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PHYSICS
I. HEAD-ON ELASTIC COLLISION
If colliding bodies before and after collision remain in a line, the collision is said to be
head-on collision. This will happen when bodies move along the line joining their
geometric centres.
r
r r
r
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 (u1 > u 2 )
r
r
along the same straight line. Let after collision their velocities become v1 and v2 in the
same initial direction. Then
or
u1 - u2
1
1
m1v12 + m2 v22
2
2
= m2(v22 u22)
= m2(v2 + u2) (v2 u2)
(iii)
(iv)
= v 2 + u2
= v2 - v1.
(v)
and
velocity of approach
velocity of separation
v1
m1 - m2
2m2
m + m u1 + m + m u2 (vi)
1
2
1
2
v2
m2 - m1
2m1
= m + m u2 + m + m u1 ... (vii)
1
1
2
2
Special cases :
(i)
When colliding bodies are of equal masses, let m1 = m2 = m. From equation (vi) and
(vii), we get
v1 = u2 and v2 = u1
Hence when two bodies of equal masses collide elastically, their velocities get
exchanged.
2
(ii)
If m1 = m2 = m and u2 = 0, then
v1 = 0 and v2 = u1.
(iii) When a light body collides with a massive stationary body. Here m1 << m2 and
u2 = 0
\
v1 = u1 and v2 ; 0.
Hence when a light body collides with a massive stationary body, the light body
rebounds after the collision with an equal speed while the massive body remains at
rest.
(iv) When a massive body collides with a light body at rest. Here m1 >> m2 and u2 = 0
\
v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u.
Transfer of kinetic energy during collision: Kinetic energy transferred from projectile
to the target
DK = decrease in K.E. of projectile
=
1
1
m1u12 - m1v12 .
2
2
DK
K
1 m u 2 - 1 m v2
2 1 1
2 11
1 m u2
2 1 1
DK
K
v
= 1- 1 .
u
or
(viii)
m1u1 + m2 u2
.
m1 + m2
DK
1
2 1
2 1
2
= m1u1 + m2u2 - (m1 + m2 )v
2
2
2
1
2 1
2 1
= m1u1 + m2u2 - (m1 + m2 )
2
2
2
m1u1 + m2 u2
m + m
1
1 m1m2
(u1 - u2 ) 2 .
2 m1 + m2
or
e =
velocity of separation
velocity of approach
v2 - v1
u1 - u2
v -v
v -v
- 2 1 = - 1 2 .
u2 - u1
u1 - u2
Note:
The coefficient of restitution is a 1D concept. Thus in problem involving oblique collision,
'e' is defined only along the line of collision. In the absence of tangential forces the
collision in the perpendicular direction is taken as elastic.
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 along a line.
Let the coefficient of restitution between the bodies is e. After collision their velocities
become v1 and v2 respectively. Then we have,
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(i)
and
e =
v1 - v2
.
u1 - u2
(ii)
m1 - em2
(1 + e)m2
(iii)
m + m u1 + m + m u2
1
and
m2 - em1
(1 + e)m1
m + m u2 + m + m u1 (iv)
v2
mu
= mv1 + mv2
Special case
If m1 = m2 = m and u1 = u, u2 = 0, then
and
e =
v1 - v2
u-0
v1
u
(1 - e)
2
v2
u
(1 + e)
2
v1
v2
1- e
.
1+ e
II. ELECTRIC
DIPOLE
A system of two equal and opposite charges fixed at a small distance constitutes a
dipole. If l is the distance between the charges + q and q, then dipole moment is
defined as :
r
r
P = ql .
It is a vector quantity and its direction is from negative to positive charge.
r
r
Potential due to an electric dipole : Consider a dipole AB of dipole moment, P = q l .
We want to calculate the electric potential at a point P, at a distance r from the centre of
the dipole. Let line r makes an angle q with the line of dipole.
The electric potential due to the charges of the dipole at P
Vp
l
l
cos q and PB = r - cos q, assuming that l << r.
2
2
Vp
As l << r, hence
1 q
q
4p PB - PA
q
q
l
l
4p r - cos q
r + cos q
0
2
2
1
ql cos q
4p
2
0
2 l
2
r - cos q
4
l2
cos 2 q can be neglected and putting ql = P , we get
4
VP
1 P cos q
.
4p
r2
0
(1)
rr
1 P.r
4p 3
0 r
Electric field due to an electric dipole : The electric field at point P varies with r and q
r
r
both, so we can not get E from the differentiation of V at once. The components of E
in two perpendicular directions are ; the radial component Er, and transverse component
Eq. Thus
Er =
1 P cos q
V
= - 4p
r
r2
r
0
1 2 P cos q
=
4p 0
r3
(i)
P:
5
Eq =
and
=
\
1 P sin q
4p
r3
0
E =
(ii)
Er2 + Eq2
E =
or
1 V
1 1 P cos q
=r q
r q 4p 0 r 2
1 P 3cos 2 q + 1
4p
r3
0
(2)
tan q
2
tan q
(3)
tan -1
2
r
r
Here a is the angle made by the resultant field E with the line of rr . The direction of E
from the direction of dipolemoment is q + a.
Special cases :
1.
End -on position : At the axis of the dipole, q = 0, and so
or
and
2.
a =
E =
1 2P
4p 3
0 r
V =
1 P
4 p 2
0 r
Broad side -on position : At the equatorial line of the dipole, q = 90 and so
E =
and
1 P
4p 3
0 r
V = 0.
r
Consider an electric dipole placed in an uniform field of intensity E . The ends of the
dipole experience equal and opposite forces, each of magnitude F = Eq.
Thus, because of uniform field, the net force on the dipole becomes zero and so the
centre of mass of the dipole does not move. However, the forces on the charged ends do
produce a net torque rt on the dipole about its centre of mass. The magnitude of this
torque
t = [magnitude of either force] [ distance
between lines of action of the forces]
= F l sin q
=
Eq l sin q = E (ql)sin q
or
t = PE sin q
In vector notation, it can be written as :
r = r r
t
PE
Work done by the agent to increase the angle from q1 to q2 :
(1)
6
The torque exerted by the agent to increase the angle
tagent
Wagent
Work done,
PE sin q
q2
tagent d q
q1
q2
PE sin qd q
q1
Wagent
or
PE - cos q q2
1
PE (cos q1 - cos q2 )
(2)
r
The path of charged particle in magnetic field depends on the angle q between vr and B .
Depending on different values of q, the possible cases are :
Case 1 : When q is 0 or 180:
For q = 0 or 180, the force on the moving charge F = qvB sin 0o or 180o = 0,
and therefore particle goes undeviated along a straight path.
Case 2 : When q = 90:
(i) When particle is projected from inside the field, it experiences a force which
always perpendicular to the velocity and so its path will be circular. The
necessary centripetal force is provided by the magnetic force. If r be the
radius of the path, then
mv 2
r
or
mv
qB
mv^
qB
or we can write
or
v
q
B
m
q
= a, is called specific charge,
m
\ The equation (1) can be written in the form :
Let
v
aB
P2
2m
or
P =
2mK
If charged particle is accelerated by potential V, then
K = qV
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...(1)
7
\
2mK
=
qB
P
=
qB
Length of path
speed
2mqV
qB
...(2)
Time period :
or
2pr
=
v
2pm
qB
2p
mv
qB
1
qB
=
,
T 2 pm
2 pf =
Bq
.
m
T pm
=
2 qB
PQ = 2r
(b)The time spend in magnetic field
2pm
q
2q
T ] = [T ] , where T =
[
qB
p
2p
PQ = 2r sinq
t =
IV.
THE PRISM
When two refracting surfaces are inclined at some angle, they constitute
a prism. Figure shows a triangular prism. The angle between the inclined
surfaces is called angle of prism or refracting angle. The angle of commonly
used prism is 60. Prism can cause deviation as well as dispersion.
8
AC of the prism at an angle r2, and then finally emerges from this face with an angle e (see
figure). By Snells law
m
sin i
sin e
=
.
sin r1 sin r2
...(1)
A + R
180
180 A
In DPQR,
R + r1 + r2
180
or
(180o - A) + r1 + r2
180
r1 + r2
SPQ + SQP
( i - r1 ) + ( e - r2 )
( i + e ) - ( r1 + r2 )
(1 + e ) - A
A+d
Angle of deviation,
i+e
...(2)
...(3)
i
e
=
r1 r2
i
\
Now from equation (3), we have
m r1 + m r2
or
m(r1 + r2)
or
mA
d
\
m r1 and e = m r2
=
=
=
=
A+d
A+d
A+d
(m 1)A
...(4)
There are two values for angle of incidence for same angle of deviation
When a ray is incident at an angle i, it emerges at an angle e, with a deviation angle d. If
the ray is incident at an angle e, then it will emerge at an angle i having same angle of
deviation. Thus there are two angles of incidence for same angle of deviation. These are
i1 = i and i2 = e.
Minimum deviation
We know that
i+e
A+ d
9
d
=
(i + e) A
\
From the above equation, we can say that angle of deviation depends on angle of
incidence. Experiments show that with the increase in angle of incidence, the angle of
deviation first decreases, passes through minimum and then increases. Thus for a certain
value of the angle of incidence (i1 = i2), the light passing through prism suffers minimum
deviation. The angle of deviation at this position is called the minimum angle of deviation
(dm). Figure shows the minimum deviation and graph shows the variation of angle of
deviation with angle of incidence.
In minimum deviation position, d
=
dm
i
=
e
and so
r1
=
r2 = r (say)
From equations (2) and (3), we get
r
A + dm
A
.
and i =
2
2
or
sin i
sin r
A + dm
sin
2
A
sin
2
...(5)
Maximum deviation
We know that, angle of deviation
d
=
(i + e) A.
The deviation angle will be maximum, when either of i or e is maximum. Thus for
i
dmax
=
=
90,
(90 + e) A.
sin 90o
sin r1
sin r1
1
m
or
r1
1
sin -1 = C
m
We have
r1 + r2
r2
=
=
A
A r1 = A C
sin e
sin ( A - C )
sin e
m sin(A C)
...(i)
\
Now for face AC,
or
10
e = sin -1 m sin ( A - C )
or
Thus
...(ii)
...(6)
Condition of no emergence
A ray of light will not emerge out from the prism, if it gets totally reflected from the other
face of the prism, even for angle of incidence on first face is 90. Thus angle of incidence
on second face should be greater than critical angle. i.e.,
r2 > C.
For i 90o , r1 C. Thus for no emergence from any face of the prism, angles
r1 + r2 = A,
A > 2C
\
So, a ray of light will not emerge out from the prism, if A > 2C.
...(7)
Erecting prism
This is also the right-angled isosceles prism. In this case rays of light should be parallel
to the hypotenuse. By doing so the rays invert themselves and an inverted object
appears as erect.
V.
PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT
When light of certain frequency is incident on a metal surface, electrons are ejected from
themetal. Thisphenomenon iscalled photoelectric effect (PEE). Electrons ejected from
the metal are called photoelectrons. The photoelectric effect was first observed by
Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
Work function
We know that metals have large number of free electrons. These electrons move freely
inside the metal but can not come out from it due to attraction of the positive ions. Some
energy is needed to liberate the electrons from the bondage of the attraction of the ions.
The minimum energy required to liberate the electrons from the metal surface, is called
work function, and is represented by W0.
11
Metal
Metal
Work function
(eV)
Cesium
1.9
Calcium
3.2
Potassium
2.2
Copper
4.5
Sodium
2.3
Silver
4.7
Lithium
2.5
Platinum
5.6
Stopping potential
When anode is given negative potential with respect to the cathode, the photoelectric
current decreases. For a particular value of anode potential, the photoelectric current
becomes zero. The minimum negative anode potential at which photoelectric current
becomes zero is called stopping or cut off potential V0. To stop the photoelectric current,
we must ensure that even the fastest electron will not reach the anode. Thus stopping
potential is related to the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons. If V0 is the
stopping potential, then
Kmax = eV0.
...(4)
Characteristics of pee
1.
2.
12
3.
Effect of photometal
When intensity and frequency of incident light are kept constant and photometal is changed, the stopping potential V0 versus frequency f are parallel straight
lines. This shows that the slope V0/f is same for all metals and is equal to universal
constant (h). If the graph is plotted between Kmax and f, then there is straight line.
Slope of which gives the value of h/e (Fig.).
4.
Effect of time
Metal starts emitting electrons as soon as light is incident on it and so there is no
time lag between incident light and emitted electrons.
hf,
2.
The electrons of metal are bound with the nucleus by attractive forces. The
minimum energy required to liberate an electron from this binding is called work
function W0.
3.
The incident photon interacts with a single electron and spend energy in two
parts :
(i)
(ii) and imparting kinetic energy to emitted electrons. Thus if hf is the energy of
incident photons, then
h f = W0 + Kmax
...(i)
As
f
hc
l
hc
c
and W0 = l ,
l
0
hc 1
2
+ mvmax
.
l0 2
...(ii)
The efficiency of photoelectric effect is less than 1%, i.e., only less than 1% of
photons are capable of ejecting electrons from the metal surface. The rest 99% of
the photon energy will convert into thermal energy.
5.
W0 + eV0
or
hf
e
W0
+ V0
e
or
V0
W0 h
+ f.
e e
...(iii)
13
h
The equation (iii) is a straight line between V0 and f, whose slope is , which
e
is a universal constant.