ s b X U Wu WM
c u s eOLL UNu UOL c s qJ WMA
WKJ WOU w WIU p w
UNOK X
dF w ULO
uuJU UI

edU UN ed Charge WMA mass

rKF q

c edU t ed

q uJ duOM ud ULKF b

UuJU vL ULO W s ULNM
e UbI WM qL
dHM bu sJL UNMJ e
UNM l qUF sJL pc WFOD w

WOU WMA

WOzUdNJ UMA u
Uu WOzUdNJ UMA
WU dJ WM Wu ud WMA
WU Wu

ULJ
WMA
UbI WU?? e d?? J WM??
bIL w UNU uu
[

WU UOLJ WHKL WUL U_ w

UMA bu
WM Q
ULJ
U_ WM dJ WM UHUCL

Wu WM UNMJ ud WM

wU qJA vK UNU sJL WOzUdN

dJ WM bI
UM XFL rK WOKJ WMA
qL r c S uA dO r vK
UMAK d lL qU UbI WM
tOK XFL w

YO

WOU_ WMA c s e qL r _ sJL

 dJ WM U WL nB U U r WM uJ

R?
uA rO UNKL sJL WOU UMA rO s

[uu [ uu [ uu uu

dd WFD

WuH WMA

U VOC

bu dd WFDI U VOC p bM

w
UBI
WU UMA

fH w
Ue VOC vK Wu WM
WU dd WFD vK WU WM bu X u
d pb
UdJ

VOC vK buL WuL WMAK bIL w

VOC s XKI UdJ Ue

WU UMA w
U
WOzUdNJ UMA UI qJA
WuHL WOzUeOH UOLJ s bbF UM
WUD q

Ue VOC dF dd WFD v Ue

UEM c w
WMA uJ U UE dd WFD
wQ WMA qJA k WuH
s qIM UL bF v Vc bF s
UEM w
d v r

WMU  UdNJ bOu

WOzUdNJ UMAU U_ sA d b UM
qIM sOHK sOU p bM pbU U_ s

b Vu U b
U
U dF
uKU
u
UuO d

dd
uOML

sD
VA
dM
UuU UD
XU u VK UD
V WC
U qJO
du
sOK wu
VU uKHO

bI
w UL `B pc d v U s UdJ
UdJ X w Wu WMA WuA UdJ
p dd WFDI U VOC p q WU WMA WuA
w
uL UH c uM UdJ U u vK bLF
UL WOKU qJA sO UL UdJ bIH UNKO
UNOK w UL s d UdJ bIH WKK vK w
w
L

UNJO UdJ bIH Ue S

ddU Ue p bM
WU WMA dd Wu WMA U uA Ue `B dd

R?
t d r sA uA r sJL q

WKuL U_ s r Y dOQU U_ s

uA dO d r s uA r VdI od s YU
dU r Y WIdD U qu r s WOHO vK dFK

w UAM
wzUdNJ pb WKK qJA

bOI WM

Y(U wzUdN UA s UA

eK
d

_ uL

uA dO wzUdN UA Wu WMA tM r U VOC

d WM

UAJ w

qLF uD

t UAJ d s uAL Ue VOC d

dRL uu bOU UAJ d fL
b bF
dRL uAL VOCI bF r

UAJ d s Ue VOC VdI bM oU UAM w

bOI WU WMA VdI dD UAJ d sA wzUdNJ

WMA UAJ U sA ULMO Ue VOC WMA WHU
bOU UAJ d fL bM qJA k d Wu

?
YU sA qJA

_ s WU WMA qIM Ue VOC uu qJ

VOC UF bF v WU WMA U uA UAJ `BO
UAJ v
? qJA sO UL Ue

R?
uA dO d r l uA r f bM b U d

XU pc WOzUdNJ UMA s dO UOL U Y pbU UdNJ bOu WOKL wHJ
U_ Ub d WdC WOzUdNJ UMA s dO UOL U WU eN v WU
ULF Ud eN_ c dN s c u UuJ W WIO b ULO UeO
U w

Vd Xu
n v qB b U bN bOu b c qJA w
UL d bU
bu
s UN
UNOK buL UMA se b W
u dO WeK
d
UMA qIM U b t sJL wzUdN d WUu sOdJ u b wUD dO e
WeKH dJ v buL
_U WOU dJU v_ qB UeK
UUd

WOzUdN UM
d
WObF

wUDL e bM t vK UN c qL b uI
WOzUdN WM dJ VJ UN tUJ WOKH dJ u dLK
r s WOU dJ v UNKIM _U WKBL UdH od s
WObFL UdH od s WeKH dJK wU `D v UNM qIM
UMA s dO UOL lL b dL l UN WKBL
v UO_ iF w
qB v UbN beO
WObFL dJ vK
WUM d W U
U u U Xu n

dJ
WuK

e
wUD

UL dJ `D WU vK buL wzUdNJ bN WLO bLF

d W Wud YO s WDOL Wu dE vK bLF

dJ
WOKH

Ud

WObF
WKB
U

u jGC

uu uU
UNu V d
UM U WOzUdNJ UMA U IU X
d
WOzUdNJ uIU vL WOzUdNJ UMA sO WU u UM
d U
bu qJA

bF WOzUdNJ UMA bI U uI c bI nK q

U OKL uI c bI U sJL q UNMO

w UAM dS r WOzUdNJ uI UNOK bLF w quF v dFK

5DI 5M 5 WOzUdNJ uI UNOK bLF w quF UA

_ uL

UL qJA w
UL WHK UFQ b WOA lD
d b h WA r b tu dOG d
uKU jO dO sdu d b dOG sdu
dOU u b dOG wd lO
U pK lO

uOML dOG

qLF uD

u dOG dOU bU qJA w

UL WOA lDI V
WAI s jO d WDI vK u_ s WDI l{ jO q ub UNHBM s hL WA VI
rd V UN VOd qL
uOML u hL WA w
d WODG sJL sdu d d
u r uOML u dJ nK
WOzuN UO s eF UJ w
UN l{ qCH
UN wd b s u WFDI WOJO dD p
b U k WIU dJ s UNd WeFL bUI vK WL sdu d s
WHK UMA UN d sA d U
bu b sJL
k WuAL UN d WeFL bUI vK uuL WuAL dJ sO W
UL dO
ZM Ub U

vK bLF sOM sO WOzUdNJ uI oU UAM s `C

WOzUdNJ uI e YO ULNMO bF vK sOMA s q bI
b b ULNMO bF Ue qI WOzUdNJ UMA bI UU
bU U w
Charle Coulomb uu U rUF
WUL WOzUdNJ uI qJ w
UL wK  eO vL UN
WO hzUB UN sOODI sOOzUdN sOM sO
qU l U d sOOzUdN sOM sO WUL uI VUM

sOMA s q d{

sOMA sO W
UL ld l U OJ uI VUM

sOMA sO bF YO

sOHK UMA XU U u WUL uI uJ

wK eO qJA

uJ uM w
sONUA UU d
UM u uJ uM w

vK sOMA sO qu j vK uI c qL j

WMA pK UNQ WODIM WMA dF
UF UL sJL rO vK WuLL
WuL UM sO UNMO W ULU Xu
e ULO vK

b

WO WO{Ud W FU vDF sODI sOM sO WUL WOzUdNJ uI S

p vK UM

uu uUI uUI c vL

q UO b vK sOMA sO qUH ju u vK bLF U U bI t S
VUM XU U
dLU W
UL uuJU WMA UI buK wb UEM w
uI W
UL WMA s
suOMU uI b uJ

W FU XU vDF

[ U sOOzUdNJ sOMA tO
uuL juK WOzUdNJ WOUL YO

U dI U uN dH w
XU WLO `B
edU t ed uN dHK suO uu
uu suO

W FU vDF uN dH ULNMO qBH sOODI sOM sO WUL WOJOUdNJ uI
uu uU V WO

WODI WM vK suO UbI WOzUdN uI dR w WODIM WMA bI w uuJ b

uN w
b d W
U UNM bF UN WKUL d

uIU uI c XOL bI

WMU WODI UM sO XU uu UN w WOzUdNJ uI YO
WO UJ_U qL WOJOUdNJ

vK WM q
UN dR w uI d
c
bI UN WN WOL
w d_
bI s tL u dF YO U U
qJA k uI

U WHKL d
UM tUAL UMA qJA

 U
uI pc uudJO

WMA vK uudJO

WMA UN dR w uI V

dH w
r sOMA sO bF U

WMA vK

WMA UN dR w

q(
qJA w
`{uL U w
UNM UUF U
d
UM uI
Uu sOMA _ d
UM uI

vK

vK dR

dR
pc

uu uU s uI c bI V

UO UU suO [

sOLO UU suO [ S
U U UNUF bI UL

R?
uI bI b U CF ULNCF s r bF vK uu dJO ULNM q bI Uu UM
WO U w
uu dJO UbI WU WM vK UN dR w WOJOUdNJ
ULNMO qu j vK sOMA sO W
UL nBM w
XF{
ULNMO qu j b vK sOMA b s r bF vK XF{

U
vK

WODI UM l XF{

WOKJ uI b UL qJA w

sO u UL qOD

UMA c XU

WMA vK dR w WKBL

VOd vK uudJO U

q(
w

UMA s u

WMA vK dR

qJA w
WMOL UUU VOd vK
uu uU b dH vK u q bI U

suO [

sOMA sO W UL U

bU qODL dD b
uUO WdE
r ?

suO [

suO

U w
uI WKB pc wI
_ U w
uI WKB b uI c WKB U
UU d_ UU ULb sObUF sOd v uI qOK p wd
U wMO UU uI WKB
VU wMO U w
suO [ [ [ [
suO [ [ [ U wd U w
uI WKB

[ [

suO [
suO [

[ [

s UN qO9 w We q b$ WKB; U& U

U IU pF d UL UMO u

suO

[
=
[ =
[
suO [

Vu* UMO u s WKB; UN qO9 w We

qBH WK
WMA WOLJ b WODIM WMA s qJ? uBIL `{

dD n?B XLK S
b U ud u u u b b dJ s sObON uJ
dR w WOzUdNJ uI V [ U ? dI U?? dJ tO
d c bL
uu [ dJ ud s q WM bI U LK dJ vK uM UN

uu UbI tM `B UF r UbIH V w UdJ_ b U

l b WUI vK UFI sOud UL qJA qL

b dJ

d ud s edL w
uuL ud vK dRL WOzUdNJ uI U
dJ s edL w
uuL ud vK dRL WOzUdNJ uI U
edL w
uuL ud vK dRL WOKJ WOzUdNJ uI U ?

u {_ U YK vK WODI UM XF{

XLK S
r tFK{

WMA vK dRL WKBL uI bI V uudJO

uudJO

`B YO WU WOzUdN WM l{ sJL s UL qJA w

WMA c u U e WU w
 WOzUdNJ UMA

ULNCF s ULUF ULd

UM v UL sO sOKUL sOdOG sOd vK WM X
bI VU
d ULNMO bF uJ UbM suO [ U ULNMO d
UM u XLK U CF
sOdJ s q vK WMA
U F sODd uu u uK u s NaCl uuB buK e uJ
sO bF ju e

uKJ u WM e

uuB u WM XLK

ULNMO U u b [ sOu_ ed

Electric Field

wzUdNJ UL

UdOQ U w
WF u UNM WdI U_ w
_ dR
UNCF vK WOzUdNJ UMA dR UL Uu UNU w
V
bF s p r nO UL ULNMO uJ WOzUdN uI iF
vK uI wzUdNJ UL dR nO wzUdNJ ULU uBIL U
tO
Wu{u WM

p bF UNOK WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c

vK U uJ qBH cN
UL uD wzUdNJ UL s qJ uBIL `{u
wzUdNJ o
b rEML wzUdNJ ULwzUdNJ
U `D
wzUdNJ UL uD eOL b
WHK WOzUdN UMA wzUdNJ UL uD rd
WODI UM s TUM wzUdNJ UL b V
wzUdNJ UL b Wb WOzUdNJ uI s dF
rEML wzUdNJ UL dF
rdU U O{U rEML wzUdNJ UL b s dF
U uU h dc
wzUdNJ UL b wzUdNJ o
b sO W F ZM
WU U w
U uU oD

wzUdNJ U*

bu WM
ULK

U WM

uI dQ _ `D s dIU lI w U_ k
lI U_ c UI Uu U UNKF
_ s c

WIDML s dOFK UL kH b b WO{_ WOU U w

S
qLU WO{_ WOU u dOQ UNO
dNE _U WDOL

WOzUdNJ uI dOQ UNO

dNE w WOzUdNJ WMAU WDOL WIDML

WMA S
uO bzU dEM WN V wzUdNJ ULU vL
UN dR w WOzUdNJ uI qJA
WHK UI bM

UNU d p r q WOU WM vK dU u c WOzUdNJ

uI wzUdN U bOu vK v_ WMA qLF YO wzUdNJ
WOU WMA vK uI dOQU
dIU U l{u w
wzUdNJ UL u vK b wJ

?

U WM vL Wu dOG WMA sOF WODI WM s

uI bI UI l{uL p w

l{u test charge

WMAK wzUdNJ UL qJA

WDIM bM

bI dOG qJA k UNU UNO

dRL WOzUdNJ
qJA k WDIM l u dOG UNU uI c
UL S
U bILU b tN WOL uI UL
U bILU b t U u U C WDI W bM wzUdNJ
WDIM pK bM

?

w
dRL uI US UL U uJ

WDIM pK bM UL U vK b rN tU bI s dF

qJA k
wzUdNJ UL bA WDI w
wzUdNJ UL bI s dF

WODI WMA wzUdNJ UL qJA

dJ
dOG Wu U WM b r UL
wzUdNJ UL bb Wu bIL
U WDI bM tMA

vK UL UN dR w uI UNQ U WDI w

wzUdNJ UL b dF
WMA bI vK U uI WDIM pK w
Wu{uL U WM

?

wzUdNJ UL b
? YO
suO bu tUI WOzUdNJ uI

uu bu tUI ULU dQL U WM

l{u q w
b U b WLO wzUdNJ ULK uJ
qJA k WOzUdNJ WMAU WDOL WIDML s

wzUdNJ U* b b
uu bu WOzUdNJ WMA suO bu buK wb UEM w
WOzUdNJ uI UI
uusuO wzUdNJ UL b uJ tOK

wzUdNJ U* uD
c u WOzUdNJ uI uD r od s WOzUdN WM u U WIDM w
wzUdNJ UL qL
rd UL w
WDI w
UNF{ bM Wu U WM tJK c UL tQ uI j dF WMA
b uJ WUI uD uJ UbMF
wzUdNJ UL U bI U l{u w
qL YO uI uD
w UAM dS r UNBzUB uD c qJ vK dFK`O fJF dO UL
WHK WOzUdN UMA wzUdNJ U* jOD UA
_ uL

oLF qOK wU u bOL WNUA WeK

d d U
bu d X
qLF uD
OK l{
U dI r pL WO WI uJ wUe u w
d X s
d U
UN bU sOeK
sOd s
XeU uKLL wUe u w
sOdJ l{
pUE d
k U sOdJ sO bOL s WHOH ozU

UF WDI

WHK WOzUdN UMA wzUdNJ UL uD qJA

p qJA w
UL wzUdNJ UL uD WKL WHOH ozU b XHD oU UAM w

r sJL wzUdNJ UL j vM cQ Xe `D vK Xd r dOQU XM WIO q _

ULK bu WM UN WMU dO d WM U w
l{u dOG U tM U uB uD
qJA w
UL Ued UU WU WMA s WdI UNF
b WOzUdN uI U WM dQ
qJA w
UL UNM bF

Wu WU WMA wzUdN U w

tJK c UL qJA

dU WMA u t WU WMAU WDOL UIM lOL w

wzUdNJ UL t S
d vMFL
tO
qJA qJA w
UL wzUdNJ UL uD dF U c UNO
WK UNQ
WuL WMA s WU UNQ b wzUdNJ UL uD uJ

UL j

UL j

Wu d WU WMA wzUdNJ UL uD qJA

p UMb WMA s UbF ULK UNCF s bU wzUdNJ UL uD qJA s k

UF WDI

ULK buL WMA s UbF ULK qI wzUdNJ UL b vK

b s WIKDML UL uD qJA s k
YO d_ WuL WMA s bF wMM WuL sOMA
vL wzUdNJ UL uD s WOU sOMA sO WDI uJ
UF WDI
wzUdNJ UL UNO
bFM w WDIM wUF WDI
dH WDIM pK bM UL WKB

wzUdNJ UL uD qJA

sOu sOMA

 wzUdNJ U* uD eO2
sJL ULK buL WMA bI l U d U UM U WDI w
wzUdNJ UL b VUM
qL WudL uD b YO WIDML pK w
UL uD r od s p `O{u
qJA w
UL UL b

ULK buL WMA bI l VUM wzUdNJ UL b qJA

b lDI w wzUdNJ UL uD b VUM

b l U d UL uD W
U UNOK WuLF WUL
qJA w
UL wzUdNJ UL

wzUdNJ UL b qJA

?

UL U vK WDI bM UL j ULL U b

qJA sO UL WDIM pK w
wzUdNJ

bM wzUdNJ UL U qJA

WDIM

qJA sOUL WU??  WM?? ? A w

qb WuL WM?? A s WU UL uD b
p d
lUI wzUdNJ UL uD

WODI UM b s TUM wzUdNJ U* b U

WODI WMA wzUdNJ U* b
s UbI W
U bF q WDI bM WODI WM s TUM
? wzUdNJ UL b U
uI V r WDIM w
q dOG Wu U WM u dH qJA w
UL WMA

? vK qBM
vK
uI rI U WM vK WMA UN dR w

WUFL w

uF
? WLO U

?

?

wzUdNJ UL b qJA

WODI WMA

?

?

UL

U WM WLO vK bLF wzUdNJ UL b bI WUFL s k

wzUdNJ UL b bI qI W

UL ld vK UL bB

WMA WLO vK bLF

U WM vK dRL uI UU UL U uJ ULK buL WMA s UbF ULK

U
WODI WM s r UbI W
U bF q WDI bM tU wzUdNJ UL b bI b
UbI
c uudJO

uu
uu
dJO
uu
uu
uU

c uudJO

q(
WUFL w
iuFU wzUdNJ UL b bI b

?

?
c

uusuO

UL qJA w
sO u UL sOLO u tU

[ ?

uusuO

?

UL qJA w
sO u UL UO v tU

jI
U w
u sOMA wU sO UM k

R?
U bu w WODIM WMA bI V
UbI W
U bF WDI bM uusuO bI
WMA s

WODI UM b s dIU WDI w wzUdNJ U* b UOU

b s ZUM q WDI bM wzUdNJ UL b U

q s ZUM UL V UMS

qJA w
UL WODI UM
U N U FL UL lL r dH vK WDIM bM WM

?

?
?
?
?

?

WODI UM b s WUM UL WKB

?

?

WUM UL WKB qJA

WODI UM b s

U
[

vK uudJO WODI UM XF{

UL b V UL qJA w

UL VOdU b WUI
WDIM bM wzUdNJ

q(
UMA s ? ? ? WUM UL V WDIM bM wzUdNJ UL b U

?

WODIM

W F bU

sOLO u uusuO

?
[

WKBL

? ?

?
[

sOLO u uusuO

UO u uusuO [

?
[

?

?

? ? ? WKBL ?

qJA sO UL sOLO uuusuO

U
qJA w
UL r tFK{ u {_ U YK vK WODI UM XF{
uuuU UdUI

V?? 

uu

? WDIM bM tU wzUdNJ UL bI

? WDIM bM Wu{uL WMA w
dRL uI U bI

q(
?

uu

uu ?
L

WKB

WOzUdN U bOu vK

UMA qLF

?

qJA w
UL ? WDIM bM VOd vK ? ?

?

?

?

qJA w
sOL UU uusuO ?

?

qJA w
sOL UU uusuO ?
W ULNMO dB sON WKB uU b qBL UL U
U ? ? ? ?

WKBL ?

uusuO [

c uO uU oOD bI b YO VU UMO u l UbI W lMB UU

U IU pF d

?


?


?

?

[

U
U

WKB

WKBL

?

?

VU UMO u l [ [
suO [ [ ?

[
U
[

WKBL ? ?

U
l u b W
U ULNMO

ULb WLO Uu UM UL qJA w

UF WDIwzUdNJ UL UbM bFM v WDIM

?

?

d_

q(

WDI s WDI s W
U bF UF WDI w dH

WKBL ? UU sOUF bIL w

sOU sOU dOQ X lI wMF c
dH bM

? ?

sOMA sO lI bI q _ WMA v d UF WDI

R?
WU WDIM w
WMA XU UF WDI l u b oU UL w

rEM* wzUdNJ U*
UMF{ u Wu WOzUdN UM s rEM lu UNOK WIO WOzUN WOH s e qJ sO
s u WuLL dQ UNS
qJA w
UL WOHB VU WDI bM dOG U WM
WOHB u vK U uL uI c WKB U uJ YO WOHB vK UEU WuL UMA
WMA lu w
qUL V U CF UNCF wGK UU WOI w
dRL uI YO UNM bOF t

rEML wzUdNJ UL qJA

u vK U uL sON s WOHBU WDOL WIDML w

WDI bM wzUdNJ UL t uJ
UL rOI
WOHB vK UEU Wu WMA _ qJA w
UL UNM bOF t WOHB
ULK vK b c wzUdNJ UL uD u k U bIL fH UN UIM lOL bM
bF vK bLF WU c w
ULU
? qJA w
UL UIM lOL bM WLOI fH wzUdNJ
WOHB s UbM UL V w WDIM

rEM* wzUdNJ U* jOD

w UAMU uI rEML UL uD vK dFK
rEM* wzUdNJ U* jOD UA
q q sOu uOML_ s sOeK
sOOHB WeKH dJ b r UAM v l
qJA w
UL sOOHB s WOH l bN d
bB d s d
UL sOOHB vK WuL Wu uD qJA sOOHB sO XHD b WHOH ozU b k
qJA w

Wu WM v_ qL sOu sOF sOIO sOeK

sOOHB U UE sO ? qJA
UEU UND vK U C Wu v WU WU WM WOU qL ULMO UEU UND vK Wu

wzUdNJ UL uD tO
t rEM wzUdN U u sOOHB sOU sO wzUdNJ UL k
dH wzUdNJ UL b uJ U w
WU WOHB v WuL WOHB s
UL jOD
luLK wzUdNJ

rEML wzUdNJ UL jOD qJA

rEML wzUdNJ UL eOL

U UNM sOD q sO bF Wu rEML wzUdNJ UL uD uJ
sOOOHB sO UIM lOL bM bIL fH UN rEML UL b

U
bIL w
sOOU sOMA UuA Uu UOH
UbI WM XF{ UL qJA w
UL uM w
sOHK
pK w
UL b XU S
sOuK sO WDI w
uudJO

w WOJOUdNJ uI bI b

uusuO WDIM
WMA UN dQ

q(

?
? =
suO = =
WDI bMWMA UN dQ w WOJOUdNJ uI w

 U
wzUdN U dOQ uJ s d uudJO UbI WU WM qL r [ tK r
V r W
U uusuO bI rEM
r w
UL UN dR w uI
r vK UL tc c qGA
rK WOzUNM Wd
ZM U rK WOd W UD

q(
uAL r w
dRL uI
?

u UL r WU WMA _ wzUdNJ UL U fUF UU suO [

r vK UL tc c qGA
U

dH YO

dH U [
u [

wU suO uU s tU V WOzUNM r Wd U

S
Wd WUF oOD
dH

u [ [

WOd W UD

U w
pKN cL qGA wMF UL UL tc c qGA U rK WOd W UD
W UD qGA WMd l oH c WOd W U tU r Wd

U uU wzUdNJ ob

s qUL qB lu qJA

UMA

s sOF lu wzUdNJ UL U WOHO U IU XLKF

qB lu UMb U sJ uu uU bU WODIM UMA
wu lu qJ vK u wUF qUL WOzUdNJ UMA s
lu q wD lO
qu VOC vK UMA lu q
d vK UMA lu q wL WIO WOH vK UMA
U d WId b UMS
qJA w
UL UF_ WO
uNH vK bLF c U uU bU wzUdNJ UL
WOzUdNJ WMA wzUdNJ UL s ZUM wzUdNJ o
b

wzUdNJ ob?
U sJL sOF `D d w wzUdNJ UL uD b tQ wzUdNJ UL o
b dF
b sO wDIM dC qU s WbF tLO
vK WuLWNL `D WU
? UL
`D WU qL YO edU t ed `D

?

WbF WLOI U UbI tN WOLJ U

p vK uLF U u UNU `D WUL

wzUdNJ UL o
b qJA

qJA k `D

?
U ?

YO U w uL qJA UL UNOK jI w WOKFH WUL _ p

`D d c wzUdNJ UL b
?
UL uD W d c `D WU

`D vK uLFwzUdNJ UL uD sO We

U qL qJA
vK We qOL u tU U D d ? U LEM U OzUdN
wzUdNJ UL uD U
dH U `D vK uLF wzUdNJ UL uD sO We uJ UbM
? dH U ? S

dH wzUdNJ o
b S
wzUdNJ UL uD U u `D u XU U
UbM

dH

uu suO w wb UEM w

o
b b o
b W s k

 U
UL o
b b r tU U u U D lDI uusuO bI rEM wzUdN U
`D vK UIL uLF UL uD sO We XU `D s wzUdNJ
U ?

q(

uu suO U ?

U uU
WOU W vK wL `D u tKb Wu WMA jO U IKG U d U D qJA qL
U v U uL t WU dJ `D UI s WDI q bM UL b WLO YO qUL s
WOzUdNJ WMA bIL `D c d wzUdNJ o
b bI U wUL_ rUF j b `D
U `D oKGL `D c wL U uU rU dF W s tKb uuL
WO{Ud W FU tKb uBL WMAU jd oKG `D d wzUdNJ o
b b b

U uUI WO{Ud WGOB w c

? S
U qJA

oKGL U `D s wzUdNJ o
b YO
U `D q uBL WMA

U `D vK wzUdNJ UL b
?
`D vK uL UNU U `D WU

U `D qJA

uN dH WUH

`D p q uBL WOKJ WMA bI U oKG `D d wzUdNJ o

b U uU

?
U O{U dH WUH vK WuI

?

U
W
U bF w WDI bM ? wzUdNJ UL b V
U uU bU

WODI WM s

WDIMU dL d WKJ wKO U `D u dH q?(

qJA w
UL

WMAU jO U dD nB
U uU oOD

dH U ?

UL qJA sO UL dH U UL b `D vK uLF sO uBL We YO

uu uU bU UNO UMKu w UNH w WOM c

?

?

?

U
wzUdNJ UL b V UEU tOK Wu WOzUdN WMA uA o dD nB d qu
XU quL ed s W
U bF w WDI bM
dJ quL U o <
dJ quL q o >

q(
UIM lOL bM XU UL b bI S
dJ quL `D vK UEU Wu WMA UL
qJA w
UL dJ quL ed fH u ed wKO d `D vK WF u
vK UM uAL dJ quL ed s WDIM pK bF vK WDI w
UL b bI bLF
UL b U dL WDIMU dL quL l edL w
b Ud U IKG U OU U D qO p
U U Lz U u uJ WUL t k qJA k quL ed s bF w UbM
U w{d
U `D WU dH
?
U uU oOD

?

WDI bM
o

?

?

w
UL WODI WM s ZUM UL qUL WOM c k
ZM

UbI WMA uAL dJ quL UL

U
ed w
uu tM Q U OzUdN

o >

WDI bM

qJA w
UL dD nB quL ed ed qJA d d
U `D U
U uU oOD

?

UL w{d
U `D q WM bu t YO dH ?
dH U dJ quL q wzUdNJ UL WOM c s k

R?
UNKJ U ULN dH U uL lOL q wzUdNJ UL q

U

UN
U Wu WM qL uD wzUN rOI eK
pK
tOK Wu uu u_ b vK WMA WOuD
WDI bM wzUdNJ UL b b qJA w
sO u UL UEU
pK u s bF

q(
rOIL pK vK WLEML WMA s ZUM UL uJ
s qJA k pK u l bUFL UD _ UB UU
uL w
b wuD `D u VUML U `D S
r

dD nB wuD_ `D u d
vK pK l
WFDI
wU `D d o
b WuD sObUI d o
b WuD_ d wKJ o
b
U ? UL dH

dH

YO

U uU oOD

tu U `D q uBL pK vK WMA

U `D u WOuD WMA W
U

?
YO

WuD WOU WUL

U `D WU

uu suO

?

U
UN
U WLEM WM qL WOzUN WIO WKu dO WOH
qJA k WUL b vK WMA uu WOD
`D s bF vK WDI bM wzUdNJ UL b V
?

WOHB

?

q(
WuA WOH

WU WOHB `D vK WuL wzUdNJ UL uD

qUL WOHB sOL vK UL YO Wu WMA _ tM
qJA wuD u VUML U `D S
UU vK UL
qJA k sOOUM s WOHB lDI

?

?

UNOK uL qJA WOHB d WIKG WuD U `D

U `D d o
b
WOHBK wU dEM

WOU bUI d v_ bUI d WuD wU `D d

? ? dH
?

YO

?

?

R?
UL WLO b UNON s q vK WOD UN
U WM qL XU WIO WOHB sJ r
WOHB s W
U bF WDI bM wzUdNJ

qBH WK
UL b UNOK bLF w quF d WOzUdN WMA wzUdNJ ULU uBIL `{

U WDI bM WOzUdN WMA wzUdNJ

uusuO U WDI bM WOzUdN WMA wzUdNJ UL UMuI bBI U

Wu WODI WM s r bF vK lI WDI bM tU wzUdNJ UL b bI U

uN w
uudJO UbI
sOODI sOM sO W
UL nBM w
lI WDI bM tU wzUdNJ UL b bI U

r ULNMO bF uudJO WOU uudJO v_

WO WOzUdNJ UMA s ZUM wzUdNJ UL r

UbI WU WOzUdN WM

UbI Wu WOzUdN WM

YK vK uudJO WODI UM XF{

WMA bM wzUdNJ UL bI b tFK{ u {_ U

WMA pK w
dRL uI V r uudJO

UM l{ bM

tFK{ u ld b bM wzUdNJ UL b V

ldLK d_  d vK uudJO UNM q WLO WKUL WODI

r ULNMO bF uu uu UODI UM

UF WDI l u b
We  UMA `B UF WDI w
XF{ w WMA u U
WU WMA bI U ?

uusuO ?

s bF wzUdNJ UL sO W F qL UL qJA

b WuA WeK

d ed
dJK WOD WMA W
U

r bM UL b

r tU d `D ed w
Wu{u uu [ UbI WODI WM
r tU e s o
b V

Electric Potential

wzUdNJ bN

nB w WOzUeOH UOLJ r s wzUdNJ bN dF

UL w
U WDIM wzUdNJ bN bI YO wzUdNJ UL
r UL d WOFd WDI v WMU bb r wzUdNJ
v U UH vK_ WDIM s jI WO{_ WOU U w
j U
l
bM wzUdNJ UL w
WuL WMA S
U UH q _ WDIM
bN q _ WDIM v bN vK_ WDIM s
qIM nO UNOK bLF w quF U wzUdNJ bN UL

d v r s WMA
p bF UNOK WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
vK U uJ qBH cN
wzUdNJ bN uNH dF
WOzUdN UM U w
WDI bN WLO b
sODI sO wzUdNJ bN d
dF
uA d qu bN v qu
wzUdN U w
sODI sO bN dH WO{Ud W F oA
rEM
WHK qzU q w
bN sOu oD

WOzUdNJ l{u WU wzUdNJ bN'

tS
UH vK WDIv _ `D s WO{_ WOU U w
tK r l
bM
_ `D WMU tF{u WO W UD c r VJ ? U W UD s bI VJ
v _ `D s r qIM cL qGA U WMUJ W UD WOJOUJOL l{u W U vL
WOzUdN WM l{ bM qLU dH U _ `D bM l{u W U U vK WDIM pK
buL WMAK WMU UNF{ vK bLF W UD s bI VJ WMA S

? wzUdN U w

WOzUdNJ l{u W U rU vL ULK
WM UMd S
WMA pK WOzUdNJ l{u W U s dOG wzUdN U w
WM pd
G UNOK c UMS
ULK fUF UU WuL U
WMA Xd U UNF{ W U e
U OU
G c WMA Q?
UL UU WuL
w
WMA WOzUdNJ l{u W U bLF UNF{ W U qI

nO wzUdNJ bN UL
WDIM pK bM wzUdNJ bN bI vK WMA c bI vK U WDI
U O{U tLO b

5DI 5 wzUdNJ bN' d

wzUdN U w
Wd d Wu WOzUdN WM XF{
 WDIM bM
WDIMU dL wzUdNJ UL l d UNS

G c ? wzUdNJ UL qJA w

UL ?
vK

s ? ? WDIM v WDIM s UNJd w

WMA
qJA

W UD qGA WMd

WM

UL

?
?

WuIML WMA vK ? sODI sO WOzUdN WM pd w

cL qGA WL U dF

? sODIM sO bN d
tQ
?

qGA
? ? ? ? ?

dJ
w WOzUdNJ l{u WU U r UL
dH U WUNUL

WUNUL w
WDI w wzUdNJ bN U vK ULKF `KD
ULU WDI bN U s sJL v WOFd WDIM dH U
wU W F `B
WUNUL w
lI WDIM Ud S
UNOK
dH ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ?

pd w
cL qGA tQ q U WDI w
wzUdNJ bN dF
sJL W F c s
WOd UN U w
dOOG b WDIM pK v WUNUL s WOzUdNJ UMA b

wzUdNJ bN' b
uuu WM vK WuI W U b w tb Q wzUdNJ bNK UMHdF s `C
V edU ed Volt XuU bu c vL

R?
Xu d
=
WDIM pK bM U WMA WOzUdNJ l{u W U U WDIM wzUdNJ bN sO dH U

U
UbN w WDIM s uudJO Ub

Wu WODI WM qIM  qGA V

WU Wd Xu UbN w WDIM v Xu

sOF{uL s q w
WMAK WOzUdNJ l{u W U V
sODIM sO l{u W U w
dH b

q(

qGA

? ?

u
WDIM bM WOzUdNJ l{u W U

u [

u [

 sODIM sO WOzUdNJ l{u W U w

dH

u [ [
WMA pK l{ W U w
dOG U WODI WM qIM  qGA k

rEM wzUdN U w 5DI 5 wzUdNJ bN' d

U w
WDIM v WDIM s rOI j d

Wu WOzUdN WM qJA qL

? UbI WOJOUdN u dOQ X WU Wd ? rEM wzUdN

U uI c tc c qGA

qGA

dN

sO wzUdNJ bN d
qJA
rEM wzUdN U w
sODI

qGA

YO
?

UL w
WMA UNd w W
UL
U sO We qL
U

?

qGA

qGA

WMA

U ?

qJA w
dH
?

sJ

UL d{ qU U sOuA sOu sOOH sO bN d

W F c s ZM
sOOHB sO bF x ULNMO rEML

UNLKF w bu UNH w dXu U WUFL s wzUdNJ UL b k

uusuO wzUdNJ ULK U IU

 U
rEM wzUdN U w
? UI sO UL qJA
VuL UB u u t dXu tb
?

V
s uu UbI WM qIM UL tc c qGA

dN

dN

dN

? WDIM v WDIM

? UL d
r

dU ? UL d
w
sODI sO WM qIM cL qGA
wzUdN U

q(
?

dH U ?

qGA qGA
U

?

? U

?

qGA
qGA

qGA

[ dH [
u
U ?

?

qGA

[ [
u

R?
U UL qJA `{u
bI ? U LEM U OzUdN
vK uL j UL w
WF UIM Xu
qJA w
`{u u UL UL uD

V

uu UbI Wu WOzUdN WM qIM cL qGA

UL d WDIM v WDIM s

r

dU s

s

wzUdNJ bN' U
WODIWM A

s W
U bF q WDI bM wzUdNJ bN WLO vDF
s dIU WDI bM bN qJA
WODI WM

WO W FU qJA k

WODI WM

qJA w
UL U OUO W F qOL sJL
WMA s UMd ULK bN WLO U qJA s k

qJA w
h UM bN S
qUILU WuL WMA WU w

WU WMA ed s UMd ULK WOU d `B

wzUdNJ bN W qJA
W
UL l WODI WMA

U
uu [ tM ud s bF vK WDIM wzUdNJ bN b

q??????(

[
?

Xu [

WODIM UMA s WuL* UOU

w
UL WODIM UMA s WuL s ZUM bN U

sOKU b vK WM q s ZUM bN V qJA

_ U d U FL uN c rO lL r d_ UMA u
WN dO WOL bN

wKJ bN

WOU s ZUM bN v_ WMA s ZUM bN

b s dIU WDI bN qJA

WODI UM

? ? ? ? ?

 U
UMA ? t vK lI ld ed w
lI w ? WDIM bM wzUdNJ bN V
qJA w
sO u UL VOd vK uudJO WOU WODIM

q(

? ? ? ? ? ? ?

? WDIM s bF fH UN UMA lOL YO

? ?

? ?

Xu [ ? ?

WOU dR s eF* uA* dJ qu* UU

WFL UNQ oU qBH w
dJ quL WM U r bI
eFL quL
WOzUdN
U dOQ s bOF

wzUdNJ bN S
tOK WODIM WMA tA quL ed w

w
u{u eF uA d qu `D vK WDI bM
W FU vDF uN dH

o
dD nB o dJ quL WM

YO

w
UL quL ed s bF vK lI WDIM XU U
W FU vDF wzUdNJ bN S
o < YO qJA

q wzUdNJ bN qJA

qu

o > bM uAL dJ quL qb wzUdNJ bN s U sJ

qJA k quL qb WDIM v quL `D vK WDIM s WM qI U u
U WMA qIM  qGA S

?

dH
?

?

dH quL qb ? YO
dH ?

? ?

bN U quL q WDI bM bN p s ZM

tD vK

UOzUdNJ bN UL qJA

Wu WMA uA d quL

bF WDI w
wzUdNJ UL sO W F qJA sO
qJA sO uA d qu ed s WDIM pK
qu ed s WDIM pK bF WDI w
wzUdNJ bN sO W F
uA d

U
V uu UbI WOzUdN tM qL uN w
Wu{u r UdD nB WKu d
dJ bN
dJ ed s r UbI W
U bF w WDI bN

q(
dJ

Xu

dJ

WDIM bN

Xu

dJ bN

o
dJ

d u s dIU d qu bN UF

dOQ b vK dFK UN dQO bN S
d WOzUdN UM U w
uu quL U
w UAM dS r quL bN vK UMA c
WuA d u s dIU uu uA qu* wKJ bN' UA
_ uL
lO
wU pK qU vK UNM q WuA WeF d wzUdN UA
qLF uD
dJ q wzUdNJ UAJ s dIU v_ dJ l{

k U qJA w
UL UAJ dI

k UN v_ dJ s dIU WOU dJ l{

qJA

w
UL WOU v_ sOdJ s dIU WU dJ l{
? qJA
UAJ w u b U k U OzUN dJ b bF
p d
WU q w

v_ dJ sA d U

bu b pUJU
?

tM WdI d_ uL UMA dQ quL bN oU UAM s `C

bN tO U
UC oKDL bN vL tM qFH bN U uAL quLK wKJ bN
dOQ w bN vL t WDOL d_ UMA qFH

w bN oKDL bN quLK wKJ bN

 U
UbI WM qL r UdD nB WObF d XF{
r UdD nB d WObF d s dIU uu
ULNed sO W
UL XU S
uu UbI WM qL
b d

V
sOdJ s q `D vK wzUdNJ bN
? sOdJ sO bN d

q(
w UbN oKDL UbN dJ bN

sOdJ e
d sO bF

Xu
w UbN oKDL UbN

dJ bN

Xu
dJK wKJ bN dJK wKJ bN sOdJ sO bN d

Xu

R?
WOU

UbI WMAv_ XM r WOU r v_ dD nB UKu Ud

suO [ ULNMO WUL uI XQ
r ULNed sO bF U YO UF{
V
ULNM q bN

sOdJ s q WM

bN' U uD
s qIM WuL WOzUdNJ UMA S
wzUdNJ bN w
sOHK sOKu qOu bM t X
d
bN U v UMA UI dL iHML bN quL v vK_ bN quL
b qu `D vK wzUdNJ bN w
UHK UDI bu sJL t b UM s sOKuL
UNCF l WKB u b
U OUO `D c uJ b bN `D vL U D bN fH UN w UIM WuL qJA
UL `D c vK sODI sO WM qI bM qG c YO U OIOI
qJA c s ZM WHK WuA U_ bN U uD qL c qJA k

u UN_ ? qJA k wzUdNJ UL uD l bUF bN U uD

c qLF YO bN U `D UU wzUdNJ ULK Wd UM UJ bUF sJ r
WDI s WMAK UI UM UNU w
WuL WOzUdNJ UMA pd vK WdL
bN `D ndF l v
UM c sODIM sOU sO bN d
UM wMF U d v

UL lUI bN U uD

sOuA sOOH sO bN U uD

U u sOHK bI sOU sOMA
?

sOd sOKuL bN U uD

bIL fH ULN WMA u w
sOHK

WMA bN U uD
Wu WODI

bN U uD qJA

u* vK WMA lu
vK WMA W
U uI uD c qUL V p UEU WdJ uD vK WMA u
quL `D s WUL b vK WMA WOL UNQ WOD WMA W
U dF
WU `D

tM o dD nB d quL WOD WMA W

U uJ tOK

ULNOD vK WMA u nOJ

qJA w
UL UHK Ud UD f
bN quL v vK_ bN quL s qIM WOzUdNJ UMA S
u f
S
sOKuL bN U v UMA UI dL q _
WMA S
o wU o _ dD nB Ud u f
YO ULNOK u
bN W iuF

uL vK WMA lu qJA

? ?

ULNM q dD nB l U d VUM sOKuL s q vK WOKJ WMA

b WMA W
UJ WIU WUFL w
WMA s iuFU
quL WU WOD WMA W
U
o
o

o dD nB c quL vK WOD WMA W

U

YO

o dD nB c quL vK WOD WMA W

U
o

o o

XU b o o
p s ZM U

ULNMO u WMA S
sOuA sOd sOKu f bM
UM ULNM q dD nB l U OJ WMA W
U VUM YO
WbL e_ vK WMA W
U uJ UL dOH lOD p vK
WuL e_ vK UNM d WeKH `D_ s dOJ b
WbL d vK WMA lu qJA

qJA sO UL dOGB b

UFU wUF bN bOu eN q WOKLF UO w

WF UIOD w
WOU c s UH
ouB

ouB WFU qL WOHO sO r s WOzUdNJ WMA mdH w

WbL d d sO :R?

qBH WK
wK UL qJ uBIL `{

wzUdNJ bN
sODI sO wzUdNJ bN d

bN U uD
d qu `D vK WOzUdN WM pd qG c eK qK

r UNM bF WDI w
Xu bI bN bu w WODIM WMA WLO V

UbI WOzUdN WM qIM cL qGA U wzUdN U w

sODI sO bN d
V

u sODIM sOU sO uu

WMA s bIL fHM UM WLB d_ W
u ULb r fH ULN UObF Ud

p `{ sOdJ wL vK UMA u w

d
bu q
WMA _ s S
r wU dD nB r _ dD nB Ud u

V uudJO UbI WMA wU uudJO UbI

ULNCF s b bOF ULN d
vK sOKuL s q bN
p bF B
r qu lO
pK uL q ULNM q bN
sU sOHK sOMA sOuA sOu sOu sO wzUdNJ bN d
bI V

UbI uI sOuK sO UL dR r sOuK sO W

UL XU bI

sOuK sO UNUI bM uu [ UbI WM vK suO

UFuL WOzUdNJ WF 

YO s d s d ULb uI sOzU vK rJ UM
Q uI lOD qN
UL s d WOLJ l U r
b c U UNKL w UMA bI w
UH uL
p

p bF UNOK WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c

vK U uJ qBH cN
WF WO UKDBL rOUHL s q dF
w
WMUJ W UD wzUdNJ luL UH WOzUdNJ
UFuL s WuLL T
UJL luL uA lu
vK UFuL qOu wu vK UFuL qOu
u
quL WF UNOK bLF w quF dc
UFuL u iF WF WIKFL sOuI s U CF dc
WF vK WDO WOU qzU q
vK UNKOu wu vK UFuL qOu sO eOL
u

WOzUdNJ WF 
UN UL s l W
dG bF UL s d WOLJ l U d s l Uu bF
 U_ s bF l XU
w
nK uL S
UdNJ U w
pc d_ s d
WOzUdNJ WF uI WMA s dO WOL Vu quL U S
WOzUdNJ UMAK UNUFO
w UAM dS r WOzUdNJ WF uNH dF dO quLK
WOzUdNJ WF  UA
_ uL

WU U wzUdN UA d U

UN r w
UHK Ud u
qLF uD
d U
UN bU ULNM r WU U vK sOKuL l{
ULNCF s ULNKB
r ULNbN U v U F sOKuL q
sOKuL sOU w
UAJ w dH k UAJ d f sOKuL  qF
p s ZM U d sO u dH v
d_ r quL sOKuL bN U s rdU t UAM c s k
d quL s d UNKL w WMA d qJA UAJ w dH v
UNMe vK tb WOzUdNJ UMAK tUFO quL r ULK t uI lOD
WOzUdNJ UMA se vK r bI U UOI WOzUdNJ WF uJ tOK UM d tF
 d qu bN l
U
WMA WOL vK oKD YO d WMA tM v U UMS

r pc WOzUdNJ WF r Xu b bIL U r bN l
d W
?
? XU
WOzUdNJ WF qL XU c YO

quL WM

?
quL bN ? YO

U_ WF hzUB s
UL Wu U Lz UN
bu rK bIL w
WU
tO
bu c ju rK WObMN UF_ vK bLF

 bN b vK WuI WM b w WOzUdNJ WF b uJ buK wb UEM w

b b pc b dO WOL bu c F UH rU bu c vL Xu uu
U
U nF U
uUM U
U F U
dJUL UNM WFK WOKL

R?
UHU uBIL `{

U
? U bN

UbI WMA uA o dD nB d quL WOzUdNJ WF V

q(
W F v udU

?
o

o
ju vK bLF UN UL o quLK WObMN UF_ vK bLF dJ quL WF k
quL tO
bu c

wzUdNJ lu*
WOzUdNJ UMA se wzUdNJ luL b
qJA bF UJ w
bu UNO WU sO UNb
sJL UL WU U ULNMO U OzUdN sOeF sOKu s uJ U
t u j qJA k jI
b qu s uJ
u uN U WU U ULNMO qBH sOu sOu s uJ
tF lu vK b

WHK UFu qJA

edU t ed Ue

edU t edO
dOG tF XU U WU

5u* 5OHB lu*

WU sOu sOeK
sOOH U Fu qJA qL

WOH q qL luL s bM ULNMO bF ULNM q

uJ uM w
UNUF d bIL w
WU WM ULNM
WOHB vK v_ WOHB vK WOD WMA W
U
WOU

qJA w
sOL luL WF U
sOuK luL qJA
sOuL

? ? YO

W F b
?
sO WF u WIDML w
? UL b U U UMS

sOOHB

b vK WOH q s ZUM UL V sOOHB sO WF u WIDML w

UL U
qJA k U F sOUL WKB b r d_ WOHB u sOKU

?

?

qJA

WOHB s ZUM UL U ? WuL WOHB s ZUM UL b U uU bU

YO sOOHB sO WDIM w
U fHM dR UL ? WU

?

? UU

?

? ? ? sOOOHB sO wKJ UL

WU v WuL WOHB s ? UU

wzUdNJ UL WLOI iuFU ? ? UL

YO

uN dH u sOOHB sO ju U

? S

W FU sOuL sOuK luL WF vDF

vK bLF sOuL sOOHB luL WF WOM c s k

bu WOHB WU
sOOHB sO bF
WU c w
dH ju WUH XU
U u bIL w
tU vI w UL e WF U UL UNUBI

Ue luL WF dQ
ULU uKL U U
UL e

lu* s
wzUdNJ UO b qJ b w
UHL bM

VDIU WKBL WOHB s UdJ qIM YO UdU

`B
VU VDIU WKBL WOHB v WUD d VuL
v sA WOKL dL WMA WU WOU WMA Wu v_
?

WUD vK bN d
fUF U luL vK bN d
bu
s b luL Q uI UdJ o
b n u UbM

luL s qJA

lu* w We* WUD

luL s WOKL r dH U luL w
d sO bN d
uJ luL s Wb bM
WKBL luL WOH s UdJ pd vK WUDK bN d
qLF WUD tO
d qu
bN d
w
U dC WuIML WMA U bI qG c eK VU VDIK UNKI VuL VDIU
WOzUdN l{ W U qJ vK luL w
qGA c e c qIM WOKL UL luL w
d sO
tO
d sO bN d
Ue R UL luL wOH vK WMA rd e sA WOKL dLU
?

luL w
d sO bN d
`B v sA WOKL dL
s b luL uJ czbM WUD w
d sO bN dH U U

?
WUD

bIL w
d WU WM sOOHB s WOH q qL
uu

sO W F S
?

luL

W F vK UM uM w
UN WUF

qJA k WOD W bN luL WM

bN luL WM sO W F qJA

tbU u YK WU qL qJA w

WKKEL WUL
qGA s U w luL bN u tUH luL WM
luL s w
cL
qGA

WOzUdN l{ W U qJ vK e luL s w
cL qGA UL

luL bN ? luL WM

luL WF YO

 U
sO W
UL XLK S
Xu bI bN dH bB l qB U
dJO tF lu
VU
uN u ULNMO UF ju r tOOH
tO
WeL W UD
vLEF tM
tOOH sO wzUdNJ UL ?

luL w
WeL W UD

vLEF

luL WM

uu ?
tOOH sO wzUdNJ UL b ?
dXu

?

UFu* qOu
b luL WuLL c b UMMJL tS
WOzUdN w
UFuL s WuL qOu bM
U F UFuL WuL WF fH t WuLL c T
UJ
in series wu vK qOu UL WOzUdNJ b w
UFuL qOu UOU UId UM
in parallel u vK qOu

wu vK qOu
?

vK tuu UFu W qL qJA

d
d vMFL ? U UNO
d sO bN d
WUD l wu
bN d
qF qOu c ? U sODIM sO bN

vK ? ? ? U UFuL w
d sO

wu vK UFuL qOu qJA

? ? ? ? YO VOd

U V WUD s WuIML UdJ UMA uL S

WMA kH b s U D
XM wu vK U F WuuL UFuL lOL UNO WuIML UdJ UMA uL
WU WMA

? YO

U qJA

UFuL b

YO

U F UFuLK W
UJL WF

u vK qOu UOU
u vK U F Wuu UFu WuL qJA qL

bN d
WUD w
d l dU Wuu UN
d YO
WMA u ULMO WUD w
d sO bN d
U U U UNMO

VuL VDI v VU VDI s WKIML UdJ WOzUdNJ

u vK UFuL qOu qJA

UNF V W UFuL vK

YO

? ? ? ? S

? ? ? ? UL

U qJA

UFuL b YO
u vK U F Wuu UFu WuLL W
UJL WF

 U
V f f ULNF UFu
Xu WUD l u vK qOu bM ULNM q WM
Xu WUD l wu vK qOu bM ULNM q bN

q(

u vK uu UFuL

S
u vK uu UL

Xu ? ? ?
?

_ luL WM

Xu ?

uu

Xu ?

wU luL WM

uu
wu vK U F UFuL q bM

V
T
UJL luL WM

?
uu

WU ULNOM U
wu vK uu UL

uu

Xu

Xu

qBH WK
sO uN qBH WOH q WU ULNMO W
UL sOu sOOH lu

WO U w
tF b U sOOHB
`B YO WOH q WU WHUC

W
UL UI
sOOHB sO bN d
WHUC ?

d luL wOH sO W
UL XBI r WUD XKB
r WUD bU lu s

s qJ b U
luL WF

luL WM

luL wu sO wzUdNJ UL

luL wu sO bN d

?
luL w
WeL W UD ?

Xu tOu sO bN d

U
tF lu w
WeL W UD V
ULdG WF s q wu vK U F sOuu sOFuL W
UJL WF X

WuLL XK r U
dJO tF d lu l wu vK U
dJO tF lu q

Xu bI bN d
bB v
lu q vK bN d
WMA V
YO u vK ULNKOu bO r bBL s d s ULb UFuL qB

ULNM qJ W UD WMA VU
U F UU U F UuL UuK qB
nFC v ULNMO bN d
lu wu vK WMAK b U

u vK wu vK UFuL qOu bzU

U
bN d
tF Wb sOuL sOuK luL W U wDF w WO{Ud W F ZM

tOOH sO
bBL s qB
r Xu bN ` v U
dJO tF lu s
V U
dJO tF uA dO d lu wOHB tOOH XK wzUdNJ
WuLL w
d sO bN d

WuLL w
WeL WOKJ W UD
f

_ luL W U sOFuLK WOKJ W UD sO U

wU luLU tKOu q
f

wQ UL q V UL qJA s

WuLLK W
UJL WF
Xu ?

lu qJ WeL W UD bN d

WMA

bu WK
WOB WU e u dz l{
sODI sOOzUdN sOM sO WUL WOzUdNJ uI bI tOK bLF c qUF U
sOMA s q bI

sOMA s q u

sOMA sO W
UL

sOMA sO qUH ju u ?

dG UU suO U

WMA vK dRL uI XU UL qJA w

suOMU U

vK dRL uI S

U d
U d

U d
U d ?

WDI w
UL bI S
uusuO U WDIM w
wzUdNJ UL bI U
U WMA s bF

uusuO

uusuO

uu suO

uusuO ?

U q S
VuL UMO u UU ud d
UMO u UU U OzUdN
ud Wd VuL
WOzuAF dOG

WU vI ?

be

h UM

uu suO dJ c `D d o

b UJ
d qu q WM XF{
bu VFJL d o
b bI S
r tFK{ u VFJ q WMA pK XF{
U uu suO

VFJL t b d o
b uJ rJ
VFJ ed w

UbI WM XF{

bN Xu WDIM bN U wU qJA w

s uJ wzUdNJ UL U S
Xu WDIM

v s

v s

vK_ UU sO qu j vK uL ?
qH_ UU sO qu j vK uL

S
v s WU WM UI bM oU R w
qJA
e UNF{ W U

qI UNF{ W U

WU vI UNF{ W U

Vu cL qGA ?

u U wzUdN U w
WDIM v WDIM s WM qIM  qGA U
u bu U v s UNUI bM WMA l{ W U w
dOG S

dH ?

UN WOD WMA W

U WuA WOzUN WIO WOH s rK bF vK wzUdNJ UL

U uu

Xu ?

wzUdNJ UL uD b vK UFI sOOH sO UDI

p w wUO rd V W
UL dOG ULNMO bN d
dOG

sOu sOObF sOOH s vU rEM wzUdN U w

bF bIL w
sOU uM w
sOHK sOMA sOuA
r

r ULNMO

rEML wzUdNJ UL V

UL w
UNF{ bM uudJO UbI WM w
dRL WOzUdNJ uI
WDIM v WDIM s uudJO UbI WM qI w
cL qGA ?
UL UU

sOuL sOuK luL WF UNOK bLF w quF d

bB s tM U
dJO tF d U Fu VU dC wzUdN lu WF U

Xu UJ
sO
dD sO bN d
U U F sOFuL w
d q r U u wDF
uNL luL WF V
UbI uI UL tOK dQ
rEM wzUdN U w
uu tM dOG rO l{

b qH_ suO
tU wzUdNJ UL b
WO{_ WOU dOQ LN rG tK XU rO U

b XU sOHK sOMA UuA r ULNMO WuLF W

UL Uu UObF Uu

bD v d
VU uK s uJ s dJ oK WLEM ULNMO wzUdNJ UL
bQ
WOU b s VuL uKU
sOuK sO wzUdNJ UL b
rG [ e Q U LK VuL uKU tbD WE dJ Wd
WM qL quL uu UbIWM qL quL UL qJA w

b r o o YO UEU tD vK Wu uu UbI

uH UHL dJ `D vK wzUdNJ bN

b UHL bF
dJ `D vK dNE w WMA

WDI bM wzUdNJ UL b

U

dJ ed s r bF w

U
dJO UL qJA w

U
dJO U
dJO

V

W UFuLK W
UJL WF

lu q vK WMA
Xu ?

lu q w
d sO bN d
?
lu q w
WeL W UD
f

qJA w
UFuL WuLL W
UJL WF V

bN Xu WDIM bN U UL

lu q WM bI b
dH WDIM

U???O???d??????J???
W???O???zU???e???O???H???

b?????u

tUM r ued

uL U

UOdJ rU w u WKuL t uL b b

lOMB w uL c Xb YO UNOK bLF w UOuuMJ
w ued UOzUMU WOdJ b w WOU_ dUMF
hzUB s dO w UNOK X
uH WdHL UULB q XK
WKUJL b lOMB U_ w uL c X bF ULO WOKLF
Wb WLb
WOdJ dUM

UdO WOLA U (Microprocessors) WdJOL UUFL

dH U UN WOzUeOH hzUB U WKuL t uL U
d_ WKB uL sO UNMO
p bF UNOK WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
vK U
uJ qBH cN
YO s WKuL t WUF WKuL uL sO UI
UOK UNUI vK d W dOQ WOuM UNUI
UNM q w d UdJ b wzUdNJ
w W
UD u qOu RUJ we s q sO UI
WKuL WKuL t WUF uL
We RUJ We WO rOUHL s qJ uBIL `{u
bN eU UA UHM WI W
UD u qOu
t UL w UdJ uI Q uBIL `{u
WKuL
WKuL t UL WUI vK d rOFD WOKL uNH dA
UL VuL uM s WOIM dO WKuL t UL sO UI
VzuA u YO s VU uM s WOIM dO WKuL t
ULNM q w WMAK WOK
_ Wd _ U WbL
WOzUM WKuK wzUeOH VO d dA
wJF UO wU UO WOKL sO dH dA
WOzUM WKuK

WKB uLK WOzUdNJ u)

U
W v WOzUdNJ UNu YO s WKB uL rOI sJL
d_ eKH uOMu_ UM q (Conductors) wzUdNJ UOK qOu bO u
UJOL Ue UDL q (Insulators) wzUdNJ UOK qOu W WU u
uOUG uOMOK udJ uOUd uJOK q (Semiconductors) WKu t u
Ud bOHK
wK UL d_ uL s UdO s WKuL t uL eOL
uLK WOuM WUIL s dOJ q
WKuL uLK WOuM WUIL s dOJ d WOuM UNUI
WUF
W UH l UNUI e w WKuL uL fJ vK d W UH l qI UNUI
d
uL w UNM d WKuL uL w UNM q
WKuL t uL w d UdJ b
WUF
t WUF WKuL uL s WuLL d qUFL WOuM WUIL sO wU b
WKuL
WUIL

YO
quL u
tFDI WU
WOuM WUIL

d qUFL

WOuM WUIL

d

UL r
x [

x [

x [

[
bId qUFL
WUIL w hIM Ue
uOK W qJ
qUFL WUIL
e VuL d
W U l UNUI
qUFL ULMO d
qI V U d
W U l UNUI
d

x
[

x
x [

u
WKu

[
[

x [

WCH
UM
uOMu_
uM
udJ

UL u

XOd
uOUd
uJOK
Ue
euJ
wUI UDL

t u
WKu

WU u

bM uL iF d qUFL WOuM WUIL r

b

Band Theory of solids

WUD We WdE

WKuL t WUF WKuL uL sO WOzUeOH dH dOH sJL

rKF q
U_ WdEM c qJA YO WKB uL w W
UD We WdE V

s dH p u WKB WU UeO

w WKB uL b c UeOH
WU dUM WODLM UNO c rEM
vb VKB r d UNH dJ
uK WuLL c q

WKB uL w wzUdNJ d qOu du rNH

WU UdJ s b vK u q dFL s
WOz b w c Wu u UdJ c u WMA
_ bLU UdJ s b bF l bL c s b q
uUI V dJ YU UdJ wU sOdJ l

wOzd bL r
qL bL w UdJ b YO
UuL c s u q f,d,p,s ud vDF W
UDK WOd Uu vK wOz b q u
l d UdJ l p dJ l s uLU UdJ s b b_ l WOdH
UdJ sJL b W
U UuL c s q w dJ uJ U dJ l f UdJ
p tOA sJL UuL c sO bu UNMJL c bL W
UD Uu sO UI jI
Ub sO fO sJ W q vK Wd sJL uN uFB bMF? rK Ub
s bOF dHML c uJ UbM
3p

3p

3p

Uu UNM b q pKL iF UNCF

s sOd
U X WNUA W
U
q wdQ UdJ S U CF ULNCF

3s
3s
dH

3s
U fL

UbM UL cK WOzUdNJ uIU

c s dO b
UL

b lU dJ dF lOD
sOcK W
UD Uu `B jI sOc

WKB uL w W
UD We uJ qJA

WKO{ uH W dA Uu sOKbL

c s d b bu UbM ULNO W
U u w buL dJU Uc dA YO UNMO
iF UNCF s WdI WKbL W
UD Uu s be b UMb `B WUIL
cJ Uu Uu
WuLL W
UD bL Energy Bands W
UD e W
UD s WUIL UuL c nu
dI UbM UdJ W
UD Uu qJA sO U v UNKH s bu We d
WUD u
vL UdJ UNO bu sJL u e c sO uJ U CF UNCF s

uK VO d ULK wdJ VOd vK UNMO uH W

UD e U bLF (Energy gaps)
ULK WOzUOLOJ WOzUeOH hzUB w p vK Vd UN
We UL w W
UDK We vK vL
W
UD We (Conducting Band) qOu
We
qOu

bM (Valance Band) RUJ We UNM q

_
d qJ vK W
UD iF UL UB
We s UdJ qIM WOzUdN W
U u{

We
RUJ

s Wd d YO qOu We v RUJ

UOK WKu UL `B UbM d v

qOu We v RUJ We s UdJ UI qJA

qJA w UL wzUdNJ

WKuL WKuL t WUF uL s q w W

UD u e WUI wK ULO
UdJU WKL RUJ We uJ WUF uL w

dJ W
U

sOe sO W
UD u uJ WU qOu We
qOu We

dO W
UD dJ U qJA w UL b dO
dO W
UD u

eF UD sJL qOu We RUJ We sO qIMO

RUJ We

WUF uL w RUJ qOu we sO eF UON

dO WOzUdN U b WOU d U bU
qUF UN uJ UdNJK Ou d UL `B YOb

WUF UL w W
UD We qJA

WUILK VU d

WKL RUJ We uJ WKuL t uL w

U
dJ W
U

sJ WCHM d U bM WU qOu We

sJL YO b dOG sOe sO W
UD u uJ
qOu We

Wd W
U WU{U qOu We v eHI s UdJ

dOG W
UD u
RUJ We

UL c `B UL sO wHJ qJA w UL

s d U bI uL c WOKu e UdNJK WKu
W UU qI WOzUdNJ UNUI S pc UdJ

t UL w W
UD We qJA
WKuL

VU d qUF WUI d

dJ W
U

UdJU WKL RUJ We uJ WKuL uL w

W
UD s WKOK
WOL WU{ U Oze WKL qOu We
qOu We sL{ W dU UdJ `L u

qOu We

WIDM
qb

RUJ qOu we qb sJL uL c w

qJA w UL

RUJ We

uOUd s qJ W
UD u bI sO wU b
WKuL UL w W
UD We qJA

WHK d U vK WKuL t uL s UL uJKO

d W UU W
UD u UBI k
(eV) W
UD u

UL
sHK

dH sHK

sHK dH

Si

Ge

WHK d U vK W
UD u r
b

(Intrinsic Semiconductor)

WOIM WKu* t u*

UOzUMU WOdJ dUMF lOMB w Ub WKuL t uL d uJOK uOUd dF

We Q dBMF c eOL W
UD We WdE V WKUJL b ued ub
We qOu We sO W
UD u sJ WU qOu We UUL uKL uJ ULNM q w RUJ
b w UL b dOG uJ RUJ
II

III
5

IV
6

B
13
31

C
14

Al
30

V
7

N
15

Si
32

VI
8

c dB pc qOu We UNUI WOU dO uJ RUJ

16

P
33

UdJ Wd U S WCHML d U w

O
S

34

dFL s WCHML d U bM WU uL uL

Zn Ga Ge As Se
48

Cd

49

50

51

52

In Sn Sb Te

w WKuL t dUMF l
u qJA
b b

w bu t RUJ wU uOUd uJKO dBM s

dBMF c lI UdJ dO_ wOzd wdJ bL
UL ld uLF b b s WFd WuLL dUM sL{
qJA w

`{u u UL UdJ c WDu WO UA jd UN U l l jd uK w q

d W bM 6C UL uK VO d tA t_ wUL VO dU VO d c vL qJA w
d W w sJ UNu l qU qJA WDd RUJ UdJ lOL uJ sHK dH

WDd dJ czbM Wu_ l jd W

U s d `B UdJ Wd W
UD S WUF WdG

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge
Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

d dJ

Ge

Ge
VI

WUF WdG d W w uOUdK uK VOd 8 qJA

sHK dH W w uOUdK uK VOd 7 qJA

w WOK_ c b `B d qJA u WOK_ t d sOF dJ sJL WOLU

UbM Wu WOK WMA WuA c c `B Hole VI r tOK oKD d dJ UU
UL d v d b
tQ VI b wUU U d s dJ UNO cM sJL
qJA w
uI UO

UdJ UO

WOzuA W d WKuL t UL w uI W d uJ

sJ WMAK U uI UdJ s uJ
w UL  WUD bN dH bBL UL c XK
f UF b U w RUJ UdJ d qJA
U UNQ UL UU uI d UL U
uI Ud UO qJA
WKuL t UL w

(Extrinsic semiconductors)

Wu WM qL

WOIM dO WKu* t u*

s WMOF U v VzuA WU{ dOG q sJ WFOD w UUL WOI U bu t dFL s

W vK  `KL WU{ d u UIU tLKF U vK UM UU uJO qF WOzUeOH UNBzUB
WOzUeOH hzUB iF vK WMOF Vzu WU{ d u d U b u UM sJ UL UOK
WzUA uL s dOG WOL UC UbMF UdNJK uL c qOu WOU q WKuL t uLK
b uJ WzUA UL s c WKuL t UL s b b YO WKuL t UL v
uOK q w b bFL WKuL t UL s dOJ q
VzuA
UL s b WU{ S UL qO vKF WKuL t UL WOKu U p s ZM UdI

WOKL vL sHK W bM d bFL uOUd WOKu be u uOK W w WzUA

vK WzUA uLU rOFD WOKL dR nO sJ doping rOFDU WKuL t ULK VzuA WU{
WKuL t ULK WOzUdNJ hzUB
w WbL WzUA uL s Uu UM WbL WzUA UL u vK bLF dOQ c
UL WOIM dO WKuL t uL s sOu U p vK Vd p
WU WuLL w lI RUJ WOUL Vzu uM c w b n-Type VU uM
(P) uHH (As) aOe (Sb uL q b b s
s WU WuLL w lI RUJ WO Vzu uM c w b p-Type VuL uM
(GauOU (AluOMu (In ub q b b
WKOK
WOLJ UNLOFD r uOUd s uK sO qJA
Ge

Ge

Ge
aOe sd dJ

Ge

As

Ge

YORUJ UdJ vK u w As aOe s

uuL RUJ UdJ s UdJ lQ aOe dA
wU{ dJ vI uOUd s U l l UNO
UL Wd u WOK_ tc jd dO `B W d d

Ge

Ge

Ge

U qFH uI UdJ U WOKL dL

d uK w d UdJ b `B sJ Wd
UNLOFD r uOUd s uK 10 qJA
aOe s c

s WKu t U WU c w uK vL uI s

pc uKK d dJ WzU q `ML YO VU uM
Donors WUL cU c c vL
WO c UNLOFD r uOUd uK dNE 11 qJA
qOJA ub s q qOL YO In ub q RUJ

Ge

Ge

Ge

UN UL uK w UN UL l_ c l WOLU j

In

Ge

Ge

b VI QAM UN W UAL lOD UdJ u

VI

VI c lOD uM c s WzU q s uK w

Ge

Ge

Ge

Wd U s WUM uI q uK w u

vL UdJ s d uI b uJ WU c w

UNLOFD r uOUd s uK 11 qJA

ub s c

c vL VuL uM s WOI dO WKu t U UL

Acceptors ILU WzUA

WUF U qJA uJ VuL VU uM s WOIM dO WKuL t uK d cU db s

wzUdNJ UO qIM WOKUI UNb uJ sJ UOzUdN WUF UNH w VzuA s q _ UOzUdN
b s WKuL t UL w drift current wUb UO QAM YO wU wzUdN U dOQ
S d uK w WU UOKF uJ WuL UMA YO d dD s UU UNOd
WOIM dO WKuL t uL wu w qIM b uK w wUb UO qJA w w UdJ
Wd _ U qIM w d uB rU w ULO vL UdJ uI s q W d s
VuL uM s UL wH minority carriers WOK
_ U d_ majority carriers
UU VU uM s UL w U UdJ w WOK
_ uI w Wd _ U uJ
uI w WOK
_ UdJ w Wd _
(p-n Junction)

WOzUM WKu

dD vK WKI UNOd b vK WU c WOI WKu t U s uK rOFD r

VuL uM s d_ VU uM s ULb UIDM UNO uK UMb QAM uKK d
sOdD b w d uIK wUF eO d R YO WOzUM WKu vL ULNMO W dA WIDM QAM
WU WKuL t UL s UdJ UA v WOzUM WKu s d dD w d UdJ
dD s uI dAM WIdD fHM tO uuL uI l b WuL WKuL t UL v
UdJ l b VU dD v VuL
s WMA U UI WOKL tO uuL
vL WOzUM WKu d UdJ uI
dH dU UO UNM QAM Diffusion UA
Diffusion current UA UO vL dOB

VU uM s WIDM

VuL uM s WIDM

r UOzUdN UF  U sOdD r

WUIL WOU UHM WI

d WMA U s eO d vK ULNzu
uI WuL UdJ WU u
Uu VU dD `B UA WOKL bF

WU WIDM
WUIL WCHM

Wu WIDM
WUIL WCHM

VuL dD WuL WMA s izU vK

QAM WU WMA s izU vK Uu `B
s dD s t wK wzUdN U p s

WOzUM WKu WIDM

VuL uM s dD v uM

WuL UMA sO WKUH WIDML vL

UNO UHM WI WOzUM WKu uJ 12 qJA

w Depletion Layer UHM WID WU

wd sO bN d vL qJA w UL dOdJU wu UNJL mK b WIO

WIDM
be bN c lML XuH s UA WFC v qB Potential barrier bN eU UHM WI
uI s beL UI WIDML vK WCzUH WuL uI lML YO WOzUM WKu UA s
s beL UI dD vK uuL WCzUH UdJ lML WIdD fHM WIDML s UNO
WIDML s UdJ
 WUD bU WOzUM WKu wU bN q r u b U
S wKb UL U fHM UL c U S wU wzUdN U bN c s QAM u
VuL VDI qOu r UbM p r WKu UMA d lM e wUU e bN eU
cN WOzUM WKu qOu vL uM s dD l VU VDI uM s dD l WUDK
UN wzUdNJ UO d WOzUM WKu lML YO qJA w UL wJF UOU WIdD
VDI WKu s VuL dD l WUDK VuL VDI qu YO WUD qOu fJ
qI wUU wKb UL f UF vUM wzUdNJ UL S WKu s VU dD l VU
w UL wU_ UOU c qOu WId vL WKu dLU UMA b bN eU
qJA
U JL qI UHM WI

WU WIDM

U JL e UHM WI

Wu WIDM

WOzUM WKu WIDM

wU UO

WU WIDM

Wu WIDM

WOzUM WKu WIDM

wJ UO

WOzUM WKu w wJF wU UO 13 qJA

wU_ UO qOu WU w dOG uJ wzUdNJ UOK WOzUM WKu WUI o UL ZM
jI b U w UO dL WOzUM WKu wJF UO qOu U w b dO

qBH WK
WOU UF s q tM dF c wLKF `KDBL V
b WU b tFDI WU b u b tu qu WUI

WKB uL s WHKL u_ sO WOzUeOH dHK uI dOH XD WdE

Wd UdJ UNO d sJL w WKB UL w vK_ W

UD We

WOK_ t UG UbM dJ t d c dH vK oKD `KDB

VuL uM s WKuL t UL w Wd _ WMA U

Wd _ U RUJ UdJ WUL c rOFD WOU UKDBL s qJ uBIL `{

YO s WKuL t WUF WKuL UL sO U

UNM qJ WOuM WUIL
rdU U{u UNM q w W
UD u qOu RUJ we
WKuL t UL WOKu dOG nO `{
VzuA WU{ l

d W l

w dOOG WKuL t uK RUJ s nK RUJ WzU WU{ b UL d

VuL VU uM s `B UN r uKK WOKJ WMA
UNMO bM WKuL t ULK WUIL qI ULMO UNMO bM WKuL UL WUI e qK
WU UF U X U WOB UF U U l{u V
VU d qUF w WKuL t UL
UdNJK UNKOu W w U eKH lOL

s vK W
U u v qIM t qN dHM c sOF u w uuL dJ

WUIL c s lL sL{ uu WNUA w tUA dJ

WU UL UU sJL b WCHM d U w WOIM WKuL t UL

sOKb qOu RUJ Ue uJ WKuL t UL w

d W dOG dOG uOUdK W

UD u bI

u YO s VuL uM s WKuL t uL VU uM s WKuL t uL sO U

ULNM q w Wd _ WMA U ULNM q w WbL VzuA
WOzUM WKu U r nO `{
bN eU UHM WI UA UO WOzUM WKuU WIKFL WOU UKDBL s q `{
YO s WOzUM WKuK wJF wU_ UO sO dH U
WUD l qOu WId
UHM WI WOzUM WKu WUI bN eU vK ULNM q d

(Semiconductor Componemts)

WKuL t WOdJ dUMF

qJA dUM WUM r bI WOzUM WKu qL b v UM

b ued UOzUM q WOdJ b qLF UU
WOdJ dUMF c s sOM dFM qBH c w WKUJL
ued quL t wzUM UL

U tUb w U uJ r quL t wzUM u UL

tUb w U V d UL ued u

p bF UNOK WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c

vK U
uJ qBH cN
quL t wzUM VO d dA
wJF UO wU_ UO sO dH UOKL ZM
quL t wzUMK
quL t wzUMK eOLL u vMM rd
UNKL b dH WuL nB ruI UM uI
UNKL WId dH WKUJ WuL ruI UM uI
UNM uJ w UID YO s ued VO d dF
UID c sO dH
ued qL b `{u

qu* t wzUM
rOFD r YO wIM uJOK uOUd s uK w qJA WOzUM WK s quL t wzUM uJ
r P-type VuL uM s WOI dO WKu t U `B YO RUJ WO VzuA uK s e
N-type VU uM s WKu t U `B RUJ WOUL VzuA uK c s d e rOFD

uOMu WOH

bFB

wU pK

Wu WIDM
WU WIDM

Wu WIDM
wJO

jN

WU WIDM

quL t wzUMK wKb VO d qJA

U v qu pK WDu uK wd s d q qB

rJ wJO q w uK c nOKG r wzUM r
qJA w UL Wud u lML _

dD YKL qL YO

edU quL t wzUMK ed

YKL vK rOIL j u bFBL vL VuL

db s uUJ jNL vL WOzUM WKuK VU dD
UU ULz uJ wzUM w wD UO ob U d cU
2 qJA w UL rN
WKuL t UOzUM u iF

VU v VuL VDI s UO dL

wD UO U

UdJ

uI
WOzUM WK

quL t wzUM w UO U 2 qJA

wJF UO wU_ UO
wdJ dBM u quL t wzUM ZM WOzUM WKu qL b u UIU UMLKF U s
UO WIdD q UO dL dOG WUI b YO jI b U w wzUdNJ UO qu
l WUDK VU VDI wzUMK u bFBL l WUDK VuL VDI qOu r wU_
wzUMK jNL l WUDK VuL VDI q UO dL WOU WUI b uUJ jNL
bFBLv VU VDI
w UAM dU r
wJF UO wU_ UO wU w wzUM qOu WId vK dFK
wJF UO wU_ UO UA
_ uL

qOu 1N4007 r
uJKO wzUM UB bU
Xu UB Xu WUD
qLF uD

qJA w W{uL WOzUdNJ b VO d r

wu vK UBL wzUM s q qOu UNO r
VU VDI eOOL lOD WE
vK udL dzb j s wzUMK
u d dD uJ tO
d b
VuL dD

B wzUMK VuL dD uJ YO WUD l

UBL U{ k WUDK VuL VDIU
VU dD qu YO wzUM qOu WId fJ
k U WUDK VuL VDI l wzUMK

WOU WU w UNOL U v_ WU w wzUM qOu WId wL U

UNOK XKB w WOKLF ZzUM d
p vK qOb U WOU wzUM WUI uJ sOU w
WOM fH vK qB q wzUM b WUD fJF XL
u

r
wzUM
1N 4007
Xu

Xu UB

quL t wzUM UO wKL U qJA

mA wU_ UO UO
uOUd
100 -

uJOK

qu* t wzUMK eOL* u)

80 -

uOUd s wzUM UL UO dOG qJA qL

ULNOd sO oDL bN dOG l uJOK s d
40 v e wU_ UO WU w UO qJA s k
Xu wJF UO bN 20 5
4
3
2
1
[ s d wU_ UO bN `B v WuK W
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
uOUd wzUM Xu [ s d uJKO wzUM Xu
- 20 Xu wU UO bN
- 40
threshold voltage d bNU bN c vL
- 60
Wd _ WMA U cM wJF UO WU w
- 80
WOzUM WKu WIDM s bOF WU WuL sOuK w
- 100
QAM sJ UHM WI pL e bN eU e wUU
wJF UO UO
uOUdK dOdJO uJOKK dOuU
bN U l e UO c WOK
_ WMA U s UO
sOOzUM eOLL hzUB vMM qJA
Wd _ WMA U rEF UNO `B w WDIM v UO
uOUd s d uJOK s ULb
UO UbM `B WOzUM WKu UO vK U
dO
thewJF U UO WU c w UO vL WOK
_ WMA U s jI UU UU WKu
uOUdK tM dOJ q
uJOKK wJF U UO qJA s dNE reverse saturation current
nA bu uJOKK A bu uOUdK UO c UI YO qJA vK UOI b k
U QAM WMOF WLO
s wJF UO bN
Xu wJF UO bN
Break UON bN vL bN c UO w QUH
30
20
10
0
UON c s R U UM down voltage
UL uJ YO Zener effect dM dOQ
- 30
wJF U UO
dJ Uu
wU bN s TUM wzUdNJ
UON bN
c w WOLU jd iF
- 60
Ue s QAM Avalanche effect RUJ dOQ
nA UO b
vK U
uJ Wb WMA U U w
wJF UO WU w wzUM eOLL hzUB vMM qJA
UB od s WOLU jd d
60 -

WOzUM WKuK wJF UO qOu U w bN UOK eOLL hzUB sO qJA

WKu* t UOzUM vK dF UA
WOdJ dUMF s UdO s UOzUM eOL U WHU WJKN eN_ WOdJ UuK s
UN bU nB Wd w pz U UN{dF r
UNM WHK Uu lL UuK c w
bUL UNM qJ VU dD jNL VuL dD bFBL vK dF U wL
d dOLKL
b wzUM r vK uuL VU dDK dOA w U l tO XKu U U
pLKF

w UAM dS r
uJOK wzUM eOLL hzUB vK dFK
wU_ UO WU w qu* t wzUMK eOL* u) vMM UA
_ uL

r
uJOK wzUM qOu Wu Xu [ ULNM q UUD Xu [ sOUD l WU
K dOG WUI WUI b wL
dOLK 1N4007
qLF uD
s d UO
b vK DC V dLL bNK dOLuH wL
d dOLKL UN b j{
200mA b vK DC A dLL UOK UOIL d wL
d dOLKL Xu
qJA w UL b VO d r

220
mA

2V

1N4007

10 K

qu t wzUM eOLL u Wb WOKLF b qJA

WUIL WLO
dOOG od s wU b w UL wzUMK wU_ UO bN rO
UOU r

b fH w wU_ UO bN WLO
q bM UO UO
UN d
q dOGL
[

Xu bN
dO wKK UO

Wd w tb c uJOK wzUM u vMM r UNOK XKB w ZzUM s

b tLd XL
c vMML s
tb c wzUMK d bN
bL wzUMK d bN WLO
bM wU_ UO UO WLO

d* UO .uI w qu* t wzUM b

iF UNKOGA dL uN v WOzUdNJ eN_ w uuL WOdJ b rEF U
W
U pKN d eN UM sJ UUD WUu UNKOGA r dO W
U pKN eN_ c
v UO c qu r bF dL UOU UML bL w UdNJK WUF WJA s UNcG r dO
b c s Uu UM UO ruI bU dL UO

Half Wave Rectifier Wu* nB .uI

bB l wu vK qB b wzUM s wU qJA uJ UO ruI qN_ WIdD w c
wzUM qu YO WU WKb U qJ qJA s dNE qJA w UL dL bN
dL UO s VU e dL `L UOU UO uJ YO dL UO s VuL e
c dNE qJA s VuL e jI UO u tM ZM UL UOJ UO uJ YO
bN vK uBK bK WOU{ dUM WU{ sJL WLOI dOG vI t U bu t r UO
UdI WLOI XU U bu
b
wzUM

qbL bN

dL bN
qL WUI

WuL nB ruI qJA

c b sJL w WOKLF UIOD U WIdD cN UO ruI UOK w Y R?

UOK cN dQ UNO WIdD
(Full Wave Rectifier)

WKUJ Wu* .uI

d bB qu YO qJA w UL dDM

qJ vK qu UOzUM l b c w b
WMU Wu WDIM tO uJ c WuL s VuL nBM sODIM v dL bN
sOOzUM U wU UO WU w ULN_ UOK sOKu UuJ sOOzUM s S WDIMK

WDIM v UNM ? WDIM v wzUM UO dLO wJ UO WU w ULN sOKu dO UuJO
dL bN lM v b qLJO wzUMK UNM ? WDIM v r qL WUI

qbL bN

dL bN
?

VuL nBM WKUJ WuL ruI qJA

sOKu UuJ sOOzUM s S v WMU WU WDIM uJ YO VU nBM

uJ wJ UO WU w ULN sOKu dO UuJO sOOzUM U wU UO WU w ULN_ UOK
WDIM v ? WDIM s UO dLO qL WUI vK WDIM ? WDIM bN UdI UU VU bN

 wzUM d b qLJO dL bN lM v r wzUM v UNM ? v r WUIL

? b UU ULz uJ WUIL UO d U pc k
qJA w UL ruI s ZUM bN uJ

qbL bN

?
bN bB
d

dL bN

VU nBM WKUJ WuL ruI qJA

WKU Wu .uI Wu nB .uI UM UA

_ uL

5 b 4007 r
b
UOzUM U bu UN iHM bN bB U r UN
bI UOzUM s d r

qLF uD

f WDu U bu UN v v_ UMI qb qOu r

U r UN qG
qOu
edO s Ud WOO U wDFO tD{ U bu qG
WOF{ vK UN WU vK XU qJA WKb U dNE v U r UN j{
wI_ uL vK rOI j dNE YO GND l{ vK WOU UMI j{ v_ UMIK DC
DUAL WOF{ vK uMI UN UH j{ WUIL dG
qb v d td U bu w dL v uJKO wzUM VuL dD qOu r

UNL U r WU vK dNE w WuL qJ k U r UN w U
c ruI WId wL U d w
qJA w UL dDM
qJ vK UOzUM l VO d r

ULNL iF ULNCF l sOd q w od s
UN d v dDMI qb wd q r dbBIU
r qb v dDMIK dL wd U bu
U
WKUJ WuL ruI dDM
qJA

dUE WuL qJ U WUA vK XU wu qJ vK uBK U r UN j{

d w ZUM wuL qJA UNO d XL
w b r c ruI WId wL U
k ruI dDM
b dU U r qb v U bu d q r dDMI e
k U WUM U qJ
U bu UN b dL bNK bBL iHM b
bB bU Wd cN UOI sJL
v dL wd AC Xu dL bN bB v dDMIK qbL wd qu p
WLO
vK vK UND{ bF qL WUI w K dOG WUI
q WUM rO
vK se bN wUH j{ U r uJKO UN qG
q ruI q
dL bN U Wd dDMI qb wd sO v_ UMIK UOI w
qL WUI wd sO WOU UMI w

U r UN WU vK dNE UL ruI bF q
WOzUdN U qJA

(The Transistor)

ued

UOdJ rU w u ued UA b bI

W q
s ued nA U wH WOKLF UNUIOD
wK u r WOHUN qO d w uKLF uU sc ULKF s
qB b
Bardeen sU Brattain sd Shockley
U w rNU UeOH w qu ezU vK W ULKF R
ued rNUA uL U
U tS ued UA vK dOB
XO d d r
UIOD b w WOdJ b qL w U_ dBMF
ued s WHK u

UdO rJ WLE VOuU WOuuMJ

ued VOd

lLL

YU

s wU qJA uJ WKu t u s ued V d

uL s oUM vK u uOUd uJKO s uK
UIDM bu YO wu vK Wd WOIM dO WKuL t
vL VU uM s WIDM ULNMO VuL uM s
s uJ PNP ued WU c w ued

bUI
lLL

YU

bUI
u ued

VuL uM s WIDM ULNMO VU uM s sOIDM

NPN ued WU c w ued vL
Ud_ UIDML U bUIU ued s vDu WIDML vL
d lLL WIDM uJ lLL d_ YU vL ULbS
UIDM ZUF d UN UNA l
uL bI _ YU WIDM s
s beL WU{S ued u s sOuM w lLL YU
WOL WU{S bUI WIDM ZUF WOU WOKu UJ wJ VzuA
WLOI WCHM WOKu VJ VzuA s WKOK

lLL

YU

bUI
YU

bUI
u ued

lLL

qOL WbL ud qJA

WOdJ b w ued

rKF q
bF uJKO s Wd
s uOK vK u b
r UNU
uU UN q w ued
p U

qJA w UL uM s uedK ed

k qJA w UL uM s uedK
dOA YO YU d vK rN U w u sed sO dH
UK d qbK ULb
w  UID VO d sO WOzUeOH dH g
U R?
dH c V KF ued UNM uJ

ued qL b
UF w bUI lLL WK bUIYU WK UL wK s ued uJ
bUI lLL WK UO WOU bUI YU WK uJ YO b w ued qu
qJA w UL UO WOJ

YU

lL

bU

WOdJ b w ued qOu qJA

w Ub d _ uM u NPN u s ued qL WOzUeOH `O{u wK ULO

UO bN uJ UbM PNP u s ued vK p oDM WKUL WIdD WOKLF b
WK lDI w UdJ Wd _ WMA U s ZUM UO uJO dH bUI YU WKu
wUU f UFL U w WKu fH lDI w WOK
_ WMA U UO UU bUI YU
UO WOJ bUI lLL WK uJ WU c w dH WKu c wKJ UO uJ
U UO u UO c lLL WOK
_ WMA U s qOK
UO dL

? bN WDu

Collector lLLK Vd UO tOL u WK W s U IU tM UMb c wJF

U w bUI YU WKu UO bN edU vDF leakage current

sd WOL WU{S WUF YU WIDM UL YU bUI wIDM sO UOK UO b wU_
bUI WIDM WOKu UL bUI WIDM v UdJ UF UUL QON `B WdH S VzuA
l b WKuK dUF UdJ s UO OK
b S WKOK
UNO VzuA W _ WLOI WCHM
s U eO d bu pc WO bUI WIDM w W d vK UI WUL uH s dOGB bF
bB uI WOK
UM UdJ s WMA U dF YO bUI w WKuK dUF UdJ
UdJ l qFHU b b
uJ w uH w hIM iuF bUI YU b qBL bN
X{ b
UdJ S UI uedK bUI UO d v R UL u s bUI WIDM w
UAU b UNS WOK
_ WMA U w uM s bUI w UdJ UL bUI v
WKOK
VzuAU UNLOFD W UL qOK
bUI WIDM pL p vK UbU lLL WIDM UU
qIM bUI XK w UdJ rEF tOK Vd UL uI s qOK
b vK u wUU
qJA w UL bUI w uuL uI l b wIL qOKI bF lLL v
YU bUI WKu UHM WIDM lLL bUI WKu UHM WIDM
YU

YU bUI WK

bUI

lLL

lLL bUI WK

UdJ UO
bUIK

YUK UdJ UO

lLLK UdJ UO

ued w UdJ UO qJA

R?
YU UO s q
lLL UO uJ qK

d c wKJ UOK UU uJ V ued v qb c wKJ UO k o UL

lLL bUI UO uL U YU UO S wUU tM

YU UO s [ wu U lLL UO S UF w

[ uJ

U
lLL s qJ UO b mK r dO wKK U U WE w ued YU UO b XU
YU UO s [ U bUI UO b XLK bUI

dO wKK [
q(
[

qJA ued qL n sJL

YU WIDM R YO jO
lL w WMA U YU
WIDM uI lLL WIDM w
dO
w
rJ c VDI b bUI
lLL UO WLO

dO wKK [ [

WOdJ b w bb Ub uedK

lLL
YU
bUI

UccL w U dOJ w b YO
b UM w tb v WU{ wdJ UHL
p dO v WOL
d UOdJ UNOK bLF w WOIDML

B C
E C B

t ued lOMB UJ iF qJA

WUN WOKLF UIOD s

qBH WK
quL t wzUM UNM uJ w e_ rdU `{

UO WIdD tKOu bM wU_ UO WIdD tKOu bM quL t wzUM WUI sO U

UOKL p `O{u r wJF

uJOK uOUd wOzUM s qJ u UOMM s

wJF U UO ULNM qJ d bN YO s uJKO uOUd wOzUM sO U

ULNM qJ
b v UON bN uBIL U
t wzUM w UON b ULN
U RUJ dOQ dM dOQ s qJ uBIL U ?
quL
pc WbL ruI u w U UO ruI WOKLF uBIL U

c s WU WKb U qJ U{u UNKL WId d WuL nB ruI r

b

VU nBM WuLK VuL nBM UO U U {u WKUJ WuL ruI r
UN

WOdJ b w uedK Ub W d

ued UNM uJ w e_ rdU `{

d ULN (PNP) u s ued (NPN) u s ued sO dH U

WOKLF b w Ub

qK

YU bUI wIDM s d ued w lLL WIDM uJ

d{U X
u w uJOK s ued u rEF lMB
vUJ uM fH s ued nU sOF ued b V WOKLF b w ?
rEF S u s ued w YU bUI WK vK wU UO oOD bM
lLLK qIM bUI qB w UdJ

bu WK
WOU UF s qJ WOB WU d

uJ ued w
bUI UO s q
lLL UO
lLL UO s d YU UO
YU UO s d bUI UO ?
lLL YU UO uL U bUI UO
qOu w WOKLF UIOD w U b ued d
dAL lLL ?

W dAL bUI

uL fHM b UNFOL

dAL YU
WKuL uL

d W U l UNUI qI ?

dO UNO W
UD u uJ

WU UNO RUJ We uJ

U Oze WKL UNO qOu We uJ

WU{U VU uM s WKu t U vK uB r

RUJ WOU Vzu ?

RUJ WOUL Vzu

d U lOL

RUJ WO Vzu

wK ULO WOB dO UF U X U WOB UF U U l{u V

U s uK vK qB UMS WKu t U s uK v RUJ WO WzU XHO{

VU uM s WOI dO WKu t
ruI w UOzUMK bOu WHOu _ uK uILU quL t wzUM wL sJL
dL UO
wU_ UO WIdD WUD l UNKOu bM WOzUM WKu w UHM WIDM WF e ?
WKuL UL w UNM d WKuL t UL w W
UD u
WOU ULz YU bUI uJ YO WOdJ b w ued qu ?
UO WOJ bUI lLL UO
WKB UL w W
UD We QAM nO `{

WKuL t UL WOKu vK VzuA WU{ d d

UNKOu bM WOzUM WKu w bN eU UHM WI s qJ WU WOzUeOH dOG g

U
wJF UO WIdD r wU_ UO WIdD WUD l

 vK uB sJL nO `{

VU uM s WKu t uK

VuL uM s WKu t uK
UL d dO_ d
uJ sOOU sOKJA s w

d_U UNO UAL d_ UL V WOU ud s q tO dOA c dBMF r U

? Wb_

c w b w WKuL t WOdJ dUMF w U dL UO ruI WOKLF uBIL U

WOKLF

UO

qu t wzUM u vMM qL UL qJA

ued c lMB WbL WKuL t UL U

wMF U WDIM bM bN wL U

bN

wMF U WDIM bM bN wL U ?

?
Xu [

wMF U ? WDIM bM UO wL U

UB* ld* WLzU

dB UFL d nd rOd
dO Vd d UL w
u bL
UM dU UM WJ dUFL WOLKF WuuL d oOH bL VOD
UM dU UM WJ WKUA WOLKF WuuL d oOH bL VOD
_ b q_ WOOUMGL UdNJ  b YO uL wuJ
UL ZUML dL
UF u eU WLd II WOFU UeOH WOFU dIL u p U dOU sOH
UuOUd UOLU
dUI UFUK dAM dUFL WOJOJ UeOH UOU n qU X
qLF w W WOLOKF dL w WOKLF ozdD ULF qOL sOU
_ dJH WUF UeOH rKu WOD bL
XuJ H WJ d UOL u WLb U bL
oA dAM nOQ WLd VdFK wdF e dL WbIL UeOH
WuHL bI WFU WUF UeOH
David Halliday (2001). Fundamentals of Physics , 6th ed, John Wiley & sons, Inc, New York.
David Halliday (1997). Fundamentals of Physics: EXTENDED, 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc,
New York.
Franctis Weston Sears (1960). College Physics:Mechanics, Heat, and Souund, 3th ed, Addison
Wesley Iublishing Company, Inc, London.
Graw - Hill (1998). Schum's Outline Beginning Physics II. Inc.
M. Nelkon and P. Pavker (1975). Advanced level Physics, Heinemann Education Books, London.
D.C.G Green (1985). Electronics II, 3th. ed, Pitman Publishing Limitted, London.
Joseph Abruscato (1986). Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Publishers, New York.
Sears & salinger.(1974). Thermodynamics, .
Symonl. (1980). Mechanics,
Paul M. Fishbane (1993). Physics: For scientists And Engineers, Prentice - Hall Internatiional, Inc,
New Jersey.
Walter A. Thurber (1977). Exploring Physical Science, 4th ed, Allyn And Baconm Inc, New York.
http://library.thinkquest.org
http://www.darvill.clara.net
http://zebu.uoregon.edu
http://www.angelre.com

http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/class/energy/u511a/html.
http://www.wellesley.edu/physics/phyllisemingphysics/104-p-workenergy.html.
/http:///www.taftan.com/thermodynamics
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
http://www.cord.edu/dept/physics
http://www.hazemsakeek.com/physics-Lectures/Mechanics
http://www.grc.nasa.gov.
www.schoolarabia.net

qLF c U$ w rU
aU du d Wu ZUM* WM'
uC WU UN
uC qO UA

d 5 5U 

UOz hL( u rOF

fOzd VzU rFM* b tK b
uC du VM
WFULK WOMH WMK

uC dD bL

uC bUJ w
uC bF u qOL
uC bU) dOM

UIM 5U 

uC hL( u dL
uCU UHO
uCd u U
UJ qL W w u UA*

WJu ee

rOd U U

WUDF `U bL

dL U

UL d UH b

d bL vO

dUO bL

sOU b `U

U wK cM

U bL

w b sO bL

u bL U

dOD vN

d sb nO bL

bL nu bL

wud bO UM

d rU UL

UN d bMN

dJ UN

l d WLF

uD vHDB d

d wK w dU

sO nODK b Wb

dJ u wLN wU

bB dO U{

UM u bL W

bL w bz

uM qOK w bdG

dU rU

b bL sLd b

wUdA ULF nu WHOH

bL b u

UL Ub wd

w b sO bL

bO rOd WUF

 qOK U

wK u bL sO U

`Ku bL UOH

WLd u bL

d U dL U

Wd tK b fOL

U qU W

WOdI tK b d

wU dOL UM

wK `U UL

dOF uL uL WLO

dA dU qOUL

bL qOL WLU

dU U UM

uN d

WOD bL w

u rOd f

dOM VODK b rU

dA uL sL

tK bL _ e' -