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A.

Seals: History of American Higher Education - Final Exam 1



Historical Timeline of Important Events in Higher Education:
For this assignment, A History of American Higher Education by John R. Thelin was used
unless otherwise cited.
Mesopotamia through the Medieval period Influences on American Higher Edu.
American Higher Education by Christopher Lucas, Chapters 1-3

The evolution of academic freedom through Lehrfrieheit and Lernfreiheit - to be able to


have the freedom to teach and to have the freedom to learn. From Tablet Schools to the
early universities, there was always an outside force questioning why teachers and
students needed to challenge the status quo - from government to the church. With
academic freedom, universities were able to prove that learning was essential and
research was key to advancement.
The Seven Liberal Arts - the trivium and the quadrivium - are the keystones of learning
today. Grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy made up
the base for learning in the eleventh century and remain as many of the main courses that
one takes in undergraduate school. With these courses, one has the basics needed to be a
productive member of society no matter what the decade.
The administrative structure of the university - as the years progressed and the schools
became more advanced, the need for stronger administrative structures evolved. The
early stages are shown in the Tablet Houses of Mesopotamia with the "father" or
"master," the "elder brother," and the "proctor" as well as teachers at the school. By the
time we reach the medieval university, the titles of proctor, rectors, chancellors, and
deans have come about. Even though they have different meaning now than they did in
the middle ages, the structure of authority can be seen. Through this structure,
admissions standards were created, tuitions were collected, dorms were built and a liaison
was in place to assist with what we commonly refer to as "town and gown."

5th Century BC

Emergence of Sophists in Athens and Greece

Represented the first full-time paid teachers in the ancient world. These individual
traveled around the Greek Colonies espousing knowledge and wisdom to anyone who
could pay. Sophists taught oratory skills, rhetoric, and debating skills and encouraged
men to create their own reality. as quoted from example provided by Dr. Don Stumpf
425

Theodosius & Valentinia


The University of Constantinople was created. In the same year, Theodosius forbid any
schools to pen unless sanctioned by the Empire.

1088

University of Bologna
The first European college is formed.

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1636

Harvard College Founded


Harvard was the first institution to be chartered in America before the Revolutionary
War. Brown University, William & Mary, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Dartmouth,
Rutgers and Pennsylvania would follow as the first colleges in the new world under a
colonial heritage.

1700s Facts for the era


Religion is a key element of education; colonies experimented with grammar school and
education of the Indian population; few colleges were formed; very few students were
educated during this time only the elite males were sent to college; it was a sacrifice for
a colonial family to send a male to college he was needed at home as part of the
workforce; event though the southern colonies are interested in starting institutions of
their own, the colleges formed are mainly in the north; as the American Revolutionary
War comes to an end, institutions are strapped without funds from England.
1767

Medical School Created


Kings College claims to have established the first medical school in America

1775

American Revolutionary War


This would be the beginning to the halt of higher education progress in the colonies.
Students and faculty would abandon the campus for the war effort. Institutions would
become hospitals or strategic buildings for the war. The war lasted from 1775 1783.
The Queens College fails due to allegiances to the crown and funding from England is
cut off.

1776

Literary Societies Form


Phi Beta Kappa was the first student society formed at William & Mary College. Both
literary and debating societies formed. Both Harvard and Yale start PBK chapters in
1781.

1779

Transformation
A reorganization of the institution from college to university. Also called Jeffersonian
Reorganization. When the American Revolutionary War ends, Thomas Jefferson will
leaded the effort to rebuild higher education in America.

1785

Charter War
The famous battle over which institution held the first state charter the University of
Georgia or the University of North Carolina. Both institutions argue they hold the title.
UGA was chartered in 1785 and admitted its first students in 1801. UNC was chartered
in 1789 and admitted its first students in 1795.

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1790

Southern colleges are born


University of North Carolina is chartered. South Carolina College follows in 1801.
Transylvania University (1780), University of Nashville and the University of Virginia
are other notable southern institutions that were formed during this era.

1792

Yale alters its charter


Amending the charter at Yale allowed administrators to add state government officials as
ex-officio members. This helped to bring in desperately needed state funds after ties with
England had been severed.

1800s Facts for the era


After the American Revolutionary War, the time was coined the new national period.
Due to angst against a national government, states were responsible for governance and
funding; colleges were very responsive to the needs of a new and changing country; from
1800 to 1860 there was a building boom taking the country from 25 institutions to 240;
institutions would move beyond liberal arts and offer medicine, law, engineering, military
science, commerce, theology and agriculture instruction. New England would form
Hilltop Colleges that were smaller, affordable and catered to an older, poorer
population with an emphasis on teachers and the ministry. College life was established
through resident life, eating clubs, Greek life, literary societies, debating groups, secret
societies, honor groups, reading societies and religious groups. More students were
educated during this era there were opportunities for both blue bloods and blue skins.
1800 - 1860

Women in Education

Although there was no female instruction in colonial American, the new country saw a
boom in growth of institutions that would educate women. During this time period, 14
institutions were created. More expansion was in the Midwest, which claimed 12
institutions between Ohio, Wisconsin and Michigan.
1802

United States Military Academy


The closet thing to a national institution was the creation of the military academies. The
United States Military Academy at West Point was formed through an act of Congress.

1817

Desire for a National University


Still influenced by Europe, President James Madison desired to have a national
university in the new country. Despite repeated attempts, the concept could not pass the
Congress even though it did make it out of a congressional committee. C

1819

Dartmouth College v. Woodward


Attempts to grab the charter of Dartmouth College by the New Hampshire legislature led
to this famous Supreme Court case, which was hailed as the Magna Carta of the private
colleges during this time.

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1820s Medical and Law Schools
Medical schools were formed across the country with no regulation and were considered
for-profit institutions. Law schools were pervasive and very popular. An academic degree
was not required to practice law.
During this time period, there is also a renewed interest of religion in schools. Religious
colleges by denomination were formed in local collegs. Centre College in Danville, KY
is an example of an institution to counter godless colleges of the time.
1830s Diploma Mills
John Cook Bennett created a national problem with diploma peddling. He offered
doctorate level degrees for a price and was did his damage while a part of Christian
College in Indiana. It created a debate regarding the difference between diploma
peddling and honorary degrees that institutions offered.
1845

Naval Academy formed


The United States Naval Academy at Annapolis was created through an act of Congress.

1846

Smithsonian Formed
Devoted to research, the Congress formed the Smithsonian Institute.

1850

Commerce gets attention


During the 1850s, commerce was added to the curriculum and the first business schools
were born.
Also during this time frame, normal schools came into existence, which provided
certificates of teachers.
In addition, during this era, philanthropy took on a new level, which included the church
advocating for funds to go to affiliated colleges.

1860

More progress for women


By 1860, there were 45 institutions of higher education devoted to teaching women in
vocational training to genteel finishing school programs.

1861

Civil War North v. South


During the war, the majority of institutions in the South stopped offering instruction as
faculty and students were engaged in the war. The war would last from 1861 1865.

1862

Morrill Act of 1862


Due to the war, Congress was able to pass the Morrill Act of 1862, which would mark the
entrance of the federal government into the higher education public policy discussion in
America. The goal was to make higher education accessible, affordable and practical. In

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exchange for states selling land in Western United States, the federal government would
give the state funds for a land grant institution that would focus in what was considered
the useful arts agriculture, mechanics, mining and military instruction. New colleges
were not necessarily created as a state could designate an existing institution and even
though the useful arts were encouraged, the federal government did not dictate the
course work as the liberal arts were also encouraged.
1884

Advocacy for higher education


John Burgess publishes The American University: When Shall It Be? Where Shall It Be?
What Shall It Be?, which continues the national debate on higher education and creates a
platform for higher education advocacy. Colleges are transformed into universities and
offer more to its customer.

1876

Johns Hopkins University


Founded in Baltimore, it was the first example of German influence planted in the United
States. There was as a strong focus of advanced scholarship and Ph.D. programs, which
were prevalent in German higher education. It was founded on a $7 million gift which
was unprecedented for that time.

1880s Coeducation
Colleges finally permitted the coeducation of men and women in higher education
although the education was still segregated in course offerings and majors. Women went
on to form their own extracurricular activities at their school and the alum went on to
help create new womens colleges. During this time, more women went into advanced
study of law, medicine and Ph.D. programs.
Late 1800s

Philanthropy

At the end of the era, major donations were given to institutions as well as given to
entities to form new institutions. Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Cornelius
Vanderbilt, Ezra Cornell, Leland Stanford, Marshall Field, Paul Tulane, William Marsh
Rice and the Armour Family were all large donors to the advancement of higher
education.
The creation of Advancement Officers on campus came during this time. Responsible for
fundraising and going after the donations from aforementioned wealthy Americans.
William Rainey Harper defined then new type of president during this time. He was
the first president of University of Chicago and accelerated at public relations and
community relations.
Late 1800s

Characteristics of the Great Modern American University

According to our textbook author, John R. Thelin, there were several characteristics of
the Great Modern American University during this time:
1. Philanthropy on a large scale

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2. Presidential presence on campus and the community
3. Professors as professional experts journals, professor ranking (instructor,
assistant professor, associate professor, full professor), creation of the American
Association of University Professors (AAUP)
4. Pedagogy lectures and seminars
5. Professionalization of students
6. Professional schools entrance exams and requirements
7. Curriculum development of strong academics
8. Facilities large and complex facilities were built
9. Dynamics of Academic Enterprise creation of the well-rounded institution from
academics to extra curricular activities
1887

Hatch Act
Funding passed by Congress for the Department of Agriculture to form the first
agricultural experiment stations at the land-grant colleges.

1890

The Morrill Act of 1890


Added more federal funding to the existing structure that was put into place by the
Morrill Act of 1862 and allowed for the creation of more land-grand institutions and
research experiment stations. This allowed for the expansion of institutions in the
Midwest and West. Colleges were added to educate black students in the south, as
southern institutions were not included in the first Morrill Act. Agriculture, civil
engineering, mining and military training continued to flourish. The federal Departments
of Agriculture, Interior, and War worked together with the land-grant universities.

Early 1900s Development of Western American Universities


In addition to expansion in the Midwest, the West began to develop. California
developed a principle of educating on the basis of character and public service.
1881

Women Scholars
Women continue to make progress but are segregated from the men. In 1881, the
Association of Collegiate Alumnae (now the Association of American University
Women) was created. Women continued to move on despite hurdles by men. They
formed their protge chains to mentor younger students. During this time, women
moved into scientific research and made great strides.

1890 -1920

Americas fascination with university life

Thanks to photojournalism, magazines did spreads about college life that showed
Americans what it was like to be on a college campus from its buildings to its
classrooms to its extra curricular activities.
During this same time frame, colleges began to adopt colors and mascots that created
loyalty to institutions, especially when sports were introduced.

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Student organizations grew on campus from Greek life to secret societies.
College life was still mainly accessible only to white males, regardless of academic
ability, from wealthy families. Dorm life, fees and tuition came into play although there
is not a great deal of history on the rate of tuition and fees.
College administrations had yet to adopt coherent planning and adjusted as student
arrived or left. Retention was not a priority yet.
Intercollegiate sports developed, which helped develop alumni relations and athletic
departments. Women and African Americans continued to be excluded, which caused
further development of their own institutions.
1900

Association of American Universities


The presidents of 14 institutions met to form the Association of American Universities.

Early 1900s Focus on Quality


The College Entrance Examination Board was founded to assist with credible college
admissions standards and exams. A focus on ratings, rankings and reputations were
founded. The Carnegie Unit in American high schools provided transcripts for colleges to
review. In order to keep quality faculty, pension plans were created under the Carnegie
Foundation which is now known as TIAA-CREF.
1910

Medical Education Reform


With a focus on quality across the board, medical colleges came under increased scrutiny.
Johns Hopkins University would become the model for medical education under the
influence of Thomas Eakins.

1914

World War I
Once the United States entered the war, enrollment at east coast colleges dropped while
the west coast had a lesser decline. The war lasted from 1914 1918.

1917

Student Army Training Corps


President Woodrow Wilson created the Student Army Training Corps, which provided
for on campus training of cadets and officers that was funded by the federal government.
Participating colleges received lofty compensation for participating.

1920s Private donations increase


After WWI ended, American companies gave substantial donations to higher education to
construct new campuses. Industries such as tobacco, utilities, and Coca-Cola made major
donations in philanthropy to colleges.

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1920s 1940s

Athletics expand

College football becomes a national pastime. Colleges fill stadiums on the weekends for
football games. Large stadiums were built by alumni and were packed with fans at each
game.
1920s 1940s

Imaging

Whereas the image of the college was gentile in the past, the new age between World
Wars portrayed campus life as sinful. Activities with alcohol made the magazines and
during the 20s, flappers and speakeasies were featured. America was still obsessed with
campus images, however.
1920s 1940s

Women and African Americans in education

Between WWI and WWII, the number of female undergraduates doubled from 300,000
to 600,000. Sororities began to grow on coeducational campuses. Unfortunately, despite
their numbers, women were denied access to professional schools and advanced degrees
at a higher rate than in the past.
African Americans were still segregated across the nation. They were not allowed to live
on campus if they were admitted to an institution and were socially excluded from
activities. African Americans started their own sororities and fraternities.
1929

The Great Depression


The Stock Market crashes in Oct. 1929, sending the United States into the Great
Depression the following year. During this time, tuition at both public and private schools
would increase dramatically.

1939

World War II
The United States is a major partner in the World War II efforts. The war would last
from 1939 to 1945. Pearl Harbor is bombed in Dec. 1941

1940

Junior college enrollment


By the time the 40s arrived, almost 150,000 students were enrolled in 456 junior colleges
where a student could receive an associate degree before transferring to a four-year
college or entering the workforce. The original mission of liberal arts was mostly
replaced with technical or vocational training programs.

1944

Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944


Also known as the G.I. Bill of Rights. This law provided benefits for returning World
War II veterans to include: low-cost mortgages, loans to start a business, tuition and
living expenses to attend college. Even though organizations such as Southern
Association of Colleges and Schools, the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
and the North Central Association were already established, they took on a greater role

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with the establishment of the G.I. Bill in evaluating institutions on behalf of the federal
government.
1945

Enrollment boom
After World War II, American colleges saw enrollments that severely decreased during
the war balloon during 1945 1950. During the decade, 2.7 million students enrolled,
which was an 80 percent increase in one decade.

1947

Commission on Higher Education


At a time when he was not very popular with the Congress in D.C., President Harry
Truman set into motion a 28-member commission to examine higher education in the
United States. In his mind, postsecondary education should be available to all able
young people. The President wanted to explore the idea of expanding the opportunity for
higher education to everyone not just those in the military. Truman saw the need for
more types of post secondary education such as technical institutions and he felt that by
expanding access, it would help to enrich the country in the areas of foreign affairs and
national defense. He felt college should be affordable and accessible. Unfortunately, the
country was in turmoil and larger issues took over the discussion of higher
education. However, the Commission on Higher Education charged by President Truman
would lay the groundwork for future evolution in the field in the years to come.

1950

National Science Foundation


The National Science Foundation (NSF) was created in 1950. The NSF defined largescale, academic research for the federal government through federal agencies such as the
Departments of Defense, Energy, Agriculture, Transportation and Health.

1950 56

McCarthyism

Colleges and Universities that took funds from the federal government were under
increased scrutiny during the Congressional hearings chaired by Senator Joseph
McCarthy. Academic freedom was shaped during this time not only by federal politics
but state and local politics as well during the time. Campus autonomy came into question
during this time of anti-Communism oaths. By the late 1950s, the relationship between
the federal government and institutions healed and sponsored research returned.
1950 60

Federal Grant University

Higher Education began to receive more and more levels of federal support during this
time. In some cases, federal funds made up the majority of funds to operate some
institutions. The National Institutes of Health, the Department of Defense, the
Department of Agriculture and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration were
the sources of almost all-federal research funding.

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1955

The Ford Foundation


After being cleared after the McCarthy era, the Ford Foundation along with other
organizations made major contributions to institutions of higher education to supplement
lost federal funding in the years prior. The money helped to raise salaries, support
medical school instruction and to improve services at a campus. They also invested in
historically black colleges and universities and began to offer some scholarships.

1954

Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas


Landmark United States Supreme Court case that ended segregation in education.

1960 61

Graduate and Ph.D programs

During this time period, a renewed focus on graduate and Ph.D programs occurred. In
1949-50 there were only 6,420 doctorates conferred. In 1960-61 the figure almost
doubled to 11,622. By 1969-70, the number was just under 30,000.
1960s State Funding
States like California, New York and Massachusetts created state systems of higher
education. California and New York invested a high number of state funds to public
higher education. The systems are large both physically and structurally. The
Massachusetts model is more compact and localized to the Boston area. These states are
examples of no-tuition and tuition models.
Selective Admissions
The College Entrance Examination Board used the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) to
help admissions offices screen students for college admittance. Although the SAT would
be frequently used, in the Midwest the American College Testing service would be
formed and offered the alternative ACT.
1960s Desegregation Efforts in higher education
Even though some voluntary integration had happened before the SCOTUS Brown v. the
Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, by the late 1960s, racial integration was forced
upon colleges through litigation. Efforts to allow African Americans to attend traditional
institutions were weak by administrators. Students at HBCUs led the effort to gain
access to professional and doctorial programs at non-HBCU institutions.
1970s Trends
States like California During the 1970s, one of the points that Thelin touched upon was
the usage of data. In the early 1970s, the creation of HEGIS and IPEDS laid the
groundwork for data input and usage in todays higher education society. Another major
issue in the 1970s was dealing with the energy crisis. Resources that were inexpensive in
the 1960s sky-rocked in the 1970s causing administrations to crunch budgets and defer
maintenance in order to afford power. In addition to these topics, the evolution of

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financial aid came to pass with the foundation for the Pell Grant through the Basic
Educational Opportunities Grant Program
1972 Title IX
In 1972, the creation of Title IX laid the foundation for expansion of programs to women
as a minority that would continue to improve through the 80s, 90s and today. Not only
did it allow for nondiscrimination in educational programs but in extracurricular activities
as well.
1972 Pell Grants
As an amendment to the 1964 Higher Education Act, the Basic Educational Opportunities
Grants program was created. It would later be renamed the Pell Grant in honor of
Senator Claiborne Pell of Rhode Island.
1980s Higher Education Coordination
In the 1980s, a coordination of higher education offerings across the fifty states
occurred. Included in this effort were independent and private schools were included in
the discussion with public schools regarding higher education policy and the need for less
duplication of programs across each state. As noted by Thelin, the 1202 Commissions
had both positive and neutral consequences of being formed. Governors of each state
along with heads of higher education worked together to coordinate efforts SHEEO and
ECS for example. This coordination also helped to market the need for higher education
and its importance in society.
1990s Diversity
As the years passed in the 1980s and moved into the 1990s, court cases were settled and
more diversity was brought into campus life. Policy discussions surrounding equity and
diversity among all minorities became more important and the dialog on campuses
flourished. The United States was becoming more diverse and so did the need for campus
populations to mirror that of modern society. However, race was not the only facet of
society that impacted admissions. Financial aid and scholarship helped to promote
admissions as well.
2000s Future of Higher Education
For the future of higher education in the 21st century, the acceptance of the need for
higher education has come to pass. American higher education has become respectable
in its own right. However, the challenge that remains a constant theme are diversity,
affordability, quality and relevancy of the programs at an institution. As we complete in
a global society, American institutions of higher education, both public, private, and forprofit must continue to develop relationships to provide the education that todays society
needs and craves.

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