1

EIGHT SEATER SHORT RANGE BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT

AN AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-I REPORT

Submitted by
S.VIGNESH (30609101062)
P.VASANTHA PRABHU (30609101059)
J.SELVA KUMAR (30609101051)
N.VIGNESH (30609101061)
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
AERONAUTICAL

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI 600 119

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL/MAY 2012

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

JEPPIAAR NAGAR, RAJIV GANDHI SALAI, CHENNAI 600 119.

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-1 report EIGHT SEATER SHORT
RANGE BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT is the bonafide work of S.VIGNESH who
carried out the project work on 28/04/12 under my supervision.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

INTERNAL EXAMINER

SUPERVISOR

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives us immense pleasure in expressing our sincere gratitude to Honourable
Dr.Jeppiaar, M.A., B.L., Ph.D., founder and Chairman of Jeppiaar Engineering

College for bestowing us with an opportunity to bring out this project as a successful one.
We are very much grateful to our principal Dr.Susil Lal Das, M.Sc., Ph.D., for their
encouragement and moral support.
We are very much indebted to Mr.G.Prabakaran (HOD) Aeronautical Department
for giving me his able support and encouragement.
At this juncture I must emphasis the point that this AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-I would not have been possible without the highly informative and valuable
guidance by our respected preceptor Mr.G.Rajeuv and Mr.Nelson Maxwell whose vast
knowledge and experience has must us go about this project with great ease. We have great
pleasure in expressing our sincere & whole hearted gratitude to them. It is worth mentioning
about my team mates, friends and colleagues of the Aeronautical department, for extending
their kind help whenever the necessity arose. I thank one and all who have directly or
indirectly helped me in making this design project a great success.

INDEX
Sl.No.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Topic
Bonafide
Acknowledgement
Index
List of symbols & abbreviation
List of figure
Aim of project
Abstract
Introduction
Design Methodology
Comparative data & Mean design parameter
Weight estimation
Power plant Selection
Wing Selection
Airfoil Selection
Flap selection
Fuselage and Cabin layout
Centre of gravity
Tail selection
Lift Estimation
Drag Estimation
Landing Gear Arrangement
Performance Characteristics
Three views of Aicraft
Conclusion
Future
Bibliography
Website references

Page No
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
viii
ix
1
3
14
29
37
42
45
59
63
67
69
72
77
81
91
101
102
104
105

LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATION

A.R
b
C
C root
C tip
Cm
CD

Cp
CL
D
E
e
L
M
Mff
R
Re
S
Sref
Swet Sa
Sf
Sfr
Sg
T
Tcruise Ttake-off Vcruise Vstall Vt
Wcrew Wempty Wfuel WpayloadW0
W/S

Aspect Ratio
Wing Span (m)
Chord of the Airfoil (m)
Chord at Root (m)
Chord at Tip (m)
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (m) C
Drag Co-efficient
Zero Lift Drag Co-efficient
Specific fuel consumption (lbs/hp/hr)
Lift Co-efficient
Drag (N)
Endurance (hr)
Oswald efficiency
Lift (N)
Mach number of aircraft
Mission fuel fraction
Range (km)
Reynolds Number
Wing Area (m)
Reference surface area
Wetted surface area
Approach distance (m)
Flare Distance (m)
Free roll Distance (m)
Ground roll Distance (m)
Thrust (N)
Thrust at cruise (N)
Thrust at take-off (N)
Velocity at cruise (m/s)
Velocity at stall (m/s)
Velocity at touchdown (m/s)
Crew weight (kg)
Empty weight of aircraft (kg)
Weight of fuel (kg)
Payload of aircraft (kg)
Overall weight of aircraft (kg)
Wing loading (kg/m)
Density of air (kg/m)
Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m)
Tapered ratio

LIST OF FIGURES
SL.NO
Fig.1
Fig.2
Fig.3
Fig.4
Fig.5
Fig.6
Fig.7
Fig.8
Fig.9
Fig.10
Fig.11
Fig.12
Fig.13
Fig.14
Fig.15
Fig.16
Fig.17
Fig.18
Fig.19
Fig.20
Fig.21
Fig.22
Fig.23
Fig.24
Fig.25

FIGURE DESCRIPTION
Business jet aircraft
Phase of design
The preliminary design flowchart
Student view of design
The real design process
Wing lift and drag to lift of an Airfoil
Flowchat of Preliminary Design and Opimization
Cruise Speed Vs Service Ceiling
Cruise Speed Vs Take Off Distance
Cruise Speed Vs Thrust
Cruise Speed Vs Wing Area
Cruise Speed Vs Wing Span
Cruise Speed Vs Aircraft Length
Cruise Speed Vs Aspect Ratio
Cruise Speed Vs Mach No
Cruise Speed Vs Range
Normal mission profile for business aircraft
CutView of TFE73 1-20
Pictorial View of TFE73 1-20
Airfoil
NACA 23020 Airfoil
Aerodynamic characterstic of NACA 23024
Drag Polar for NACA 23024
Lift for NACA 23024
NACA 23021 Airfoil

7
Fig.26
Fig.27
Fig.28
Fig.29
Fig.30
Fig.31
Fig.32
Fig.33
Fig.34
Fig.35
Fig.36
Fig.37
Fig.38
Fig.39
Fig.40
Fig.41
Fig.42
Fig.43
Fig.44
Fig.45
Fig.46
Fig.47
Fig.48
Fig.49
Fig.50
Fig.51
Fig.52
Fig.53
Fig.54

Aerodynamic characterstic of NACA 23021

Drag Polar for NACA 23021
Lift for NACA 23021
Types of FLAP
DOUBLE FLOWER-SLOTTED
Cabin Layout of 8 Seater Business Aircraft
Dimensional View of Fuselage
Layout of Aircraft Centre of Gravity
Types of Aircraft Tail
Longitudinal stable due to Horizontal Tail
Lift Diagram
CAMBERED AIRFOIL at Positive LIFT
Schematic of Pressure and shear stress distribution over a body
surface
Pressure Distribution on an airfoil
Lift Curves of Cambered and Symmetrical airfoils
Drag separation
Wave Drag
Typical streamlining effect
Types of Landing gear
Landing gear
Prop clearance
Main gear and forward Cg
Examination of fuselage clearance during take off rotation
Wheel track (front view)
Calculation of the overturn angle for the aircraft
Take-off of Aircraft
Weight has rearward component
Thrust versus Climb Angle
Gliding of Aircraft

AIM OF THE PROJECT

The aim of this design project is to design an EIGHT SEATER SHORT RANGE
BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT by comparing the data and specifications of present aircrafts
in this category and to calculate the performance characteristics. Also necessary graphs
need to be plotted and diagrams have to be included wherever needed.
The following design requirements and research studies are set for the project:
Design an aircraft that will transport 8 passengers and their baggage over a design
range of 5200 km at a cruise speed of about 850 km/h.
To provide the passengers with high levels of safety and comfort.
To operate from regional and international airports.
To use advanced and state of the art technologies in order to reduce the operating
costs.
To offer a unique and competitive service to existing scheduled operations.
To assess the development potential in the primary role of the aircraft.
To produce a commercial analysis of the aircraft project.

ABSTRACT
The aim of this design project is to design an 8 Seater Short Range Executive
Aircraft by comparing the data and specifications of present executive aircrafts and to
calculate performance details. The aircraft designed is such that the landing and takeoff
field lengths they require are accordingly shorter than those for the larger transport aircraft
minimum drag and maximum thrust is also taken into consideration. Then the necessary
graphs have to be plotted for further performance calculation. Required diagrams are also
drawn.

10

INTRODUCTION

Name : VYMANAAS SV3

Ever since the revolutionary introduction of the Learjet 23 in 1964, corporate chief
executives and wealthy travelers have been flying in style on custom jet aircraft. The
business or executive jet has become so common that most passengers anymore are middle
management types. In fact, the executive jet industry is now a buyer's market.
Do cost-benefit analyses before you whip out the bucks for a private business jet,
however? Aviation experts tell us those 350 to 400 hours of flight time per year is
justification for owning an executive jet. If you are not flying the friendly skies that often,
then you should look into fractional ownership.

Consider the hidden costs involved in ownership of a jet. In addition to a price tag
that ranges from $6 million to $50 million for a new private jet, consider necessities such as
insurance, fuel, catering, and pilots (and there aren't that many of them to go around for
executive jets).
Aircraft management companies will take care of these needs for about $100,000 to
$200,000 per year, depending on the size and usage of the jet. You will also want to
determine the size and flying range you're going to require.

11
Light jets (which cost in the range of $3 million to $8 million) can take five to eight
passengers roughly 2000 miles; midsize executive jets (which cost in the range of $9
million to $16 million) can take up to nine passengers from 2000 to 3000 miles; and large
executive jets (costing from $17 million to $45 million) can carry 2 passengers over 4000
miles. When you're ready to buy, begin contacting private jet manufacturers and ask around
about aircraft specifications and pricing. In addition, surf the Net and hit places such as
CharterAuction.com which sell new and used jets, including repossessed aircraft at deep
discounts.

If you feel that it is worth considering, the way fractional ownership works involves
you purchasing a share in a jet plane from a management company, for which you get a tax
deduction, and then paying a monthly fee and hourly operation costs. The management
company sends out whichever jet is most conveniently located to service you, even on a
moment's notice. A used jet may not be such a great deal. For permission to land at many
U.S. Airports, a jet must be compliant with Stage 3 Federal Aviation Administration
regulations.
Converting a private jet to comply with regulations takes several hundred thousand
dollars and many months of repair time, and most private jet aircraft repair centers already
have more business than they can handle.

AOG/aircraft on ground
Aerospace products
Avionics and instruments
Aerospace wet wipes
Pilot Supplies

12

2
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
The start of the design process requires the recognition of a need. This normally
comes from a project brief or a request for proposals (RFP). Such documents may come
from various sources:

Established or potential customers.

Government defence agencies.
Analysis of the market and the corresponding trends from aircraft demand.
Development of an existing product (e.g. aircraft stretch or engine change).
Exploitation of new technologies and other innovations from research and development.

It is essential to understand at the start of the study where the project originated and to
recognize what external factors are influential to the design before the design process is
started.
At the end of the design process, the design team will have fully specified their design
configuration and released all the drawings to the manufacturers. In reality, the design
process never ends as the designers have responsibility for the aircraft throughout its
operational life. This entails the issue of modifications that are found essential during
service and any repairs and maintenance instructions that are necessary to keep the aircraft
in an airworthy condition. The design method to be followed from the start of the project to
the nominal end can be considered to fall into three main phases. These phases are
illustrated in Figure 2.0.

Preliminary design

Project design

Detail design
Manufacturing

Fig. 2 Phase of Design

Testing

13

2.1

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

The preliminary phase (sometimes called the conceptual design stage) starts with
the project brief and ends when the designers have found and refined a feasible baseline
design layout. In some industrial organisations, this phase is referred to as the feasibility
study. At the end of the preliminary design phase, a document is produced which contains
a summary of the technical and geometric details known about the baseline design. This
forms the initial draft of a document that will be subsequently revised to contain a thorough
description of the aircraft. This is known as the aircraft Type Specification.

14

2.2

PROJECT DESIGN
The next phase (project design) takes the aircraft configuration defined towards
the end of the preliminary design phase and involves conducting detailed analysis to
improve the technical confidence in the design. Wind tunnel tests and computational fluid
dynamic analysis are used to refine the aerodynamic shape of the aircraft. Finite element
analysis is used to understand the structural integrity. Stability and control analysis and
simulations will be used to appreciate the flying characteristics. Mass and balance
estimations will be performed in increasingly fine detail. Operational factors (cost,
maintenance and marketing) and manufacturing processes will be investigated.
The design process has been described in detail in the previous chapters. All the
steps that are necessary to successfully complete the preliminary design stages have been
identified. The amount of effort and time spent in each stage depends on the overall
schedule for the project. It is essential to complete the process with a feasible baseline
design, therefore it is necessary to programme and manage the work in association with all
other commitments. Although the design method has been shown as a sequential process, it
is possible to run some of the steps in parallel. It is also possible to do some preparation
work (e.g. develop estimating methods and spreadsheets) ahead of the later stages. This is
particularly useful if the project is to be done by a group, or team, of people. In such cases,
it would be essential to allocate all tasks and to set a rigid timetable for the completion of
the work some of the case studies that follow are laid out in the standard format shown
below. This format mirrors the sequence of the work to be done in the preliminary design of
any aircraft.

2.2.1 Introduction to the project

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

Project brief
Problem definition
Design concepts
Initial sizing and layout
Initial estimates
Constraint analysis and trade-offs
Revised baseline layout
Further work
Study review

15
Design project work, as taught at most universities, concentrates on the
preliminary phase of the design process. The project brief, or request for proposal, is often
used to define the design problem. Alternatively, the problem may originate as a design
topic in a student competition sponsored by industry, a government agency, or a technical
society. Or the design project may be proposed locally by a professor or a team of students.
Such design project assignments range from highly detailed lists of design objectives and
performance requirements to rather vague calls for a new and better replacement for
existing aircraft. In some cases student teams may even be asked to develop their own
design objectives under the guidance of their design professor.
To better reflect the design atmosphere in an industry environment, design
classes at most universities involve teams of students rather than individuals. The use of
multidisciplinary design teams employing students from different engineering disciplines is
being encouraged by industry and accreditation agencies. The preliminary design process
presented in this text is appropriate to both the individual and the team design approach
although most of the cases presented in later chapters involved teams of design students.
While, at first thought, it may appear that the team approach to design will reduce the
individual workload, this may not be so. The interpersonal dynamics of working in a team
requires extra effort. However, this greatly enhances the design experience and adds team
communications, management and interpersonal interaction to the technical knowledge
gained from the project work. It is normal in team design projects to have all students
conduct individual initial assessments of the design requirements, study comparable
aircraft, make initial estimates for the size of their aircraft and produce an initial concept
sketch.
The full team will then begin its task by examining these individual concepts
and assessing their merits as part of their team concept selection process. This will parallel
the development of a team management plan and project timeline. At this time, the group
will allocate various portions of the conceptual design process to individuals or small
groups on the team. At this point in this chapter, a word needs to be said about the role of
the computer in the design process. It is natural that students, whose everyday lives are
filled with computer usage for everything from interpersonal communication to the solution
of complex engineering problems, should believe that the aircraft design process is one in
which they need only to enter the operational requirements into some supercomputer and
wait for the final design report to come out of the printer (Figure 4).

16

Indeed, there are many computer software packages available that claim to be
aircraft design programs of one sort or another. It is not surprising that students, who have
read about new aircraft being designed entirely on the computer in industry, believe that
they will be doing the same. They object to wasting time conducting all of the basic
analyses and studies recommended in this text and feel that their time would be much better
spent searching for a student version of an all-encompassing aircraft design code. They
believe that this must be available from Airbus or Boeing if only they can find the right
person or web address.
While both simple aircraft design codes and massive aerospace industry CAD
programs do exist and do play important roles, they have not yet replaced the basic
processes outlined in this text. Simple software packages which are often available freely at
various locations on the Internet, or with many modern aeronautical engineering texts, can
be useful in the specialist design tasks if one understands the assumptions and limitations
implicit in their analysis. Many of these are simple computer codes based on the elementary
relationships used for aircraft performance, aerodynamics, and stability and control
calculations. These have often been coupled to many simplifying assumptions for certain
categories of aircraft (often home-built general aviation vehicles). The solutions which can
be obtained from many such codes can be obtained more quickly and certainly with a much
better understanding of the underlying assumptions, by using directly the well-known
relationships on which they are based. In our experience, if students spent half the time they
waste searching for a design code (which they expect will provide an instant answer) on

17
thinking and working through the fundamental relationships with which they are already
supposedly familiar, they would find themselves much further along in the design process.
The vast and complex design computer programs used in the aerospace industry
have not been created to do preliminary work. They are used to streamline the detail design
part of the process. Such programs are not designed to take the initial project requirements
and produce a final design. They are used to take the preliminary design, which has
followed the step-by-step processes outlined in this text, and turn it into the thousands of
detailed CAD drawings needed to develop and manufacture the finished vehicle.
It is the task of the aircraft design students to learn the processes which will take
them from first principles and concepts, through the conceptual and preliminary design
stages, to the point where they can begin to apply detailed design codes (Figure 5).

At this point in time, it is impossible to envisage how the early part of the design
process will ever be replaced by off-the-shelf computer software that will automatically
design novel aircraft concepts. Even if this program were available, it is probably not a
substitute for working steadily through the design process to gain a fundamental
understanding of the intricacies involved in real aircraft design.

18

2.3

DETAIL DESIGN

The process of designing an aircraft, generally divided into three distinct phases:
conceptual design, preliminary design, and detail design. Each phase has its own unique
characteristics and influence on the final product. These phases all involve aerodynamic,
propulsion, and structural design, and the design of aircraft systems.
2.3.1.

Design phases:

Conceptual design activities are characterized by the definition and comparative

evaluation of numerous alternative design concepts potentially satisfying an initial
statement of design requirements. The conceptual design phase is iterative in nature. Design
concepts are evaluated, compared to the requirements, revised, reevaluated, and so on until
convergence to one or more satisfactory concepts is achieved. During this process,
inconsistencies in the requirements are often exposed, so that the products of conceptual
design frequently include a set of revised requirements.
During preliminary design, one or more promising concepts from the conceptual
design phase are subjected to more rigorous analysis and evaluation in order to define and
validate the design that best meets the requirements. Extensive experimental efforts,
including wind-tunnel testing and evaluation of any unique materials or structural concepts,
are conducted during preliminary design. The end product of preliminary design is a
complete aircraft design description including all systems and subsystems.
During detail design the selected aircraft design is translated into the detailed
engineering data required to support tooling and manufacturing activities.
2.3.2.

Requirements

The requirements used to guide the design of a new aircraft are established either by
an emerging need or by the possibilities offered by some new technical concept or
invention. Requirements can be divided into two general classes: technical requirements
(speed, range, payload, and so forth) and economic requirements (costs, maintenance
characteristics, and so forth).
2.3.3.

Aerodynamic design

Initial aerodynamic design centers on defining the external geometry and

general aerodynamic configuration of the new aircraft.
The aerodynamic forces that determine aircraft performance capabilities are drag
and lift. The basic, low-speed drag level of the aircraft is conventionally expressed as a term

19
at zero lift composed of friction and pressure drag forces plus a term associated with the
generation of lift, the drag due to lift or the induced drag. Since wings generally operate at a
positive angle to the relative wind (angle of attack) in order to generate the necessary life
forces, the wing lift vector is tilted aft, resulting in a component of the lift vector in the drag
direction (see illustration).

Aircraft that fly near or above the speed of sound must be designed to minimize
aerodynamic compressibility effects, evidenced by the formation of shock waves and
significant changes in all aerodynamic forces and moments. Compressibility effects
are mediated by the use of thin airfoils, wing and tail surface sweepback angles, and
detailed attention to the lengthwise variation of the cross-sectional area of the
configuration.
The size and location of vertical and horizontal tail surfaces are the primary
parameters that determine aircraft stability and control characteristics. Developments in
digital computing and flight-control technologies have made the concept of artificial
stability practical. See also Stability augmentation.
2.3.4.

Propulsion design

Propulsion design comprises the selection of an engine from among the available
models and the design of the engine's installation on or in the aircraft.
Selection of the best propulsion concept involves choosing from among a wide
variety of types ranging from reciprocating engine-propeller power plants through
turboprops, turbojets, turbofans, and ducted and unducted fan engine developments. The
selection process involves aircraft performance analyses comparing flight performance with
the various candidate engines installed. In the cases where the new aircraft design is being
based on a propulsion system which is still in development, the selection process is more
complicated.
Once an engine has been selected, the propulsion engineering tasks are to design
the air inlet for the engine, and to assure the satisfactory physical and aerodynamic

20
integration of the inlet, engine, and exhaust nozzle or the engine nacelles with the rest of
the airframe. The major parameters to be chosen include the throat area, the diffuser length
and shape, and the relative bluntness of the inlet lips.
2.3.5.

Structural design

Structural design begins when the first complete, integrated aerodynamic and
propulsion concept is formulated. The process starts with preliminary estimates of design
air loads and inertial loads (loads due to the mass of the aircraft being accelerated
during maneuvers).
During conceptual design, the structural design effort centers on a first-order structural
arrangement which defines major structural components and establishes the most direct load
paths through the structure that are possible within the constraints of the aerodynamic
configuration. An initial determination of structural and material concepts to be used is
made at this time, for example, deciding whether the wing should be constructed from builtup sheet metal details, or by using machined skins with integral stiffeners, or from fiberreinforced composite materials.
During preliminary design, the structural design effort expands into
consideration of dynamic loads, airframe life, and structural integrity. Dynamic loading
conditions arise from many sources: landing impact, flight through turbulence, taxiing over
rough runways, and so forth.,
Airframe life requirements are usually stated in terms of desired total flight hours or total
flight cycles. To the structural designer this translates into requirements for airframe fatigue
life. Fatigue life measures the ability of a structure to withstand repeated loadings without
failure. Design for high fatigue life involves selection of materials and the design of
structural components that minimize concentrated stresses.
Structural integrity design activities impose requirements for damage tolerance,
the ability of the structure to continue to support design loads after specified component
failures. Failsafe design approaches are similar to design for fatigue resistance: avoidance of
stress concentrations and spreading loads out over multiple supporting structural members.

2.3.6.

Aircraft systems design

Aircraft systems include all of those systems and subsystems required for the
aircraft to operate. Mission systems are those additional systems and subsystems peculiar to
the role of military combat aircraft. The major systems are power systems, flight-control
systems, navigation and communication systems, crew systems, the landing-gear system,
and fuel systems.

21
Design of these major subsystems must begin relatively early in the conceptual
design phase, because they represent large dimensional and volume requirements which can
influence overall aircraft size and shape or because they interact directly with the
aerodynamic concept (as in the case of flight-control systems) or propulsion selection (as in
the case of power systems).
During preliminary design, the aircraft system definition is completed to include
additional subsystems. The installation of the many aircraft system components and the
routing of tubing and wiring through the aircraft are complex tasks which are often aided by
the construction of partial or complete aircraft mock-ups. These are full scale models of the
aircraft, made of inexpensive materials, which aid in locating structural and system
components.

2.4 MANUFACTURING
What is the Aircraft, Engine & Parts Manufacturing Industry?
Businesses in this industry do one or more of the following: manufacture complete
aircraft; manufacture aircraft engines, propulsion units and other related equipment or parts;
develop and make prototypes of aircraft; aircraft conversions (i.e. major modification to
systems); and complete aircraft overhaul and rebuilding (i.e. periodic restoration of aircraft
to original design specifications).
Industry Products
Aircraft
Aircraft engines and engine parts
Other aircraft parts and auxiliary equipment
Industry Activities
Manufacturing and rebuilding of aircraft
Developing and producing prototypes for aircraft
blimps, gliders, hand gliders, ultra light aircraft and helicopters
Manufacturing aircraft engines and engine parts
Developing and producing prototypes for aircraft engines and engine parts
Manufacturing aircraft assemblies, subassemblies, propellers, joints, and other
parts
Manufacturing aircraft auxiliary parts
Developing and producing prototypes for aircraft parts and auxiliary
equipment

22

2.5 TESTING
Flight testing is a branch of aeronautical engineering that develops and gathers data
during flight of an aircraft and then analyzes the data to evaluate the flight characteristics of
the aircraft and validate its design, including safety aspects.
The flight test phase accomplishes two major tasks:
1) Finding and fixing any aircraft design problems and then
2) Verifying and documenting the aircraft capabilities for government certification or
customer acceptance.
The flight test phase can range from the test of a single new system for an existing aircraft
to the complete development and certification of a new aircraft. Therefore the duration of a
flight test program can vary from a few weeks to many years.

Examples of some subsystems we have performed aerospace testing on include:

Airframes: Structural, Fatigue,

Limit Loads
Antennas
Avionics
Power Inverters, TRU's
Entertainment Systems
Communications
Drive Systems
Escape Slides, Rafts and Vests
Flight Control Surfaces, Winglets

Gear Trains
Hydraulic motors and
components
Interior and Exterior Lighting
Systems
Landing Gear
Oxygen Systems
Passenger Service Units (PSU's)
Rotor Systems
Safety belts
Windows and doors

23

24

COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET

&
MEAN DESIGN PARAMETER

25
3.1 WING CHARACTERISTICS

WING
SPAN

AIRCRAFT
LENGTH

(m)

(m)

BOMBARDIER BD-100
CHALLENGER 300

19.46

2.

CESSNA 560 CITATION

ENCORE

S.NO
.

NAME OF THE
AIRCRAFT

1.

WING
AREA

ASPECT
RATIO

TAKE OFF
DISTANCE

(s)

20.92

48.5

7.8

1509

16.49

16

29.94

8.54

1085

3.

CESSNA 560 XL
CITATION EXCEL AND
XLS

17.17

19.37

34.35

7.8

1109

4.

CESSNA 680 CITATION

SOVEREIGN

19.24

14.9

47.93

9.09

1086

5.

CESSNA 750 CITATION

X

19.5

22

49

7.76

1567

6.

GULFSTREAM G150

16.94

17.3

17.3

8.7

1524

7.

HAWKER 4000 HORIZON

18.82

21.08

49.3

7.1

1545

8.

LEARJET 25

12.84

17.6

21.5

7.3

1440

9.

LEARJET 45

14.57

17.8

29

7.2

1661

10.

LEARJET 60

13.4

14.5

24.6

7.66

1581

26
3.2 WEIGHT CHARACTERISTICS

S.NO.

NAME OF THE AIRCRAFT

EMPTY WEIGHT
(kg)

MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF
WEIGHT (kg)

1.

BOMBARDIER BD-100
CHALLENGER 300

10591

17622

2.

CESSNA 560 CITATION

ENCORE

4627

7544

3.

CESSNA 560 XL CITATION

EXCEL AND XLS

5402

9163

4.

CESSNA 680 CITATION

SOVEREIGN

7893

13743

5.

CESSNA 750 CITATION X

8618

16374

6.

GULFSTREAM G150

6849

13716

7.

HAWKER 4000 HORIZON

9877

17917

8.

LEARJET 25

3465

6804

9.

LEARJET 45

6146

9163

10.

LEARJET 60

6641

10660

27
3.3 POWER PLANT CHARACTERISTICS

S.NO.

NAME OF THE AIRCRAFT

TYPE OF
ENGINE

NO. OF
ENGINE

THRUST
(KN)

1.

BOMBARDIER BD-100
CHALLENGER 300

TURBO FAN

30.4

2.

CESSNA 560 CITATION ENCORE

TURBO FAN

13.6

3.

CESSNA 560 XL CITATION EXCEL

AND XLS

TURBO FAN

18.43

4.

CESSNA 680 CITATION

SOVEREIGN

TURBO FAN

25.3

5.

CESSNA 750 CITATION X

TURBO FAN

28.7

6.

GULFSTREAM G150

TURBO FAN

19.7

7.

HAWKER 4000 HORIZON

TURBO FAN

28.9

8.

LEARJET 25

TURBO FAN

13.1

9.

LEARJET 45

TURBO FAN

15.6

10.

LEARJET 60

TURBO FAN

23.2

28

3.4

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
RANGE
(km)

SERVICE
CEILING
(M)

CRUISE
SPEED
(kph)

S.NO.

NAME OF THE AIRCRAFT

MACH
NO.

1.

BOMBARDIER BD-100
CHALLENGER 300

0.89

5741

13716

870

2.

CESSNA 560 CITATION

ENCORE

0.75

3297

13716

793

3.

CESSNA 560 XL CITATION

EXCEL AND XLS

0.75

3852

13716

815

4.

CESSNA 680 CITATION

SOVEREIGN

0.8

5223

14326

846

5.

CESSNA 750 CITATION X

0.92

5686

15548

1128

6.

GULFSTREAM G150

0.85

5463

13716

850

7.

HAWKER 4000 HORIZON

0.84

5287

13716

859

8.

LEARJET 25

0.81

2663

13716

878

9.

LEARJET 45

0.81

3925

15548

859

10.

LEARJET 60

0.81

4441

15548

887

29

3.5

GRAPHS & REQUIRED VALUE

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38
3.6
Parameters

MEAN DESIGN PARAMETERS

Values

Unit

Vcruise

850

Km/h

Mach no.

.715

(no unit)

Length

19.5

Wing span

12.84

Aspect ratio

7.55

(no unit)

Wing area

21.84

m2

Max Take-off distance

1500

kg

585.89

Kg/m2

5200

km

13700

16

Wing loading
Range
Service ceiling

Thrust

39

4
WEIGHT ESTIMATION
4.1 THE WEIGHT OF AN AIRCRAFT AND ITS FIRST ESTIMATE
Let us discuss the nature of the weight of an airplane in detail. There are various
types ways to subdivide and categorize the weight components of an airplane. The
following is a common choice.
1. Crew weight Wcrew. The crew comprises the people necessary to operate the air plane in
flight. For our airplane, the crew is simply the pilot.
2. Payload weight Wpayload . The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport
passenger, baggage, freight, etc. If airplane is intended for military combat use, the payload
includes bombs, rockets, and other disposable ordnance.
3. Fuel weight Wfuel. This is the weight of the fuel in the fuel tanks. Since fuel is consumed
during the course of the flight, Wfuel is a variable, decreasing with time during the course of
the flight.
4. Empty weight Wempty. This is the weight of everything else-the structure, engines( with
all accessory), electronic equipment (including radar computers, communication device,
etc.),landing gear, fixed equipment(seats, galleys, etc.), and anything else that is not crew,
payload, or fuel.
The sum of these weights is the total weight of the airplane W. Again, W varies throughout
the fight because fuel is being consumed, and for a military combat airplane, ordnance may
be dropped or expended, leading to a decrease in the payload weight.
The design takeoff gross weight W0 is the weight of airplane at the instant it begins
its mission. It includes the weight of all the fuel on board at the beginning of the flight.
Hence,
W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty
In Eq. (4.1), Wfuel is the weight of the full fuel load at the beginning of the flight.

[4.1]

40
In Eq. (4.1), W0 is the important quantity for which we want a first estimate; W0 is
the desired result from graph. To help make this estimate, Eq. (4.1) can be rearranged as
follows. If we denote Wfuel by Wf and Wempty by We (for notational simplicity), Eq. (4.1) can
be written as
W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wf + We

[4.2]

[4.3]
Solving Eq. (4.3) for W0, we have

[4.4]
The form of Eq. (4.4) is particularly useful. Although at this stage we do not have a value of
W0, we can fairly readily obtain values of the ratios Wf/W0 and We/W0, as we will see next.
Then Eq. (4.4) provides a relation from which W0 can be obtained in an irerative fashion.
[The iteration is required because in Eq.(4.4) Wf/W0 and We/W0 may themselves be
functions of W0.]

4.2

ESTIMATION OF We/W0

Most airplane design are evolutionary rather than revolutionary; that is, a new
de- sign is usually an evolutionary change from previously existing airplanes. For this
reason, historical, statistical data on previous airplanes provides a starting point for the
conceptual design of a new airplane. We will use such data here. In particular, Graph of
We/W0 versus W0 for a number of Turbofan engine, jet aircrafts.
As a result of the data shown in graph. we choose for our first estimate

= 0.58

[4.5]

41

4.3

ESTIMATION OF Wf/ W0

The amount of fuel required to carry out the mission depends critically on the
efficiency of the propulsion device-the engine specific fuel consumption and the propeller
efficiency. It also depends critically on the aerodynamic efficiency-the lift-to-drag ratio.
These factors are principal players in the Brequet range equation, represented here:

R=

ln

[4.6]

Equation (4.6) is very important in our estimation of Wf/W0, as defined below.

The total fuel consumed during the mission is that mission is that consumed from
the moment the engines are turned on at the airport to the moment they are shut down at
the end of the flight. Between these times, the flight of the airplane can be described by a
mission profile, a conceptual sketch of altitude versus time such as shown in (figure 4.1).
As stated in the specifications. The mission profile is that for a simple cruise from one
location to another. This is the mission profile shown in Figure. It starts at the point labeled
0, when the engines are first turned on. The takeoff segment is denoted by the line segment
0-1, which includes warm-up, taxing, and takeoff. Segment 1-2 denotes the climb to cruise
altitude (the use of a straight line here is only schematic and is not meant to imply a
constant rate of climb to altitude). Segment 2-3 represents the cruise, which is by far the
largest segment of the mission. Segment 2-3 shows an increase in altitude during cruise,
consistent with an attempt to keep CL (and hence L/D) constant as the aircraft weight
decreases because of the consumption of fuel. Segment 3-4 denotes the descent, which
generally includes loiter time to account for air traffic delays; for design purposes, a loiter
time of 20 min is commonly used. Segment 4-5 represents landing.
The mission profile shown in Figure is particularly simple. For other types of
missions, especially those associated with military combat aircraft, the mission profile with
include such aspects as combat dogfighting, weapons drop, in-flight refueling etc. For a
discussion of such combat mission profiles, see, for example, Raymer book. For our
purpose, we will deal only with the simple cruise mission profile sketched in Figure (Fig.
4.1)

42

The mission profile is a useful bookkeeping tool to help us estimate fuel

weight. Each segment of the mission profile is associated with a weight fraction, defined as
the aircraft weight at the end of the segment divided by the weight at the beginning of the
segment.
Mission segment weight fraction =
For example, the cruise weight fraction is W3/W2, where W3 is the aircraft weight at the end
of the cruise and W2 is the weight at the beginning of cruise. The fuel weight ratio Wf/W0,
can be obtained from the product of the mission segment weight fractions as follows. Using
the mission profile in Figure, the ratio of the aircraft weight at the end of the mission to the
initial gross weight is W5/W0. In turn,

[4.7]

The right side of Eq. (4.7) is simply the product of the individual mission segment weight
fractions. Also, keep in mind that for the simple cruise mission shown in Figure, the change
in weight during each segment is due to the consumption of fuel. It, at the end of the flight,
the fuel tanks were completely empty, then

or

43

[4.8]
However, at the end of the mission, the fuel tanks are not completely empty-by design.
There should be some fuel left in reserve at the end of the mission in case weather
conditions or traffic problems require that the pilot of the aircraft divert to another airport,
or spend a longer-than-normal time in a holding pattern. Also, the geometric design of the
fuel tanks and the fuel system leads to some trapped fuel that is unavailable at the end of the
flight. Typically, a 6% allowance is made for reserve and trapped fuel. Modifying Eq. (4.8)
for this allowance, we have

[4.9]
Hence, the sequence for the calculation of Wf/W0 that appears in the denominator of Eq.
(4.9) is as follows:

a. Calculate each individual mission segment weight fraction W1/ W0, W2/ W1 etc., that
appears in Eq. (4.7).
b. Calculate W5/ W0 from Eq. (4.7).
c. Calculate Wf / W0 from Eq. (4.9).
Let us proceed to make this calculation for our business jet eight seater aircraft.
For takeoff, segment 0-1, historical data show that W1/ W0 are small, on the order
of 0.97. Hence, we assume
[4.10]

For climb, segment 1-2. we again rely on historical data for a first estimate which
indicate that W2/ W1 is also small, on the order of 0.985. Hence, we assume
[4.11]

For cruise, segment 2-3, we make use of the Brequet range equation. This requires
an estimate of L/D. At this stage of our design process, we cannot carry out a detailed
aerodynamics analysis to predict L/D- we have not even laid out the shape of the airplane

44
yet. Therefore, we can only make a crude approximation, again based on data from existing
aircraft. Loftin has tabulated the values of (L/D)max for a number of famous aircraft over the
past century.
Hence, a reasonable first approximation for our aircraft is
[4.12]

(L/D)max = 13

Also needed in the range equation, are the specific fuel consumption c and velocity
Vcr.
A typical value of specific fuel consumption for aircraft turbo fan engine is 0.6 lb of fuel
consumed per horsepower per hour. In consistent units, noting that 1 hp = 550 ft-lb/s, we
have
c = 0.7

[4.13]

A reasonable value for the velocity, assuming a variable- pitch engine

Vcr = 527 mi/hr

[4.14]

The ratio W0/W1 in that equation is replaced for the mission segment 2-3 by W2/W3. Hence,
for range equation

R=

ln

[4.15]

Solving Eq. (4.15) for W2/W3, we have

[4.16]

The loiter segment 3-4 in figure is essentially the descent from cruise altitude to
the landing approach. For our approximate calculation here, we will ignore the detail of fuel
consumption during descent is part of the required 3221.13-mi range, Hence, for this
assumption
[4.17]

45
Finally, the fuel consumed during the landing process, segment 4-5, is also based
on historical data. The amount of fuel used for landing is small, and based on previous
aircraft, the value of W5/W4 is approximately 0.995. Hence, we assume for our airplane that
[4.18]
Collecting the various segment weight fractions form Eq. (4.10), (4.11), (4.16),
(4.17), and (4.18), we have from Eq. (4.7)

= 0.9950.980.7190.990.992
[4.19]
Inserting the of W5/W0 from Eq. (4.19) into Eq. (4.9), we have

=1.06 (1 - 0.689)

[4.20]

4.4

CALCULATION OF W0

Return to Eq. (4.4) for the design takeoff gross weight W0. We have
obtained a value for We/W0 giver by Eq. (4.5). We have also obtained a value for Wf/W0
given by Eq. (4.20). All we need to obtain W0 from Eq. (4.4) are values for the crew and
payload weights Wcrew and Wpayload, respectively.
Corning suggests the average passenger weight of 242.50 lb with baggage per
passenger. For our aircraft, there are eight passengers, two stewards and two pilots, 14
people in total. Let us assume the average weight per person is 242.50 lb. Hence, since
the 4 crew is the pilots and stewards, we assume

46
Wcrew = 220.46 lb

[4.21]

The payload is the 8 passenger, plus the baggage for all 8 people. The type of
short business trip for which this aircraft will most likely be used would require less
baggage than a longer, intercontinental trip. Thus, including the pilots baggage, we have
Wpayload = 8(220.46)
= 1940.066

[4.22]

Inserting the values form Eq. (4.5) and (4.20) to (4.22) into Eq. (4.4), we have

This is only the first estimation.

Now by doing iterations, we can get a fairly accurate value of the Maximum Take Off
Weight (W0).

ITERATION PROCESS (W0):

For the iteration process, we use the given formula,
We/0 = 1.0200.06
FIRST:
We/0 = 1.02 31354.590.06
We/0 = 1.241201 lb
W0 = 31354.59 lb
SECOND:
W0 = 26373.01 lb
THIRD:
W0 = 28219.4
FOURTH:
W0 = 16599.49

[4.23]

47
FIFTH:
W0 = 28219.14
SIXTH:
W0 = 28219.14

After doing sixth iterations, we can take the value W0 =28219.14 as the final estimate of
the W0.
Max Takeoff Weight (W0) = 28219.14 lb

[4.24]

We know that,
W/W0 = 0.57

So, substituting the value of W0, we get the first estimation value of Wf,
Wf = 28219.14 0.57
Wf = 9313.92 lb
Weight of the Fuel Wf = 9313.92 lb

[4.25]

The weight of aviation gasoline is 5.64 lb/gal. Hence, the capacity of the fuel tank (or
tanks) should be
Tank capacity =

Tank capacity = 1651.4042 gal

[4.26]

48

5
POWER PLANT SELECTION
5.1 ENGINE SELECTION
The literature survey indicated a thrust to weight ratio of 0.25 was appropriate.
Hence:
Engine total take-off thrust = 0.25 28219.14 9.81
= 32.00 kN (7193.8862 lb)

[5.1]

With two engines this equates to 16.00 kN per engine (3596.943 lb)

[5.2]

A choice of engines from different manufacturers is always the preferred

commercial position for the airframe manufacturer. This ensures that the engine price and
availability is more competitive. It also provides the potential airline customer with more
bargaining power when selecting the aircraft/engine purchase.
There are several available engines that would suit our requirement. All of them
are currently used on civil aircraft operations therefore considerable experience is available.

The engines below are typical options:

Sl.no

Name of the engine

type

Thrust (KN)

turbofan

15.6

turbofan

18.7

Honey well TFE73120(Garrett)

General Electric CF700

Pratt & Whitney JTIA8

turbofan

20

Honey well TFE731-40R200G

turbofan

18.9

49

5.2 REQUIRED ENGINE

Calculated thrust and weight of the engine are satisfied with the General
Honey wellTFE731-20 therefore chosen this engine.

50

51

The TFE731 family of engines has a legacy of proven reliability. The first
TFE731-20 was certified in 1972. Since that time, more than 11,000 engines have been
produced, logging an astounding 100 million plus hours of service on more than 27
different aircraft applications. The TFE731-20 gives you everything you want in an engine
with proven experience, performance, and reliability. The newest member of the TFE73120 family is currently in development.

52

5.3

ENGINE SPECIFICATION :

HONEY WELL TFE731-20

Type

: TURBOFAN (fuselage mounted)

Length

: 129.54cm (51 in.)

Diameter : 71.628 cm (28.2 in.)

Dry Weight: 401.42Kg (885 lb)
COMPRESSOR - FAN; 4 HP axial & 1 HP centrifugal
Stages

TURBINE

- 1 HP & 3 LP

Combustors : ANNULAR
Max. Thrust : 15.6 KN (3500 lbf)
Overall Pressure ratio : 13:1
Specific fuel consumption: 0.5 lb/lb-hr
Thrust/weight : 4.7:1.

Note: engine manufacturers commonly quote values in Imperial units.

These details will be enough for initial performance and layout purposes but as
the design progresses it will be necessary to periodically review the choice of engines to be
used on the aircraft.

53

6
WING SELECTION
6.1

INTRODUCTION :

After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of the aircraft to be
designed is the wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities are in general, a function of the
thickness of the airfoil section that is used in the wing structure. The first step towards designing the
wing is the thickness estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn depends on the critical mach
number of the airfoil or rather, the drag divergence Mach number corresponding to the wing section.
The critical Mach number can well be delayed by the use of an appropriate Sweepback angle to the wing structure. The natural choice of the standard series is the 65 series which is
designed specifically for use in high-speeds.

6.2 WING GEOMETRY DESIGN

The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the
Wing loading (W/S),
Sweepback angle at quarter chord ( qc ).
The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is used to find the
Aspect Ratio (b2/S),
The value of S also enables us to calculate the Taper ratio ()
Form Raymer book we choose our, Taper Ratio () = 0.33
6.2.1.

[6.1]

WING AREA:
Wing Area (S) =

[6.2]

=
S = 21.84 m2

(or) 235.083 ft2

[6.3]

54
6.2.2.

WING SPAN (b):

From Our Graph we found mean value of Aspect Ratio (AR) = 7.55
Wing Span (b) =
b = 12.84 m

[6.4]
[6.5]
[6.6]

6.3 WING CHORD DESIGN

6.3.1.

ROOT CHORD Cr

[6.7]
=
Cr =2.55 m
6.3.2.

[6.8]

TIP CHORD Ct

[6.9]
= 0.33 2.55
Ct = 2.55 m

6.3.3.

[6.10]
[6.11]

Distance of the Mean Chord from the Aircraft Centre line

=

[6.12]

=
=2.67 m

[6.13]

55
6.3.4.

SWEEP ANGLE :
Sweep back angle at leading angle =
= 11.130

6.3.5.

( )

[6.14]
[6.15]

DIHEDRAL ANGLE

For our Value of Sweep back angle to shows the tabulated value of Dihedral Angle
Dihedral Angle = 2.70

[6.16]

56

7
AIRFOIL SELECTION
7.1 INTRODUCTION:
The airfoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the airplane. The airfoils affects
the cruise speed landing distance and take off, stall speed and handling qualities and
aerodynamic efficiency during the all phases of flight
Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,
design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift curve
slope, characteristic curves.

The following are the airfoil geometry and definition:

Chord line: It is the straight line connecting leading edge (LE) and trailing edge (TE).
Chord (c): It is the length of chord line.
Thickness (t): measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it (subsonic typically
12%).
Camber (d): It is the curvature of section, perpendicular distance of section mid -points
from chord line as a % of it (sub sonically typically 3%).
Angle of attack (): It is the angular difference between chord line and airflow direction.
The following are airfoil categories:
Early it was based on trial & error.

57
NACA 4 digit is introduced during 1930s.
NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards fo r increased C L max .
NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar flow.
Modern it is mainly based upon need for improved aerodynamic characteristics at speeds
just below speed of sound.
NACA 4 Digit
1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).
2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from leading edge
(LE)).
3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 5 Digit
1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.
2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from LE).
4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 6 Digit
1st digit: identifies series type.
2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from leading edge
(LE)).
3rd digit: indicates acceptable range of CL above/below design value for
satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).
4th digit (x0.1): design CL.
5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)
The airfoil that is to be used is now selected. As indicated earlier during the
calculation of the lift coefficient value, it becomes necessary to use high speed airfoils,
i.e., the 6x series, which have been designed to suit high subsonic cruise Mach numbers.

7.2 ESTIMATION OF THE CRITICAL PERFORMANCE

PARAMETERS
We now move to pivot point 3, namely, an estimation of critical performance (CL) max,
L/D, W/S, and T/W. These parameters are directed by the requirements; that is, they will be
determined by such aspects as maximum speed, range, and ceiling, rate of climb, stalling
speed, landing gear, and takeoff distance.

58

7.3.1.

Maximum Lift Coefficient

This is the stage in the design process where we make an initial choice for the airfoil
shape for the wing. Historically, general aviation airplanes have employed the NACA fourdigit, and 6-series airfoil sections-the laminar-flow series.

L=W=0.5V 2 stall SC L max

V Stall = 0.25 V cruise

[7.1]
[7.2]

V Stall = 0.25 236.111

V Stall = 59.027 m/s

[7.3]

sub, the value Eq.(7.3) in (7.1)

= 0.5 0.23884 (59.02)2 CL max

CL max = 1.40

[7.4]

7.3 SELECTION OF AIRFOIL

The NACA five-digit airfoils have been particularly favored by the general aviation
industry in the United States. The airfoils, such as the NACA 23024 and the NACA 23021,
respectively, were designed in the middle 1930s. The maximum chamber was placed closer
to the leading edge (at 2.8c for the two airfoils shown) than was the case for the earlier
NACA five-digit airfoils. A benefit of this design is a higher (CL) max compared to the earlier
airfoils. A disadvantage is the very sharp stalling behavior.
For many airplanes, including some general aviation aircraft, one airfoil section is
used at the wing root, and another airfoil shape is used at the wing tip, with the airfoil
sections between the root and tip sections. Several examples from existing general aviation
airplanes are tabulated below.
In these examples, the airfoil section is relatively thick and the wing airfoil shape
tapers to thinner section at the tip. There are good reasons for this. Structurally, the wing
bending moment is greatest at the root; a thicker airfoil readily allows the design for greater

59
structural strength at the root. Aerodynamically, an 18% airfoil will stall at a lower angle of
attack than a 12% airfoil. Hence, a wing which has airfoil sections which has tapper from
18% thick at the root to 12% thick at the tip will tend to stall first at the wing root, with
attached flow still at the tip.
For all these reasons, we make an initial choice of the airfoil section for our airplane
design as follows: at the root, an NACA23024 from Airfoil Data Base and at the tip, an
NACA23024 from Airfoil Data Base
7.3.2. ROOT AIRFOIL

NACA23024

Thickness:
Camber:
Trailing edge angle:
Lower flatness:
Leading edge radius:
Max CL:
Max CL angle:
Max L/D:
Max L/D angle:
Max L/D CL:
Stall angle:
Zero-lift angle:

24.0%
2.8%
32.3o
14.6%
7.4%
1.36
15.0
27.03
8
6.0
0.761
1.5
-1.0

60

61

LIFT TO DRAG RATIO OF NACA 23024

a). = 00
CL =0.1 (from above fig.)
Cd =0.0072 (from above fig.)

=
= 13.88

b). = 6

CL =0.57 (from above fig.)

Cd =0.0085 (from above fig.)

=
= 67.05

c). = 120
CL =0.6 (from above fig.)
Cd =0.007 (from above fig.)

=
= 85.71

62

63

64

7.3.3.

TIP AIRFOIL
NACA 23021

Thickness:

21.0%

Camber:

1.9%

Trailing edge
angle:

28.3o

Lower flatness:

22.2%

Leading edge
radius:

6.2%

Max CL:

1.244

Max CL angle:

15.0

Max L/D:

25.21
9

Max L/D angle:

7.0

Max L/D CL:

0.873

Stall angle:

3.0

Zero-lift angle:

-1.0

65

66

LIFT TO DRAG RATIO OF NACA 23021

a). = 00
CL =0.1 (from above fig.)
Cd =0.007 (from above fig.)

=
= 14.28

b). = 6

CL =0.7 (from above fig.)

Cd =0.0085 (from above fig.)

=
= 82.35

c). = 120
CL =0.75 (frm above fig.)
Cd =0.0087 (frm above fig.)

=
= 86.206

67

68

69

7.4 AVERAGE CL max

Average CL max with NACA 23024 and NACA 23021

CL max

= 1.302

[7.5]

70

8
FLAP SELECTION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
During takeoff and landing the airplane's velocity is relatively low. To
keep the lift high (to avoid objects on the ground!), airplane designers try to increase the
wing area and change the airfoil shape by putting some moving parts on the wings' leading
and trailing edges. The part on the leading edge is called a slat, while the part on the trailing
edge is called a flap. The flaps and slats move along metal tracks built into the wings.
Moving the flaps aft (toward the tail) and the slats forward increases the wing area.
Pivoting the leading edge of the slat and the trailing edge of the flap downward increases
the effective camber of the airfoil, which increases the lift. In addition, the large aftprojected area of the flap increases the drag of the aircraft. This helps the airplane slow
down for landing.

8.2 TYPES OF FLAP

Types of flap systems include:

Krueger flap: hinged flap on the leading edge. Often called a "droop".
Plain flap: rotates on a simple hinge.
Split flap: upper and lower surfaces are separate, the lower surface operates like a
plain flap, but the upper surface stays immobile or moves only slightly.
Gouge flap: a cylindrical or conical aerofoil section which rotates backwards and
downwards about an imaginary axis below the wing, increasing wing area and chord
without affecting trim. Invented by Arthur Gouge for Short Brothers in 1936.
Fowler flap: slides backwards before hinging downwards, thereby increasing both
camber and chord, creating a larger wing surface better tuned for lower speeds. It
also provides some slot effect. The Fowler flap was invented by Harlan D. Fowler .
Fairey-Youngman flap: moves body down before moving aft and rotating.
Slotted flap: a slot (or gap) between the flap and the wing enables high pressure air
from below the wing to re-energize the boundary layer over the flap. This helps the
airflow to stay attached to the flap, delaying the stall.
Blown flaps: systems that blow engine air over the upper surface of the flap at
certain angles to improve lift characteristics.

71

72

8.3

SELECTED FLAP

A wing designed for efficient high-speed flight is often quite different from one
designed solely for take-off and landing. Take-off and landing distances are strongly
influenced by aircraft stalling speed, with lower stall speeds requiring lower acceleration or
deceleration and correspondingly shorter field lengths. It is always possible to reduce stall
speed by increasing wing area, but it is not desirable to cruise with hundreds of square feet
of extra wing area (and the associated weight and drag), area that is only needed for a few
minutes.
It is also possible to reduce stalling speed by reducing weight, increasing air
density, or increasing wing CLmax. The latter parameter is the most interesting. One can
design a wing airfoil that compromises cruise efficiency to obtain a good CLmax, but it is
usually more efficient to include movable leading and/or trailing edges so that one may
obtain good high speed performance while achieving a high CLmax at take-off and landing.
The primary goal of a high lift system is a high CLmax; however, it may also be desirable to
maintain low drag at take-off, or high drag on approach. It is also necessary to do this with
a system that has low weight and high reliability.

73

8.4

CL max INCREASES DUE TO FLAP

Our flap is Double fowler flap the required value is at above.

8.4.1.

TAKE-OFF CL max DUE TO FLAP

During Take-off Flap deflection upto 200

(CL max ) = 0.5 + 1.302

[8.1]

= 1.802
8.4.2.

LANDING CL max DUE TO FLAP

During Landing Flap deflection upto 500

(CL max ) = 0.9 + 1.302

= 2.202

[8.2]

74

9
FUSELAGE AND CABIN LAYOUT

9.1

INTRODUCTION

The interiors of business aircraft are laid out more flexibly than are commercial
transports. Interior appointments often cost millions of dollars and can be very luxurious,
especially for the large long range aircraft such as the Gulfstream V or Global Express.
Business aircraft based on commercial transports such as Boeing Business Jet provide even
greater possibilities.

Cabin parameters obtained from similar business aircrafts

9.2

Seat pitch = 0.9652m

Seat width = 0.7m
Aisle width=0.61m
Seats abreast=2
No. of aisles=1
FUSELAGE LAYOUT-INTRODUCTION

The fuselage layout is important as the length of the entire aircraft depends on this.
The length and diameter of the fuselage is related to the seating arrangement.
The fuselage of a passenger aircraft is divided into a number of sections:
a. Nose
b. Cockpit
c. Cabin
d. Tail fuselage

75

9.2.1.

Functions of fuselage:

- provides of volume for payload

- provide overall structural integrity
- Possible mounting of landing gear and power plant
Once fundamental configuration is establishment, fuselage layout proceeds almost
independent of other design aspects.

9.2.2.

Pressurization:

- If required, it has a major impact upon the overall shape.

- Overall effect depends on the level of pressurization.

9.3

FUSELAGE SIZING:
The required value of Fuselage size is taken from the graph

Lfuselage = 19.5 m

9.4

[9.1]

NOSE AND COCKPIT-FRONT FUSELAGE:

The layout of the flight deck and specified pilot window geometry is often the
starting point of the overall fuselage layout. For the current design, flight decks of
various airplanes are considered and the value of
is found to be 0.03

[9.2]

Lnos = 0.03 19.5

Lnos = 0.58 m

[9.3]

The cockpit length for a 2 member crew is given by RAYMER

9.5

Passenger cabin layout:

Two major geometric parameters that specify the passenger cabin are
Cabin Diameter and Cabin Length. These are in turn decided by more specific details
like number of seats, seat width, seating arrangement (number abreast), seat pitch, aisle
width and number of aisles.

76

We choose a circular cross section for the fuselage. The overall size must be
kept small to reduce aircraft weight and drag, yet the resulting shape must provide a
comfortable and flexible cabin interior which will appeal to the customer airlines. The main
decision to be taken is the number of seats abreast and the aisle arrangement. The number of
seats across will fix the number of rows in the cabin and thereby the fuselage length. Design
of the cabin cross section is further complicated by the need to provide different classes like
first class, business class, economy class etc.

9.6

Cabin length:

The total number of seats (8) is distributed as 2 seats abreast. Cabin parameters are
chosen based on standards of similar airplanes.
The various parameters chosen are as follows

Seat pitch=0.9653m
Seat width=0.7m
Aisle width=0.61m
Seats abreast=2
No. of aisles=1

Hence, the total cabin length will be = seat pitch rows

=0.9652 6 + additional space
Total cabin length =8m

[9.4]

77

9.7

Cabin diameter:

Using the number of seats abreast, seat width, aisle width we calculate the internal diameter
of the cabin.
dfus (internal) = 0.611+0.72
= 2.01m

[9.5]

According to the standards prescribed by Raymer, chapter 9, the structural thickness is

given by
t = 0.02df + 1 inch = 0.02 2.01 + 0.0254 = 0.06m

[9.6]

Therefore the external diameter of the fuselage is obtained as

= 2.01 + 0.062
External diameter = 2.18m

9.8

[9.7]

Rear fuselage:

The rear fuselage profile is chosen to provide a smooth, low drag shape which
supports the tail surfaces. The lower side of the provide adequate clearance for aircraft
when rotation during takeoff. The rear fuselage should also house the auxiliary power unit
(APU). Based on data collected for similar aircraft we choose the ratio Ltail / dfus as 4.
Ltail = 6m

[9.8]

Total fuselage length:

Various parts of the fuselage are indicated below
Cockpit length = 2.54m
Cabin length = 8m
Total = 10.54m

[9.9]

78

10
10.1 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The center-of-gravity (CG) is the point at which an aircraft would balance if it
were possible to suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the aircraft, or the
theoretical point at which the entire weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. Its
distance from the reference datum is determined by dividing the total moment by the total
weight of the aircraft. The center-of-gravity point affects the stability of the aircraft. To
ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, the center-of gravity must fall within specified limits.
Center of gravity is calculated as follows:

Determine the weights and arms of all mass within the aircraft.
Multiply weights by arms for all mass to calculate moments.
Add the moments of all mass together.
Divide the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft to give an overall arm.

The arm that results from this calculation must be within the arm limits for the
center of gravity. If it is not, weight in the aircraft must be removed, added (rarely), or
redistributed until the center of gravity falls within the prescribed limits.
For the sake of simplicity, centre of gravity calculations are usually performed
along only a single line from the zero point of the reference datum.
Weight is calculated simply by adding up all weight in the aircraft. This weight
must be within the allowable weight limits for the aircraft.
First estimate weight components for which we have some idea of their location
of the engine, the passengers and pilot, and the baggage.
Using this information, we can make a preliminary estimate of the location of the centre of
gravity.
Considering the forces to be acting at middle each part, and hence taking
moment about the nose, we get the centre of gravity.

79
CG (a) =

= 7.71 m

10.2 Layout of Aircraft Centre of Gravity :

80

11
TAIL SELECTION
11.1. TAIL SURFACES:
The type and area of the tail surfaces are important in determining the stability of
the airplane. A conventional tail arrangement is chosen. Some of the important parameters
that decide the aerodynamic characteristics of the tail are area ratio (St/S), tail volume ratio
(VH and Vv), tail arm, tail span etc. All this parameters have to be decided for both the
horizontal and vertical tail.

From the above list of tail types, the T-tail unit type is chosen which the most
suitable configuration for the current design.

11.2. T-TAIL
A T-tail is an aft tail configuration (see figure. 34) that looks like the letter T;
which implies the vertical tail is located on top of the horizontal tail. The T-tail

81
configuration is another aft tail configuration that provides a few advantages, while it has a
few disadvantages. The major advantage of a T-tail configuration is that it is out of the
regions of wing wake, wing downwash, wing vortices, and engine exit flow (i.e. hot and
turbulent high speed gas). This allows the horizontal tail to provide a higher efficiency, and
a safer structure. The lower influence from the wing results in a smaller horizontal tail area;
and the lower effect from the engine leads in a less tail vibration and buffet. The less tail
vibration increases the life of the tail with a lower fatigue problem. Furthermore, another
advantage of the T-tail is the positive influence of horizontal tail on the vertical tail. It is
referred to as the end-plate effect and results in a smaller vertical tail area.
On the other hand, the disadvantages that associated with a T-tail are: 1. heavier
vertical tail structure, 2. deep stall. The bending moment created by the horizontal tail must
be transferred to the fuselage through the vertical tail. This structural behavior requires the
vertical tail main spar to be stronger; which cause the vertical tail to get heavier.
Aircraft with T-tail are subject to a dangerous condition known as the deep stall
(Ref. 6); which is a stalled condition at an angle of attack far above the original stall angle.
T-tail Aircraft often suffer a sever pitching moment instability at angles well above the
initial stall angle of about 13 degrees, without wing leading edge high lift device, or about
18 degrees, with wing leading edge high lift device. If the pilot allows the aircraft to enter to
this unstable region, it might rapidly pitch up to a higher angle of about 40 degrees. The
causes of the instability are fuselage vortices, shed from the forward portion of the fuselage
at high angles of attack, and the wing and engine wakes. Thus the horizontal tail
contribution on the longitudinal stability is largely reduced. Eventually, at a higher angle of
attack, the horizontal tail exits the wing and nacelle wakes and the aircraft become
longitudinally stable (see figure. 35).

82

This condition may be assumed as a stable condition, but it accompanies an

enormous drag along with a resulting high rate of descent. At this moment, the elevator and
aileron effectiveness have been severely reduced because both wing and horizontal tail are
stalled at the very high angle of attack. This is known as a locked-in deep stall, a potentially
fatal state. The design solutions to avoid a deep stall in a T-tail configuration are to: 1.
Ensure a stable pitch down at the initial stall, 2. Extend the horizontal tail span substantially
beyond the nacelles, and 3. Employ a mechanism to enable full down elevator angles if a
deep stall occurs. In addition, the aircraft must be well protected from the initial stall by
devices such as stick shaker, lights, and stall horn.

11.3. HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL TAIL CALCULATION:

From the data collected on similar business airplanes, we choose the following
values for the tail parameters.
Parameter
Area ratio (St/S)
Aspect ratio
Taper ratio

Horizontal Tail

Vertical Tail

0.31

0.21

1.7

0.26

0.31

83
TAIL AREA:

The areas of the horizontal and vertical tail (SH and Sv) are calculated as,
SH = 0.31 34.3

SH= 10.63 m2

[11.1]

Sv = 0.21 34.3

SV = 7.2 m2

[11.2]

TAIL SPAN:

The span of the horizontal and vertical tail (bh and bv) are given as,
bh = (AhSh)0.5

[11.3]

bv = (AvSv)0.5

[11.4]

Taking ARH = 5 and ARv = 1.7, we get

bh = 7.29 m

[11.5]

bv = 3.5 m

[11.6]

84

12
LIFT ESTIMATION
12.1. LIFT:
Component of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft perpendicular to
flight direction

12.2. Lift Coefficient (CL)

Amount of lift generated depends on:

_ Planform area (S), air density (p), flight speed (V), lift coefficient (CL)

L = V2S

[12.1]

CL is a measure of lifting effectiveness and mainly depends upon:

_ Section shape, planform geometry, angle of attack (), compressibility

effect
(mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds number)

12.3. Generation of Lift

85

12.3.1. Aerodynamic force arises from two natural sources:

Variable pressure distribution.

Shear stress distribution.

Shear

stress primarily contributes to overall drag force on aircraft.

Lift mainly due to pressure distribution, especially on main lifting surfaces, i.e. wing.
Require (relatively) low pressure on upper surface and higher pressure on lower
surface.
Any shape can be made to produce lift if either cambered or inclined to flow direction.
Classical aerofoil section is optimum for high subsonic lift/drag ratio.

12.4. Pressure variations with angle of attack

86
Negative (nose-down) pitching moment at zero-lift (negative ).

Highest pressure at LE stagnation point, lowest pressure at crest on upper surface.

Peak suction pressure on upper surface strengthens and moves forwards with increasing .
Most lift from near LE on upper surface due to suction.

87

12.5. Lift Curves of Cambered and Symmetrical airfoils

12.6. CALCULATION:
CL cruise

[12.2]

where, = 0.23884 (at 13700 m)

=
CL cruise = 0.8636

[12.3]

12.7. LIFT AT TAKE-OFF

CL Take-off = CL cruise CL flap

[12.4]

where, Take off flap at 200 is 0.5

=0.8636 + 0.5
CL Take-off = 1.364
VR = 1.1 V stall

[12.5]
[12.6]

= 1.1 59.02
VR = 64.922 m/sec

[12.7]

88
L Take-off = V2S
where, = 1.225 (at sea level)

= 1.225 (64.922)221.841.364

L Take-off =76905.4 N

[12.8]

12.8. LIFT AT LANDING

CL Landing = CL cruise + CL flap

[12.9]

= 0.8636 + 0.9
CL Landing = 1.7636

VR = 0.7 V stall

[12.10]

[12.11]

= 0.7 59.02
VR = 41.314m/sec

[12.12]

where, = 1.225 (at sea level)

L Landing = V2S
= 1.225 (41.314)221.841.7636

L Landing = 32871.32 N

[12.13]

89

13
DRAG ESTIMATION
13.1. DRAG:
Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which is parallel
to the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow).
It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable
component.

13.2. Drag Coefficient (CD)

Amount of drag generated depends on:
Planform area (S), air density, flight speed (V), drag coefficient (CD)
CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:
Section shape, planform geometry, angle of attack, compressibility effects (Mach
number), viscous effects (Reynolds number).

13.3. Drag Components

Skin Friction.
Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.

90

13.4. Form (Pressure) Drag

Due to static pressure distribution around body - Drag is the resolved
component of the complete aerodynamic force which is parallel to the flight direction (or
relative oncoming airflow).
It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable
component.
Amount of drag generated depends on:
Planform area (S), air density, flight speed (V), drag coefficient (CD)
CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:
Section shape, planform geometry, angle of attack, compressibility effects (Mach number),
viscous effects (Reynolds number).
Skin Friction.
Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.
Due to static pressure distribution around body.
Component resolved in direction of motion.
Sometimes considered separately as forebody and rear (base) drag components.

91

13.5. Wave Drag

Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and supersonic speeds.
Result of both direct shock losses and the influence of shock waves on the boundary layer.
Often decomposed into portions related to:
Lift.
Thickness or Volume.

13.6. Typical streamlining effect

The lift induced drag is the component which has to be included to account for the 3D nature of the flow (finite span) and generation of wing lift.

92

13.7. DRAG CALCULATION:

13.7.1.

DRAG AT TAKE-OFF
CD Take-off =

+K

K=

[13.1]
[13.2]

K=
K = 0.057

[13.3]

where CD0 = 0.03 and apply eq. (13.4) and (12.5) in 13.1
= 0.03 + (0.057 (1.364)2)
CD Take-off = 0.136
D Take-off = V2S

[13.4]
[13.5]

where, apply eq. (12.7) and (13.4) in (13.5)

= 1.225 (64.922)221.840.136
D Take-off = 7667.9 N

13.7.2.

[13.6]

DRAG AT LANDING
CD Landing =

+K

[13.7]

where CD0 = 0.03 and apply eq. (13.3) and (12.10) in (13.7)
= 0.03 + (0.057 (1.7636)2)
CD Landing = 0.207
D Landing = V2S

[13.9]
[13.10]

where apply eq. (12.12) and (13.9) in (13.10)

= 1.225 (41.314)221.840.207
D Landing = 4726.32 N

[13.11]

93

14
LANDING GEAR SELECTION
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Every aircraft maintained in todays Aerospace Company is equipped with a landing
gear system. Most Aerospace company aircraft also use arresting and catapult gear. The
landing gear is that portion of the aircraft that supports the weight of the aircraft while it is
on the ground. The landing gear contains components that are necessary for taking off and
landing the aircraft safely. Some of these components are landing gear struts that absorb
landing and taxiing shocks; brakes that are used to stop and, in some cases, steer the
aircraft; nose wheel steering for steering the aircraft; and in some cases, nose catapult
components that provide the aircraft with carrier deck takeoff capabilities.

LANDING GEAR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The following design requirements are identified to be satisfied: ground clearance
requirement, tip-back (or tip-forward angle if tail gear) angle requirement, take-off rotation
requirement, overturn angel requirement, structural integrity, aircraft ground stability,
aircraft ground controllability, low cost, maintainable, and manufacturable.

14.2 LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION

This is a transport aircraft, and the passengers comfort is an important requirement.
So, the tail gear, bicycle, single main configurations would not satisfy this requirement.
Three viable configurations are:
1. Tricycle or nose-gear,
2. Quadricycle, and
3. Multi-bogey.
4. Ski type gear
5. Float type gear

94

Since the aircraft weight is not very high, both quadricycle, and multi-bogey
configurations are set aside due to their cost and weight. Therefore the best landing gear
configuration for this aircraft is Nose gear or tricycle. An attractive feature for this
configuration is that the aircraft will be horizontal at the ground. The passengers do not
have to climb during boarding period. The nose gear also decreases the take-off run, and at
the same time, the aircraft will take-off sooner.

14.3

FIXED OR RETRACTABLE

The aircraft must compete with other transport aircraft in the market, and it must
have a fairly high performance, so a retractable landing gear (see figure) is the best option.
The cost of this configuration covered by the customers (passengers). Then, this will reduce
the aircraft drag during flight and therefore the aircraft will feature a higher performance.
The higher landing gear weight due to retraction system will be paid off compared with the
other advantages of a retractable landing gear.

95

14.4 Landing gear height

Based on figure 1, the lowest point of the aircraft is the propeller tip. There
must be a reasonable clearance between the prop and the ground. Due to the fact that the
aircraft engine is turboprop, and for the sake of passengers safety considerations, a 1.2 m
ground clearance for the propeller is considered need. This distance may be revised in the
later phases of design.(i.e. Hclear = 1.2 m). Hence, the distance between aircraft center of
gravity and the ground would be:
Hcg = H clear +

[14.1]

where, our propeller diameter is 1m

Hcg

= 1.2 +
= 1.7 m

[14.2]

This clearance is shown in Fig 46. The aircraft cg is at the same height as the
wing mid-plane. The landing gear height is a function of its attachment location. The nose
gear will be naturally attached to the fuselage. But, the main gear attachment tends to have
two main alternatives: 1. Attach to the fuselage, 2. Attach to the wing. As soon the wheel
track is determined, we are able to decide about landing gear attachment; and then the
landing gear height may be determined.

96

14.5 ATTACH MAIN GEAR TO THE FUSELAGE:

HLG = Hcg -

[14.3]

apply eq.(14.2) and (9.5) in (14.3)

= 1.7
HLG = 0.695 m

[14.4]

14.6 ATTACH MAIN GEAR TO THE WING

Wing mean aerodynamics chord is :
=

[14.5]

apply eq.(6.3) and (6.6) in (14.5)

=
= 1.701m

[14.6]

The wing airfoil is NACA 23021 and NACA 23024, so the wing thick-to-ratio is 14
percent. Thus the wing thickness is:

tw= (t/c)max

[14.7]

apply (14.6) in (14.7)

= 0.14 1.701

tw = 0.238 m

[14.8]

In this case, the landing gear height will be:

HLG = Hcg

[14.9]

= 1.7
HLG = 1.581 m

[14.10]

97

These two landing gear heights are shown in figure 9.32. When wheel track and
wheel base are determined, the main gear attachment will be finalized. Furthermore, in the
later steps, other landing gear requirements will be checked to make sure this clearance does
not violate any other design requirements.

14.7 THE DISTANCE BETWEEN MAIN GEAR TO AIRCRAFT FORWARD Cg

Now we determine the location of main landing gear. Take-off rotation requirement
will be employed to obtain this distance. The aircraft is required to be able to rotate during
transition segment of the take-off operation with the amount of 9deg/s2. This requirement
must be examined for the aircraft critical cg location which is the most forward cg.
Since the aircraft forward cg is at 18% MAC, and the wing-fuselage aerodynamic
center is located at 22% MAC, we can write the following relationship for the wingfuselage lift moment arm:
X L wf = Xmg- ( - cg fwd)

[14.11]

apply eq.(14.6) in (14.11)

= Xmg (0.22-0.18) 1.701
=Xmg- 0.06804

[14.12]

Furthermore, the distance between horizontal tail aerodynamic center to the wingfuselage aerodynamic center is 12 m, hence the tail moment arm would be:
Xh = Xac h -Xmg

= lh + ( h- cg fwd) -Xmg

[14.13]
[14.14]

98
= 9.5 + (0.22 -0.18) 1.701 - Xmg
= 9.56 - Xmg

[14.15]

where Xmg is measured from main gear to the forward cg in meters.

From Figure.46, we can extract the following dimension: hd = hcg = hT = 1.7 m

Lh = VR2 ShCLh

[14.16]

= 1.225 (41.314)2 14 (-0.8)

Lh = -11714.5 N

Mac wf = VR2 C m ac wf Sref

= -1165.14 N

Lwf = LTO - Lh

[14.17]

[14.18]
[14.19]

[14.20]

apply Eq.(12.8) and (14.17) in (14.20)

= 76905.4 (-11714.5)
= 88619.9 N

[14.21]

Ff = (W- LTO)

[14.22]

Friction Force:

= 0.04{(12800 9.81) 76905.4)}

Ff = 1946.504 N

[14.23]

In value (5.1) our require Engine Thrust is given by

Engine Total Thrust:
T = 32000 N

[14.24]

99

Aircraft linear acceleration at the time of take-off rotation

a=

[14.25]

=
= 1.748 m/s2

[14.26]

Mw = W (Xmg Xcg)

[14.27]

Contributing moments:

= 12800 9.81 Xmg

MD = D (ZD Zmg)

= 13035.43 Nm

[14.28]
[14.29]
[14.30]

MT = T (ZT-Z mg)

[14.31]

MT = 54400

[14.32]

ML wf = Lwf (Xmg Xac wf to cg)

apply eq. (14.12) and (14.21) in (14.30)

= 88619.9 (Xmg- 0.06804)

ML h = Lh (Xac - Xmg)

= -11714.5 (9.56- Xmg)

[14.33]
[14.34]

Xa = 12800 1.748 1.7

= 38036.48

[14.35]

100
where, for the sake of simplicity, the x-reference line is considered to be the aircraft forward
cg. Now all moments are substituted into the equation.

[14.36]
By substituting the force and moment,

Xmg = 2.01 m

[14.37]

So far, the fact that, the given mass moment of inertia is about aircraft cg, was
ignored. Hence, the calculation must be repeated with the revised equation to include the
parallel axis theorem. Thus, the aircraft mass moment of inertia about cg (y-axis) must be
transferred to the main gear contact

point (Iyymg) by employing the parallel axis theorem

[14.38]
where Xmg and hcg are shown in Figure.47
Now, The Iyymg from equation 9.53a is inserted into equation 9.54. The result
would be a nonlinear equation with only one unknown parameter (X mg) as follows:

101

[14.39]
The solution of this revised equation would be:
Xmg = 1.961 m

[14.40]

14.8 CHECK TIP-BACK REQUIREMENT

In order to check the tip back angle, we have to obtain the distance between aft cg
and the main gear. Based on the problem statement, the forward cg is located at 18%MAC,
while the aft cg is at 0.3C. Thus, the distance between aircraft aft cg and forward cg is:
Xcg =Xcg fwd Xcg aft

= (0.30 0.18)
Xcg = 0.204 m
So the distance between main gear and after Cg is:
Xcg aft = Xmg - Xcg
= 1.757 m
The distance indicates that the aircraft has the following tipback angle:
af = tan-1(

= tan-1 (

[14.41]
[14.42]

[14.43]

= 45.50
This tipback angle is greater than aircraft take-off rotation angle (140)
45.5 14 + 5

[14.44]
[14.45]

Therefore the distance between main gear and aft Cg satisfies the tip back angle
requirement. This Xmg is the distance between main gear and the aircraft forward Cg just to
satisfy take-off rotation requirement as well as tip back angel requirement. In the upcoming
steps, this value must be examined again to ensure it meets the other design requirements.

102

14.9 Check the take-off rotation clearance requirement

The take-off rotation ground clearance requirement to prevent a fuselage hit as
follows:
a aTO
[14.46]
In order to determine the clearance angle (ac), two distances should be obtained: 1.
height between lowest points of the fuselage to the ground, 2. distance between the main
gears to the fuselage upsweep point. Figure 46 illustrates that the fuselage height (Hf) is
1.7m. On the other hand, from figure 46, the length between nose and the fuselage upsweep
point is 8.66m; and the distance between wing leading edge and the fuselage nose in 5m.
Thus, the distance between fuselage upsweep point and the wing leading edge is
= 8.66m
Furthermore, the distance main gear and the wing leading edge is:
Xmg-LE = Xmg fwd + 0.18
= 1.961 + (0.18 1.701)
= 2.267m

[14.47]
[14.48]

Thus, the distance between the main gear to the fuselage upsweep point (figure 48), the
fuselage is:
ac = tan-1(

= tan-1 (
= 14.89 0

[14.49]

)
[14.50]

103
0

Since the clearance angle (ac = 14.89 ) is greater than the aircraft rotation angle
0

(aTO = 12 ), the fuselage will not hit the ground during take-off operation.

14.10 WHEEL BASE:

Due to the ground controllability requirement, the nose gear must not carry
less than about 5 percent of the total load and also must not carry more than about 20
percent of the total load (e.g. aircraft weight). Thus, main gear carries about 80% to 95% of
the aircraft load. To meet this requirement, it is decided that the nose gear would carry 15%
of the total load and the main gear carries 90% of the total load. The wheel base is
determined using equation (14.51)
Fn =

[14.51]

where Fn is selected to be 10% of the weight, so:

[14.52]
where Bm is obtained previously as 1.916 m. Thus, the wheel base (B) is:
B = 6.667 1.961
= 13.07 m
[14.53]
When the Cg is at after location, the nose wheel will carry less than 15 percent of the
aircraft weight. This value for wheel base could be revising later for optimization when
examining other requirements.

14.11 WHEEL TRACK:

Three main design requirements which drive the wheel track (T) are: 1. Ground
lateral control, 2. Ground lateral stability, and 3. Structural integrity. The overturn
angle is the angle which is critical to the aircraft overturn. There are two overturn
angles (Fig. 47); in that the smaller one is considered in this technique.
The minimum allowable value for the wheel track must satisfy the overturn
angle requirements The maximum allowable value for the wheel track must satisfy
the structural integrity requirements.
In the first place, to determine the wheel track, we use the criterion of
overturning prevention. The lateral distance between each main gear to the Cg must
be greater than 25 degrees. Here, we consider 30 degrees. Fig. 49 illustrates the front

104
view of the aircraft; showing one of the main wheels relative to the aircraft Cg.

In the step 4, the height of cg from the ground was determined to be 1.7 m. Using the
traiangle shown in figure 49., the whel track is determined as follow:

[14.54]
apply Eq.(14.2) in (14.54) then we get.,
= 1.97 m

[14.55]

Now, we need to examine the overturn angle based on the top view. Fig 50 shows
the top view of the aircraft and a triangle to determine ot based on top-view.

105
In order to determine overturn angle (ot), for this aircraft, we first need to determine
the parameter Yot as shown in Fig. 50-1. This parameter is calculated by using the sine law
in the triangle ADE (Fig. 50-2) using the angle 1. However, this angle is obtained via
triangle ACF. In the triangle ABC, the side AC is the wheel base, and the side FC is a one
half of the wheel track. Thus, in triangle ACF:
[14.56]
=
= 0.07 >
= tan-1 (0.07)
= 4.290

[14.57]

The overturn angle is greater than 25 degrees, so the wheel track satisfies the rule of
thumb for overturn prevention requirement. In the later steps, ground lateral control, ground
lateral stability, and structural integrity must be examined to validate the wheel track.

14.12 Landing gear attachment

As a natural selection, the nose gear is attached to the fuselage nose. However, for the
main gear, we need to compare the fuselage diameter with the wheel track. It is observed
that the fuselage diamter (1 m) is smaller than the wheel track (31.97 m). Hence, the main
gear cannot be attached to the fuselage. Thus, main gear may be either attached directly to
the wing; or attached under the nacelle. In order to determine the best location, several
design requirements must be examined, which is beyond the scope of this example. For the
time being, it is decided to attach the landing gear to the wing. Thus, the landing gear height
will be:
HLG = 1.581m
[14.4]

106

15
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
16.1

TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE

Distance from rest to clearance of obstacle in flight path and usually considered
in two parts:
Ground roll - rest to lift-off (SLO)
Airborne distance - lift-off to specified height (35 ft FAR, 50 ft others).
The aircraft will accelerate up to lift-off speed (Vlo = about 1.2 x Vstall) when it will
then be rotated.

16.2 A first-order approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be

made from:
SLO =

[15.1]

This shows its sensitivity to W (W2) and (1/ 2 since T also varies with
). Slo may be reduced by increasing T, S or CL max (high lift devices relate to latter two). An
improved approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be made by including drag,
rolling resistance and ground effect terms.

107

[15.2]
The bracketed term will vary with speed but an approximation may be made
by using an instantaneous value for when V = 0.7 x Vlo.

In the above equation:

[15.3]
Where h = height above ground, b = wing span.
r = 0.02 for smooth paved surface, 0.1 for grass.
= 0.861315

[15.4]

16.3 TAKE OF RUNWAY DISTANCE

[15.5]
SLo =

= 1007.46 m

[15.6]

16.4 CLIMBING
Increasing the power by advancing the throttle produces a marked difference in
the rate of climb. Climb depends upon the reserve power or thrust. Reserve power is the
available power over and above that required to maintain horizontal flight at a given speed.
Thus, if an airplane is equipped with an engine which produces 200 total available
horsepower and the airplane requires only 130 horsepower at a certain level flight speed, the
power available for climb is 70 horsepower.

108
Although we sometimes use the terms "power" and "thrust" interchangeably,
erroneously implying that they are synonymous, it is well to distinguish between the two
when discussing climb performance. Work is the product of a force moving through a
distance and is usually independent of time. Work is measured by several standards; the
most common unit is called a "foot-pound." If a 1 pound mass is raised 1 foot, a work unit
of 1 foot-pound has been performed. The common unit of mechanical power is horsepower;
one horsepower is work equivalent to lifting 33,000 pounds a vertical distance of 1 foot in 1
minute. The term "power," implies work rate or units of work per unit of time, and as such
is a function of the speed at which the force is developed. "Thrust," also a function of work,
means the force which imparts a change in the velocity of a mass. This force is measured in
pounds but has no element of time or rate. It can be said then, that during a steady climb,
the rate of climb is a function of excess thrust.

When the airplane is in steady level flight or with a slight angle of climb, the
vertical component of lift is very nearly the same as the actual total lift. Such climbing
flight would exist with the lift very nearly equal to the weight. The net thrust of the power
plant may be inclined relative to the flight path but this effect will be neglected here for the
sake of simplicity. Although the weight of the airplane acts vertically, a component of
weight will act rearward along the flight path (Fig.52).
If it is assumed that the airplane is in a steady climb with essentially a small
inclination of the flight path, the summation of forces along the flight path resolves to the
following:
Forces forward = Forces after

109
The basic relationship neglects some of the factors which may be of importance
for airplanes of very high climb performance. (For example, a more detailed consideration
would account for the inclination of thrust from the flight path, lift not being equal to
weight, a subsequent change of induced drag, etc.) However this basic relationship will
define the principal factors affecting climb performance.
This relationship means that, for a given weight of the airplane, the angle of climb
depends on the difference between thrust and drag, or the excess thrust (Fig.53). Of course,
when the excess thrust is zero, the inclination of the flight path is zero and the airplane will
be in steady, level flight. When the thrust is greater than the drag, the excess thrust will
allow a climb angle depending on the value of excess thrust. On the other hand, when the
thrust is less than the drag, the deficiency of thrust will allow an angle of descent.

16.5 RATE OF CLIMB

Rate of climb = [ TV stall D V stall ]

[15.7]

= [ (32103) (59.027) ] [ 2996.301 59.027 ]

=13.634 KN
Sin C =

= -0.0744
C = 1.298 10-3 m/s

16.6 MANOEUVRES / TURNING

[15.8]
[15.9]
[15.10]

110
An aircraft is capable of performing many different types of turns and
manoeuvres.
Three of the more common turns will be considered here in simplistic terms:
Constant altitude banked turn.
Vertical pull-up manoeuvre.
Vertical pull-down manoeuvre.
In the case of a commercial transport aircraft, it is capable of performing
only a constant altitude banked turn and not any vertical pull-up or pull-down manoeuvre.

16.7 CONSTANT ALTITUDE BANKED TURN

In steady condition:
T=D

Force balance gives:

W = mg = Lcos
Fr = MV2/r = Lsin
tan = V2/(Rg)

So for given speed and turn radius there is only one correct bank angle for a coordinate (no sideslip) turn. Maneuverability equations simplified through use of normal
load factor (n) = L/W. In the turn, n = L/W = sec > 1 and is therefore determined by bank
angle. Turn radius (R) and turn rate () are good indicators of aircraft maneuverability.
W = L cos

[15.11]

W = 189309.97 cos (30)

W = 163947.24

[15.12]

n=

[15.13]

let, = 300

apply (16.12) in (16.13)

n=

= 1.1547

[15.14]

111
RT =

[15.15]

Turn Radius, RT = 9844.33 m

16.8 GLIDING
Similar to the steady unaccelerated case but with T = 0.

Force balance gives:

= tan -1

[15.16]

= tan -1 [ ]
= 4.230

[15.17]

112

16.9 LANDING PERFORMANCE

APPROACH & LANDING
Consists of three phases:
Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 3o) and constant speed.
Flare - transitional manoeuvre with airspeed reduced from about 1.3 Vstall down to
touch-down speed.
Ground roll - from touch-down to rest.
Ground roll landing distance (s3 or sl) estimated from:

[15.18]
Where, Vav may be taken as 0.7 x touch-down speed (Vt or V2) and Vt is assumed as 1.3 x
Vstall.
r is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied use r = 0.4 for paved
surface.
If thrust reversers (Tr) are applied, use:
Landing Runway distance = 710.3 m

[15.19]

113

VYMANAAS SV3

114

115

CONCLUSION:
After all analysis and design the first part of the aircraft design project has came for
landing. The result of the output specifications tells about features, advantages,
disadvantages, future requirements and all amenities in and about the aircraft.
The overview of the SHORT RANGE BUSINESS JET aircraft are very need-ofhour for today corporate and entrepreneurs who are travelling across trans-continent and
domestically with less span of time with hassle-free.
The main advantage of this class aircraft is pacifying from commercial jet operators,
less-operating cost and fuel consumption, less purchase cost and least time of total travel
time enveloped. Since it takes fraction of kilometer for landing it can operate at any airport
rather large aircraft whose need mile and more run for take-off. To fly a light business jet
just PPL is sufficient so pay scale for the pilot will be low compare to passenger jets.
And always there will be existence of negative if present of positive. Those
disadvantages are it cannot fly inter-continental. Since it design for short range.
The specifications of the designed aircraft as follows:
S.No

DESIGN PARAMETER

MAGNITUDE

UNIT

1.

Cruising speed

850

Kph

2.

Wing span

12.84

3.

Aircraft Length

19.5

4.

Wing area

21.84

m2

5.

Height

4.8

6.

Aspect ratio

7.55

(No unit)

7.

Wing loading

585.89

Kg/m2

8.

Empty weight

7296

Kg

9.

Maximum take-off weight

12800

Kg

116
10.

Pay load

1280

kg

11.

No. of engines

(No unit)

12.

Thrust power

32.00

kN

13.

Range

5200

km

14.

Service ceiling

13700

15.

Mach no.

0.715

(No unit)

16.

Thrust/weight ratio

0.25

(No unit)

17.

Gliding angle

4.23

18.

Seating capacity

(No unit)

19.

Fuselage

10.54

20.

Take-off distance

1007.46

21.

Landing distance

710.3

22.

Rate of climb

1.298 10-3

m/s

Design is a fine blend of science, creativity, presence of mind and the application of
each one of them at the appropriate time. Design of anything needs experience and an
optimistic progress towards the ideal system. The scientific society always looks for the
best product design. This involves the strong fundamentals in science and mathematics and
their skilful applications, which is a tough job endowed upon the design. We have enough
hard work for this design project. A design never gets completed in a flutter sense but it is
one step further towards ideal system. But during the design of this aircraft, we learnt a lot
about aeronautics and its implications when applied to an aircraft design.

117

FUTURE WORK
In Future project work, in the AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-II will
consist of following work to develop and complete a Perfect Aircraft by the way
of Structural Analysis:

1. V-n diagram for the design study

2. Gust and maneuverability envelopes
3. Critical loading performance and final V-n graph calculation
4. Structural design study Theory approach
5. Load estimation of wings
6. Load estimation of fuselage.
7. Balancing and Maneuvering loads on tail plane, Aileron and Rudder loads.
8. Detailed structural layouts
9. Design of some components of wings, fuselage
10. Preparation of a detailed design report with drawings.

118

BIBLIOGRAPHY
i. Lloyd R. Jenkinson and James F.Marchman III., Aircraft Design project,
Butterworth-Heinemann., Burlington, 2003.
ii. Anderson, John D., Jr:Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw-Hill, Boston,
1999.
iii. Jenkinson, L.R., Page., G.J.,Marchmann, J.F., A model for international teaming in
aircraft design education, Journal of Aircraft Design, vol 3, No.4, Elsevier,
December 2000.
iv. Janes, All the worlds Aircraft 2004-2005, Janes Information group limited.,
2004.
v. Daniel P.Raymer, Aircraft Design: A conceptual Design, American institute of
aeronautics and astronautics, Washington.D.C, 1989.
vi. Norman S. Currey, Aircraft Landing gear: Principle and Practices, American
institute of aeronautics and astronautics, Washington.D.C, 1988.
vii. Ira h. Abbott, Albert e. Von Doenhoff,and Louis S. Stivers, Jr,Summary of Airfoil
Data, National advisory committee for aeronautics, 1947.
viii. John T.Lowry., Performance of Light Aircraft, American institute of aeronautics
and astronautics, Washington.D.C, 1935.
ix. Dr.lng.S.F.Hoerner,Fluid Dynamic Drag,Hoerner fluid dynamics., 1992.
x. J.B. Russell, Performance and Stability of Aircraft. ISBN 0-340-63170-8. Arnold
1996.
xi. Mark D. Ardema, Mark C. Chambers, Anthony P. Patron, Andrew S. Hahn, Hirokazu
Miura, and Mark D. Moore, Analytical Fuselage and Wing Weight Estimation of
Transport Aircraft,1996.

119

WEBSITE REFERENCES
i. www.faculty.dwc.edu
ii. http://www.worldofkrauss.com/
iii. http://www.businessjet.com/aircraft-data/
iv. http://www.wkap.nl/natopco/pco_aga.htm
v. http://www.arnoldpublishers.com/aerodata/appendices/data
vi. http://www.aiaa.org/
vii. http://www.arnoldpublishers.com/aerodata/appendices/data
viii. http://www.utsi.edu/Academic/graduate.html
ix. http://www.honeywell.com/sites/portal?smap=aerospace&page=Turb
ofan-Products&theme=T6
x.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

xi. http://adg.stanford.edu/aa241/wingdesign/wingparams.html
xii. http://www.airliners.net/aviationforums/tech_ops/read.main/147672/