CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ‘Water is the most abundant substance on art, the principal consent of al Hing things. and & igjor force constantly shaping the susface of the earth is aot ke factor in a-conitonng the eth for human existence and in infuenc ing the progress of evlization, Hydology, sich teas all phases of the earths tater, ina subject of great imponance for people and their envionment. Practical ‘plications of hydrology are found in such tsks as the design and operation of porate rctures, water supply, wasewaterieatmet and disposal gatn. ddainage, hydropower generation, load con, ravigaton erosion and sediment ‘etl, slinky cont, pou abatement seceational use of wate, and sh fd wildlife protection, The role of sopled hydrology to help analyze the roblems involved in these tasks and To provide guidance forthe planning and management of water resoures. “Te hydrosiens de wih the waters ofthe earthy thee distibution and ‘Steulatin, their physical and chemical properties, and ter iteraction with the fsironment, including inlerastion wi ving things and, in particular human brings: Hydrology may be considered to encompass all the hydroscienees, oF Aefined mre stress the ud of the hydrtogic evel, that, the endless ‘ieulation of water ketweon the earth and its atmosphere, Hydrologic nowledae ‘sapplied to the use and onto of water esouees nthe Land areas of the eat ‘ean Waters ae the Joma of ocean engineering andthe masine seinees ‘Changes inthe distbution, circulation, of emperature ofthe ear’ waters ‘an have fareaching effects thei as, fr asance, were 4 manifestation of Such effect. Changes may be caused by human activities. People il the si imigate cop, fertize land, clear forests. pump aroundvater, bud dams, dum wastes into rivers and lakes, and do many othe constructive or Gestveve things that affect he sicustion and quality of Water io nature2 ammo nciacy 1.1 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE ‘Watcr‘on cath exists in spce call the hydospbere which extends about 1S km up sno the atmosphere and about 1 km down ito the lithosphere the out ofthe earth, Water ees inthe hydeospere though the maze of paths ‘onsiuing the hydlogic exe "The Rydrologi cycle the central feus of hydrology. The eyele has no tog ond and its may process occur continously. As sown scemat- Fell in Fig [.L, water evaporates from the oceans and the land surface to ‘ovum pat of the atmosphere; water vapor is wanspeted and lifted in the atmo: {pree unt itcondenses and precipitates onthe land or the oceans; precipitated Pier may be inereeped by segetation, become overland flow over the ground Thnfao,inirte tnt the round, flow trough the soi s subsuace lm. and Ulacharge in streams as surface rio. Much of the intercepted water and sue {fee ruoftrevuns tothe atmosphere through evaporation. The inflated water nay percolate deeper to recharge groundwater, Inter emerging in springs oseep- ing into steams to form siface runoff, and finaly lowing out to the sea or reporting int te atmosphere asthe hydrologic cycle continses stimatng the al amount of water on he ear and inthe various processes ofthe hydrologic eye has been atopic of scietiic exploration since the second halo the nineteenth entry. However. quantitative data are scare, pariuarly fver the oceans, ad so the amounts of Water inthe various components of the loa hydrologic cycle ae stil pot known precisely “Tble [list estimated quantities of water in various forms onthe ath, [About 96.5 perce of all the earth's waters inthe oceans. Ifthe earth were & tnform sphere, this quantity would be sufficient to cover it toa depth of about 2ekm (6 mi) Othe rensnder, 1.7 percent is in the polar ie, 1.7 percent in ‘groundwater and ony 0.1 ponent i he surface and atmosphere water systems ‘The atmosphere watce system, the driving fre of surface water hydrology. Contains only 12.900 kn of water, oF less than one part in 100,000 of all the cons water (OF the art's fresh water, about two-thieds is plar ie and most of the remainder is grounder going dosent 4 depth of 200 co 600m, Most ground- ‘voce i saline below this depth, Only 0.006 percent of fesh wer i contained Inivers Biologie water, fed inthe tissues of plats and animals, makes up hoot 0.003 percent ofall fresh water, equivalent to half the volume contained ‘Although the water content of the surface and atmospheric water ystems is relatively smal at any given moment, immense quantities of water annually pass ftough them, The global annual waterbalance i shown in Table 1.1.2; Fig. 11-1 Shows the major components in unis yelave to an annual land precptation Nelume of 100, Irean be seen that evaporation from the land surface consumes {61 percent ofthis precipitation, the remaining 39 percent forming runof tthe ‘eeans, mol at srface wate, Evaporation from tbe cccans comets nerly 50 percent of atmospheric moisture. Analysis of the Now ad storage of water in the plobal water balance provides some insight tothe dynamics ofthe hyologic ete ate 0 10 fr et of resp a Hye cle wih ta4 sorueowvraciocy ormoucnon 5 Gibbet annual water balance ‘ramue at Elna wort water quantities tem eee Votane Rewntal reat of Ger) tim ‘ace fk mater Ones wid vasa 96S et nus ws00m 07M Sle ms ramon 093 sai Moise 20 16st 002s Prarice 60 ons 7 6 Ober iemadmow 03 Mow oust eh 12 vom 0900026 Mantes a nam ome 08 Rex vas aim acer 0008 Amos wier 100 a0 oe Tat eat sio0 Latssst610 100 Fe wae sae soma 3s Example 1.1, Eninte he residence tne of pba smosphere mise. Solution. The resence time, is the average duration fora water mole © pst tug 4 ebeystm ofthe yolk eel by dividing the Soltme of water Sia rage y the fw rte 2 ou “Te volume of amosphi mntore (abe 11.1) 12.900 kn, Th flow ete of Iisur fom he atmosphere as pscpitation Cable 1.12) 6 458,000 + 119.000, T7000 key, so he average esdence tine fr ose in he amore Jer 2 12.901577,000 = 0.023 yr = 8.2 dys, The very shor inert fee ics Inte ampere ce fenton Why weather canna be Fest fccuraly ore han tf ay send, Reskeace tines fr oer components of The hytlope eee ae sll competed. These values ar averages of uanes "ta ay ea coir Spt! aon, Although the concep ofthe hydologiceyceis simple, the phenomenon is or ‘ously complex and ints. Isnt atone large ele but raters compose ‘of ray inerelated cycles of continent, regional. and local extent. Although fhe foal volume of water inthe plobal hydrologic cycle remaits essentially Ta Pesos a) ‘ue. constant, the distribution of this water is continslly changing on continents in region, and within local drainage basis "The hydrology of a region is determined by its weather paterns and by physical factors such as topography. gsology and vegetation. Also, x civilian. ion progresses, human activities gradually enerosch on the mstural Water env- fone, altering the éymamic equilibrium of the hyerologc cycle and intating row procescs and events, For example, it has been theonzed that because of fhe burning of fossil fuel, the amount of carbon dioxde in the atmosphere is Increasing. This could result i a Warming of the ear and have far-reaching effets on plobal hydrology. 1.2. SYSTEMS CONCEPT Hyérlogie phenomena are extremely complex, and may never be fully under ond. Honever, inthe absence of perfect knowledge, they may be represented ins simplified way by means ofthe systems concept. A system is set of connected parts that frm a whole, The hydrologic cycle may be weated as 8 System whose components ae precipitation, evaporation, euno, and eter phases ofthe hydrologic eyle. These components ean be grouped to subsystems of the overall cycle; to analyze the total system, the simpler subsystems ean be tated separately andthe resus combined according to the interactions between the subsystems Tm Fig 1.21, the global hydrologic eyele i represented asa system. The dashed lines divide int the stbsstems: the comospheric water sen conti= Inge processes of precipitation, evaporation, itercepion ad vanspration: the snrace water system containing the proseses of overland flow, surface ean Sbwurface nd groundwater oulow, and runoff to steams and the ocean aid6 somsonraasoy the subsurfce water stem contining te processes of inflaton, groundwater nace Hw and pounder fo. SbsirTace flow takes ple In ‘BEMIS are land face, goundwater ow occurs expe in the sl or eck Hc mst pata! problems, oly afew processes ofthe hyologi eysle are conte ta tine andthe oly cosierng a sal poson of te art's iiace A more rested system definition thn he global hydrolgie jsem “Spopiae for ouch testes, and is developed fo a concept of the contol ame ta Mud mechan, be applietion of the bate pricipls of mab, roar, an ery toa li ow sytem i accomplished by sing acon ‘rita ference fae drawn in tre dimensions though which the id apertin pomeouerios 7 tows. The contol volume provides the framework for applying the ws of Comervaton of miss and energy and Newon’s second aw to obtain practical ‘Guatons of motion. In developing these equations, iis not necessary to know the precise ow patter ise the control volume. What must he kon are the propane ofthe uid low at the conpel surface. tke Boundary of the contol olume, The flsid inside the contol volumes Weated as a mass, which may te represented as boing concentrated atone point in space when considering the ction of enteral foes such as savy. ‘By analogy, a hydrologic system Ws defined as @ srucure or volume in space, surrounded by a Boundary, tha acepts water and other inputs. operates on them internally, and produces thom as ouput (Fig. 1.2.2). The stuctre (oe ‘race o subsurface flow) or vlume in space (Tor atmospheric moistre flow) is the totality ofthe lw pas through which he water may pas as rough fom the print enters the system to the point it leaves. The boundary i a cominus surface defined in thee dimensions enclosing the volume or statue, A working ‘medion eoters the stern a5 spt, interacts withthe suctuye and other meds fnd leaves as ouput. Phsial, chemical, and biological processes operate onthe working media within the system; the most common working media iovlved in Iydrologie analysis ate Water, ai, and eat energy. The procedute of developing working equations and models of hydrologic phenomena is similar to thal in fd mechanics. In hydrology, however, there is [ener greater degree of approximation in applying physica laws because the fystens ae larger and more complex, and may involve several working media Also, most hycrlogic stems ate ihren random because their major input is precipitation, «highly variable and unpredictable plenomenon. Consequently Static analysis pays a large role in hydrologic ably Example 12.1, Represent the storm rainlanl proces ge a Waleed 3 3 yogic tem Solution. verse se az of end iin it seas ta given ton, The wacked dvd ine dvidng land whose dtnage flows tude sven ‘tea from lund howe digg ows wy fom hatstea, These boundary isdrawn oud he waersbed by pojcting he watesbed dive verily pets ‘nd dowavarde to horizontal pubes ate top and boom (Fig. 123). Rafal ithe in, dibuedin space over the wpper pane: seamflow Is he ope, ‘Soncentatd in space atthe watened ter. Erapraon a sfc rw could Sloe considered ouput, tt they ate sl compared wit steamon sing {Som The strstr of he ptm thee of ow pte ove or ong he =o Sd includes the eibwary seams which evenly merge to Bene seaniow the watered alt tant Opener]_om cn e afb —syuemtantay 1 I — eT HIGERE 123 ‘he wed a a hyloge sem, 1 ine surface and soi of a watened ae examine in gest eta, the no ter of pole flow path becomes enormous. Along any path the shape, slope, hd boundary rougnness may be changing continuously from plae to place and these factors may also vay in time ab the soil becomes wet. Also, precipitation "aries randomly in pace and ime. Bocause of hese reat complication, is pot prsible to describe some hydrologic processes with exact physi laws. By using the system concept effort idreted 1 the constuction ofa model eating inputs tnd outputs her than tothe extemsy iffical sk of exact representation of ihe system details, which ay_aot be significant from a practi point of view brmay not be kown, Nevertheless, knowledge ofthe plysical system helps in fleveloping good model and verifying its accuracy 1.3 HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM MODEL De bie of nd at a way te stem etn In ped is out, A hysologe sytem model an approximation of he Sl sym: nus and outputs ae mesible yogi vals sd it Suc vast fests inking the inputs and ous. Cenal othe sel Seti tin conep of x nse ronformaron atthe inp and ouput be egress factions of time, 1) and OO sespectelorbelonging fo the te range ndercnieraton, The 5 peor anemone pio the ott epson by 20) = a0) aan which is called the transformation equation of the sytem. The symbol £8 a Transfer jancton between the put std he outpt. If this relationship can be ex- pressed by an algebraic equation, then fs an algebraic operates. For example. it mover 9 om= cro 132) ‘where C is «constant, then the wansfr funtion isthe operator =20 can) Ifthe tansormation is described by a diferent equation, thn the unasfor function serves a diferent operator. For example, linear reversr has ts soage § related 19 its outflow Q by s=ho aaa) ‘uber Kis constant having th dimensions of time. By continuity, the ime ate GF change of storage ie ¥s equal to the difeence Between the input in the ‘tpt asa) “ # <1 a0 «as, limiting between the two egutons and earnging “0 2 so = 10 a 2 +a =10 36) 20 Ho) 7 3B won where D is the diferetat operat dl. the transformation equation hasbeen {termined and can be solved, it yes the output as function of the input Equation (13.7) describes a linear sjstem if isa constant I isa function the inp or the output Q then (1.3.7) describes a nonlinear system which i ‘much move diel fo sve 1.4 HYDROLOGIC MODEL CLASSIFICATION Hydrologic models may be divided imo two categories: physical models and ahract dels. Physical mols nee scale models which represent the stem tm a reduced scale soch a a hydraulic model of @ dam spillway, and. analog Imodels, which wse another physical system having properties similar thse of the proitype. For example, the Hele-Shaw model i an analog model that uses the movement ofa viscous Muid Between two closely spaced parallel plas #0 ‘model seepage in an aquifer or embankment. ‘Abstact models feprescat the system in mathemascal form. The stem ‘operation i described bY a set of equations inking the input and the output ‘ariable, These variables may be funtion: of space and time, and tey may aso be protic or random variables which dont haves Gxed valve ts particularpoint in space nd ime bat instead ae described by probability disebutons. For Example tomorrow's riinfall at a partcur lation cannot be forecast exactly but the probability tat thee wil e some ran can be estimated. The most general representation of such variables is 7andom field, a rexion of space and time ‘eae which the value of a variable at each point is defined by 2 probably Uistbution (Vanmarcke, 1983). For example, the precipitation inensity in & ‘thunderstorm ares rapily in Sime, and rom one lotion to another, an cannot tne predicted accurately, s0 ts resonable to represent it bya random field “Teing to develop a model with rndom variables that depend on al thee space dimensions and tine a formidable task. and for most practical purposes Pin necewary to simplify the model by neglecting some sources of variation, Hdlogic models may he classified by the ways in which this simpiieation i ccomplished. Three hese decisions to be made fora model ae: Wil the mode! ‘arales be random or not? Will they vary or be uniform in space? Will they Vary or be constant in ie? The model may be Keated in a "tee according These choices, a6 shown in Fig. 14.1 [deterministic node does nok consider randomness; given input always preuces the same ouput, A stochstc model has outpts that are at east pat= any random One might say that deterministic medls make forecast while “Mochastie models make predictions, Although all hyrologie phenomena involve Sone randomness the wesiting variability im the orput maybe quit small when ‘mare tothe vaiblity resulting from known factors. In sch cases, a detr- ‘numiic models apprepiate. the random variation large, stochastic moe ‘Rote suitable, beeane the actual outpat could be quite efferent fom the sin- be vale a dterminse model would produce. For example reasonably 300d Eiermimitic models of daily evaporation a «given Tocaon can he developed tong energy supply and vapor tanspert daa, Dut such data cannot be wsed 10 Shake rehab meds of daily pecptation a that location Because prespitation largely random. Consequently, most daily precipitation models ae stochastic FA he midi evel f the tee in Fig. 14-1, the treatment of spatial varia tion i deeded. Hydrologic phenomena vary inal thee space dimensions, but pic accountng for all ofthis Variation may make the model too cumber- Same for provticl application, Ip a deterministic lumped mode, the system is “fatally averaged, or purge a singe poin in space without dimensions, For ceatple, many models ofthe ranfll-rgof process shown in Fig. 1.2.3 treat the frectaion input as uniform over the watershed and jgnore the ineral spatial Tariton of watershed low. In contrast, a deterministic dvributed model con- {ides the hydrologic poceses taking place a Various points space and defies the adel variables as fonetions ofthe space dimensions. Stochastic models ae ‘asi! as space independent or spacecoecatd according 10 wheter oF pot fandom sariables a diferent points Im space inflence each oct "A the thd evel ofthe ee, tne variability s considered. Deterministic models are classified a stendlow (he How rate not changing with time) or Timea fiom models Stochastic models aways have ouput th are variable fa'tine They may be classifieds ieindependent ov tine-correlted &tine= —e Hmtoes tee, ee) piers iy yop ees, a12. sero momc0y Independent nods represents a sequence of hyolopi events that do pot nye oe cach ote while tme-coreated model represents a sequence in wich fhe net event partly infoence by the current one and possibly by others in the sequence “At yiologte models a approximations of reality, so the output ofthe ‘actual ste can never be foresast wih certainty; likewise, hydrologic phenon- ‘au'vary nal thre space dimensions, and in time, but the smaltaneous consi SRaor al five sours of variation (andomness thre space dimensions, and {ine has been accomplished for only a few idealized eases. A practical mods! ually consider only ane or tvo sours of variation. (Orth sige posible hydlogic model types shown along the bottom tine of Fig. 11 four are considered in detain this bok. In Fig 1.4.2, a section of eer chanvel is used to lusate these four ese and the diferences between ‘he On height ofthe figure a spacestine domain in which space or distance long the channel, i shown o the horizontal axis an tine on the vertical axis foreach ofthe Tour eases. “The sinplest case. fa; i &dsteministic lumped stetdyflow model. The inflow nad cuow areca andconstnt in ne, a sown by the equally sized tine othe Ince at x= 0 and = L. Many of te equations nthe fist six chapters htt book are of this type 668 Ex. 1-11, for example). The next case, (0) is sees atc Ianpedunstedy-low roel, The inflow 1() and oulow te are Sotralowed ovary atime, as shown bythe varying sized dasa =O and. ‘Rumped madel docs no iluinat the variation in space beween the ends of the chtanel section soo dots are shown thee, The lumped model representation reeed in Chaps and 8 to describe the conversion of orm anal into sunoft vedas postage ofthe resulting flow trough reservoirs and rive channels, The thd ca oe iva detemninistcdatbuted uasteady-flow model; hee, vanation cpa che apace ais lo shown and ths flow te caleuTated for mesh of pints ice aud time, Chaps 9 and 10 use this method to obtain more acorate vmokl of chanel flow than possible with a lumped model. Faally, in case {Uh randormess i inroduce, The sysem ouput is shown not 3s a sngle-valued GG. ue asa distibuton asigning a probably of occurence o each possible silue of the sable. Tis is sochusc spae-independet time-independent ‘MeL where the probability citrbuton isthe sare a very point inthe space- {ine plane and values atone pint do pot influence vals elsewhere, This 1° (frmodelisused in Chaps. hand 12 «describe extreme hydrologic events sch SS annual mans rnflls and Hoods. Inthe last thee chapters 131015. the ihalels developed using these methods are employed for hydologie det. 1.8. THE DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY ‘The science of hydrology began with the concept ofthe hydrologic eye, From Grcknt tines, many hive speculated about the cteulaion of water ielading {he poet Hore (about 1000'3.¢), and philosophers Thales, Plat, and Arstole Me Getic: Lucretius, Seneca Pliny in Rome: and many medieval schol- wie. Much of tis speculation was scienicaly unsound: however, the Greek wmccacron 13 se a wo (0) eit din ama. ma ° ‘met ~~ o 1s) Seok cinder ieee el ‘betes Sire msi oh nes maps ot Do, ‘Senge ow ad tor wi ie og nn tv ier 0 aa ‘recat Frte ane yn ef epee oy Gta ‘Mion civ t= Lt he el nen pe.14 supsnentecr plilosopher Anexagors of Clazomense (500-428 sc) formed. primitive version Of the hydrologic eycle. He believed thatthe sun ied wate from the sea into {he atmowphers, fom hich it fell smn, and that rainwater was then collected in underground servos, which fed the iver flows, An improvement of this theory was made by another Grek philosopher, Theophrastus (€. 372-287 a), ‘who comectly described the hydrologic cle in she atmosphere; he gave a sound Explanation ofthe formation of precipitation by condensation and freezing. After ‘Sling the works of Theophrastus, the Roman architect apd engineer Marcus Vitravigs, who lived about the time of Christ, conceived the theory that is how penerally accepted: he extended Theophrastus’ explanation, claiming that [roundwater was largely derived from ain abd saow trough inflaton from the round surface This nay Be consigered forerunner of the modem version of the hydologie cyte ‘ndepenien thinking occured in ancient Asian civilizations (UNESCO, 1974). The Chinese recorded observations of ain, set, snow, and wind on An Jang oracle bones as early a 1200 2. They probably used rain gages around OOD ne, and established systematic rain gaging about 20 ac. In Indi, the fist, quanctaive measurements of rafal date back tothe later part of the fourth Coury 8.0 The concept ofa dyeamic hydrologic eyle may have arisen in China by 300 win india by 400 mc," and in Pria by the tenth century,” bat these ideas had ile impact on Wester thought. uring the Renaissance, a gradal change occurred from purely pilosop ical concepts of hyérology toward observational scence, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) made the fit systematic studies of velocity dstibuion in steams, Using a weighed rod held afloat by an iflted anmal Bader. The rod would te released at point inthe team, and Leonardo would walk afong the bank ‘atking its progress with an odometer (Fig. 1.51) and judging the difference ‘etween the surface and bottom velocities by the angle of the rod. By releasing the vod at ferent points inthe steams cross section, Leonardo traced the Sits gear cts ft at co SEDARIS GNSS Gy enann teomm tees SEEN rath oe ta l Test vis ened vey dri st ce sony spn eprint effete hm ew hn pel sy ae Yelocity distribution across the channel. According to Frazier (1974), the 8000 xisting pages of Leonardo's noes contain move enties concerning hydraulics than about any oer subject. Concerning the velocity dstibution in seams, he wrote, “OF water of uniform weight, depth, breadth and declivty slope}, tha Porton is swifter which Is nearest tothe surface; and tls occurs because the Water that is uppermost is contiguous to the ai, which offers but lise resistance Through is being lighter than water, the water tht is blow is contiguous tothe Sarin which offers grea esstance tough being immovable spd heave than Wate (MacCurdy, 1939). Por to Leonardo, was thot that water lowed Imore rapidly a the boom ofa seam, Deease if two holes were pared in 3 Wall holding tack a boy of water. the flow from the Tower hole was more pid thas the ow from the upper one The French Huguenot scientist Berard Palissy (1510-1549) showed that vers and springs originate fom rainfall, thus refuting an age-old theory that fcsams wore spp sty hy the sex. The Pench nati Pee Feat 8-160) measured rune’ and found it 10 be only fraction of rif16 sen arontsor He recognized that rainfall isa source for runoff and comectty concluded that the remainder of the precipitation was lot by tanspiraion, evaporation, and iverson. "Hydaulc measurements and experiments Nowrised during the cigmeenh century, New hydrauls principles were discovered suchas the Bernoulli equa Gon and Chezy's formula, and better instruments were developed, including the tipping tucket rain gage and the carent mete. Hydrology advanced more {api during the nineteenth centry. Dalton established principle for evapora (1802) the theory of capiliary flow was described by the Hagen-Poiseile ‘Susion (1839), ahd the rational method fo determining peak flood flows was ‘proposed by Mulvaney (850). Darcy developed his law of porous media flow [TisSe), Rippl preset his diagram for determining storage requirements (1883), he Manning proposed his opetchannel flow formala (1891), However, quantitative hydelogy was sill immature atthe beginning of the awentetn century. Empiial approaches were employed to solve practical huoloical pesblems. Gradually hydrologist replaced empiricism with rational Tatynn of observed data, Green and Am (1911) developed a phsialy based ‘model foe iftration, Hazen (1914) insoduced frequency analysis of food peaks fn water storage requirements, Richards (1931) derived the governing equation {or unsaturaed flow, Sherman devised the unt byérograph method 1 tansform cece rafal t Sirect runoff (1932), Horton develope inflation theony (1983) and-a description of drsinage basin frm (1945), Gumbel proposed the ttre val lw for hydrolgie studies (1941), and Hurst (1951) denonstatc that hydrologic observations may exhibit sequences of low or high valves that pest over many yeas “Like many sciences, hydrology was eecognized only cently a8 separate discipline. Abou 1965, the United Stats Civil Service Commision recognized hydrolgist a a jo clasfetion. The "hydrolony series” of positions in the {Commision ist of oscupatons wat desribed as follows “This ste ins profes sini postions that havea heir abjesive be Sy of he imeltonship and reson between water and its environment The Ryle cle, Thee ostions hve the nts of nest, smal tu incrprciion of he plenomens of eecurece ccuaton, dsbtion, a Gqaliy of wale inthe Eats mop, om the Ears sufce, and in Oe ‘Ti at yuk sat. Sach work equ #be api of tai princes dawn fom od supped by elds sachs terlog,gsokg, so sleet, pnt pyslgy, Mdm, an higher nutbemais. “Tne advent ofthe computer revolutionized hydrology and made hydologic ana {his pone on larger sete. Complex theories describing hydrologic processes {Ee now applied using computer simolations, and vast quam of observed data ‘Ee reduced to summary sists for beter underaanding of hydrologic phenom ‘a and for establishing hydrologic design levels. More ecely, developments in ‘ectonie and data fansnisson have made possible instntancous data retrieval from emote recorders an the developnant of elt” programs for foes {ng Moods and other water operations. Microcomputers and ypreadshet programs vsonero 17 ow provide many hydrologiss with new computations conveniene and power ‘The evolution of hydrologic knowledge and methods brings about comtintal ‘improvement in he scope and accuracy of solutions 1o hydrologic problems. Hydrologic problems dic fect the fe and activities of large munbers ‘of people. An element of rik i alvays preset — a more exteme event than fnyhisorcally known can occ at ny time, A coresponding responsibility rests pan the hyWoloist to provide the est analysis that Knowledge and dail permit. REFERENCES Da, pint se hess fhe sh so a pe ‘Scape Po Hn EP Sp ay, Hy, os ie de ie de Do, VD, Pai, 188 RFS A.W Mace cent ects Snatch d Rhkegy v0. 28, ‘eons inauon Pe, Wagon, DL. 198 Ce, gS Fr 8p ce Rows An ta Su, a1, m2, HIE, a Gi Ue ecg Wy ene ct Rate, rs acta ie nd arn x wer py, as Moms hei fr he ps Ok, PA, Ci ‘osanitatve map ul. Gt Som, wo 36 9p. 77-90, 18. a, Hinge poy esi CB a Macc, ETE Nooo of onand Vin, Rey nd Hick, New Ya, Maing R One fw of wri pen chm pipe at a Ci a, if al ol i stress en cara iar Cay sonny reg pros een, Pcs A Ja of Cte i Nan Pye Se, Name Mn. pl, Wy Cap sage in wae sy Mia of Paced, ion Sher. eS only erp eb, Ee, Nws Rec 10 UNESCO, Cian whe Selpment of he eset of he Hy yl, Se. Usk ate Goon be cn Hypo De, Wt we aco agi sain de ora Wanna Ron Pl: Ans and Sythe, MIT Pr, Cambie, Mas. 198BIBLIOGRAPHY Gm, VT. (Hand of Ap py, Mee, New Yr, 1864 Eels, FS Byam aon, MecGrH New Yr, 170 Gra ob, Dpto Hy. Water torment, Sr, N.Y, 170 Fee! ented 1 Candy: Holy for npn? ant Pleo Se Lines RM A Rete en) LH, Rabu, td Bgnes, MG, Now einer 0: Ee) Holy Phys 9 te Ea Sto, vl IX, eG Hl, New Ys sein Piero, pane, Ox, 17 SNES hat nce, eo Nos Re (K), Wigan, Ela 9 man fee. Ke, ee Lewd TE Meth ron yt. Hyde unger. A tad E ech. The Word Wate aac, ra by Rae Eee Scie ‘anshing Compry, 195 choy, Wr Ts Hyaoge oe, i Engel Boma, 198 e, Mao 8 Lowi By orl iar Rue od he Fae, Ma PM Maso, 1974 ase TRU, Nae, Aman Gaya Une, aig, D193 deta hsoey eas, A. K His of ole, None Publish Compu, Asem, 170 (Chom Es eke gp. -22 8 Mao 9 Aid Mon. by 7 eh, Mei Hi New er 86 ase, Han ics Py, lava eae of Hyde Resch, Unveiy o Iowa owe iy lown, 157 Hydrol system Cat, Doc Yn Sen: rte wi ny Ain, Pa Tiago i puariels Done, €1 Te ydlope ele bw hed syste, TA Bal, vo 1a, 1p SS, in El Sen enon, Wey, Nw Yh 17, ERTS: Ramen Sere Hoe Now ek 7 sun ea: apd Maden fH Tne ery, Wa Recs Paton, PROBLEMS. 1. Asuting ht al the water nthe scene i avlied in he hydologi ee, {sae the average reine ine of ocean Sater. 1.1.2, Assuming tht suse nao Yo te sean comes fot eves, clue tbe oom, TATE nl A ALT wan repos pens, en ingens Ca, N98 mostcros 19 1.43, Assuming tat al grounder ofthe oes comes fom es rounder, ‘ici te aa residence toe a hs wae 4.44 The wold poplin in 1590 has ees estimate about 4.5 ition, The ana opulton incense during the peeing decae was about 2 percent. At his me St ponsatin growth, ped the ear when bere wil be asorage ef fesh-waer ‘eseures if everyone inthe worl enjoyed the present highest ving sad for Ihe fesh-water use is sbout 68 day (100 gala) per capita ining pubic water soppin and water wither for ation andy. Asus {bat 4.00 ke? of suce an sbsrace rune svalile for use seal. 4415, Cale the global seag precipitation an esporaion (em. 46. Calle the global aerate precipitation and evepeation (i). JLB Take tee tylope ests with which you ae familar, reach, dw the tye boundary ad dette ipa, cua, and woking ed 1.31. The ation aia +O) = 1) has teen se to describe te pafaldeplton ‘ffiow na ier dg bails psa. In ths ese, 1 = O and 1) = Qo for {= 0. Seve the fleet egution or Qo) fr 0 ane pot he eat over a Dahay prt Fk ~ 10 a and Q4 ~ 100 4132, The eqaton KaQid + O11) has een usd to describe the response af soeanfow to a consume of peciptaton contouing indefinitely on 8 Sesenned. in hs ese, let J) = 1 fort > 0 apd Qi = 0 for?= 0. Soe The deren equnton ab plot theses of and Qt overs I-how pend k=2h. 1A. Clay the folowing hype panama scodig we be Stace gives in ig. 141: (o) sed), ufo flowin an ope channel; 2) a sequence of daly erie lone ats steam gaping sie: () te annul mania les of i) fw sie; (4) the least profile of watr sufi elevation fr sea ‘ow ina sueum cate! upsueam of edge: te Same a (but with a eo passing down te chaos?) a sequence of aul precgtaton values ata se: (Gh sequence of snl pei Values ata grup of mer heaton LEA Select ajor water resoues projet in Your rea. Expan the purposes of be oj and describe is man fetes 1.82 Selects water estes projec of mao ce testo signin. pin the pupoves of the projet an deste sain fare, 1.8. Select tres major agence in yor ae hat Rave hyloicresponsibiies snd 1.6. Select mae hla event sacha «lot or drugh that ocd in your ‘en inddoui ifs, nde eet water elutes projet fmol eaten igen. xpi the poses of the projet an dese sin fare, Saree wake sqemin to scereace ag tow ipa saps nakCHAPTER 2 HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES Hyéolgic poceses asf te space and tine dsributon of water hough tune pdaingc le, The moon wt ina hydrolgie stem is infsensed ‘te phys properties of he system sch asthe sie aod shape of ow pats, and by ie Inert of he war with ote working mda, ding iran est cegy, Phase changes of water betwee gud, si, and vor ae important in some cates, Many fysicl laws gover the operation of AYSIOB = ‘A consistent mechanism needed for developing hydrologic models is pro- vided by the Reals anspor theorem, asa called the general cont 0 Line uation The Reson anspot here se 9 evel the conti, ‘monet, abd every equations fr vas hyabge procs, 2.1, REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM Reynolis amp theorem takes pil os that a normaly api ibis dice mas of subneand Split ten isd 8 Dl wing Senin Brogh «cn! vole or the pre, wo Peso ad rics can te dina: vemive prope, whose wakes Spend ot theamount of mace pete, and iene proper, which ar independent of ims Forany exerve oper Bs serpnig intense pope ct be Getned a th suany of por unt mae of tat f= am B and tanta o vector uantiesdepentng onthe pope being come “The Reyokistanepor thon res the te re of change an extensive per) nthe Til eBay, we eral csc Pees tk 20 routnor cess 21 change. Consider uid momentum in this cake, B = mV and = don¥)ldm = YY, the uid velocity, where bold face type indicates @ vector quatty By [Newton's second law, the time rate of change of momentum is equal tothe net spplied force on the fluid: aidr = donV ar = EF. The extensive prope discussed in his book are the mass, momentum, and earay of lgusd wet cod the mass of water vapor ‘When Newton's second law or other physical laws ae aplisd to a solid body, the focus ison the motion ofthe body an the unlyss fellows the Bay wherever itmoves. This isthe Lagrangian view of motion, Although this concept ‘an be applied to Mus, itis mare common to consider tha Tidy Tom continuum wherein the motion of individual particles not traced. The fecus it then ona contol volume, a fixed fame in spice through which fe fluid pases, called the Bulrian view of mation. Te theorem separates the ation of external influenses on the fluid, expressed by dB, into two components the time rate of change of the extensive property stored within the contol volume. and the net otlow ofthe extensive property across the contel surface, The Reynolds ‘wanspot theorem is commonly used in Muid mechanics (White, 1979, Shumes, 1982; Fox and MacDonald, 1985; and Roberson and Crowe, 1985). Aitioegh fas not been widely used in hydology wp to tis time it provces comssent ‘means for applying physical las to hydologe systems. Tp derive the governing equstion of the theorem, consider the canto! volume shown in Fig. 2.11, whose boundary is defined by the dashed contol surface. Within the comrol volume there sa shaded element of volume d¥ Ihe 2 Ei? for a 2:82 Solve Prob. 281 if he fd fe wate. Asune Ky =0.18 mis and = 1000 phn Cait ad compare the iar and erent momentum fess 20 fm eevaton v= 131 10"? for ware, 128.3. ‘Asuming the suse be sack Dy rator with suface temperate of 00 ‘Reaelte he intesty and wavelength fis emited ration, 284° Scie Prob, 283 forthe eat and compre te ntensiy and winelengh of the ‘ars ration with tha eid bythe roe, ASSUME the ca asa sue tempera 100 2.85 Theinsoming radian nese on lakes 209 Win? Calcul te et tion Ino the lke ifthe albedo sa = 006, the sfc eager is AC, and the 286 Slve Prob. 285 for fesh stow ifthe albedo is =O, the emis 80.97, fn the sure epee °C: Sve Pic. 2.85 forages Belé wih albedo a = 02, emisiy 0.97, and sie tempertue 30°C22 smn monccoos rasta sata ota etapa see (eae vent al ouRe 2 eroeocicmoceses 23 ves these two time points. Rearanging (2.1.2) 0 separate the extensive aot remaining within the contol volume (2) from that passing across the Epntot srface (6) and (By) yields 2 inf a2 ‘as Ar approaches 0, region Il becomes coincident with the contol volume, and ‘he ist term in (2.1.3) becomes the time derivative (ld) of the amount of B Sore within the coniralvelume: lOve Coe] + Leader} eL3) ani-Efffowe ern 1 im Luho In this equation, the total derivative di is used to account for the case when te contol volume is deformable (ie. changes in size and shape a ime fuses). I tbe conto volume Is fed in space and te, the total dervatve can replaced by the paral derivative or Because the Tocas i om the tie rat of ‘ange ofthe extensive property stored inthe contol volume without regard for is interal spatial distribution. “he second term in Eg. 2.1.3). involving By and Buy sepeseats the flow of| the exemsive proyerty across the conto snfce, Figure 21, 1(e) shows a close- up View of region ma the out fom te contl slime. An element of ara in the cute contol surface Is abs dt, an he element of volume Vis the volume of the tube contsning all the Nui passing through dA in time Ar. The length ofthe tube is AI ~ Vs, the length ofthe Me pat in tine A. The volume Of the tbe i dV = Aros A4A where isthe angle between the vekity vector YV andthe dvection nominal tothe area element A, The amount of extensive Property B inthe tube is Bed Bpleos 4A. The wl amount of fui in region 1s found by interaing these elemental amouns ove the entire tet control surface, Thus the term in Buy in (2.13) can he writen 36 : [[oosrovse an[ ema} — pa tL*estomtet a sn[dieaia) [Joven aro2 sorsen once A similar analysis may be made for Nuid entering the contro volume in region I [sce Fig. 2.1.10]. In this case, cosd is negative and. dV = ‘Afoos 180" ~ #)d8 =~ cos 8A so that | fen-arcos ean» ae[a@] = ta aun =~] povan Siting 2.18), 2.1.6, abd 21.7 i 2.1.3) es bad { Y. (21.8) Bg] | [ores [foovan | powan For fluid entering the contro! volume, the angle between the velocity vecor pointing into the coil volume, and the aca vector JA, pointing out is'im the range 90° << 270° for which evs 6 is negative (see Fig 2.11 (@). Conseqely, V-dA is aways negative Ter inflow. Foe uid leaving the Control volume cos fis postive, so Ved is always pestve for outflow. At the impermeable boundaries, Vand A are perpendicular and therefore V-dA = ‘0, Ths, the integrals in (2.18) ove lt T and outlet HT can be replaced by a'singe integral ove the ene contol surface representing the outflow minds Inflow, of net ou, of extesive property #4 |faars [fave am syn 21) te rang epi of Roms emp ‘in the control volume, didt SS{Bpd¥. plus the net outflow of extensive property through the contro! surface, J{ Bp V-dS. When using the theorem, inflows are 2 CONTINUITY EQUATIONS ‘The conservation of mas i the most usfel physical principle in hydoogie analysis and is regured in almost all applied problems. Comimay equations romance maces 25 ‘expresing tis principle canbe developed fora Mui wolume, fr ow cross don, ahd for post within a Mow. In this chap, nly the integral equation SFeomionny for ow volume is developed The equation for contin at a at wil be Served in Chap to describe flow ina porous medi, andthe atiuity eatin aa cross ection will be derived in Chap, 9 to describe ow fa ever seton. The integral equation of coninvity isthe basis forthe other 90 forms. Integral Equation of Continuity ‘The integral equation of continuity applies to a volume of Mui If mass isthe extensive propery’ being considered inthe Reynolds tanspor theorem, then mand B= dBidm = 1. By the law of conservation of miss, dBildr= did = 0 (esnuse mass cannot be efeted oe destoyed. SubNuting these values 0 the Reynolds tanspor theorem (2.1.9) gives [fom [evan a Which isthe nepal equation of continuity foram unsteady, variable density fw. the flow has constant density. can be divided out of both terns of Bar £{[Jars[[ve-o oa ‘The integral {JJ4¥ isthe volume of fli stored inthe contol volume, denoted by S othe fist erm in (2.22) ithe ime rte of change of storage The second tem, the net outflow. canbe spit into inflow 1) and outiow Q\ [[ve=ffvans[fvesan-m a2 andthe itera equation of continuity can be rewsten as $ + 00-10 as $ ~ 1-010 ‘which s the integral equation of comity for an unsteady. constant density flow tse exenivly in his book: When te flow s steady ld = 0, and 2.2.2),26 sersen money Jfvas eas) sss at ts io owe sa MATS ates RTs Se pan aos nh it ey oa aa ee ape sin ore i ane irae nao Bo dow a ot ea 0 [nw ef aoe coe ‘When this condition does not hod the system is open. The hydrologic eyle is 8 closed system for water, But he runfall-rnoff process on 4 alershe #8 an fopen system, because oot all the eanfall becomes runoff, some is turned tothe mosphere trough evaporation “The corti equations above ae dried fo single phase fh, thats, 4 liquid or gas, but Hot both together. In multiphase situations, uch as when ‘wae i evapoatng, the liquid and gaseous phases of water must be carefull tistingished. A continuity equation should be writen separately fr each pha fof the Mow; for each phase dB the rate at which mass is being aed to, taken fom, that phase 2.3. DISCRETE TIME CONTINUITY Because most hydoogle data ae avallable only a dlscrete tne iamwvals it necessary to reformulate the coninity equation (2.2.4) ona disrete time basis Sonpose tit the time Horizon is divided into intervals of length 3, indexed by 4 Bguation 2.24) can be reriten ax 46 = I@)aP~ Ql) and itepated over the th time interval give fis 5/51 = 4-0) dah, 032) where J, and Q, are the volumes of inflow and outfow inthe jh ime interval Note that in Eq. (22.4). 10) and Qo) ate How rates, having dmpensions (L°T], while $s a volume, having dimensions (L4).In 23.2), all the variables have Adimeesions (L') Ifthe incremental change in storage is denoted by AS, then fone writes 3S; = 1) = Qj, and s Eom Lene ano 1+ as, 2.33) monovoac moses 27 the intial storage a time 08 Sp, then Sy = Sp +, Ou $2= 5) + 12 On fan 80 on, By sstuting for intemediate storage values, one obtains 9+ S00) esa % sich isthe discrete-time continuity equation. Data Representation ‘The functions QU?) and 1) are defined on contindous time domains tha is ‘alu ofthe function is defined at every istat of the ime domain, and these ‘ales can change from one instant to the next (Fig. 23 1(a)]. Figure 2.3.1 Shows two methods by which a continaous time function canbe represented on fdscetetime domain. The fest method (Fg. 23.1(0)] Uses sample data faction in which the vale ofa function inthe jh time interval, Qi given simply by the instantaneous vale of QU) atime 2 = 0) = van eas) The dimensions of O() and Q; are the same, ether [LT] o¢ (LT. “The second method wes pul dota function (Fig. 23.1], im which the valu ofthe discrete time function Q; is given by the area under the coniauous time Fonction a= [ane eso et en 1 ni of eee pero abtey WU rola os oeuraroeratber 1p™ ss a-2f",ase ean ‘The two principle vavibles of interest hydrology, steasiflow and pre iptation, are tmetured a sample data und pule data respectively. When the ‘values of steamilow and preciptaton are recorded by gages at «given instant, the sueamflow gage vale isthe flow rte at hat instant, while the precipitation {age value is the accumulited depth of precipitation which has occumed up 10 that instant. The socessvedifeences ofthe measurements of accumulated re- iptation form a pulse data series (in inches or centimeters), When divided bY the time terval Ar, asin Eq. 2.3.7), the resulting data give the preipiation Sncenity (in inches pee Douro centers per hos). Te continaty equation ‘must be applied carefully when using such discrete ime data sample 23.1. Calculate the storage of ter on a tered a 2 fncon of "ie sen he dts incor 3 and tof Tl 2.31 ncemenl respon28 areueo onovocy aw wn wn 9 2 a8 wn LI Noseee wrews gs fone © fpfome wheter J he ce ‘Newt ie tn Qo, cme eid on eine domi eer yg soe i mca of ct en we over the watershed and seesmiow mesure aoa. These dita aaped ‘fom aod that eceured om hoa Cec at Nortvest Fah in Ata Tae May 2425, 1961. The washed area 7.03 mi. Assume tt he nial soap Solution. The precipitation inp is ecru ata seguence inclu 3 "he value shown is te incremental dept forthe preceding ine nev (eg tbe “alu sb a7 = 0.303 ite precipion Spt ocuing ring he frt04 andthe value sow a7 = 1 0, the meme espa onaoce moc 29 becween = 0.5 hand: = fh a 060). The seaniow cut ison os 8 sample dat segtece the vale show i the ftnaneaus lw te ae Steufow rei 246 fs at = 05h 283 ef at I hy ado oS ape the esc tie cost equation 23.4), the scanitow mast fe coeenge 4 plied seguenes. The tne intervals r= 0.88 0,3 ™ 3600 = 15006 For cach 0.5 b intra the vlune of steal is cule by svenglag tne eeamflow sates tthe ens ofthe strand mliplying by Ar The eco enh ve the wate of incremental erm te clued by ating the stearslow volune by the watershed ae which Is 7.03? = 108 S280 aoe 10 fe For example, drag the fst tie interval, between Ot 0.5 hh an Sows {Co(4)] we Q0) = 208 cs an O10) = upto te nr we in tis eral (203+ 242] x AP = 204.8 % 1800 = 48% 15 foe gute dept over he waterbed is |= 4.8 1041.96 x 108 = 2.08% 103 R= 20610"? 1219 = 0.02 ia shown in coum 8 ‘The nremenalprecptzion J forthe sae ine ner 50.15, wo the ineementl change in tape found fom Ba, 2.3.2) wih) = asi= 4-0, = 018-002 = 0139 4s shown in solu 6. The cumulative sorage onthe watershed is foun fom (3.3 with j= I a intl Sorege So si S435, soos Bia shown in earn 7. The calculations for Suse time ier at sie. ‘BBle 2.1 shows that of the 631 int esta, 9-5 no 66 prea, peared as stan a the watershed cu in th eight aac peat {n.The ening 0.86 n ws reine in sore nthe tented Tn alone Sand 6 canbe sen tht ate poston cease al steno as de ‘ely fom wore ‘The valves of icementl precipitation and stvanflow. change in stro, {af cumslaive surge are plone in Fig 2.32. The cial ne f= 23 5 ‘tend main oie cers. Below 25h, peition ceeds sue hte is in in sre fer 25 he eva osu td er lo oe 24 MOMENTUM EQUATIONS props Retols sano trem ppd o Mid moment, exeive ery. Bom. a B= did = ¥By Newton's cond law, he ine se yt genus aul toe oe force spied in 2 sien iseon 59 abies amy yen = G15 cular =F. Sebstinting ino the Reynolds tanspor hore30 teosrancacy ‘The time distribution of storage on a watershed calculated using. the “example 23.0) 2 rT) 3.0 2 to Om 508 on Oe 420 im Z on am 38 + EB ihe a tS fo Auumescaae iz Bete is Seed fffewsffore aan ‘he integral momentum squaton foram unsteady, nonuniform flow. A nonuniform ow sone in which be locity does vary in space: in 4 wniform flow tenes 10 spat variation, TFs noneniform How i teady (in tine), the ime desivtive in Eq. 2.4.1), ops out, Teaving Se= [fuer ean Fr a steady uniform flow the velocity & the same a ll pots ot the contol Surface ad therefore te integral ever the conga surface (s 20 andthe forces applied to the system ae in equlloum: Treo 243) moana mocsses 31 |= Pein ee) —— emv Det opt Tine oune 233 ‘Betin dito of snag on suse cn wing te cee ssn etn32 reno wronctoee Steady Uniform Flow in an Open Channet In this section, the momento equation is applied to steady uniform flow in an ‘open channel, The more complex case of unstey nonuniform flow is treed Sec, 9.1, gure 24.1 shows a Steady flow in @ uniform channel, tht is. ‘channel whose cross seston, slope, and boundary roughness do not change along is length The continuity, momentum, and enetey equations can be applica to the contol vlume between sections I and 2, Continuity, For steady flow, Eg (2.2) holds and Qy = for uiform flow. the velocity isthe same everywhere in the Mo, so Vj = Vs Hence, cross-sections trou dy — Q/V, ~ QaiVs = Az, and sine the chanel i uniform follows tat the depts at also equal», Energy. The energy eqution from Mud mechanics (Roberson and Crowe, 1985) is'nt for sections and 2 as +14 Ye pet Wing ty aaa whore & isthe fed elevation, 8 the acceleration due to gravity, and hy th head Toss between the two sections. Head loss isthe energy lost dv to friction effets por unt weight of Maid. With Vi~ Vs and yy = ya (24.8) reduces to Wennn ea Dividing both sides by the length of te chanzl, che following is obtained Wy use 4-2 ea “The bed slope So tan@ where 0 isthe angle of inclination ofthe chan. bed. 8 is small (© 10%) then tan 0 sin 8 = (12a In ths ease, the vmcnnoe moctses 33 Jct sone = esa ote bed lope Si His samedi this anal Fret ihe only source of energy Ins is frtion hetween the flow andthe chanel Ran general, energy can also be los Hecause of such Factors a wind shear ot {be surface and eddy motion arising from abrupt changes in th channel geometry ft these effects will ol be discussed untl Chap. 9- When wall ction fs te aly source of energy Toss, the slope ofthe eneigy arade line is qual 19 te fstin slope Sj. a8 shown in Fig. 24.1 ‘Momentum. There are she Frcs ating onthe uid control volume fton [rity and pressure. OF these, the pressre frees atthe two ends of the section Fe equl nd cancel ech athe for niform low (because = y2)- Sothe ction ha gravity forces mast be balanced, because, wt the Nowe steady and niferm Eg, (2.4.3) applies (20). The tition farce Fy is equal to the product of te tell shear tess ty and the aca over which i ats, PL, whore isthe wend perimeter of the cross section: tha is. Fy ~ ~ryPL. where the negative sign Tpuiates tht the freton fore ats opposite to the dretion of se The weight ff id in the control volume is AL, where +i the specie weight ofthe Hid (weight per unit volun): the gravity force on the Mud, Fis the component of the weight acing inthe direction of flow, thats, Fy = yAL sind. Hence DpH o=-nPe + vttame ean Wen ism, sin @~ 5,50 esprit sme pe tito 2 e48 = So whe A = AUP she dau ads For a ead Bow, Sy = S80 = 95; ey By a similar analysis, Henderson (1966) showed that (24.9) is also valid for nonuniform flow. although the bed slope Sy and friction slope Sp are m0 longer equal. Equation (24.9) expresses a kage between the momentum sh tency principle ints th ffs of rion are represented rom the momenta Viewpoint asthe wall shear tes rp and from he energy viewpoint 3s rate of energy dissipation 8 2.5 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW (Open ehanne! low is channel flow ith a free surface, such as flow in ver ‘rin a paral fll pipe. In thi section the Manuing equation to determine te Velocity of open channel flow is derived, on th basis of the DareyWelsbach ‘equation for hea loses de to wall ition uid mechanics he head loss over a enh L of pipe of diameter D fora flow with velocity Vis given by the Dare)-Wesbach equation3M cnemanamaiey es where f is the Dary- Weisbach friction factor and g isthe acceleration due to gravity Roberson and Crowe, 1985) Using the definition of tition slope Sy = Mil. 2.5.1) can be solved for V: fe v- [¥os, 52) vi ‘The hydraulic radius ofa circular pipe is R = AIP = (xD %8)/xD = DIS, so the pipe diameter D canbe replaced i (2.5.2) by D=4R 283) to give the Darey-Weishach equation [se v= [S8es, esa) vs “The Chezy Cis defined 38 C= /FQ/F: using this symbol, 2.5.4 is writen Ve CRS, ess) ‘which is Chey equation for open channe! Now. Manaing's equations produced from Chezy"s equation by seuing C= RV ®%n, where m isthe Manning roughness cvefcien esp 256) ‘Manning's equation (2.5.6) i aid for SI units with in meters and Vin meters per second (5 8 dimeasionles), Valves of Manning's foe various surfaces are ste in Table 25.1 For Vin fet per second and Rin fet, Manning's equation 19, [1.49 = (3.280)? and 3.281 = 1 my. By comparing Eas. (2.5.4) and (2.5.6 Manning's san be expresso in terms ofthe Darey- Weisbach fition TatorF. 4 flows: es Vi ess) values in SL unis Manning's equation is vil for fly rrbulent flow; in which the Dary ‘Weishach fsion factor f 8 independent ofthe Revnolds mamber Re. Henderson (4966) gives the Following eriteion for fully turbulent flow reaccmoctses 35 42 aac cele for ais open chan pies nnn ern vert Goto i is — one oi snc. i fag wat wane eo ed Winteny bose omer ice i od pean ee = 1.9 10° wi Ri fs ass) VR = 11107" wih inmeers 59H) Example 25.1. Ths suo fw in 32004 wide ctangu channel wi te slope 0.08 pessoa Manning's 1S. fhe ph 5 caleule the elo lu te a ery ht he Maw fully trulent so tt Manning's Eaton apes Solution. The wete printer in he canal i P Zydeale ais i R-PAP = 200% 5/210 = 8.75 The ow velo is gen ‘by Manning's ution with «= 0.05 and = Sy for unfar Now = 0.03% = ons, v= peg AS ca767%0.0003" a on ‘he flow ate @ ~ VA = 4.87 305 ‘urelent ow sculls (2-598 70 cfs. The cteson fr fly36 amon WRB, = 0.015.760.0009)" = 4ax08 hich sgremtrthan 1.9% isanpicie, "othe trons sisi nd Macias eatin In the cen thatthe ow isnot fly turbulent, he low velocity may te compute withthe Dacy-Weihacheqtion 2, eacuating he ones factor fas a faction ofthe Reyath mater fe and te unde poe Figure 25.1) shows a modified frm ofthe Mood dagram for is fans te pe GameterD is weplaced by sR. The Reyols mune given fe rea : 25.10) where vis the kinematic viscosity of water, given in Table 2.5.2 a a function of temperature. The relate roughness es defined by A R where f isthe sizeof sand grains resulting in a surface resistance equivalent to ‘that observed inthe channel Figure 28.1 for open channel flow was constructed from equations pe Sented by Chow (1959) and Henderson (1966). For Reynolds numb less tan 2000, the flow is laminar, and es. & fo 25.1 where Cx= 96 foe a smooth-surficed channel of infinite width and lager i the surface is rough (Chow, 1959; Emmet. 1978), As the Reynolds umber nereanes past 2000, the flow enters @ region wher both laminar snd trbuldt iets overnftion loses andthe tition factor is given by a motified form af the CColebrook-White equation (Henderson, 1965) AL -atog te 4 25 a rol zl assy) . ~thad ‘ 2 For large Reynolds numbers, hati, the upp ight region ofthe Macdy iagram, the fw is fully turbulen, and the faction factor fntion of he relative roughsss alone. 9, (2.513) redues to zasa($) eau ionocesc cess 37 gests 2858822 W oune 281 Prowey wongM6 cennsasony THREE operties of water at standard atmospheric presse = eee ee ne — = = 1s Sie 2 : s = 2 RB = 2 : EH 8 Biss a ia xi0-? 09810 0.506 pee tie eas ase _ oa Gro Rian A de 7 Gon fing ec Hopi in, a nd For this eas, the friction factor f canbe eliminated between Eqs. (2.5.14) (2°58) ao solve forthe relative roughness eas a fonction of Manning's and hydralie ris & 3x 10 oo as.19 cuhete 6 = | for St units an 149 for English wis. To use the Moody diagram een R and Ve is calculate using (2.5.15) with the given value of nthe ‘he Reynolis numbers eompted sing 2.5.10) and the eomesponding value of “Foca fom Fig, 2.5.1. An estimate of Vis obtained from Eq. (2.5.4), andthe ‘foc fs epeated atvely uml the values for V converge orocoae moceses 39 ‘The Mondygigram giver here for en chant Now is some Hiitatons. First, it accounts for resistance due to fiton elements randomly distbuted fbr the channel wai, but t dOeS BO accoust for form drag sociated with Sonuniferiis ine channel. Emmet (1978) found tht the fktion fat for thin shect ows gaol or gr085 surfaces could be as much asa factor of 10 er th he vay fr feetion dg alone, Aso, the Moody ditgram is valid ‘nly fr fixed bed channels, not for erodable ones. The shape of th eos section (rectangular, angular citar. et) has soe influence onthe friton face bur the effects nor large, Because of hese limitations the Moody digram shown Should be applied onl to lined canoe with uniform cross Section 2.6 POROUS MEDIUM FLOW | porous medium san interconnected structure of ny cond of various shapes tnd sizes. For stegdy uniform low in a circular pipe of diamcer D, 2.49) ‘ermine valid y= 285; 26.1 ‘with the hydraulic radius R= D/a. For laminar flow ina cicule conduit, the all shear sess i given by aw a= 262) ‘where 4s the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Combining 2.6.1) and (2.62) aves 263) which is the Hagen: Poiseulte equation for laminar flow ina circular conduit, For flow in porous mesivm. prt ofthe cross-sectional area Ais ocupied by soil or rock stata, 30 the ratio QLA does not equal the atl vid elon but defines a volumeii flux 9 called the Dary fs. Darcy's law for flow in Porous medium is writen fom (2.6.3) 38 e6s where Kis the hydraulic conductivity of the medium, A= D"VR2q. Values of the hydautic conductivity for various porous media ae shown in Table 26-1 ‘long with valves ofthe porosity n he ratio f the volume of vos to the ttl ‘Volume of the medium, The geal average Mui velocity in the medium is 205) Day's la is vali so long as flow is ainat, Flow in cicular conduit 4s laminar when is Reynolas number40 oreo roemmooy Hydronic conductivity and porosity of ‘unconsolidated porous medi date tacts Materia em Genel whe pees 266) isles than 2000, a condition safle by sos al marrallyoxeuing lows in porous media uampte 26:1 Wu i ering tah «ie sand ager th di SSMU d= tt and uy Own ree 0 m way spe SPT te pe cla thee te of ater oe se Staton. The Dy fa qs alee by (26) wid K = ON ems = 8.64 miday and Sy 2 Te O-0I; hence q = KSy = 8,640.01 = 0.086 mitay. Fee Sealy yo by 268), = an = GOD = 0.216 a. Te Sal into say su ery = IOI. 6 = 63 Ss = TS yeas 2.7 ENERGY BALANCE cooray tlc oa Ryle sem 8 acon of inp a Tipteers ing te ifeecebevee he es SPS Seat ate rot cage of strze, 8 an one forts cominuty PEE Man cute Se 22 he be Reiser teem Bore Systeme propery ino taken = Eh am fey reat tn nh Sum cal eee Ey netic ener La tr porenial energy mgs repent leva doi = 6, + bv? + me em B=E.+} rt Hence, a7 were ey the interna energy per unit mas. Byte irs! aw af termodnais. sroeawcacsmoces AT i SS ie ea wae: Le al en wn ae ng ie the nt ate of energy tase it he Mi, dE‘ is mato the rate at which testis anfered no the Ms tetera at which he ld does wok ce auroenngs, da Bae aH _aw aa a S ens Subsitting for did and inthe Reynolds wansport theorem a dw id eda This isthe energy balance equation for an unsteady varable-densty ow. Internal Energy Sensible het. Sensible hears that pat of the intemal eneray of 9 substance "ais proportional to the subsane's temperate. Temperature chages odes Proportional changes in itertal energy, the evelicen of proportionality bing the specific hea Cy ey = Cpa ers) ‘The subscript p denotes thatthe specific eat i measured at conan presse Latent heat. When a subsance changes phase (slid, liquid, or gaseous sate) it aves up or absorbs latent heor. The three latent ests of niet are those fox sion, or melting. of ice to water for vaporization of guid water to water ‘por: and for sbliaton, or diet conversion, of ie twtr vapor. Figure 2274 shows how the intemal energy of water vanes a the result af sensible42 somennroncio sd latent heat wansfer. Latent eat wansers at phase changes are indicated by the verica jumps in ineral energy at melting and vaporization. Inermalenesy ‘anges die to semble eat tansfer ae shown by the sloping ies Phase changes ean occur at temperatures other than the normal ones of O°C for melting and 100°C for boiling. Evaporation, for example, an ocout at 3 temperature below the baling post. Ar any given temperature the Latent heat of slimation (sold (ois) gaa the sam ofthe stent heats of TUson (Sli 10 Tigid) and vapoiztion (igi 1033) Len fat tanfers are the dominant cause of interal energy’ changes for ‘water in mst hyeoingi applications: te amount of latent heat neoied! fe msh Targr than the Senile heat arse fora change intemperate of afew degrees, which i he usual casein hydrologic processes. The latent hest of vaporization 1 varies slighty wit temperature according to 1, = 2.501 x 10" — 23707 kg) 276) ‘whore Tis emperatare in °C and is given in joules () per kilogram (Rawdkii 1979). A joules an SI unit representing the amount of energy required to exer 4 force of newton through a distance of I mete 2.8 TRANSPORT PROCESSES Heat energy transport takes place in tice ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction ress ror rnom moleclsr motion in suhsances heat iS tansfered as molecules in higher temperature zones ellide with and transfer nezgy to molecules in lower temperature zones inthe gradual warming alg tn iron bar when ene ends placed in 2 fire. Convection fs the transport of heat (ergy esocated with mans motion oft lid, such a ey motion i» ad Steam. Convection transports feat on a mich larger scle than condustion in fds, but its extent depends on fd terulence soi cannot he chartered as previely. Rachton iste dot transfer of eneray by means of eestromsenetic feaves, and can take place ina vacuum. “The condition and convection processes that transfer heat ener aso vransport mass and momentim (Bird, Sew, snd Lightfoot, 1940: Faien, 983) For each ofthe extensive properties mass. momentum, and energy. the rae of flow of extensive property per uit ret of surface Pou which passes S called the flac. For example, in Day's law, volumetric How rae iO S788 area A. so the volumetric Taxis g = QUA: the coresponding muss flow te Sm = pO. so the mass Mux is POU. By analogy the momentum ow rate i ‘a= pQVand the momentum fx is V/A = pQViA = pV. The conesponding energy flow rte sad and the enor fax is GEA. measured in wats pot ‘meter square inthe SI system: a wat (W) sone joule fer second. In genet af is given by Flow rate Flux ean ssccicrmcceses 43 ‘Conduction In ccoducton the fx is diteetly peoporionsl tothe gradient of a potent (Fatien, 1983), For example, the Intra tatsfer of mmentu n a lamar flow is escibed by Newtons law of viscosity, in which the potential is the flow ‘elosty raat 2.82 Here 78 momentum flo, 4 i a propetionaity coefficient eile the dynam siscosity(measred in or N's), and dds the grade ofthe velocity tas a fonction of distance < fom the boundary, The symbol ris usually sed 19 represent a shea tess, butitcan be shown tat he disensions of shear sess and omentum flux are the arse, and ean be thought of as the lateral moment fox in a fluid flow occuring trough the action of sher stress Between clemeis of fli havingcitferent velocities, as shown in Fig. 2.8.1 ‘Analogous to Newtons law of viscosity fr momentum the fws of con ‘uetion for mass and eneray ate Fick's law of efron. and Fourier’: lan of deat conduction. respectively (Cana and Jaeger. 1989), The governing equ tions have the same form as (2.82), as shown in Table 2.8.1, The measre of poesia] for mass conduction isthe mans eoncentraton C of the subsante being transported. In Chap. 4 for example, when the transport of wate vapor nai described, Cis the mass of water vapor per unit mass of mats i, The propor tionality constant for mass conduction isthe disioncoefciem D. The messare ‘of potential fr heat energy transport isthe iemperatue T and the proportionality “constant s the heat Condictiviy of the substance ‘The proportionality constant ean also be writen in 2 Ainematic fom. For ‘example, the djmamic Viscosity abd the Kinematic vsconty Pare oat by n= pe 283) Sp) — toca lovee 281 ‘wey meton The hs hems ftom tne ot44 nue vons.one 0 Bg. (2.8.2) can be rewsinen esa ‘The dimensions of v ae (L277) Convection 2 conveton, anspor occurs tough the ation of rule eis, the tvs omen of cancaa ad wih fleet voce tan oh the movement of advil molec in conduction. Convection ree owing fui while cdocon does oo. The moment in tbls ow ici gem y Nev's auf wy a ete he te departs ofthe tubule oct fom is tie-sveaged alc i sconvenen, fomeve,o wre equations dese convection inthe sre fonn a those fr ndution, For moment ster, the fx in» tures Nw is wegen 3, A = pkg a8) ue = ae ‘Laws of ondueton and corresponding equations fr convection of mas, momentum, and heat energy ina uid ee propery ang Seate re New roi’ coe 7 . . _— (este ott) vig) em stay « * a lee « = 7 a he peed sion fon -oh rm pk pee ey ity k, ke & rosea roca 48 shee Ks the momentum dfs, or ey viscosity, with dimensions (3 J is four to six orders of magnitode greater than v rissles, los, a tufbulent momentum Max isthe dominant form of momentum tava in secane water flow and in airflow over the land suace, Equations anlogous to (2.83) can be writes for mass and energy transports shown in Table 28 1 1 should be noted thatthe direction af transport of extensive properties ‘esetbed by the equations in Table 2.8.1 8 trinstere to he accion of oe For example, in Fig. 28.1, the low is horizontal while the munspot press is vertical tough the dashed area shown, Extensive propery tanspor ithe sicton of motion i called advection and is desried by the teen Yp da in the Reynols traspar theorem, Ea. (2-19). Velocity Profile esermintion ofthe res of conduction and convection of momentum reuies knowledge of the velocity profile nthe boundary layer, For lof roves lead ‘or water the logarithmic velocity profile is applicable sly. 1959). Te wind ‘velocity wis given asa function ofthe elevation ¢ by 2.86) were the shear velocity u° = Fp (ry isthe boundary shear stress and pis te fli densi), kis von Karman’s constant (= 0). and 28 the roughness begin of the sarace. Table 2.8.2 gives values ofthe roughness height fa sone surfces, By dferentiaing (2.8.6), the velocity gradient i found tobe iat 2.8.7 a ie an his equation can be used to determine the laminar sod turbulent momentum kes a various elevations, Teor 22 Approximate values ofthe roughness height of nara surfaces, chose har x 7 bot ~o.08 es Sah D ES ESS Spee meme om6 Example 28.1 The wind ged has been measur at 3 avs at a el — ‘ove shox as fed (91 em) tte veloc poe an aut eats ama ad let somets fusa 20 cn nd he tens moment oq 2m elvatoe Fors p= 20pm" y= 13110" and y= 1S Solution, The shes veloc saluted from. 2.8.6) sng the own velocity wedmeme Solving? = 0.235 ws "Te veloc poe found hy substi values fos n(2.86); forexample, foes = 0 em= 0.2m. the am a6 Solving =1,7 mis az ~ 02 m. Similarly compte values free ales of otc in Fy. 28.2 The sloiy grants = 0.2 is gen Dy Ea elt or) de e026 ee” Gax0d andthe laminar momentum ux + i given by Newton's nw of wsconty (2.84) ‘ba dnsty p= 2 Kp ante Kncotevieay = 11> 10" as, a “a mia iste 288 re 1 ~ 02m. Thetutloot omen fx is gen by H4.(2.85 hans 288 ae 5.1% 10-4 = 10% hese, ebelet treme un ues by ely fasion) the dona ant ecniee inthis at sueam. Att = 2 a. dlde = uk: ~0236(0.4%2)= 028 8 and var ke) = 1301 30% 0.38051 Nimes Noe ha thet of the mectie’momenam fits at 0.2 an 20 ie 5.00.81 = 1 the momentum ‘x or shear sess avery proper elevation i oar elt Drofile. The momearum fox, eteoe, i Lge near the grou sufce and monococcpiccmes 47 £ i 4 riGuRE 282 ‘eopine ce To sci gern Radiation ‘When ration strikes a surface (se Fig. 2.8.3), ts either reflected or absorbed ‘The faction elected is called he albedo (0 = = I). Forexsmpl, deep Water bodies sorb mos of the radiation they receive, having «= 0.06, while fresh snow rfc mos of te incoming radiation, with a high as 0-9 (Brotsert 1982). Rian is also coninuoasy emitted fo all bodies at rts depending on their surface temperatures. The ne radiation Ris the ae np of eaation at he surface at any istit: that isthe difference hetwcen the radian sbsored ‘RAL ~ a) (whore Ri the incident radiation), and that emitted Ry = Ril a) Re 28s) surface isthe major ener int for evaporation of [Net raion atthe eat Emission, Radiation emission is governed by the Stefan oltzmana law Rom cor! easy here «isthe emit ofthe surface. os the Stefan Boltzmann constant (5.67 10-8 Win) and T i the absolute temperature of the surface in deste Kelvin (Gincol. 1984); the Kelvin temperate equals the Claus tempete los 273, Fora perfect ralitor, or black body. the emissivity fs e = I: for water surfaces ¢ = 0.97. The wavelength of ete radiation is inversely proportional "othe surface temperature, at given by Wiens la 290 1077 T whet 7 is in depres Kelvin and A is in meter (Giancoi, 1988). As a ext48 orn ona cl. es opine gx NEN ‘onsequence of Wiens Taw, the radiation emit by the sun has 2 much sorter Svavelength than that emit by the cooler earth Reflection and scattering. The albedo ain Eg (28.8) measures the propertion re hcoming adatom tats rfleted back ico the atosphere, Te albedo varies “anurat depending on the wavelength ofthe rataton and its angle of inidence, tuts customary to adopt a single value typeof the type of surface ‘When sadiaton stikes tty partes Im the atmosphere of @ size onthe same oer of magatede as he radiation wavelength, the radiation is seated aN nal dsetons Sl groups of molecules called aerosols sete ight Trine ay. The aidivon of aerosols and dust particles tothe atmosphere for Fan actin modern times bas given se to concer about the greenhous. vier in which some of the raat emited by dhe earth i sated bask Terie mosphere increased scattering fess in general wasming of ty Udra's surtce, However the precise magnitude of the earth's warming by thi tnechansan fs nt yet known [Net radiation at Earth's surface. The intensity of solar radiation avin att Top ofthe atmosphere is Jeteased by three effects before reaching s unt at (ihe earth's surface: searing inthe armospere, absorption by clouds, & ‘he oblneness of te eats surface to the incoming radiation (a fnction Tate, season, and time of dap), THe intensity of solar radio received Unt arc ofthe cat's sta i dented by R. Te stmosphere also acts auistor. especialy on chy days, emiting longer wave raianon than the § [ecatuets emperntre i oer, the stensity ofthis radiation fs noted. T Tncoming radiation tthe earth's surace is tus R; = + Ry, The ea et radiation Re (of wavelength close to that ofthe atmospheric ration, #00 tet eaion otved athe earth's surface 1 Re = (Ry + RMI = a) Re es “The interaction of ration processes erween the atmosphere and 1 cath nvfae is Complex. Figure 2.8.4 presents a summary of relative vale forthe various components of the annul average aimospheric and surface he tance, Itcam be een that for 100 unis of icomting Solar rion atthe top: astgnopre, about half (ST unis) reaches the earth's surface and is absorb there of these Sl units, 21 are emitted as longwave radiation, Ieaving ao oncocicmocees 49 _ = CS hee . PE a Smt ase a URE 244 ch ee astingn, DC, 1975" Ue wt radiation of 30 unt tthe eanh’s surface: 23 units ofthis energy units ofthis energy input are used {0 evaporate water, and this tured o the amosphere 2 ltent heat Max; the iin Tos gots hen rorya thes sae, ese et REFERENCES ts mt ekg le W Si tiscomais hoe comet SL gt Ses ae eS England. pp. 148-176, 1978, rT) sare Rhames see a oy mang i ge Fanc, RH Oper-chauel Hoda, MeGraw-Hil, New or, 1988. - Seas drama nator me Henao, FM Chat Fo, ei. New Vr 986, SRE eer wee RE ac it, oa he50 smmpnvonses sane Mich of dy 2nd, Meu, New Yn, 198, PROBLEMS 224A winches the following inflows and atfows in abi mers Fr he i hase moh of he sear te strge ate beznning of Samy 60 icine the stage a te of Shack Nowe an Feb Mar 2.2.2 Compu the contin! def from SW-bectare reser fora 30 pet ‘Grn wise eset vel depp al a mse desi an avrg pee fat of 24090 my During the pec the al sespage hs 9 2c the ttl pests was 1.3 chs andthe ta evaporation ss 85 sm 22.3. Salve Bob.2.2. the reso aus AND are, th op io ese 2, be Inflow 2 the sepage se 1 the peipttion i and the evap Sin tk ace = 4300 1), 224 Fumie byulgi ecrds of ovr SD yar om x daiage basin of area S4D ne the avers samo al esi 969 ett andthe aerage fam sbemyAgeservirin the Bao hating average race aren of 170 ecarevpleoned a te vn eu colle ase ol fr pps ‘or wane cnt, The srl vapeeaton ove fhe resent are iRestinatal a 180 hot sno pounder eager no to he ae, Dacron he ale erage som wieanal es eres To wale oni. Soe Po 2.2.4 if te drainage Pain aa 200 i anol ri 38 owl 1 in ei tea 20 ares and erapation 3D 22:6 Thesancvuive nom he naan ont src agen year ae he Faigle nits won DP MAM D AS OND “Therese sontins 9 ais athe beaning of he sir. How ay unis Stakeat ib cro athe mde of Aus? At he en of te ea? Soi wher he foloing aribles ae sally eure 3s sample data or ‘Ni spd al resin te annul asin scare 22 2510 rmccocerraceses $1 “Toe prespion an streamflow forthe sof May 12, 1980, 98 Shoal Grek Nenest Pun Asin, Tex, te sow los, Cale the tine ‘Sonat of rage onthe washed stung at thesia Comput the sl dee of pian and the exe! depth of sean (eich occured ring the howe perio How mach storage reine i the SShenied a the en of the period? What pact of he pesplaion speared {Ssenifow during hn pts? What war the matin stage? lt the {ine dures of pene peciptatn,searon. change ia strage, nd ‘Simla stage The watered teas 703m Time) oO; a is 30 8 3098 rere Psptaoa da) IK O32 021 a6 onan’ Samer ee) 2539-8 S10 655 981K Trtintneus Savant et) 968 100 6 68S Mab SLY OS 16D Cake tesla aw te of «wae Now 3 dep in 8.100 Side seam 1h approximately estan ross eto, be pe I pee. {nd Mannings n of 0.035 Check that (ection fr fly ten Tw Sone Prob. 25.1 fr «ae 30 wie wi Row Im dep. Sotve Poh 21 fo w steam chee with appx nei css secon wth 1 txlom with dso slope 3 brzomal 1 era Seve Po 2.9 ithe ton wih 30 a te ph tm ‘iri lowing oer an np patting Wt wi slope 5 percent a Macin's mristL015,Cakun he sels and ow rite ow sn deep. Check tht he reson fol rl wf tii Salve yob.2.3.3 the fw depth is 1 em ASME Kinetic visas i Dei ws Save Pb 2.3.5 for fw dep f 0. i, Show a the cei fo fly Auten ow hot sai. compte he cei an ow ote ane ne Darga cuntonand he oody darn By hat pee the ect sind fro ths cele feet om ht woul hve eh sed Nanny eqeton had he sed” Ase inate ion T= 1D" Soe Prob. 2.7 te Sow dep Foes ay nor Rw in. cclarcndt of dune Sow that wall ‘Bea aon yi Ben by hy she the psi ih ft id nd the ead os ver enh Forlainar ow ina si cont ue Nests Iw of iscsi, = ds Stew wi te fd velocity a dstance» om fe wa oes te “loc dtu inthe Sno hen By = tal whee + {eaunce om te Cee pra a i he elon ae recente.S52 serarowroneucy 2st asa 23 26 263 28 282 283 2s ass ie te pb loci staan forma foramina onda pen in Poo 2510 to eslsh tate wall shear tess Su. in whch Viste avrge pipe ve ‘trecunglr open due 2m wit on ep bas lone of 0.001 ais tne wi cemented bbe (1 0.025. Dec a) fs mim Sirs psc, nd (he maim Oachge sominle by caging he cos ‘SEfoa mesos wow cunging th restangalr frm he ston, the Sophie thane of coe, ine bes hyaeetanglrscon avin wed poe era wie p eo of 2. Solve Ps 23.12 fe shoe! 30 vie and 4 ep ‘Waer b Dovng wa Int spe 5) 0.01. Determine (a he wes Wo ins in caplan ie of Samer mm = 100% 10“) () fhe Dar) fn QA ad esc sels low trough ite sand md) emp he ate of flow of wae at PC tough 2 1Omtong cmd ie win snd offline dnt 01 mm nde ese head lence of O'S inbemern tr ens of Oe condo Te srowescnd en fe Salt 20m Salve Bumple 2.6.1 in he est if he water i owing owes) ge with ‘Numa sndutviy of 10cm nds proty 030 prs, () i th Sheraton of 10“ cms porsty of 48 pen a) ly Thar sony of 0- cm ands prs of 90 pent Coma Your ams wir ant obi in he xm Z's Roning vert shat as sure. andthe eecy messed 2 tiation bln kaa shear cyan! lteter theses whem, Asem cp™ Tom, Cree te ben monet Iva heghs co and? mand compat the aes Assme Ke = O07 m6 fd p= 120 kg foe Save Pe. 21 the fds water, Ase Ky 0.15 ms and p =1000 gh Cala ant ssa amine atten monatm fs 3129 helen its 1 2 10" me for wate ‘ming te Sn be ak by rari sarc emperteo 00 ‘eStats soi and novel ofr emsted mditon Sete robs 28.3 forth aan compa the ner and wavelength fe tars rllaon wi th eed bye sn. Ave he eat at Se ‘Spear of 300K ‘The cong rato itensiy one 20 Win Clete et ition Inet ik te sted oa 0.0, sroce temperate SOC. a te missy 809 Sue Pb 383 fr sh sow the ted i =O 8 hemi 09 and te sac emprtne 2. Solve Pb. 285 fora gs eld wit abe a Sorc enpers PC 02, emisivi 097, and CHAPTER 3 ATMOSPHERIC WATER OF the many meteorological processes occuring continuously within the stno- sphere, the processes of precipitation and evaporation, in which the atmosphere Imeracts with surface water, are the most important for hyrology. Much ofthe water precipitated onthe land surface i derived ftom moistre evaporated from the ccsans and tanspote long distances by atmosptiecicultion, The to basic driving fees of atmosphere circulation result from the rotation of the arth andthe wansfer of heat enetzy between the eguatr and the poles 3.1 ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION ‘The earth constanly receives heat frm the sun through solar ration and emits heat through re-radation, or back radiation into space. There processes ae in balance tan average rate of approximately 210 Wim The heating of the earth 's uneven; near the equator, the incoming radiation is almost perpendicular 0 the land surface and averages about 270 Win?, while near the poles, it strikes te earth at a more oblique angle at erate of about 90 Wim?. Becase the rate of radiation is proportional 1 the absolute temperstre at the earth's surac hich does not vary realy between the equator and the pols, the eah's ‘mite radiation s mor uniform than the incoming radiation. In response 1 this libalance, the atmosphere functions as a vas heat engine, transfering ene) ‘rom the equator ward the poles at an average rte of about 4% 10" MW. Ifthe carth were a nonoatng sphere, atmospheric circulation would appear 8s in Fig. 3.1.1, Air would ise near te equator and travel nthe upper stmosphere toward ihe poles, ten cool descend ino te ower atmosphere, and return ovr the equator. This i called Hod circulation,98 serseoronency 3465 Use the seredymmic meth to cleus the evaptanprtion rate (mm fiom a well-waered, shor grass aes on Gay when the eget temper i625, eave humid 6 30 percent, 21Aour nde 10 ky, norm csp presi (101. AI) prev Assume the Doornbos Prt Wig faction (36:1) i val. By what percentage would the evypotnpiaton tac shane ifthe restive hunity wee doubled sd he temperate, bd specs nd presse email conta?S$ serueonroncsoy Cnc ser con pote Tie inion of he cath from we et change te cculon pt Asari at ot te caves toward te ol dt oer Ine winnings mete eyo ces wh rept ‘ie nd fier poigs wns a fw: The cre fe Sing of at movin owed eget eran case ow Tee trotting thee cenges in win ation and vey iKnow th Cro 7 ‘The actual pattern of atmospheric circulation has three cells in each hemi- sph sshowmin ig 31 Ine mpl eds sed then (Serocete ard pls atoper nl, se ad dessins ovard fun tid 9 Near th pond ances one tench ving oad Se equator andthe hr toward tpi. pla ces sa an flvswad te pln ape echoed vs tack 9 6 ma the eas uc The mille ce ve nal by the eer or Sttc a fows toward he pl, podacingpevaling ety af it ea The avenditton of ocean sn and onthe ea suis, coped wan cer diferen mal ropes, eater oa spa aro nto ‘Pse cmalaion. Te anal shifig ote heal eq ee eas ‘Pinion around te mente 4 conegonig can of the reso ‘Scan r,s lage non: exeonges of a Seen ase Sn cans morgue an coe: psy eign nny fod ean ‘Ss, romans may avane ep nosh cones nda td ta ‘ith sal oscil ene igh rere may Bull op rand te, hn etn etd typos Sethe topes Celta es Comes nthe gral pcr in ei, he auger dive vray ino varios cons, The amos cicaato sure toe oon he apie: wich ng Be tom shou kn athe pic 101 kn te cust. The temperate in oposite a rang wh econ ot swomenc ware $8 / cal oy fiseh “N | t DD mite cot Eawerlies PDs Drie ‘ml rm schon he ean cn, the atmosphere, For dy sete te of dru is called th hy die ps ‘ota approninacly 9 °C (Brac O83). The sve br Ite ase tet 6.°Ch basso othe apr in teisandens 2 ies and cols, esning est he urocig Thee eae so pets ats ay cosy aii Te rope spats the pose fm he sample sone. Ne he pepe, ep ioe in enprtr antprosr c toe nar ace ih 1 jeans i pests ranging om 15 39 0 to TON th) Tey fo for huss of Kets and hve at ipa ineone on se He Armas inh sec cilion sar ny of thas ay fom heron in pops sch a temper and sue cme, Whe ir as noes sl ver nde so hts ea eo the undying seice The epon ce anatase carters Source regi: the tc an the ols ao sue pon. Whe 2 a sr mass mae cld at ma, nl ot spy ming ee fz o scons qyear erect called om Cada feng ve dries arm a Weer advaning ade wah te ng eg of he co armas old tom and hea veal nape the wan aii lvncng ovate cl ie edn ee war ih A ery ar slope sh wa sr ing od see la i. ars 7 where 3 is the gradint in pascals per degree Celis. “the relate humidity Ry isthe abo of the actual vapor pressure to its saturation vale at a given ae temperature (ee Fig. 3.2.1: a 62.10) £ aan) k ‘The temperature at which air would jest become saturated at a given specifi humidity is dew: poin temperature Ty Example 3.2.1 Ata climate ston, se presre is messed a 10 KP ai te rate 20°C and the wel, or dew pot perature as 16°, Calelate iouRe 324 sniosvancware, $9 the comesponding vapor pressure, relative humidity, specie mami, and ir esi Seton, The said vapor presse a T= 20°C i given by Ea. 3.2.9) naw ex (ara + waren 259 acd the actual vapor esse «i cleltt by the same method substi the ‘ew pin teperatire Ty = 16°: eneitep (ae) in3+T wert exp (1227428) ov lara t6) 19 Fe “The elative my om (3.2.11) 6 paras Saturated vapor pressure of water ‘vapor over liquid water Sgr Var Pemire m2 tnd th speci haiti ven by (3.2.6) with p = 10 KP =100 10 aroeat 819 Taxi 0.015 watercg nist sie ‘The si density is caleulted fom the ides gs I (2.7), The ga const, is gen by @.2.8) with.» 0.0113 kgkg aR, = 20% + 0.6089) = 287 (08 00115) = 289 kp K, and T= 20°C = QO-4. 273) K = 495 Kyo tm =o. Rr 400 x 108 BODE 118 ken? Water Vapor in a Static Atmospheric Column Tp stn nna is ncn i ps 3 pe ane oan “The variation of sit temperature with altitude is described by e214) Where ais the laps rate. As shown in Fig. 3.2.2, near temperature variation ‘combined withthe (wo physial laws yes a nonlinear variation of pressure with altitude. Density and specific humidity also vary noalieaty with litade. From 212), py RCT. ad sabi oles Substituting dz = ~AMie from (3.2.14 sooovencusres 61 Pane expen gun 322 Fs nd epee von nan woe coe, sla snd integrating both sides between two levels and 2 i the atmosphere gives (Fh (aaj) ny non( any Precipitable Water ‘The amouat of moisture in an atmospheric column is alle its precipitable water Consider an clemest of eight ds ina clam of horizontal crow-estionl ec 4 Fg. 3.2.2), The mass of atin the element is gy de and the mass of Water fontaine in the air pA de. The toil mas of precipitable water nthe column ween elevations & and >is2 orsxo wena. ‘The integral (3.2.17) i calculated using inuevals of Height Az, each with an incremental mass of precipitable water my = DBAS: 218) Where g, and, ae the average values of specific humidity and air density over the interval. The mass increments are summed over the eon to give te tol reciitable wate, Example 32.2 Calculate the precipitable water in «str ar clean 10 kn Iiph stove {of round arcs The surface gress fe 101.3 HP he sare sSFtemperure is 10°C, and he apse te 6 °C Solution. The ess of the calclton ae summsie in Tbe 3.2.2. The incre tea in elevations them ss Ae = 2 Fm = 200m. For the fis creme, f=Om Ty 30°C GOs 273)K = M09 Kiat2>= 200m, by Ey. 2.10) ting a= 6.°Cm 0.0065, TT ales~2) = 0004500 - 0 aire Station of precpable water a strated air column (Example 32.2) comet 2 oe rr Baton Femmenee he Beaty Sap im cot mim ams $ mB wa tae i TR Bl Oa ‘ ce ee et ee ee ee ee ee) Siem 7 > u Sete Rewnarmet Iman Sat a, oom ao Ss ‘ oe bo fon Bene Bom 8D Dow O0rls dss 20 % oe two ante spies waren 6 ‘shown in column 3 ofthe ble. The as constant an be then 25287 JAB Kin ‘Bisexample case ts varaton Wa pei humid smal oe Ey. (0 9) ‘Theat ressure 2000 ms then gken by (3.215) with sak 98 110.0068~ 2) = 5.26, 38 Theat Snsty the grovnd is sled frm (3.2.12): tan x 1 ara 16a? nd asin clean ves the ae dest of 0.97 kp 2000 m, The average eaity over the 2 kim intemeat is tetefoe = (116 + 0972 LOT helm! (see clare an 9), “The stu vapor presi at the ground is determin sing (3.2.9): 24.204 ‘he conesponding vale a 2000 m where T= 17°C, ise = 1.98 KP atu 6, The Specie humiy atthe ground stacey clued by Eq (32.6) ant nx 42 08 TO 26 teks ‘82000 m g, = 0015 bas. The average valu of specie humidity ove the 2 km increment is thee g, = (0.026 + 0.015) ~ 0.0008 Eps coum 8) ‘Subsang ino (3.2.18). the ass precipitable wateria theirs? inreens64 onsen weno amma de 00208 149 61 00 By ang te remental muses, he ttl masofpeipble wari the column found tbe my = 77 Ap fol I. The eam dey of liquid wer hye mutes in colurn 11 of Table 3.22 for percent of aa ms ie each increment sho ta ore than half fhe prespitale water std he st 2 sve the nnd sri nth example There sony tery sl smc ‘¢prespable ner shove U0 ka leva. The depth of presale ater ‘his coum acento prices sl str, ba are storm 00 ee 3.3, PRECIPITATION Precipitation includes rainfall snowfall, and oer processes by which wer falls tothe land surface, sach as hail and ses. The formation of precipitation equres the ling af ap air mass in the amsphere so tht it cools dd some of is ‘moisture condenses. The three rain mechanisns of air mass Uiting ate fron tat iftng, where wm airs hited over cooler at by Srl passe: orographic Tig. im which ana sass css 10 pass over a mountain range and contectice ling. where ais drawn upwards by convective action, Such a i the center fof tuundentorm eel Convective cell are inated by srtace heating, hich Causes a vertical instability of moist aif, and ae susaibd by the latest heat of ‘aporzation given up as water vapor rss and condenses, “Te formation of precipitation s clouds iv ilustatd in Fig. 3.3.1. As sir ises and cools, water condenses ftom the vapor to the lu stat Ifthe temperature is below the Heezingpoit. then ie crystals are formed osead Condensation reautes seed called condensation nucleus aroand wich the ‘water molecules can atach or neteae themselves, Paley of dst owing io aircan act as condensation nucle, parcles containing ions are effective suc because the fons eectrostalcally attract the polr-honded water roecules. Tens in the uimosphere sacle parities of st desived from evaparaed se spray. 4nd Sulphur ad mitogen compounds resting from combustion. The diameters of {hse paces range from 10"? to 10 en an the patil are known as aero For comparison, th sizeof a atom i about 10" mn, so the smallest aerosols aye composed of jst a fee hundred atoms “The ny droplets grow ty condensation and inpst with tir neighbor 4s they are carted hy turbulent air motion, until they become large enough that the fonce of gravity veromes that of fiction and they begin to fll. frher Increasing in size a they hit ether droplets in the Zl path. However, asthe drop fal, water evaporates fom is surface and the dra sre diminishes, so the drop nay be reged to the size af an aevool agin and be carried pwd in the anesencvane 68 Dep tc ey CD eps ice ay ope seniten youre Doe efx am) SF ane ein Drops \ Sno ede 3.3.1 (a pn hd: ae fed by mc fv ana es 29 gh may ewes "ss elas ty apg mt emg lod though urblent ation. Aa upward current of ony 0.5 cms is suicient | ‘any 410 am droplet. toe crystals ofthe same weight, cause oftheir shape and Inger sre’ cun be supporsd by even lower velocties The cy of condensation, fg, cvapoaton, ahd rising gccars om average abou en tines befor the op 154 erical sie of about 0.1 mm, whichis age enough fal hugh the ote cloud {Up to abou | mim in diameter the droplets remain spin shape, but ‘beyond is sie hey Bega fo faten out on the Dot vm hey’ are 8 Longer Sable fling though ar and breakup into sll raindrops and opts. Nowa ‘indrops falling trough the cloud base are 01 103 mon in diameter. ‘Oberv ation indicate that water droplets ma’ eit in lows a subtee2ing temperatures down to -35°C. At this tomperalure te supercooled deepets wil freeze even without freeing nicl. The saturation vapor pressure of water vapor Is ower over ice than over guid water, s0 ce panicles are mined Wil Yer ceopets, the ice particles will grow By ctaperation from the dope ‘nd condensation onthe ‘ce crystals. By callson and coalescence, ice eral "ypicaly form listers and fall as snow fakes Hovsever, single sce crystals may owe slg th they fall ect the earth ail slot66 senosnoncncy Cloud seeding s 2 process of atifiilly nucleating clowls to induce previpiation.Siver indie is common nocleting agen! and i spread from craft in which a sve iodide solution is evaporated with a propane flame to reduce particles, While there have been many experiments wherein loud seed ing was considered ro have induced precipitation, the great variably of meteo- rope recs involved in roduting precio make iicato achieve ‘Terminal Velocity Three forces at on a falling rundrop (Fi. 3.3.2: a gravity force Fy due to is weight, a buoyancy force Fy doe tothe displacement of air by the drop, and « frag force Fe det tition betwoen the drop and th suounding ir Ifthe ‘nop i 4 sphere of damster Dts volume i (61D! so the weight fore 5 us{Z|0 630) and he bouyaney free is Fes naa 3) 83.2) where py an od ete deases of wate nd i, eset Te fon tag forces gen by a Fae Cand 633) Where Cy Is 4 dimensionless drag coefficient, A a of the dop, and Vis the fall velocity Te the dio release from est, wil accelerate unt teaches its terminal Velocity Vat Which the three forces are balanced. In hie condition. FaaFy-Fe Vin Bas. 23. (074 the eros sectional esc, leting V FIGURE 33.2 Force fag inp f= ni Fs = bays (GY) Iv snmrenc are 67 Canad Fro y, = [282/04] v= (ei ose “The assumption ofa spheric indo shape is valid for dps up 1 mm indianeter Beyond ths sz, te drops become atone onthe htm sad sre ‘ral m cross seston; en Dey ae Shaacterizd by the equivalent dametr of {pera nop fuving sane volane as tefl drop (Puppcte and Ket, 1978). Raindrops can range pt 6mm in diameter, bt op are han 2 mm are unusual, especialy in low-intensity ctl or tiny ope in clouds, up 0-0-1 mmm diameter, the drag force is specie by Stole ow fr which theta coctiient Cy 24iRe, where Reis the Reynolds ramber pg wih being the vies. Falling aos tre beyond the range of Sioks" lan vast of Cz developed expenmestly by dtseraton ontop are ive in Tale 3.31 which slved for Vis Example 3.1. Cale the erminal elcity of Imire ano ling isl it sundae stosphse esse (101.3 HR) ad temperature 20°C Solution. The terial vlociy i given by Ea. @3.1) wit C= 0.671 fom ‘Tble 331. ACU, p, — 98 kBim and p,~ 1.20 kp? al presze 101.3 i _Js<981 x 0.001) 998 30671 Values of V similarly computed for various diameters a ploted in Fig, 3.33. I canbe Seen that the temninal velocity increases with drop size upto plateau level of about S mm drop size, for which the terminal velocity is approximately 9m Baur sas ‘Drag coeficints for spherical raindrops of diameter D. at standard atmospheric pressure (101.3 KPa) and 20°C air temperature Dopainee Diam oF a4 06 OF I 30 30 4) 0 DapeaefcentCy 42146 107 DAIS 0471 GSI7 0502 0559 OHHSe etiensiies eo es = cane ‘The preceding computations are for set level conditions. Higher in the amosphere, the ar density p decreases, and Bq. (3.3.4) shows that hee will be 'comesponding increase in Vc raindrops fl faster in thinner ai. At air pressure [SOKPs and temperature IOC the plateau velocity of lage drops increases from 9 mis to litle more than 12 mi. ‘Thunderstorm Cell Model ‘The mechanisms underlying air mass litng and precipitation at illustrated by considering a schematic model of a thunderstomn cell, s showa in Fig 3.3.4 ‘The thunderstorm is visualized asa vera column made up of the pats, an inflow region sea the ground where war, moist st Is drawn ino the cell ‘an uplift region inthe middle where moisture condenses as at rises, producing precipitation, and an ono region i the upper atmosphere where outlaw of Cooler, diger a occurs. Outside the eel column, the ostlow air may decent fover a wide area, pick up more meistre, and renter the cel tthe Bottom. This entre pater, elled comectie cll circulation, i diven bythe vast amount of Brag im p,m ow heat nergy released by the condensing mostwe inthe uplift region. Observations fof cumulonimbus clouds producing thunders india thatthe clevation of the tp ofthe convective ell ranges from 8 km to 16 kam (5 1010 mi in the Stmosphere (Wiesner, 1970), and at times the tops of these clouds may even te trough the tropopause int the staosphere “The thundesionn is analyzed using the continuity equation fr water vapor: “f[Jomarsffanver as 1 precipitation of intensity (ih or emi i falling on an area A beneath the storm cll the mass flow rate of water leaving the cell smi, ~-—py/A. whete puis the density of liguid water. Under the assumption of steady flow, the time Grivave term in (3.3.5) is zero, andthe mas low rte of precipitation ix equal to the difference between the mass flow rates of water vapor entering the cel (1) and lewving 2 Gee Fig. 33.4, 50 -nin=[Jonvar-[foavan 00 ‘The cll is eylndero amet D, and ir enters though sight nreent ‘and eaves though beght increment Sr, If i deity and pei uiiy a sumed cota win ech lnrement Gi the miner sewn fa sample 3.2.2), then a miA=(aamadiey-tgotdin 030 st cs al des ot yar oa farts tas were py is the density of dry air, which may be expressed using Bq, (3.2.1) as P= pull ~ qu), Substituting into 6.3.8): [nt ~ 4. Azle 2D ~ {pst ~ g0VA2}i2D 1a) (ouvsen = asdeh| =F 639) Substnting (3.3.9) ito (3.37) and noting that the tea on which precipitation 'sfalig is A = (>/8)0%, i follows that Sontidss a, ~ a5) 1 = Sa tua) 3.10) Example 3.3.2 thuniesioom sll Sm ia dameter hiss cloud bse of 15k, tad stele canine reorded hearby indeate std ir cniions wth ai70 ammprsosc.oor eee lot ere ne preety tataniaelagt seer Cee agente iat Solution, Te peptone iy given Wy (3.3.10) whee Vy = Lm B= 1300 mp. = 1000 Kp and D ~ SI00 THe Gus Pay 28 dr OE found te eth outne in Es. 22 using a = 0.007°Cim for heap te, [Rabe way beset up forthe goed valoes 1 ~ 0,15, and 10k, a Tamme Topas Mae Se 7 ‘Pressure De Pressure Humidity cm o_o @ mms CH re ee ee a) From te be, = OO Mek ws nang he as averages beeen Oni LS kat py = (116 + L022 = 1.09 kp, and fy nO 0268 # 0016032 = 0.021 Kgl. Seating to @.3. 10: siaslaney aD (1 41.09 11500 .0210— 00 ooo x00 {1 = C0002 2272 «10 ws mh “The mas flow rate of pecption is given By tip = paid, where A = (wit = Gd) = 50005 = 1.96 107? at pe = 1000 kg i = 1D Tonk wt t.96 x 10" = 534 154g. “The mast ow et of ncoming mcr is gNen by Ji =e 82)2D 1=109 x 0.021 1.00 1500 = 5000, 539 10° kot sx ‘The proportion of the incoming mosure precipitated 1 fy, hu = HP) = 098" "The ie ft of att bet du © waite condensation is. wee ‘sth neat best of apron of wate, 2.5% 108g 28108 5.34% 10 133s «10 Ww somesmnc wen Th =1.335,000 “This ou energy canbe compared age thermal powerplants, which may hae = canst of O00 MW. I ca be Sen that he energy tne i terior Variability of Precipitation Precipitation vais in space and time according tothe general pater of at spheric ccuaton and according to lral factors. The average over 4 number ‘of yeas of observations ofa weather variable is calle its normal value. Fite 51355 shows the normal monthly precipitation for number of lossions inthe United States. Higher precipitation occurs per the cost han inland because the ‘ceans supply the bulk of the stmospheric moisture for precipitation. Areas to fhe east of the Cascade mounts (eg, Boise, Idaho) have lower preipttion| tan those to he west (eg. Seale, Washington) because much of the moistre ‘ate pedaminaly west sow heen extra Pronounced seasonal variation in precipitation occurs where the annual ccilation in the aumspheri culation changes the amour of moire ile ‘over those regions (eg, San Francisco and Miami). This pater is stated in Fig. 3.3.6, which shows the normal monthly pecpton fee varius locations in the United States. Precipitation s very variable in the mountain tates inthe west here orographc effects influcace precipitation. Preipttion increases going est ‘eros the great pain ad i spatially more uniform inthe cat than i the wes, Prcpitaton variability forthe world shown in Fig. 3.3.7 The averoge annual Pecpiation on the land surface of the earth is about B00 mn (32 in), but seat ‘ably exis, fom Arica, Chie, with an ann average of 0,3 mm (002 in) to Mt. Waiateale. Hawaii, which rceives 11,680 mn (460 in per Seaton erage, 34. RAINFALL instomns vary gray in space and time. They can be represented by ‘sohsetal ‘maps an isohye isa contour of constant rainfall. Figure 3.8.1 shows an sahyetl ‘mip of oa rainfall epth measured fortwo ston: oe a sor of May 30 Tune 1 1889, which caused about 2000 deaths ia Johnstown, Pennsylvania, following ‘dam faite, and the other a stor of May 24-25, 1981, in Austin, Tes, which R84 13 deaths and $35 milion in propery damage (Moor, etl. 1982). The Zeimsoun sor is pated ona sale 50 mes lager than the Austin storm. The {Reson depth of prcitacon i both tors is eal the sae = 10 nt Asi om wa frame ald han he Stove storm The Senso ms cael by ofthe type analy Tsohyeal maps ae prepared by interpolating rainfall dats recoded ot gag ‘Avtain gage record consists of & set of rainfall dephs recoded forriotRe 337 ” nna ouRe: 4.4 Sea pr wo sos. The som ae sth sane manu deh of it inl ‘te Joon ar coved much ages a ee aro os Ea ha cessive increments in ime, as showa in Table 3.41 forthe data in Sint increment rom gage I-Bec inthe Austin sor, A rainfall hyerograph is plat oF ‘fll depth or intensity a a funtion of time, shown in the form nf a histogram ia Fig. 3.4.2) forthe [lee data By summing the rainfall incements hough time, cumulative rainal yetograph.o& rainfall mats curve proved. shown in Table 3.41 and Fig 3-420) ing IME ssi nl depth, ini, depths) record a even ie interval ina storm is found by computing a series of unning total of rafal ‘Pt for hat time interval starting at various pots in the ston then selecting ‘maximum valve ofthis seis, For example, for 4 30-minute time inal, ‘able 3.4.1 shows running totals beginning With 1.17 laces ceeded i the fst76 smseonvonovcy ante 34 Computation of rainfall depth and intensity ata point ‘Time aint ee om) tay Win th 2h Boo BOs es a 0s ua So 2h @ 6 aaa = os 3s are) et BO iS Mo 03s ae Sas 02 243 S08 lis bs ip te Eb ie GR an tm tos fs Ao a 0B as She 330 us bon om Sus 91 ts bo Om be On Nex aim 6 rT a eu 556 40 30 minutes, 1.65 inches ftom $ min t 38 min, 1.81 inches from 10 min to 40 ‘nin, and soon, The maximum 20 minit recorded depth ie 3.07 inches recorded between $5 min and 85 min, comesponding oan average intensity of 3.07 in S hh 6.14 in over this oterval. Tale 3.41 shows similarly computed maximum depths and intensive for one and two-hour interval. It canbe seen that a the time period increases th average intensity stained bythe storm dereases (5.56 jn for one hour. 410 ih for two hours). just as the average intensity over fn area docreses as the area incteases, as shown ia Fig. 3.41. Computations sovesnenc yarn 77 i ph in micune 3.42 ‘rset cae ipo erst of May 24.35.98 a of maximum rainfall depth and intensity performed inthis way give an index ot how severe a paricular storm is, compared 19 other storms recorded atthe Same loeation, an they provide usefl dat for design of low contol structures, Am important fact be detrined fom historia rainfall recor nthe serge epi ofrainfll over an zen such a 4 waterbed.78 smuprspenccr Areal Ratnfall ‘The arthmeticmean methd isthe simplest method of determining areal average rainfall. I iavaves averaging the rainfall depths recorded at mamber of ages [Fig.34.3(0), This meth is saistactoy ifthe gages are veiforly dinibats ‘ver the ares andthe individual gage measurements do no vary greatly about the If some gages ae considered more representative of the area in question ‘than oer then relative Weighs may be assigned tothe Bages in computing the areal average. The Thiessen method assumes that ata’ pot in the Waterss the rainfall isthe same as that athe nearest gage so the depth recone given ave is applied out to a distance halfway to the next station in any dietion ‘The relative weights foreach gage are determined fom the corresponding tea: of application in a Thiessen paygon network, the oundaies of the polveon= ‘being formed by the perpendicular bisects of the nes joining adjacent gages [Fig 3.4.30). If there are sages, andthe area within the watershed assignee to each is A and Py 8 the rainfall recorded atthe jh gage the areal average reciptation forthe Watershed is DS, aan Ba.) ‘here the wiesbed awa A= 2.4. The Thienen meas genenlly more Foun 3.4. soesnencucen 79 sccute than the arithmetic mean meio, but its inflexible, because a new ‘Friesen nctwork must be constructed each time there is a change inthe age fewest when da smi em oe ofthe aes, he Thesen fa does na dzetly acount for orotaphic nluenees on rail. "The isonet methed overcomes some ofthese difieultes by constructing jwotyets sing observed depts a an gages and interpolation between ajacent izes (FE 3-4.%c)). Where there isa dense network of eangages,inohetal Japs can be constructed using computer programs for aumated contouring, (Onc he isohyetl map isconsrted, the area-Abeticen each pi of soe, titi the watershed, is measured and moltiped by the average P, ofthe rata depts ofthe vo boundary isolets to compute the ae erase precipitation by By. G41). The sohyetl method is flexible, and knowledge of he ston pater cam iafuence the drawing of the isohyets, ta fury dense network of gages is ‘needed 10 comet construct the sohyetl map from s complex storm, Other methods of weighting rain sage records have been proposed such 2 the recprocal-disance-aguared method in which the influence of the nal 1a gaged point onthe computation of rainfall at an ungaged pein is inversely roportional to the distance between te two pnts (Wei and M&Guinnes. 1973), Singh and Chowhury (1986) studed the varius methods for calculating ae average precipitation, including the oes desebed here, and cacladed tha ll the methods give comparable resus, especially when the time period is fone; AlcuRe 8.40) (pn ea ee infil by he Thon matComputime serge nfl y these mth that is he diferent methods vary moe from one 40 anther when applied to sly rainfall data than when applied to anal dt, 3.5 EVAPORATION The two msin factors infuencing evaporation from sn open water surface are ‘he supply oF energy to provide the lent fet of vaporization and te abit to transport he vapor away from te evaporative sorfce. Solr ration is the rsin source of heat energy. The ability to transport vapor aay from the evaporative Surface depends onthe Wind velocity over the srTace andthe specific humidity tradien inthe ar above it Evaporation from the land surface comprises evaporation directly fom he soil and vegetation surface. and tanspiraron though plant leaves, in which tsar is exacted by the pir’s roots transponed upsatds throws ts stem and diffused into the atmosphore trough tiny openings in the leaves called stomata. The roceses of evaporation from the land surface and transpiration from vegetation ae caleetvely termed evaporanspiration. Evapotrnapaion sf tn pone ase) satan deme fe ~~ St intuenced by the two actors described previously fr open wate evaporation, and ao by a thd factor, the supply of moisture atthe evaporative surface The Petetal evaporranpiration i the exapotanspaton hat woul eects frm 2 ‘el vegetated surfose when moisture sappy is ot intng, and this salted ia way similar that for open water evapeain. Aca coaponsa ‘drops below its potential level as the soil dries out. " Energy Balance Method ‘Te develop the continuity and eneegy equations applicable fr evaporation, com Sider evapeaton frm an eneportion pan as sown in Fig. 38.1" An erage ion pon isa circular tank comaning Water. in which the rate of evaporation to Iasured bythe rate of fall ofthe water surface A cont sslace deans ‘sound the pan enclosing both the water inthe pan and te it abone| Continuity, Becavse the contol volume consis water in both the Hguid and Y2por phases, the integral continuity equation thst he writen separately, f the {89 phases. For the liuid phase, the extensive property = = mus of hand Naler B= 1. ~ by the density of water) and dBldt = yi which the sees ‘eof evaporation . The continuity equation forthe liga phase wad] fours [Joven aan ‘The pan has impermeable sides, so there s no flow of tguid water across ‘he contol suface and, V'dA = 0, The rate of change of sage withinsystem x gv by (a TTY = pA dh where A isthe cs sectional Se of hep si the Seth of warn Subttng no 3) n= AE 0.52) where B = ~dhid i the evaporation rate Forthe vapor pase, B= mass of water vapor; B= the specific mii, ‘ste ir density, and did ~ i, the continuity equation for this phase ned [[Joaers[foave an For seay flow of sir ove the evaprtion pn, the time deivav of war "spor sored within the com votme ere Tvs, afer substan fo fram G.3.2),0.5 9) becomes t= [Jonvan ose ‘ich isthe cont equation fran evapora pa, cosiering both wae tnd water apr n't more gee sc (5) cto fe td to dtie te ‘Xspoion or vapors tf iy surface when wit he fo lana re te eile th of war capo per nt ie yo fn E Energy. The heat energy balance of a hydkolopic system, as expressed by (27.4) cam be applied to the water inthe conto volume! aay afl tye aly ae asf fle ~ + flor ies ran as ‘where ddr is the ate of eat input to the sytem from exten sources, ade smone mares is the rate of work done by the system (zero in this ese) esis the specie imeral heat energy ofthe water, andthe two terns on te Tight hand soe oe respectively, the fate of change of eat energy stored inthe Cone voli og fhe net outiow of heat enemy cated scoss the contl surface wit owing water, Because V= 0 forthe wae inthe evaprstion pan andthe tof chan Fis elevaton, zi very small, 3.56) can be simplified te oF Fo a Considering a unit sea of water surface, the source of heat encegy is net radiation Dox Ry- medsuzed in wats per meter squared, the water spice sensible heat uk, tothe air seam and a ground het flux © th ocd surface, so dif = Ry ~ H1,~ G. It itis assumed that he temperate ofthe ‘water within the contol volume i constant in tne, the only change in th hen stored within the contol volume isthe change inthe intcral energy ate mone vaprated, which is equal to tym, where, ithe late heat of raponeaton Hence, 3.5.7) can be rwriten as RM G= hi, oss) By substituting for ni, From (3.8.2) with, 1m, (3.5.8) may be solved for: m-@) 659) rich isthe energy bolance equation for evaporation, If the sensible het fax ‘and the ground feat fs G are both zero, then a evapraon rae on ‘calculated as the rte at which all the incoming net adation is abnor by evaporation ene 68.10) Example 3.5.1. Calculate bythe energy balance metho the espera rtf ‘Slope Water Suse, ithe net aation i200 Win! and he we oper 29 suming mo sensible ator pound het Das Solution. Fron (2.7.6) te et het sf vpoion 25% 28= 241 Ling. rom Tale 2.3.2 mtr domi p ino G.5.10) pres 500 -2.36% ‘PT kin an bin Ta 282210 nie 8.2% 10°" 1000 8600 mnie 7.10 maideyEssen ern. ope Wake sce Aerodynamic Method ess he spy of est ener, he second itr coming the evaporation ‘me sti he yo ene ar ey fn Stee. The spot it severed bythe mit gat in the i ee the sae andthe wind peo urs he tfc ad thse to pss con 1 eyed by coupling he eqns formas and moncata tap na inte cote sone shown in Fg. 3.52, consider» heron lane of nit aa lected hig’ above te sic. The tpor fax pss ipeond be conection dvogh tis pan i ven bythe equine Tle 28.1 wah ena 63.0 ‘where Ky isthe vapor eddy citfesviny. The momentum fox upward though the plane is likewise given by an equation from Table 2.81 Suppose the wind velocity a and specific humidity’ gy ae measured st slevaton 2, and uy and. at elevation the elevations beng sufietlyelose ‘hat the teanspor rates i and rare costa Between them, Then the substitutions Aiglde = (gy ~ gy (22 ~ 2) an dd (uy ~ 02 2) can be Te In G'S.11) and'(3.3112, respectively, and a ratio ofthe seulting equations taken wo give Bulg = a alto =H) sowoswenicwane 8S Kilt) Kena) ‘The wind velocity in te boundary layer near the earth's surface (upto about 50 mis well descnbed bythe logarithmic peoie law [Eq (28-5) es) as sere "= shear velocity Va, isthe von Karman constant, usally taken 60.4, and zo isthe roughnes eight ofthe sacle given in Table 23.2 Hence, = tis) a Kylin ale) ich isthe Thomntate-Holoman equation for vapor transport, fet developed by Thornvaite and folzman (1939) In aplication itis usually assumed tha the tio Ky/K;.= | and is constant. Thomthwate atd Holeman se up messuetet towers to sample gy and w at different heights and computed the comesponding ‘rapoaton rate, and many subsequent invetgators have made sels caper mets, For operational application where such apparatus isnot availble and me siemens of gy and » are made at only one hight in a standard climate sa tion, Bq, (35:15) is simplified by assuming thatthe wind veloc = 0 at the roughness height cy = zy and thatthe ai is saturied with moisture thee. (0.622.ip, where ¢ i the vapor pressure and isthe ambient air resi (he sare at both height), s0 mesutemens of vaper pee se canbe subsite for those of specitic humidity At height > the sopor sssue isa, the ambient vapor presse in airy and the vapor presse at the surface is taken tbe athe saturated vopor pressure comesponding (0 the ambient air temperature Under these assumptions (35 15) is tewniten a=86 au 6228 pen, eas we plinaalen jet defied here fora unt ates of surface, an eqivalen n 6.516) Recall ged dimensions of (LIT. can te fun y sting cqaprton Femi a eas ~20) ein were 0.62290 pa|tn alent amma many evaporation equations, with he frm Eq. 3.5.17) ja eet B varying from one place to another. This pe Of he vp oy Dao 1 ‘of equation bb Sia rope en mop noe ma sa Capos 2 whe aly pee sein i speed 3 ts all meee at hegit 2 eaten the oo nance Ben Decent gen yO... ong. sot eae ti = 987 Agi Heoce how bemoan po tcstca) 0.62 0891193 ‘a> 1 xomfin[20 10-9 4306107" ahs te ig 5.1), sing 5 = 3169 at 28°C fo Tie Beep dine Rew =O Mbt = 167 5.18 combine ani ot Energy Balance Method Redes taaient eaten ech il ssvosvesc nares 87 ning. Be toma, to of hes lng. 0 «cmb of Sew pea silat cy tls me sa eat Seo aay banc helen mater ean ok te avin te acess, ad at npr say wanes mveion ten be ane he pr etfs ad ee feat Ropero pops Casant cae he oes Biewwen, a= te asi {he erg bln eatin (2.55) hemi at x 6 0 an hn R= hil +B) 0.520) “The Bowen ratio is calculated by coupling the transport equations fr vapor apt hea, this smalar tothe coupling of the vapor and momentum rasp ‘ustions used in developing the Thomthwate- Holzman equation. From TaMe 28.1 the uanspor equations for vapor and heat are = ont aan nest 04% here Cis the specific het st constart pressure and is the het ify Using messurements of gy and 7 made at tw levels: apd znd assuming the ‘eamspor rae is constan! between these levels, division af (35-22) by (8 20 ies Hy _ Gkus= 7) aa, fi Bult) Diving (2.5.28) byt, and subsinting 0.622 e/p for g, provides the expression forthe Bowen ratio B fom (3.5.19) kun: 1) O° Dei Kuter—e) Bay! B524 hee yi the pchromerrc constant we asa)“The ratio KiKi, of the het and vapor dilfasvtes is commonly taken 19 be 1 (ries and Taylor, 1972), Tithe two levels | and 2 are taken atthe evaporative surface and in the overlying air steam, respectively. scan be shown thatthe evaporation rate E, computed from the fate of et radiation (as given by Eq. (3.5.10) and the evaporation rate computed frm aerodynamic methods (Eq. (3.5.17) can be ‘ombined fo yield a weighted estimate of evaporation E, by a z Posey tae “where the psychrometic constant and isthe gralent ofthe saturated vapor pressure curve at ai femperatue T, a piven by 3.2.10 the weighting facts Bia + yi and 7h +) sum to ani) Equation (3.5.26) i the basic equation forthe eombinton method of computing evaporation, which was fist develops ‘hy anman (1948), es dtivaton fs lengthy (ee Wisner, 1970), nd wil not be presented here “The combination method of ealulating evaporation from metrological data isthe most aecurte method when al the requed data are available and the "ssumptions ve stnied, The chief assumptions ofthe energy balance are tht ‘Seay slate eneesy low prevails and that changes i heat storage over tine in the mater body afe not signicart, Thi sumption limits the aplication of the Inet to dally time intrals or longer. and to situations not invlving. Lares Frat rage capacity, sich 36 large lake posesses, The chi assumption of te terodynamic metho! fe assis withthe form of the vaper transfer coefficient 1B in Bq, (3.5.17). Many empirical forms of 8 have been proposed, local fie to observed wind and ether meteorological dat "The combination is well sited for application to smal reas with detailed climatological data. ‘The requied data include net radon, ai temperate humidity. wing sped, and ait pressure. When some ofthese data are unavalabi. Simpler evaporation equations requiring fewer Variables must be used (Americ Society of Chil Engineers, 1973: Dooronbos and Pru 1977). For evaporation ver very large areas, energy balance considerations largely govern he evapor tion rate. For such eases Prestey and Taylor (1972) found thatthe second ter ‘ofthe combination equation (3.5.26) s approximately 30 percent ofthe fis, 30 that (35-26) cin be trite a the Preey Taylor evaporation equation 6.525) peace, asm) aay where @ 1.3, Other investigators have cofinned the validity ofthis appro ‘oth the vale of e varying slighty fom ane loaon 10 another. ‘un eraporaion data provise the best indication of nearby open wet evaporation where such data ae available. The observed values of pan evapora E, ae mui by a pan factor fy = Kp = 1) to convert them 10 equiv ‘open water evaporation values, Us ky ~0,7, bot his fstr varies by se ‘nd location “The formulas forthe various methods of caleulating evaporation ate sum aie in Table 3.5.1 sxample 3.83, Us the combination method to calclte he evapotion ate om open wer face subj tone ada of 200 Win temperate 25° Featve Nomis 40 pccent ad Wing sped 3 rs, al eared at Pgh 2 nd Tinos pressure 101.3 KPa Soluion. From Example 5. the xaporton ate cmesponing 1 et aition 200 Win Is Ey = 7-10 mms. and tom Example 3.5.2 the seradyamic Inethod yiels F, = 7.8 mmduy for he given ai temperate, bmi, Sind speed conditions. The combination rend rege ales for and in Ey 25.28), The ppehmmersecomean y's Boer 9 (3528) wing C= 10S BipK fora, AV, = 10, and, = 2481 10 Jka 25°C om Example ass kw om TaD seme ete graven of the started vapor pressure curve a 28°, given by (3.2.10) bith sey = 3167 Pe P= 28 ie, a-7 a8 3161 ws oF 1887 PC ‘The weighs inthe combiton equation, hen, are (A +9) = 67.7 + (GF) 29.26 ad Sp THTHIRRT © 7.1) ~ 0738 The evapo Ite then comput by (2326 ae Tey 0.794730 + 0262 X745 12 amid Fe Example 3.5.4 Use the Pistey-Tayor metho to cacute te evaporation rte fora water by wth nt rafinion 20 Win! an ir temperate 25°C Seluion, The Petcy-Tayor metho wes Ba, (3.8.27) with Ey ~ 7.10 mi fom tine 35:1, AB» 9) = 798 APE fom Eagle 5.3. and a= ee ‘Stiamary of equations for calculating evapo (1) Bnergy Balance method E,=0.0353R, (rmley) sere ‘y~petaiation (Win) 2) Aerodynamic method a ~ ea) miley) were 0.102 [wal 1 5 wind velocity is meas teh 2s fom Table 282. Ae, (oui) var conotteny 57) Toa epee 0) eRe) in Which steele ni (0 =. 8) Combination method sere 8 Parc) (4) Priestley-Taylor method where @=13 “ei ota ai rd ua pad arwosmnene waren 91 19 x0.738 7110 68 mitay hic lose woe msl rom the more complicated coniauton metal shown Inthe pesos exam 3.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION -Evoprranspraion iste combination of exaporton from the soil surface and ttamspiration from vepstation. The sme factors governing open Water evaporation ako govern evaporespiaion, namely energy supply and vapor anspor. In sition, a thin factor enters the picture: the supply of moisture w the evaporative surface, As the soil dis out the ate of evapotranspiration drops below the level itwould have mainaned n'a well watered soi, Calculations ofthe rate of evapotranspiration ar made wing he same meth- cds desribed previously for open water evapora, with ajusimen to acount for the condition ofthe vegetation and soil (Van Bavel, 1956; Month, 1980), Forgiven climatic contin, the si rate isthe ference crop enapotraspia tion, this being "the rte of evapsranpiation fom an extensive surface of 8 cm ‘to 15 em tal green griss cover of uniform height, actively growing, completely Shading the ground and not short of water” (Doorenbos and Pru, 197, Comparisons of computed and measured values of evapteanspration have ‘been made at many locations by the American Society of Civil Engines (1973) snd by Doorenbos and Prt (1977). They concluded thatthe combination method ‘of Ea. (3.5.28) iste est approach, especialy ifthe vapor transport coefficient 2B in Eq. (3.5.18) i calibrated for local conditions. For example, Docrenbos and Prt ecommend 8 oon + =) os» in which B is in mmvday-Pa and wi the 25-hour wind ron in kilometers per dy ‘measured at height 2 m. The 2the wind mi the cumulative dance a particle ould move in te airstream in 24 hours under the prevailing wind condition, Note that the dimensions of w given her ae not mater pr second as used inthe ‘uustion for B given in Table 3.5.1, but the resulting Yale of E15 in milimetes Ber day in both cases ‘The potnialcvspotranspation of another eop growing under the same nitions asthe reference erp i ealculated by mulling the reference crop [otranspration Ey by a crop coefcen the value of which changes with the stage of growth of the erop. The acual evapotanspiration Eis found by "ultplying te potential evapotanspiraton by a sol coafciet&, (0 fy =D B= hhcEn 662) The values ofthe crop coefficient k vary over a range of about 0.2 = ke = 1.3.48 shown in Fig. 3.6.1 (Doowenbos and Pru 1977) The intl vale of92 sontennonaooy for well-watered soil with litle vegetation, i approximately 0.35. As the veges tion develops, ineeass to a maximum value; which ean be grater thas or ops with large vegetative cover. such a8 com, which transpire a Erester tte than grass, Asthe crop matures opens, its moisture requitemeas dish, The Precise shape ofthe crop coefficient curve varies with the agricultural penton: ‘of region, suck a the times of plowing and harvest. Some vepetaton sah ay xcs or emanent ound cover, ay ate al i ene ce in Fig. 3.6.1, 7 . a Example 3.61. on Govt, Midmet, and Sisk, 1980) The mah "ake felons cop evaporaspsaion Bsa wig he ane sovestne wee 93 nethod, fr average conditions in Sila, Bulgaria, ate shown in the luble below. The crop coefficients for corn (see Fig. 6.1) ae ty (O38, = 1.0, and 055; f= April 7g= une Ty ty— Daly 1 Fe September I. and ts ~ October I. Calelate the sual evapotransintion| from this erop assuming a well-vatered sol Sottion. Month Apr May ton el Ate Sep Od AprOwtttl Emmi) Git Sas Sa) Soe AD 23 Mmm ® 038 O38 oe La 1 Om O88 Ei(omiay) 157 207 402 GH S916 129 247A ooh average values of k are pce folloming te carve in Fig. 36.1 wing ihe pen vues. Im ne, re rom O34 a #2 = Jane 1801.00 a = Il Ts hf aken as (0.38 + 1.00)2 = 0.68. The values of Bare computed exe 5. (8462) wih Ay = {fora wal-waoed sot Ey = AcE Te otal ‘rapounspration Tor the proving season from Apo October for sor, 28.7 fm, is 72 pect of the value aaa caver Would have Yield under heme Coodins, 34.3 mam REFERENCES American Scie fC Engin, Consume sf wae arian mat genes, Sy em, Ral Go on rigtan Wi Regen, Ne To Bowen, 1S, The oof est es by cain a Hy eaprsion foo ya ice, Brae W Esgration oe Soop. D il, exc, Hala, Deere J af W O- Pra rope mguern ian a Diag Pa 24 TUN Fed and Agate Ornate, Rome, lay 97 Sezer J. BR Mao, WSs Aaa mer demands in he Ste "ion RAO, ns App. So. Atl, Leng. Ar, 180 Mao The Py of Code Oa Unser Pe Lae, 1987 Maney BC,'W-E Rotts nd WA Lin Fo Wf May 2025 1 oe Aan, ea "etoplin sen Pri estos, 4850, SG! Se 183 Monet The desopett nd een of Pema’ etapa orl pesos ‘9/30 Ps by Dill. Aces ress Oran. Fa pp 24-25, 18, ‘WL eva Th Ati Ten, ond of My 2-818, yr for Comme i, CB I a he nef ais to eet i Prope HD ie Mir efCloud and Prcipron, Dy Ril, Dents,94 senimnsenoecy Rah, A, Hadas, gaan Pre, Ox 179. Sh Wn hy opm i ef hg men el is, ‘omni ©. Wan Bs Haman, Ta dian of eapnsion fm el nwa ‘htc My Meter ins tl 7. tt 9. 1S. Ay Cp of Epes, Sr de ber, Bakinere Dit fee, Ali Wo, 11 an Meum Repo! Ste se mead, compe tie fr snang sea preston, AFSC. U. 8. Apt Reseach Sete, Noth Ce agin Choco, On, 107 Wier €°F, Huromverly, Cpa nd Hal Land, 970 PROBLEMS. 3M.1_A pel of arth equ is at est eve to the art's stface. Considering Ihe effects on sit sion ofthe conservation of sur moment, cll be "eorecaleatardvlocy ofthe eave whe ean suc fhe pre ‘Simoved wo 73 lite. Mean rats fear = 6371 kr 1.2. A parcel of aiinly a ret relative to the eat’ surface, moved tte ‘een ce souh). Censisrng nl he efecto the conservation of angie ‘more, sbow tat he velocity oe frcel fires othe a's srace {2m sn tana where she mean ais he ethan The pei S24 Ata clare ston he flowing measurement are made sit pes = 101.1 Eh, sir emperaure = 25, snd dew pot temperate ~ 20°C. Calcot He ovetponding apr peste, live ht specie hm, andr density 322 Galette vapor poste ir posure, sce iy. and i deny ot ‘Sevaton 1500 if he sare conta ea specified Pro, 32.1 and he lap rate 9. 132.3 fe i tnpeatue i 15°C and the elatve humid 35 erence the ‘apr pressure, specie amity, ad ai esi ASSune Sania simosphere pes (1013 AP, S24 Solve Prob. 32.3 if he alr temperature rises to 30°C. By what perceage does the serie hua nce ss eal ofthe temperate ef 18 620°C? 328 Cakulate the pecipiable water (on) in 2 TOkigh saturated mosphere ‘olin ihe srface cnn ar empetare = 20°, peste = 11 3 LP, he lapse rate 65°C. ‘8246 Solve Prob, 3.25 forse trperatres of 0, 10,20, 30 and 40°C a pot 2 raph showing he variation of precise water ph wit aus temperate S31 Gatuate the tomina veloc of 4 0m nindrop at standard amos revere and a epersre NC. As densty = 12 ge 332 Anat careat moving vera wpa a mis aris aialops of vaso ss. Clete the oct of¢2-amdanetr Sop snd determine wheter fling Repeat this exces fort Our dlanwer dnp Asam send Somer pereané sir temperate 20°C. Air density = 1.20 kp S43 Ita iphercl inp of diameter D. Senity pn and dap concent Cs ‘sled fon etn an moxpre of ney aw ta the tance falls an as 336 gar ass sas aaa aaa 3 saa sree ware 95 aan vloiy Vis ien by Bel weet] ‘Assume V= terminal velocity Using i gion gen Po 2.3.3, cee eds 40 op elo standart sanosperie presse abd 20°C we temperate Raindop of titer I mm are aling on a erable soil Exim he npc feay of sch dp. Assume snardstesperc cmdline of 2° eerie nd 101.0 sr presse Hine the drop wil lose inet exergy on pact, Sve Prob 3.3.5 fr drop sizes, 05, 1,393 Sram ad plots gph showing the varios energy wit dp sie Fr the tundeson cll mode, xo tht the proportion of iomingmniste precipitate is iven oy (gu grlan(t gah where a ae the sesic Flies of te iow ad cow tir setae, epee. Sone Example 3.3.2 in the text to determine the pit ity i he forface temperature se 20°C. By what pecenage the precipston imensiy ‘educa by lowering the sfc temperate rors 300 20°C? Clete the ate ‘les of Iten tin the thstonm tough condensation of water apr to groduce preston. Save Eanple 33.2 inthe texto determine he pectin fu hes ifthe moisture atm i at eevation 5. What psemape of the ncn. {ay a pice of grph paper over the iahyetal mip forte abesowe stn Fig. 3410) and ince the oye. Calculate the volume ef peiptation sa "us som andthe aterate spn of peiption win the are nde By he Zin tory alee tbe werge depth of peiptatcn ore the 10 mi 10 mi area shown forthe Astin worm ig. 3.8 10 “Te folowing rafal a were cre at gage Bo foe te oem of May 24- 235, 1981, Astin, Texas Rata) 007 0390250021102 _Os oc theif hyetogrph. Compute ad lt the camaative ral yetopaph, Cael he ines dept and est reer i 0, 20, and 30 mites or ts som. Compete -miat inesiy with he vale fousd se Tale 3.4.1 ‘The following Inreretal inflata were cose page 1SVLN in Asin, “Teast on May. 2, 191. Po the rinfll hyetognph. Conte an po he Cumulative rfl yeingraph. Cals the maximum depth and mens of ‘inal for 5,1, 30, 0.90, 130 mites fr his se. Compute esl for 50, 6, se 120 mirats wih ne sles given in Table 3.8 or page Bee in "he tame storm. Which gage eapesenood te mare severe al”a4 aay antl de) 020 CD 0.13 0.8 O19 G16 DIK aulk 925 048 040 ‘The shape fa singe Yasin can be approximated by polygon whote veres tg lost te felloing eooninen (8,81 [5,3 (3.8.0, 10), ad {$.—5) The rainfall anus fast were end by a mumbo ein ages ‘Staged win an neat the ban a lows (ge wun Cordiats Reorder Al coordinates ae expese in ilorters. Determine the average rfl the basin y Cl the athescmean metho. (the Trissen mtd ae) the ‘shea eed. Hine: Forte Thiesten metho, hep by Sawing pogo ‘round gage 9 then de polygons stow gages 2,33 and 7 forthe atl rath, daw he shes with ania afl on aie renin south tonic trough (3,3), Compute he aerage minal over he dime ae it Fi. 3.4.3 gage ston isioved sng a the aitneicmean mete, (he Thiessen meh ‘id () be sea mend Feuruin gaes lected win rectangular with fur oer (00), (0.13), (04,15, sg (14.0 have the flowing orate and ecnded nals asi Fey asa set nea sea S64 sposvencsaris 97 ‘A coordinses te exessd in miles, Compute tesserae anil inthe aes tye Thiessen meld {Compute by the Priley Taylor med the evapcrton rate in millimeters per ‘hay fr 2 lke Wit ay hen thet tmpere Is San te ot {alton 0 Win and on sumer dy when he nt aii 250 Win at the temperate 3: Tor Cao yp, in July average et ration is 185 Wie, le omperse 285°C rlatne humiiy $5 pore. and wind speed 2.7 asa eight 2m, CColeiethe open water evaperston at niles pr ds) wing teeny ‘tho (Ete srodyname mabe (E,), the combination method and the ‘Pree Tapioe method Asa sandan!soxphee pres 10,3 AN an mooi cm, For Carin Jruay. he averpe eater conto ae net raison £0 Wh ferperatire 14°C, eae hamaiy 68 prc, and wi speed 2.0m est ‘ee 3 en Calcul the open wats crapraon ras by te energy etd (Eo) he areaynanic mebod (Ete comtnation meted. ad the Pete {isor meta, Assume standard sospede posure (10-3 KPA and 24 = C03 Fa the mserlolcl data for Ca i uly given ia Prob, 3.8.2, cle the refeeace cp evapoanspiation sing the Deotebos aod Pri vapor ater ‘ete ~ 060210 = (a0) whee 9 the Wind rain Glee pet oy. Comput te reference crop evapotnspston rma) Janay in Caio using theresa! dagen Pro 259 td the Baorenbos ad Prat por ‘taser coetTsen 8 = 0.00271 + 100), where he wind ann Klemens pers ‘he oowing data rm the Ameria Society of Ci Engineers 197) show le imate copies over wel-watrl gas sufac ia Ma. Jl September in Davis, Califo, dide 58°), Calculate be comesponding eveptenpiion ‘ae (ayy the energy las rethod,the eodyramic mths, eo ese, Use Bg (3.61 forthe cee ro wn me my wy im we @ Sohe Pid. 26.3 for Casbscton, Ono, wher the meteolgial onions te “Tampere Var Prewure Na alton Win vo te we Oi mea Seenter It bs 2 aCHAPTER 4 SUBSURFACE WATER ‘Subsurface water lows beneath the land surface. In this chapter, only subsurface Now processes impostaat to surface water hydrology are described. The bro lield of groundwater flow is covered in a nimber of other textbooks (cere and (Chery, 1979; de Marsiy, 1986) 4.1 UNSATURATED FLOW Subsutat flow processes and the zones in which they occu ar shown schenti cally in Fig 4.1.1 Thee important processes ee inflation of surface wate no the soil to become soil moisture. subsurface lw of unsaturated flow though te Soil, and grouvater flow o saturated flow through sailor rock sata, Sol and rock sua which ermit water ow are called porous media, Flow i unsaturated ‘ea the porous medium sil has some ofits vos occupied by sit. and satus when the voids are filled wih water. The water tobe sth surface where the ‘ater in a saturated porous medium isa atmospheric pressure. Below the water lable, the porous medium is saturated and at greater presute than atmosphere Above the water ible, capillary feres can saturate the porous red fr short distance inthe capillary fringe, above which the porous medium is usualy ‘saturated excep folowing rainfall, when inflation from te land surface ca Produce saturated conditions temporal. Subsurface and groundwater eufow ‘secur when subsurface water emerges to become surface flow in a steam oF ‘ring Soil moisture i exacted by evapotransprtion 2 the soil dies oat Consider across section through an unsaturated sil shown in Fig. 412. ‘A portion of the cross section is eccuped by soli particles and the emander by ”100 sorzoinontone gpa cure 4 ois. The porosity is define as __ Yolume of voids Pr ‘orl volume The range for is apronimately 0.25 — 30cm, ae ‘own in cots 4nd 5 of te ble. Te hyrals cman K var wh ‘othe vale carespoting Toe average of the Wales nO A and 18m nod. Fr heck Ite avenge tition ead ny = 1-50) 1 (-85))2 = S79. an ihe conespnding falc condi R= 230(—Wa) 2 = 28097 9) 5" ‘0.044 cay a me in cm 6. The Bead iene hy y= 8) — i) = RScin- The sil mate Mus Been Rand 18 hh week = 0.0812 emiday Computston of sl moisture fux between 0: a and 1.8 m depth at Deep Dean (Example 44.1) feos Tal Toa! Set Suton Unsure Head sun ad fy ead is ead Sh sda irene Ab ism 480m M18m cnfecty K hye Wate Ce fea” Kem) tem" em ah a & samsreace warn 107 a shown in slr 8. The Mux i negative becase the moisture + Mowing Soon "Tee Dace flex has dmesions [LT] scat its fom per wit ea medium the Mis pasing ough a orzo pane of weet 1m [ieee volumetric flow mem week ona =. nlday 1? 4.12 10 day 0.12 teeny (0.11 gay) ‘abled. 11 shows te Mux 9 clad fore tine pesos, and computes aloes Ke and hy he ate plone a Fig 4.1.6 Ina cnt the bead 0.8 [Sra tha ht at 1.8 mso moist savas being driven downed eter these wo des in this example can be ca tht he eases mani seek’ ad dnnshes teeter, beease bth he tea difeene and he yar onc mii she soi dso. The fe sbows te inparance of he iit of he unstated haicondctiy Ki fone the ote {AS esol econ wete. is yaa conductivity inseaes, ease thee {Le more continous id fled pays hough which the How an move ‘The compete picture of rainfall on the soil at Dosp Dan ard the sit ‘asta ea at varius depts is presented in Fig. 4.1 5). Rainfall daring Ape. And May flows dowa into the oi, reducing the soi suction head, br ler thes, ties out by evapotanspiatiog, causing the soil suction hal to inctease agin ‘The head profile atthe shalowest depth (04 m) shows the greatest variability tnd the fst that falls below the profile at 0.8 m fom the beginnig of lupe bnwards stows that uring his period, soil moisture lows upwards between these 40 depths 0 supply montare for evaptranspieaton (Wellings, 1983), ~ louwe 4.6 ton el eve i Deep Dan Esa 1.1)108 seo nonecver 4.2 INFILTRATION Inflation isthe process of water penctntng from the ground suifice into the soil. Many Tators influence the inflation ete, inclocing the condton ofthe Soil surface and its vegetative cover, the properties ofthe sol, uh ts pros and byérauic conductivity. andthe euen!mistre content ofthe so So state with dtlerent pysial properties may overlay each oher, forming horizons for example. a st soil with relaively high hydraulic conductivity muy overlay & lay zone of low conductivity. Alo, soils exbbiterest spatial varsity even within relatively smal areas such asa field. As result ofthese seat spi ‘ariatons apd he time Variations in sit properties that acer athe sil motstine cootet changes, infiltration is avery complex process that canbe deseibed on pprosimately with mathematical equation. ‘The dstbution of soil moisue within he sol peoile during the downward ‘movement of water is lustated in Fig. 4.21, There are four moire Zones 2 sowrared zone near the surface, a rarmisson zone of unsaturated flow a) fail uniform moisture content a wertng zone in which mostre decreases with depth, and a wertng front where the change of moisture content wih depth is 0 greta to give the appearance of a sharp dscotinuiy between the Wet sol shove and the dry soil below. Depending en the amount of infiltration and the piysical properics of the soi, te weting front may penetate fom afew inches to several fee ino sol (He, 1980) The infration rate expressed in inches per hou or centimeters per hor, isthe rate at which water enters the soil a the surface, If water is ponded onthe surface, the inflation securs atthe potentialnliration rate. the rat of spy ‘of we atthe surface, fr example by rainfalls ess han the potenti inflation rate then the actual inftratin rat wil also be Tes than the potential rte, Most inflation equations desrite th potential rate. The cumulative infiraton Fis the accumulated depth of water inrated during given ine peviod and seq] to the integral ofthe inflation rate over tat period ro~ [oun 2p sunsunice wane 109 where isa dummy variable ime in the integration. Converse fate is the time derivative ofthe cumulative iattaton ee sy = £0 422) ‘he nitration Horton's Equation (One ofthe earliest inftation equations was developed by Horton (1933, 1938), ‘who observed that inftration hens at some rate fy and exponentially decreases nl itreathess constant rte f(g. 4.2.3) $O™Se+ Su-foe™ 62.3) where is 9 decay constant having dimensions (Tl, Eagleson (1970) and Raudkivi (1979) have shown tht Hortons equation canbe derived fom Rica's ‘equation (4.112) by assuming thar A and D ate constants independent of the moisture content ofthe soi. Under these sonditons (8-112) tedines to 28 a Boot a2 which isthe standard form of a difusion equation and may be solved to yield the moisture content @ asa function of time and depth Hoon’: equation role Som solving forthe rate of moisture diffusion D(GA' de) atthe si surace Philip's Equation Til (1957, 1969) solved Richard's equation under less restrictive condtions 4/s8suming that K and D can vary with the mositure coment @ Pilipetployed 2 Bolzn tansfomation (6) = 21"! wo omer (ht 12) moan oe ‘ferential equation in, and salve hs equation old anf ce : : SAFO ote ! s : z (2) Neon ee pumesrh. itn a ad ean, meres ‘sri y Hoo’ etn.110 sores anaacy ‘omulative infiteation F(), whichis approximated by Fu = S82 + kt 425) ‘where is 2 parameter called sorptiviy, whichis a Tunetion of the soi suction Pent, and isthe hydealc conductivity By differentiation 24K 626) L Ko = sr [As +2, fo tends to K. The two terms in Philip's equation present the effec ‘of soil saotion head and gravity head, respectively Fors honor column Soi, sot suction isthe only force drawing water Int the column, and Philip's ‘equation reduces to Fe) = S12 Feample 42.1 A sl ibe wih cross seconl aes of 40 cm? ie ih ‘oil an litho). The opes end af te Tube Stud, and ale |S ues, 100 cof water Bave aed ot the he, the sauated dec ine lace in 30 mints ihe vl colunn ha nly been plasl upg wih iecuper sac saturate, fm'40 en! = 25 em. For horizontal nition, cumolatve fain i 4 Funct of sol con soe so that afer = 15 min = 0.25% and 25 5(025)"* S=Semm Fifi down a veil column, (4.25) apis with K ~ 0 ah Hence, with = 30 min = 0.5 = + ke 43. GREEN-AMPT METHOD In the previous section, infiltration equations were developed fom approsinat® snlutions of Richard's equation. An allemative approach isto develyp 8 more Sgpeoximat physical theory tat has an exact aaltcal soltion, Geen ad An (1911) proposed the simpli prtte of inflation shown in Fig. 43-1, The ‘weting HoH sa sharp Boundary aiidiag soi of rise content , below fr strated si ith moisture coment above. The wing font has penetrate 2 open Lin time ince inflation began, Water ts ponded toa stall depth fon the soil surface suawcrnce wares UML easnitn | ape cue At Continuity “ome aan Fo Lin~ 8) a wan tere A= 9 4, Momentum Darcy's law may be expressed a=-k aaa) ta is case the Darcy ux gis constant thoughout the depth an sequal to —F ME is positive upward while s postive downward. I points I and? ae112 srmseosnonocr ricURE 432 Fatima ln ff wi erecta ae Geen Amp located respectively at he ground surface an just on the dy side of the wet from, (4.32) can he approximate by rn “The bead hy atthe surface is equal the ponded depth jp. The hea, inthe dry soil ba the wetting front, equals £, Dares law fa this sytem s a ar ~dt 74] iF the pond depth fy, s negligible compared 10 and L. This assumpuion is ‘usualy appropriate for surface wat hyerology problems became i is asutied that ponded water becomes surface no. La wil be shows Bow to ascot for fifi isnot negligible From (43:1) the weting font depth i substation to (42-2) piven 439 aaa) M0, and assuming hy = 0 Juss F Fr Since f = dF), (4.3.8) can be expressed os differetat equation inthe one unkown as) -fesnee) “To save for F, crossmtiply to tin esrscevare 113 le-foabr =a Fae) (630 he (F588) (etal and negee se otin Fi vasfin [Fo + 630|-m 030} —yxein {4 £8) ox riya (1 + EO) a6 Sates oma os ron ttrg +!) : se co i ee ey ig ee f= Petite te 8 tee cn lily eta sto vin ore re eke in (1 4 SO ron tvosnnlie 2B) aan Ch and 6 ke Fido end ie SoU tenet unas Mana eat eats Steet Sa of San irc etched oe 3 Green-Ampt Parameters Application of the Green-Amt mode quite estimates ofthe hydraulic cond Yigy K. the porosity. andthe wetting front soil suction head U. Te variation4 rae nonnc cnt Sol stn edd yrs si Uptake an Coy (060. They cnet se ora ase Banned apart hnaen stn rp ted i rely Oe etn aie ne ek re cnn pe ae we . (439 where ~ 6s called the erie porosiy Th: effective saturation bas the range 0 2, = 1.0, provided 6, @ = Fey te ital coon, when #= 8, ctoss-muliplyng (£39) gee 0-9, andthe chine in te mois conteu when the eting rt pase 9-8 = n= (500, + 8) therefore 36-0 ae, 43:10) The logaithnc relationship shown ia Fig. 4.33 canbe expressed by the Broots Corey equation aan re ean a const oie by dang asi in sages, metering Ne values of J, and Wat eich sage, and iting (83.11) to thestsuleng at (2) Fagen ine ) Besos 13) Hyper ee FIGURE 42.3 ‘Si cn Wa yom er 3 sed nah pmo sveacesamay 118 owner (196) as sted he vari of dave condi wih ire cnt and cones tate eestive hs cmt ap es ‘omc apposite hal the conenponding vane er see bens, Eaplenan, and Rav (981) ese «meta or mie she GrenAnypuancers sing te Brooke Corey equa Ras Bak tek, an Miler 105) wed tis thd to amare spot ae zs rss the Unie Stes and deeminel nese a ke een Iota nd Kft ol lage, toa ee ESTAS the sl hesoes finer moving fom sand cl ths wees tori ead incteases lee Itelcconetny denen Bae iio ows ypc ranges form, fe and 9. Th nage aco ge te fe ti can Sry vera ide age fora iven soles issue in aoe i & sates alone with, sate ves gies ie ne ae Ree tnd sou te cone piel vast ay shows concedes sf sity application (Amencan Soc) of Agata! Easing, te Dever and Gin, 198) ore {Green-Ampt infiltration parameters for various si lasses Staee Bey Weting tsa wer OED money ons some OE eet vt we HE nwt andthe sie ME tel oo OE i ae eee * ome ome Were portion wie ae eo116 senso onccocy ‘Two-layer Green-Ampt Model Consider a sol with to layers, as shown in Fig. 4.3.4. The upper layer hs thickness Hy and Green-Ampt parameters Ky, Gy, and A, and te lower lye ‘nas thickness ad parameters, Uz and Ad Wate sponded n the sutae and the weting font has penevated though the wpper layer and a distance 1 into the lower layer (La =H) Ics requted that Ky > K forthe uper lay to rein surfed while water infitates into the lower Iyer. By a method Similac to that deserbed previously fr ve layer of soi, it can Be shown tht the inflation rate is given by Hike I= yin + Mito 43.13 nd that the cumlaive inflation is given by Fa H,A0, +1208 a.) ‘By combining Eqs. (4.3.12) and (4.3.13) into a iferenial equation Foe L> ang Integrating, oe aves at a 2 snnts-antioe stil 52] Jr 43.1) sample 4.3.1. Compt he ilo te fad combine inflation Fate tne hoe of infttion no soa oi fat nay had aleve stain SO pret. Assume wate sponded os salut megs eps one Suri. Solution, From Tobe 4.3.1, for sit sr sol #, = 486, = 16. cm, ad A= 045 cub, The ial eve saration i, ~ 0.3 50 (4.310) (Geen tmp senmarsce wares 117 aera sae = 0.390.486) -0M0 ape 16.7 «0.500 5.8m ‘he cumuleive inflation at 2 = 1 is clelaed employing the method of ‘Gcsessve subsituon in Eq, 4.3.8), Take a tal vaoe of Fl) = KI = OS Fey=Ki+ wasin(t + FO) m12tem ‘Sibtating = 127 ioe i and ideo 4.3.8) ges F= 1 79m aed ater rumberf sions F cones oa constant vale of 3.17 en. Te inftaton fae afer one hou oun from Ea 8 3.7 pou( 222 vai») 1st ea 44 PONDING TIME, Jn the preceding sections several methods for computing the ate of inflaton imo sil were presente. Al ofthe methods wed the ssumpton th wet ‘sponded toa sal pon the sol surface soa the wae the sol can ita isivalate ate srce However, cng rfl tr wl pond on he ‘eae ony trina eter hn the fiaton eps of he Sa The ponding sine pith lap te between eternal pie ah the time ater ens wo pond on esl suece meatal ino Se ere ie lf hl ay peat as in Fig 41. Porto the poding ine =) the rainfall eis estan he pti ftom read the sl sua unsusted Fong Sezns when ternal erty eee te poten inition ae Sine (= fy te wl srace sted. Ae rail contnss the ‘tuned nlc ends deeper ithe sll nd ovrand flow cca fm the Yonded water. How exe nitration equations developed previosy be ed ‘© describe this situation? “ “eer *Sot ose pies tf, ig, safer poring ecu “Mein and Larson (1973) presented a method for determining the poning time wit inflation into the Sil described by the Green-Amp equation for rainfall of intensity staring instantaneously and comtnsing indefinitely, Thee ae three principles invaved (1) peor tthe time ponding oscil the rainfall is infiltrated; (2) the potential infiteation rate fis» funeton of the cumulative infiration F; and C2) ponding accurs when the potential infiltration rte i ess than or equal othe rial tensity Inthe Green-Amr equation, the infitvation eae and cumulative infiltration F are related by f (ee +1) an) whe sth ya conductivity of te si ithe weting owe capiliy Frere hea, and 88th Sirens tess the ial and fal teste Eons of th so As show in Fig 4.4, teeamulateinitaton ae ponciog tine ps ier by Fy =i and he hein aby f= suing fo Ea ay solving. aa Kuse aT) ives the pontng ine ude ost ill sty wig te Gren At infiltration eqeation, Example 441. Compate the pong ea the depth of water Stated poding fo 4 Sit am soi of 30 percent inl efectve surtout Fanless of () Lem and() Seat, sousurace wana 119 \ \ Poa tion ern tat on oun 442 Teta mcrae enn or pong dr on ines ih Soluion. From Example 4.5.1, 06 at i 4.4 5.68 em and Eh The poding ine piven by 4.2 pe kes Gm 4) Fort = | em, O68 5.68 10-08) =o on Fealty =10% 05 =105 em (0) Fors = Sem, 08 x 5.68 55-065) 17 (10 mi120 somueonemouy ted 085 em 1m each case the lation te f sins he ail ment # at pong. “To obtsin the actual infiltration rat after ponding, 2 curve of potential in ‘sation is coustucted heginning at Gime Zo sch that tbe cumulative inition nd the infiration rat aly ze equal to those observed under rainfall Beginning at time 0 (see dashed ine im Fig. 4.4.2), Substting !~ ¢,—toand F = Fo Fa. (4.3.6) gives, Fe = Ku, 1 43) F-gsoin(1 + \=K0-10) (44 cna S82) (8822 ra Peon e-wlM)-ar Equation (4.4.5) can he wed to calculate the depth of ifilvation ater Ponding. and then (43.7) canbe used 1 obtain the infiltration rat f sample 4.4.2, Calculate he cman infil a he ein ste le fone Nour of rainfall of incr 3 chon Tor sol wih a ial eee ‘Strain of 3 peren Solution, From Example 43.1. 0 = 5.68 em and K ~ 0.65 cm fe is fn rom Exampie 41, = 0.17 hand Fy = 088 cn nde aliens § om or = 1 the aon ph sven by (448 rarpn ose $82E aig Fass sean | SEE | = 04510-0171 058 sawancewine 121 _Fiscbininod bye metodo sucesve sobttton nthe manera in Example {F511 The slates conergs to F = 3.02 em. The coespoding a pen 3) ose p-f2t 4] 68 mos 66 6) “Tes sls maybe computed with he culate inition of 3.17 em oben Im Enanple 5-1 lor alitaion under contin poring. Less water ned er we bour ver the Sch iafl becaue oak 0 mes fr posing fo sus, tod the ifitaton rae during this period wales tani petal vale. ‘able 44.1 summarizes the equations needed for computing various qua- ties for constant rainfall intensity: set of equations i given foreach of thee ferosches, based respectively onthe Green-Arp, Horton pd Philp infiltration fgpeons. Equations 1) and (2) are the methods fr computing inflation under pended conditions, Euston (3) gives the ponding time ender constant rai yy and Equation (4) gives the equivalent time origin fy, from which the infitration rate and cumulative infiltration as thowe obiered at pond time would be produced under continuously ponded conctions. After ponding es oscureé, the inflation functions can be found for Horton's and Philip's ‘eqns by substituting 7 ~ fy nto Eqs. (1) and (2). Fr the Green-Ampl eta Son, the metiod ilusrated in Ex. 42 can be used, In Bq. (44.2) under the SGeen-Ampt method, ponding cme yi positive and finite only i ¢ > Ki pond ing will ever occur ithe rainfall intensity is less than oc egal tothe hyraic fenvetvity of the sil. Table 4.4.1 indicates thatthe same condition holds for Plip's equation. while Howon's equation requies i > J, 10 achieve ponding, in the Horton equation. 1 >, ponding wil ccur immediately and fy = 0 “The condition (= K holds for mos rainfalls on very permeable sls and Sar ight rainfall on les permeable soils. In sich eases, steanflow rests fom ‘turface flow, especialy from areas near the stream channel Determination of ponding times under rainfall of variable intensity can be ‘by-an approach sinilar to that oe constant smerny Camlativeiniration 'Satenlte om rifall as fontion of time. A potential iilaion ete san be calla from the cumulative inition wing the Green-Anpt or other uation formulas. Whenever eunfall intensity gree than the potential ‘akira ate, ponding is oeuring Bouver, 1878; More-Sestoux. 1981). For ties where estinates of a constnt nition eae are available, the estimates can Se woe asa guide to decide whether surface or subsurface low isthe peimary ‘etanism producing llood flows (Pearse and McKerchar, 1979), This sibst ‘developed further in Chap.sosuace wren 123, H REFERENCES « % is ty of AtEm enfin Gyo Abc 2 ge int Se NON ae : ie Ts awe He, Rud lt mean of Seay Value adhe coat of wl os ek “ovine pment, No Rea han Sa woiieeemnionatatra eee pre De ihe a W.) Rv Vat tn ec Foy ttt eee malar Ser let peat tron an etn a sor Seer aa aie ei pean eee Caen er cans om Silos bean ss Sipe ah a Ee en m= sn i temic os eh ioe cere wn Pera es lane ans rts See ia was aren ory rg gen rc Spek ote eg re oer mec iat on a re CES aoee rarec one emt Spurn tines me EN ca camevnnonanenyyrin nese eo - eet Bhan meme nme : EES Cha aaa esi 3 vows lst es cap reg of E soph Eten nnn mn sour ne eet i en ie gree vet tn ones Tet reer irae, iy an 5g le pCa ease pe, Epa 1, ee a A Tica fn pS tg ae H ae PROBLEMS 44.1 Bure 4.1.0) shows the profiles though tne of sil mistre Head A, ith cl ies at wes ievas. Cleat he sol moisten Between 0 § Equations for calculatiig ponding time and lfltration ater ponding occurs Eau124 smeosimctcoe sua saa 426 sar sas man 1.0 at ek mera sing he eam = 2501-812" whe [ss demic emacs (oni} and 5 sion ea). Soe Pro, 4.11 forthe ol iste fax econ 0m apd 12 the wofies at mand OAM, OF mand Lm... 240 mand 30 5 {sete reaionhp A= 2509) th Kn amigas por dap eotinetr wo alae te so mote fix between each pc of eel the sl iste flex piles and dia ow the mite Rows oe ‘eatin ine il nd earpiece. Using the Yolo ph lay data sboweia Fig. 414. calle vale of the wi ear csi D~ Kas for #~ 1-02.03 04, Peta gph Die Supe ta he parameters oe Hons equation ae fy=3.0 ih, f.~0.880, fod 182 h- Determine the inition rat and cumulation sr 12055, 10,13, aod 2. Po bh a anton of elt te flan 1 fig of culate iafaton, Assure coninuois) panded snc Forte same conn in Prob 4.2.1. deme the ineement depth infitetonteucen 75 a 20 er Horton's equation sappne f= Sch = Leah nd k=2 8" Deering the cumulative nitration afer 0, 03, 0,15, 99820 bP the infin fate and emt inflration a Sato of ne. Po infra ae 2 femson ofthe cual iflirtion, Asse continual jonde condos “The fai tothe begining of «em was y= 0 fh andere to 0. inh ater tro fran tol of 1.7 inflating these to ou Determine the vale of for Hans eguution. ass coatauosy posed ution tal f 1-2 ited ding te teoor psi Suppose the panes fe Philip's equation ae serpy 9 = 5 ea-h-! and Kb. cuh, Determine the cual nition ae, 95, 10, 15, 2 20, Plote fat rat and he cunlave tiation as fons time lr iltabon te wa fanion ofthe cumulative infiiaon, Asse ominvosy pode eondtions. “The inflation rate a3 faction of ine fora Aes it lan a alos (Testis all 1974 Determine he Bs vale forthe panneters ff. apd Aor Ho's eqn te dese th flan for Alexei oun ‘The nfatin ito = Yolo ph lay as fncon of tine for a sea anal ‘eof OS cavh ia allows Shag, 1982 Comte iatratn em) 0 08 BIS 10 12 1k 14 20 as aoe wait au aa 46 aaa 0 sar semumscem 128 Danie th panes ff wl or Ho's eqn. ANE dat ponding occurs at s= 1.07 b. “ Beri th patos Pips qaton te afon eno Panic in Pils equation fly wo ae $= 48 eh and = 10 ru Deine ie camel nso ad te iat saab he ‘teen fra ha pnd. Pha fo tine oe irae tea cin of the coma nvaton, one setoseas conditions. dias Sve bh 4.2.16 sy wit grates $= 9.0m ha ‘cmb. Assume continuously pended conditions. “ Fora an le als nina ea ot elon {Gn ate oe tar if ees satay lly 10 fen ae Geen-Angc mio. Assume coninnoly pode sndtions forthe sae saci Ph 3.1, lr sues cule nraion epi F and intron ate tne 1 Tie Hows of eso ‘hg 0h nemens Plc tonto a at's ncn of he cones inte ore oe peo. in Ont Ang a he Aan an carne ination depth fe sy cy sol 0.Lour msemens uso hee fg te hetiing of ian, Ace nal ect ran pet od ‘oni ning Forte ste Pre 4.3.3, comp he canal nition she on for iBall ttc 3 0,8 dn pes Dos op ot cumulative estonia ecve sto, Stow tt he dept the wen ne ley ero te twee Green-Ampt model satisfies. ‘- 1 om)! et tl + cei segs min Asa ais oh ap er sent hk on bag ep tae ce eo ithe ei a ys estan a seein an ng 8 oS See ‘Slave inttatcn ws fancons ot tines Sh ME ‘ara in, iy to Fa a Speen cana So pe Sete Fr13 con ne Sa bo 137 ic et SSN 138 gn es mnt nn ol 8h 228 pene i fice station ube fr atl eso 0CHAPTER 5 SURFACE WATER Surface wate is water tred or owing onthe eut’ssufae, The surface water system continually interacts wih the atpospherc and subsurface war sssems scribed in previous chapters. This chap dese the physical avs governing surface water flow and shows ow hydfelogic data are analyzed 1 provide ipl Information for models of ste flo S.1 SOURCES OF STREAMFLOW “The watershed. or catchment, she area of land dining ni 3 steam at a given location, To describe how the trios sce water processes at) through fie fing 2 sion, soppose hat precipitation of constant te Pegins ar comtines| indefinitely on a Wateshed. Precpatonconinbules to various storage a No processes, lint io Fig 5,11, The vericl aye of he dag represent, relive co the rate of precipitation, the rte at which water is flowing or Being Added to socage in cath of the processes shown at ay insta of ine Tnitalya larg proportion of the peiptation contributes 10 surface str age; as water inuaesina he oil, these alsa soil moisture storage There te wo types of stone: retention and detention, tection ts storage eld for 8 long erin’ of time and depicted fy evaporation, and detention Is shor erage depleted by ow aay fom the storage locaton ‘As the detention storages ben ill. flow away from therm occurs: ener ted flo ough the unsaturated soil ner the Land Sac, router fw "hrough saturated agers deeper doen, and overan flow acrose and srtae wtcuarree 13 HYDROLOGIC DESIGN Hrlogi design isthe process of asesing the impact of hydoogie events on 3 ‘war resource sytem an ehansng values fr the Key variables ofthe sysem that wil perform adequately. Hydrologic desian may be used to develop pans for a new sirvcture, such as 4 Nlood coil Teve, orto develop management programs fer beter contol of an existing system, foe exanple, by producing 1 ond pln map for imiting constrvtion near Fiver. Thee ae many’ Tact asides hydrology that bear onthe design of water resource system thee inlade Public welfeand safety, economies, aesthetics, legal sues, and engineering factors such as geotechnical and structural design. While the cential concem of the hydologs on the flow of water thre a system, he or she is ls He are ofthese othe factors and of how the hydrologic operation of the stem might affect them. In this sense hydrologic design sa much broader subject han tpdrogie nays a covered in previous chaps 13.1 HYDROLOGIC DESIGN SCALE, “The purposes of waler resources planning and management may be groped roughly info to categories. One i ter conta such as drainage, food cm tol, pluton abatement, insect come, sediment conta, ad sini como! The other is woteruie and management, sich se domes and indus tr supply. tigation, hydeopower generation, receation, fish and wilde improve tment, Tow-flow augmentation Toe water gbaliy management an watershed ‘management. In either ease. the Task of the hydrogit is the same, namely to determine a design slow t route the flow trough the system, and to hook ron een 17 ‘wheter the output values are satisfactory. the difference betweon the two sanes is hat design for water control i asully concerned with exteme event of shor duration, such as the instantaneous peak discharge during a food o the minimum flow over a period af afew days during ary period, while design for wate use {s concerned with the complet Tw hydrograph over a pti of yeas, ‘The hydrologic design scales the range im mapnitae of the design arable (ouch asthe design discharge) within which value rus Be selected o determine the inflow tothe system See Fig. 13.11). The most important factors in selecting the design value are cost and safety. I isto costly to design smal structures soch as culverts for very lage peak discharges: however. if a major hydra Struct, such a the spllvay ona lrge dam, is designed for foo smal & ood the resull might bea catastrophe, suchas adam's alse. The optimal magnitude for design i one tat balances the conflicting considerations of cost ad sey, ‘The practical upper imi f the hydrolagic design scale isnot infinite, since the bal hydrologic eyele i a closed system: thai the tla quantity of water ‘on earth is esenilly constant. Somme hydalogsts recog no upp limit Dat S0cha view is psiclly uvealistie, The lower limit ofthe design eae fs oro most cases, since the valve ofthe design variable cannot be negative, Although the tue upper lini is uualy unkown, forprcticl purposes an estimated upp limit may be determined. This esate Ting value (EL) is defined the largest magnitude possible for hydrologic event ata given locaton, based on the best avllable hydrologic information. The range of uncertainty fo the ELV FIGURE Raskteonined wit coffins of vrai of 20 percent rom oporaphic mus, sleuth aon rk thatthe fous in Example 133.1 i ond ag the design even, reveling romtheane of chameleons om operat rrowocconson 443 (0.2, The ge of he hana! is 0.0 with suff vation CV, = 010. ‘Te Mannings roughness ators 035 and as coca vation of CV, = 0115. The chanel tss-secton rectangle with nh 0 td wal Ina tad oud sey elite the od plan. gh 9 Fala woud to ucur fhe wale ovenoppe 134.1 tysolop desig as sloding waren ae 1 us and stand deviirg 4185.4 Rework Prob. 13.33 4 compute the ik of are, suming the capacity and 2 unas Caen the rk of fale ithe capt is 12 units. ASU Poem Joong tbe lognermaly ete, ‘ixtuion for te laine AS. Use te risk aml of safety margins metodo determine he probity that 18.2 Soe Prob. 1341s ike lenin slopnomnally diseiae. ‘he hows wl else in Example 1331 inthe et 143 In Ped. 1341, assume hat the capac istomaly dsb with mean 12 nis an tandaddeviaron Lunt. Recomput th isk of fale, suming that the lading also noma esate. 1.446 tou al the tl water supply To outer Califia is provides by ln dtance water ase om nthe Caloris and fom the Calera Riv. ‘The anual demand for thes transfers wa etimate toe 148 MAF (is ‘st scved dom! demaads fo (980 to 185 nee hat he coc of “aon of ered anneal demands rund those expected appoint (tis varity de to yearto-yearvaratons in weather an! oer Tate). stint the aml deand Fess tht has a 70 gscet chance of being egies ‘or eneeded i 1986 an 9 1980, Ciesla te chance that gered demands Sra exced 20 MAPiear i 986, sadn 1990 Assume tha sual eins ISAS InP 1824, eseie he chance that ei of 20 MAP in water vases ‘ibe exceeded tes once rom 1986 19H. ASSume antl els ee Independent es doe jet te ea 138. If capaci and leading ae both lognormal distibtd, show ht is cas be cated y Bg (138.7 [aja eva +evby) 135.2 apaiy and leading ae both lgnomaly sti, show ht ik can be peo levi + evel here Fdenoes the standard normal isin function. (Caleta te i ale of an open chanel assuming tha te sey margin = orally iste: Masning's equation f wet compute te capac an © Ferrans usd detemine the nef of aration of tbe api {Che men adng i 00 fs and the cet f varaoe of lade418 orurouvenaoes depends on the eliahility of information, tehaical knowledge, and accuracy of aniysis. As information, knowledge, and analysis improve, the estimate beter approximates the tre upper limit and its range of ncennty decreases. These have been cases in which observed hydrologic evens exceeded tei previous catimated limiting vals ‘The concept of an estimated liniting valve is implicit in the commonly used probable maximam precipitation (PMP) and the coresponding probable ‘marina flood (PME). The probable maximum precipitation 1s defined by the ‘Weeld Metoroiogical Organization (1983) a8 4 "quantity of precipitation fat love to the physical upper limit for a given duration over & particular basin Based on worldwide records, the PMP can have rein period of a longs 500,000,000 years, coesponding approximately to frequency factor of 15 However, the return prio varies geographically. Some would aia asian 4 retun peri, sy 10.000 years, tothe PMP or PMI, hit this suggestion fas ho physical asi Probability-Based Limits Because of is unknown poobublity, the estimated limiting value is used ar, $0 the expected annual denees, cost is = by taking xm i et ES kw i ‘eden um id) {1 Hime ai eet oe pina es en pdb yess ami Exel 18.2. rokewecorsion 425 -megrating for x > +r (he design level). Thats the expected annul cost Dis which isthe shaded are in Fig. 13.2.2 Tho integral (13.2.6) is evaluated by breaking the range of x > pinto inteevals and computing the expec annual damage cost for events in’ eh interval For sj-1 21 = 4, 20,-[° oeoe we “ich is approximated by Disa) + uy ao,-{ fou = (13.2.8) PUD + ag. 2) Me 4) 2 But Poe =) — Pie = i) = UL ~ Pur = i) UL — Pla = x) = Piss 1,-1)~ Pox =), $0 (13.2.8) can be writen Dai) +.B Sages Ai) mere x (329 the annual expected damge cost for a stutue designed for ret ptiod 7 isgiven by b= >, [22D By ang Dy to the annuaized capital cost of the structure, the total cost ean be found: th optimum design retum period isthe one having the minions acd YP) 3.2.10) Example 13.2. For evens of varios tet periods at & given location, the amage cons and the nmutized cpt cots of srucanes Senet he {es ae shown in clus and 7, respects, of Te 1321, Deca the expected aml Gamage if no race provides an alse te ea sign tan pid, Seton Fo exh ete pi shown clue 2 of Tile 13.2.1, soa 2ssdeas prota bray) = Hit The cmepinans dass fea wine 8.29), Foresman aes ae reek Peo SPO eye) w426 sueorwincivey Cetatin ene optimum design turn period by hydroeconomie (Example 1 ow Annu Damier Inemeit apse Capit Bey Ber Bee, bee Re Se et ii ae Be i 233 SR ME (iB 22 sz fete fee | oe =85 toy secu cess For example, f= 2 ears wee std danage Fsk t (C72 percent) is capital cost and SU 1.250/year (28 percent) is damage risk cost Hydrocononic analysis hs teen applied w he design offend con seservois, levees, channels, and highway steam crossings (Cory, Jones 2° “rong, WA. Fora Mood damage sy. fe craton dct of Nose ant be tein for eens of ros tr pesos and como re mast be taken to quantify damages foreach Teel of Noaing. The social costs Aooding fat eat. The U.S. Amy Compe of Engines Hyd Engineng Cntr in Ba, Cafe hn saa te flowing cop! programs for hyneconomi analysis (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, rmecoaearsen 427 DAMCAL (Damage Reach Stage-Damage Calculation). EAD (Eapected Annual Food Damage Compuuton, SID (Srcure Invert for Danses anche AGDAM (Agricultural Food Dumage Analysis). and SIPP (Interactive Novo tural Analysis Package, 13.3. FIRST ORDER ANALYSIS OF UNCERTAINTY Many ofthe uncertainties associated with hyaoogic stems arent quaniable Forcxample the conveyance capicty ofa culvert wih an unebanced cana san be caleulsed within small margin of emer, but dng feed nan, may become lodged around the entrance othe culver, reducing Ws conten, guations; and parameter unceriinty, which sems Hom the wikeoee neat ofthe octets inthe equator, such ay the bed Toughness Meanie pation, Inert ucensiny in the agate ofthe dsien chem is deserbed oy Eq, (13.23; in his section, model and parameter uncecanty wil ee ea The frst onder anahsis of wncerainy is procedure for quantifying the expected variability of a dependent variable calculated at 9 fancion of cee oe ‘mote independent variables (Ang snd Tang, 1975; Kop and Lanterson, 157%, ‘Ang and Tang, 1984; Yen. 1986). Suppose w is expreaed ass funeeen os w= soy «3.3.0 ‘There ar two sources of eror in: fist, the function for model, income: second, the measurement of x may be inact, bro i analysts assumed that hee Is no model ero, or bas. Kap and Lee 237) show how to exten the analysis when there model cron, Avtnwing thea, that >) i a correct model. ¢ nominal value of. dstotce Tis ocean * design input andthe comesponding value of caleulte m= say 033.2) 1 the eve value of x ies from x. the eect of this discrepancy on w can he ‘esimated by expanding fs) asa Tylor series around ¢ = Ley won + fons the 0333) Fee the derivatives ids, fide... ae evaluated at = I second and Digher onder terms are nepleced the sling fist onder eapcsion toe te eo a fo-» 43.34) IRE puis ofthis emor i s2 = Ele 9) where Ei the expctationopeator be Bg. (1 3.3) eats228 ruronenaiy (ass, inte is the ane of. ination (139. avs th vance of dependet able w a fncton of te aanes ofan tenn! vara asunig tat he fenton! tntipw =f) ncomet Me ates, the andr ero of extn of if depenen on eel ml dependent sss sy itean be iowa bya pode a he sow at +(2fa+..+(2). Kapur and Lanbeson (197) show how to extend (13.36) sn fo the tte on of eonelsion betwee tvs -s vt if ny eX, (3.36 First-Order Analysis of Manning’s Equation: Depth as the Dependent Variable ‘Manning's equation is widely apli in hydrology to determine depths of fo for specied ow rates, oft determine discharges for specified depths of Ha taking igo account the resistance to ow in channels ansing ro be oughness. ‘A cominon application, sich = im channel design or flood plan delineation, = ts calculate the depth of flow > nthe channel, given the No rate O, roughness ‘ocicient nan he shape ad slope of the chanel as determined by desig oy Saves. Once the depth of flow (rslvaton ofthe wate sunfce s known, the ‘ales ofthe design variables ar determined, sbch a8 the chant Wall elevation or the Nod plain extent. The hydologst faced with this ask is conscious ofthe ‘uncerinis involved, espeill inthe selection of the design flow and Manin ronghness Although ts at so obvious, there is also uncertainty in the value of the Teton slope, depending on hw it is caeulated, ranging fom the simplest {ise of uniform flow (S, = 5) t0 more complex cues of steady nonunion flow or unsteady nonuniform flo (see Eg. (9.2.1). The fstomder analysis of uncettny can he une to esti the effect on af uncerisinty in Qn nS Consider, fist the eect on flow depth of variation inthe low rate. ‘Manning's equation i riten in Enlish uns o= Laan wan whore 4 isthe cros-sctonl area and the hydraulic radios, both dependent ot the low depth» I variations in y are dependent only on variations in Q, then, romiaae esc 429 wy (133.5), 3.3.) whee dQ isthe rat at which the depth changes with changes in Q. Now. in {Chup 5. it was shown [Eg (5.6.15) thatthe inverse of this derivative, namely 14014. is piven for Mannings equation by a _ of 24k, 1a od +33] asa Table 5.6.1 gives formulas for the channel shape function (2I3RdRi) + (A1AKéA}a Tor common channel cross sections. Sabsiting into (133.8 st 03.3.1 ae, 1 OSes ta But spiQ = CV. the coefficient of variation ofthe flow rite (se Table 11.3.1) 50 (133.10) cat berewenen oy a «saan aa) ich iin he rao the fw depth as function thee ot ‘aaa fh Renan th a ef he hl sae ea ae in ans he ue Maing ses ade eo ne Shy say sw wg Et 8. ht (sear y+ evi + wayeve = Se NS 133.1) 2 dk, a8 \iRay * hay, ving the variance ofthe low dep. asa function ofthe coefficients of variation ‘of flow rate. Manning's» and rction slope. andthe channel shape futon. Example 13.44. & S000 wide metanguar chanel as 2 bed spe of one even A hyelogs eximtes tat the sian flow 000 ean at he Foughness sn = 0.03. Ihe cant of atin of he few etna ad Be ‘oxshnes estimate are 30 peter and 15 percent, epetely. wha sh stad orf estimate of th ow deh I uses ae Ea nea is chanel ‘or tevaton one fot above the water sac leston eluted forte dsm ‘ens sme he has hat hc nes wl be ded da he eight See enceraaes soled in ecling te war vel. Asse aoe foe Salton. For awit of $0 fxs A = SO and R ~$0/(50~ 2) he ow depth Forth bse cane ela fm Mannio’s equi430, sensoinonasor 18, Spans 1.8865 91)%509 FSoon'0 ‘whic is soe sing Newtons eration tcigu se Sec. 5.6) 4 ik ye7ath The standard enor ofthe exit x cae by Ba, (133.12) with CV = (0.30, CV, = 015, and CV,,~ 0. Fm Table 6.1 fora rectangular chnae (2a, 1a) 5B +6 ‘Seay * aay!” S500 29 5x50 + 6x737 SxTHS+ IRI exh + evi + wise, Tam 1ay (st +a om +0157 O36? org = 148 Tr the Houses ae but with tir oes ne fot abe the caleted ter safc levi, ey wil be ode fe stl eg seer an 7.37 Too 837 it wner sre lovato y 3 nrly Speed, ee probaly tat they wl be de call by mening y the end Sonal al By subeasing the mean vale of Cf) ft ba sect the uy a iin by The sana err (1.63 po131 437-131) 7 s Py >aan= af To =P > 0613) > 0613) vee. te standard noma tation tion ing Tbe 1.21 Into employed in Example 1.21, the rent F051) = 0.7, 0 As ES = 1" 078 = ot, Ther i pproratly « 2 paca hance ate fous wit he food ding the den eve! do (ont nea Oo "Thi angle as ted aly pare netang fn he eens The te probity atthe buses Wil be Todd peer tha at els tte, becaue te een ood my exceed the design mmo (e 10 mat saves romanacoricy 431 11s lear fom Example 13.3. that reasonable amounts of uncertainty in the estimnion of @ and w can produce significant uncertainty in ow dept, {s.percent error in estimating n= 0.035 isan eor of 0.038 ¥ 0.15 = bros ‘This would be indicted trom a measurement of 0.038 0.005, wise i abet as secur san experienced ydrolgit can get fom observation ofan exstng anne. & 30-peent enor in estimating Q is $000 % 0.30 = ISN) ce Ae estimate of Q = S000 1500 cfs may also relet te correct oder OF user, "specially if the design retwm period is large (eg = 100 year The use of the channel shape funtion (2/3RNaRLah) + (1/A\AIA) in (3.3.12) depends on knowledge of dRldy and dtd, which may be dicate sain for inegulsty shaped channels. Also, the assumption tht depeds @ alone may not be valid. In such cases, Bq (13.3.6) can be uned ¢o otan teatng ya a function of Q and, ad a computer program simulating ow te chnnel can be used to estimate the required partial deivatives 3/90 and Sha by rerunning the program for varius values of @ and and teaing aft somputed values of flow depth or water surface elevation. Figure 13.9 T ates, the results of sucha procede forthe channel and conditions sven ia Exon 1531. The gradionts 4/40 aul dyn ase approximately linet fo ths excrmec, this validates te use of only stoner terms in the analysis of uncertainty if the lines were siniicantly curved, analysis would require keeping the sey oer toms in the Taylorseris expansion). Example 13.32. Forte same conitons a in Example 133.1 (8 = 50 @ ‘S000, §, = 0.01,» = 0035). he ariton of flow ate wih flow ep te base cae level has en fund fom Fg (1331) abe a0) = 10S ee ant the yration a wih How sept ey = MTB "CV = Oa aed CV 0.15 cele te sad evo of Solution. From Ea (13.3.6, iol + (5 Im his seg 5000 0.20 = 150,35 0.035 «0.18 = 00053 ao, wan, 0.0072 To, 2=(A} wusoor F ie (pag) * 0800" + [EY oe oF, = 1.65 as computed in Example 13.3.1 First-Order Analysis of Manning's Equation: Discharge as the Dependent Variable Another aplication of Manning's equation is the eacultion of he discharge or ‘apscity C ofa steam channel of other conveyance stacare Tr a gieeh dept ‘uhness coefiien x, bottom slope, and crsesetional geomet” Mannie’ ‘uation (13.3.7) can be expressed using R-— AUP ap482 sumo wmotoee | — v0 i ‘| ine Dey ono Pw dep) wh owe ae sed with Manis. Rectan ie win $2’ bo spe OI. Uno soured ale 3.) 1.8998 Bsn «33.0 ‘in which P isthe wetted perimeter. Performing Fistor analysis on (13.3.13, the eellicent of svaton of the capacity can be expressed as dim eq len = cv + Levy 13.3.1) evp= evs + tev, 0 suming CV ~0 and CV = 0, Mansing’s squstion fr chasse and flood plain (overbank} can also be expressed as (Chow. 1959) ° al Lavec + Zayey™ |g}? a33.as 03.3161 onaucenace 433 where CV. CVp V4, and CV, have heen assumed nesigible, and In studies of Mood data on the Obio River, Lee und Mays (1986) gmeloded ‘hat uncertainties in the roughness coefiients and the friction slope account {or 98 percent ofthe uncertainties in computing the capacity They proved smetnod for determining the uncenainy inthe friction slope wing Me observed Food hydrozraph ofthe iver 134 COMPOSITE RISK ANALYSIS ‘The previous sections have introduced the concepts of inherent uncertainty de to the natural variability of hydrologic phenomena. and model and parumeter uncertain arising from the way the phenomena se analyzed. Compost Fisk ‘mals isa method af accounting forthe rks resulting fro the various sources ‘of uncertainty to preduce an overall vsk assessment fr a particular design. The concepts of leading and capacity are conta to this analy. ‘The lauding. or demand, placed ona system is he measure ofthe impact of extemal events. The demand for Water suply is detennined by the people who tse the watt. The magnitude ofa ash lod depertson the chiactnstcn of the sion producing it ad on the condition ofthe watershed at the time of the orm, The capacity, orresizane, i the measure ofthe ability ofthe system to ‘witstand the leading or mect the denn IC loading is denoted by L and capacy by C, en the rok of file Ris liven by the probability tha Z exceeds C, oF © AE <1) u3a.0) C= L<0) ‘Tre Fisk depends upon the probaly disthutions of Land C. Suppose thatthe probably density funcion of Lis IL). This Function cou be, for example. an Extreme Value or log-Fearson Type I probability density function for extreme ‘ales. as described eater. Given, the chance tat the lading wll exceed a fxed and known capacity Ci 668 Fig. 133.1) The trve capacity is not known exactly, but may be considered 10 have rohbility density funtion g(C). which could be the noel o¢lognonmal dist ‘ton arising from the fasorde analysis ef uncertainty i the system capacity For example if Manning's equation hs Been used to dessins the capacity of 8 hydeai sactre the uncertainty in C can he evaluated by Tistonder analysis ' described above. The probably’ thatthe capacity les within a smal ange486 oruco nosey igure 141 nent sais. Ace oy eed ea one cei ee Be ff Abid] eae. “he ning apy, ‘ows ae bo ray ‘00 va 20 30 so 50 eo 70 no gown toh mm Frail diy AC) <4C around a value C is (C)AC. Assuming that Land C are independent andom variables, the composite risk is evaluated by calculating the probability that loading will exceed capacity at each value in the range of feasible capacities, and integrating t obain [lfm foe oan ‘The relibiity ofa system is defined be he probabil the system wll eco is required function for a speted pero of tine ander sted contions (Garr, 1987). Reliability R is the complement of rik, or the probity thatthe loading will noc exced the capacity RPL =O) aa) =1-8 r= [[froafose esas Example 1341, Doing he coing year cys eine water demand stnce tunis wih » snd evaion of one unt. Cala (a the Hk of demain ‘xcecing spy ithe c's nate suply sytem has an ems cape of is (heh oft ite ete he capacity a8 Se ot (78 unis. Assure hat losing ad capacity ae bth normally iste, Solution (a) The ooting is normally dstibed with ug = 3 and p= 1. ts poabiy foncton, om 84-1023), veo nen 438 aches ‘The i is evaluated wing (13.4.2) with [oa i J, 1 pa-viag, sae Bes- [ Leora, ‘The ing is eviatted by converting the variable of negro othe standnd rma vile = guar = 3V1 = 2 Sraode = team Ee iL =~ becomes w= =, alten pete (tle Fet~[ ero a -1-F@ ‘her. normal tition sion Fo TM 112.1, F2)= 0.977, and a ‘hschance thal demand will ected spl era fied opacity ofS icaproninately (0) The capacty now has 8 noma! dstribton with jc Hence is proba deny nd we = 0.15, ey ee neha Free" 1 F075) a thei of ef given by Ea. (184.3), with (L) as tie EY [[analver LehaneSSovwnemtRo ‘Ship non en EE A Ena ae ‘foun ate bt soma oo oo Mo se Go 7H So ean ae nope {AC around a value Cis (C)4C. Assuming that Lad C are independent nom Sariables, the composite ris is evaluated by calculating the probebility. that loading wil exceed capacity at each value in the range Of feasible capacities, L [fome jow pas “The reliabitiy of a system is defined 1 be te probabiiy thar a system will perform ts required fection or a spected period of ime understated conditions (ita, 1987). Reliability Rs the complement of sk, orth probably thatthe loading will not excoed the capacity «344 Example 1.4.1, Doing te soming Ser cys estimated water demand the tin a and deviation of one ont Cala a) te 8 of demand teedng sop fe cys ter spy system as an estimated cacy ofS (the ik of fe ice exe of the saps a standard er of (77S un. Amne at ding sl apa ae bath ermal iP Solution, (a) The lasing is normally ised with yy 3 and og = 1 hs roi fant, mE (1.25, somcocicorsin 85 ‘The sik is vas wing (13.4.2) wim C= 5 ‘orm aise» pense bn ees whee Fs he soda normal sb funtion. om Tale 1.2.1, F2) = ine ‘ible 1.2.1, £.2)= -osr 0023 ‘hehe ht dont wll xed ugly fora fe capa fs approxiay (6) The capucty ow has «norm stibutin with c= Sand oc = 0.75 Hence is pub deny is wes F079) 133, nd he isk of ale sven hy Ba, 184.3), with UL) as tf F lGasalae436. amen esc. “Toe integra eves by competer wing mamercal iteration sed 0.053, ‘Tse chance tn th c's water dermal Wil exceed Spl Ging he ‘Zamng vest asaming tb capaci to be nol tabled wih meas and ‘Sa deviation 0.5 i ppronatey 8 prem compe this ih (he es pent when he capacity was censidered Heed 28 wnt. Its clear from Example 13.4.1 that calculation ofthe composite risk of failure canbe a complicated exercise requiring the use ofa compute to perform ‘the necessary integration, This especially tre when move realistic ition: forthe lendng and capacity are chosen, such se the Extreme Valeo og-Peasen ‘Type distibuins fr loading, andthe lognormal distribution for eapacity. Yen snd co-vorkers atthe Univerty of Minos (Yen, 1970, Tang and Yen, 1972: Yen, eal. 1976) and Mays and co-worker atthe Univesity of Texas a Austin (Tung and Mays, 1980; Lee and May, 1986) have made detailed sk analsis studies for various kins of open-channel and pie-ow design problems. “The composite rik assis described ete is asa analysis, which means that i estimates the sk of fale under the single worst case Toading on the stem during is desig life. A more complex dynamic risk analysis considers the possibility of numberof exteme loadings during the design Hie, any one fof hick could cause fale: the total risk of faire includes the chance of ‘uliple fires during the design Ife (Tung and Mays, 1980; Lee and Mas 1983), 135. RISK ANALYSIS OF SAFETY MARGINS AND SAFETY FACTORS. Safety Margin ‘The safety margin was defined in Ey, (13.2.8) as the diference betveen the project capacity and the vale calculated for the design loading SM=C ~ L From (13.4.1), the rik of ile Ris ICL <0) PSM <0) 1 C and Lae independent rndom viriales, then the mean valve of SM is given by 33.0) iow = He (332) and its variance by oi = 08 + ob (035.3) so the standard deviation, ce standard err of estimate, ofthe safety margin is 359 1 the safety margin is normally distibued, then (SM-sya'osy 8 @ standard remccccorson 437 normal variate. By subtracting usy fom both sides ofthe inequity in (13.5.1) tnd viding both sides by og it ca Be seen hat, {SMa < =) fe < Ha) (359) (a) Inhere Fis the stsdard normal distribution funtion Example 13.5.1 Cateulae the isk ila of water eply system in Example 134 sung hath sy mai coma dst, nd at eS Solution, From Ea (1352), sy e— se Goer oi) = + O78 28, Using 03.35) From (185.9, o94= he evs using Table 11.2.1 w yield R = OS, which & very cose tothe value obiaed im Example 13.4.1 by munerclinegation fon hee apposite procedure) The i file underthe aed sont =0 085, [Nove that is method of analysis asumes tha the sey margin is normaly 0,001, Ris ot real lune by the cote of dstbusons for Land C. andthe aesenptin of moral disbton fox SM is satisfactory. For loner risk than tis (eg, = 0.0000), he shaper eth as ofthe don fx La € tec cea nd isco he fal compest isk anaysn described in Se, 13-4 shoud be sed to elute he ak of fe Safety Factor ‘The safety factor SF is given by the tio C/L and the risk of faitre can be cexmressed as PSF « 1), By taking logarithms of both sides of this iaquality498 euro nroneioey "SF <1) Ale(SF) <0) (sy {nS <0) 1 the capacity and loading ar independent and logoormalydisibuted, then the risk can be expressed (Huang, 1986) ~ [ese] [io [a + eva + vB) Ber, ample 18.52, Solve Example 135.1 suming cacy snd loading ae bot Iopiomally ibe. Solution. From Example 3.5.1, pc $.nd a¢~0.18 and ace CVe=0-8/5= (045 Likewise, = Sando, ~ fy s0 CV, = 1i3~0.338 Hence, by Eq (3.5.9, se on Inf + 58K + 0333) (1.5463) = 0068 “Thesis of fle under he above assumptions, then, 6.1 percent. For the ane een (xamle 138 1Jasuing fat he sly marin ws oral dt, the Hsk was fund to be 5.5 percent the isk evel Nas ae changed peal Wi se ofthe lognormal ised ofthe oma distbatn. Rish-Safety Factor-Return Period Relationship ‘A common design practice isto choose rerun period and determine the come sponding loading Las the design capacity of hydraulic srveture. The set Factor is ieretly built into the choice ofthe return period. Alteeively. the loading value an be multiplied by asfery factor SF then the structures designed fr capacity C= SF % L. As discused in this chapter, there are various Kinds ‘of wncersity associated oth with Land with the capacity € of the structures ‘designed. By composite risk analysis, a sk of flue canbe calelated forthe ‘elected cm period and sft) factor. The result of such 3 cleulation is shown otcccommet 439 HRs. iGURE 131 ‘ea oe periowaonp orsnes ign on he le Rie ee Reson, ‘ign The poi esa flung na dep fi sth Ene aoe ‘pel issn oem maximus Agama enon fr cave pes) at ‘ped un cry hk Genet ra oe) inFig. 13.5.1, which shows a risk chart applying to culver design onthe Glade River near Reston, Virginia. "The risk values in the char epresentansual prob shlives of fae: For example, i the rtm peice! is 100 jets ad the sfety factor 1.0, the risk of tile i 0.015 of 1.S percetin any given year, while if the safety factor is increased to 2, the risk offal is reduce to R = 0.006, or (06 percent in any given year. (Curent hydrologic Sesign practice copes with the intent uncetainty of Inydrologic phenomena by the selection of the design retum period, ad with node and parameter uncertainty by the assignment of arbitary safety factors or Safety margins. The rsks and uneraimtes cn be evaluated more systematically ting the procedures provided by fstoxder analysis of unceriny and composite risk analysis as presented here However, it must be bore in mind hat jst 25 ‘any function of random variables is itself a random variable, the estimates of risk fd reliability provided by these methods ako have uncenamty associated with ‘hem. and thei tre values can never be deter exactly, REFERENCES tov ATL Sa WH Tg Py Co Pug an nt esi, wh440 srnxosnoctane Ea esr tm Petter te ae Bat ars Mn Ri Si gw iy. ar Rms 5 aig ian Be i Ee natin ecg ee a, en et Gg ein oa , Sr nea is ee a tng ia, fies ain go, Ne Me ni pei Wena twp 2 Wa sees ee Tang YK ad LW ‘Mays, Risk aaah fe ae design, J. yk. Div, Ave, Soe, Ch U.S, Ammy Corps o Engineers Hyalogx: Enginceng Center. composer pogram cag. Duis wud mn bala Bn i ‘eo, 0 Rian pp sf. gs J he Bis eS On ve tape Sai Yo ERG MI PS te Mma tn i PROBLEMS 122.1 The tia droght of record as detenined from 30 years of hagas Sonsieedt have listed fr 3 yeas a water spp dist belo i Sought andthe design hfe 50 yeas, wt the Cait & one ewe ‘tl cca during the des ie! 132.2 In Prod 1.21, wt ithe hance ta 4 worse drought wil oxcur daring th Fr 10 years the espn ile Te fas 20 oun? 132.3. What ste ctance hat he ges ood cbse in SO yen fread wil be exceeded ring the next 10 sears? Thee 20 seas? 13246 Ifa siete his a design if of 15 yeas ciel the eeu design rete Peto fhe cette of ale 30 perce oy ya, over te ig ie nas n26 mar m8 129 wat waa nas nas as 36 war ectccctese 441 A oo plain repuation prevent constnton Within the 25.yea od pai. Whats the isha a state bu jst onthe oe his oa! fan wl be ood sing the next 10 years? BY ow much would hs tk We ede nstcton were ied to the edge of he Theat od plan? ‘Aout hs 3 30-year dsm ie, Whats he cane wl be Mood ding ‘desig if if iis located on the eg ofthe 25-year Dood pa The TU, year foe pain? Determine the optimum sao development un peso for he Meco ‘measure considered in Example 13.231 the snl capil Coss gen Te 15.2 ae doubled. Use he same damage cos in Tle 132. Determine the optimum sae Geelopent (tam pct for he Modo meme cosieed in Example 18-23 he dag css te Goble Ata ‘Spidey reat the same a i Tae 13.2.1 Detemine he optimum cal of develope ram pei othe fod cont mes consieredin Bane 13,231 the daa ents and he al cope este bh Soule. ‘A evanulr chante! i 200 ft wide, has a slope 0.5 percent a estat Manning's» of 0040, ana desin discharge of 10.000 cfs Calculate desi, Now depth If the cfc of wratin a the desonsncurge 20 sate Manning i 0.15, calc the standard enor fein the fw yh ‘Whats the eobsbily tht hata! wate lve wil be mere an I fon deeper han the eget valve? Within what ange can the wate: fort Seon ‘et Be expected 70 percent of ever? Prob 13.3.1, eakulate 290 and yn forthe conions given (Q= 10,08 fs and n = 0.040) and solve the probe wing hve deatives Solve Prob, 13.31 if he chanel swaperoidl with to wih 150 and sie slopes ven. = Shor "low ina natural seam camel bas ben me by» computer program and undo havea depth of 15 or a fw rae of 0 cf and amine’ tle Sf 1035. Rerining the progam sbows that changing the design dchare ty "ooo cfs changes the wate sua elevation by Of and changag Manning’ sy 0.05 changes th water sac elevation by 0.4 fe dein dichage 1s asus wo Be acute lo = 30 pret and Mamita wo = poe alu te coespodiag emer inthe fl dp or mate sce cleat) Sappse forte conitons given in Exile 133.1. sled inthe et th the ‘hunel wal height ood i 8.4 tht te calculated depth of 18 fae 410 f feboar, or safety margin. What sft factor SF opi th ‘hice? Wht woul the safety factor te i he te Manning's tugs ee 1045 instead of the 0.038 asad? ati tale dian? ‘sing the isomer analysis uncer for Meaning’ eqpato, show ate ‘ecient of vain of he dcharge Qs given by CV = CV = /4¥CV5 ‘What asumpsons abut the vel in Manning's equa se ped y sxuation foe CV ta some instances, ood pin suis are mae sing chan cos sections deine fom topograpte map insted of grond suneys Eten the ft ‘er aap of user fr water lve in Se 133 eine uneen In the costal ea Aad Wete perinter P. I these vale cn he