SBF 1013

ASSIGNMENT 2 (INDIVIDUAL)

NAME: MUHAMMAD FARHAN BIN AHMAD

MATRIC NUMBER: E201510111176
LECTURE GROUP : E
LECTURERS NAME: PROF. MADYA DR.
SHAKINAZ BINTI DESA
DATE: 6TH MAY 2016

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN ANIMALS

1.0 Organism and Introduction

Our group had already construct an education bulletin about physiological process in
the body. My group and I have discuss about mountain climbers . Physiology is the study
about how living organisms function, from cells all the way up to the whole organism and
how organisms adapt to different environmental conditions in different habitats. We'll
focus on organ-systems, which are collections of cells, tissues and organs that have
specific functions within the bodies of organisms.
These systems include the respiratory system, circulatory system, digestive system,
musculoskeletal system and reproductive system. All of these systems interact with each
other, and their optimal functioning contributes to the health of the individual organism is
the study of how living organisms function. Looking at this through an organ-system
view, we can see how animals evolved different ways of functioning for their particular
habitats.
2.0 General physiology processes and explanations
2.1 Respiratory system
Our respiration involves three steps, firstly is the inshalation, second is gas exchange
which is called respiration between the air and lastly internal gas exchange between the
blood and fluids. During inhalation, internal intercostal muscle will relax while while
external intercostal muscle contract and the rib cage move upward and outward. The
diaphragm contract and became flattens while the volume in thoraic cavity increases and
the pressure will decreases. Air in the atmosphere moves into the lungs.

In the lungs, there is a process happen called respiraton. Respiration is a process of

gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide. The air from outside will enter our
lungs and cause the increase of volume in our lungs . The pressure will decrease due to
increasing of volume. The gas from blood capillary has a high pressure in it . The
respiration happen because the pressure. The gas from the high pressure will exchange
between the low pressure.
For exhalation, internal intercostal muscle will contract while while external
intercostal muscle relax and the rib cage move downward and inward. The diaphragm
relax and became curved upwards while the volume in thoraic cavity decreases and the
pressure will increases. Air in the atmosphere moves out into the atmosphere.
2.2 Circulatory system
For animal (human), we have closed circulatory system or cardiovascular system,
includes a strong heart and blood vessels. It can divided by two part first is pulmonary
circuit and second is systemic circuit. The heart pumps the blood to the body and receives
the blood returned to the heart. There are three types of blood vessels which is arteries,
veins and capillaries. Our heart is a double pump. The right side pumps oxygen-depleted
blood to the lungs. The left side pumps oxygen-rich blood to body.
For pulmonary circulation, the right atrium receives the blood returned to the heart
via the vena cava. The blood passes to the ventrical through the tricuspid valve and right
ventricle pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary semilunar valve, the
pulmonary trunk, and pulmonary arteries.
For systemic circuit, after gas exchange in the lungs, the pulmonary veins bring
oxygen-rich blood back to the left atrium of the heart. Blood passes through the bicuspid
valve to the left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps the blood through the aortic semilunar
valve to the aorta and distributes the blood to the body.
2.3 Digestive system
The digestive system processes water and nutrients for the body to use. Whatever food an
animal eats has to be broken down into small molecules in order to pass into the
bloodstream to be taken to the cells and used for energy.

The digestive tract begins with the mouth food enters the mouth and is chewed by the
teeth, turned over and mixed with saliva by the tongue. The sensations of smell and taste
from the food sets up reflexes which stimulate the salivary glands.
Situated at the back of the nose and oral cavity receives the softened food mass or
bolus by the tongue pushing it against the palate which initiates the swallowing action.At
the same time a small flap called the epiglottis moves over the trachea to prevent any
food particles getting into the windpipe.From the pharynx onwards the alimentary canal
is a simple tube starting with the salivary glands.
The stomach lies below the diaphragm and to the left of the liver. It is the widest part
of the alimentary canal and acts as a reservoir for the food where it may remain for
between 2 and 6 hours. Here the food is churned over and mixed with various hormones,
enzymes including pepsinogen which begins the digestion of protein, hydrochloric acid,
and other chemicals; all of which are also secreted further down the digestive tract. The
wall of the stomach is impermeable to most substances, although does absorb some
water, electrolytes, certain drugs, and alcohol. At regular intervals a circular muscle at the
lower end of the stomach, the pylorus opens allowing small amounts of food, now known
as chyme to enter the small intestine.
The small intestine consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Both the bile and
pancreatic ducts open into the duodenum together. The small intestine, because of its
structure, provides a vast lining through which further absorption takes place. There is a
large lymph and blood supply to this area, ready to transport nutrients to the rest of the
body. Digestion in the small intestine relies on its own secretions plus those from the
pancreas, liver, and gall bladder.
The liver, which acts as a large reservoir and filter for blood, occupies the upper right
portion of abdomen and has several important functions which to secretion of bile to the
gall bladder. Carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism, the storage of glycogen ready for
conversion into glucose when energy is required, storage of vitamins and phagocytosis ingestion of worn out red and white blood cells, and some bacteria

The Pancreas is connected to the duodenum via two ducts and has two main
functions it is to produce enzymes to aid the process of digestion and yo release insulin
directly into the blood stream for the purpose of controlling blood sugar levels. Enzymes
suspended in the very alkaline pancreatic juices include amylase for breaking down
starch into sugar, and lipase which, when activated by bile salts, helps to break down fat.
The hormone insulin is produced by specialised cells, the islets of Langerhans, and plays
an important role in controlling the level of sugar in the blood and how much is allowed
to pass to the cells.
Lastly, the large intestine comprises the caecum, appendix, colon, and rectum. After
food is passed into the caecum a reflex action in response to the pressure causes the
contraction of the ileo-colic valve preventing any food returning to the ileum. Here most
of the water is absorbed, much of which was not ingested, but secreted by digestive
glands further up the digestive tract. The colon is divided into the ascending, transverse
and descending colons, before reaching the anal canal where the indigestible foods are
expelled from the body.

2.4 Musculoskeletal system

The human musculoskeletal system is an organ system that gives humans the ability
to move using their muscular and skeletal systems. The musculoskeletal system provides
form, support, stability, and movement to the body. It is made up of the bones of
the skeleton, muscles, cartilage,

tendons, ligaments, joints,

and

other connective

tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together. The musculoskeletal system's
primary functions include supporting the body, allowing motion, and protecting vital
organs. The skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system
for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of the hematopoietic
system.
This system describes how bones are connected to other bones and muscle fibers
via connective tissue such as tendons andligaments. The bones provide stability to the

body. Muscles keep bones in place and also play a role in the movement of bones. To
allow motion, different bones are connected by joints. Cartilage prevents the bone ends
from rubbing directly onto each other. Muscles contract to move the bone attached at the
joint.
2.5 Reproductive system
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs in both males
and females that work together for the purpose of procreating.
The male reproductive system consists of two major parts the testes, where sperm are
produced, and the penis. The penis and urethra belong to both the urinary and
reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an external pouch known as the
scrotum, where they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature to facilitate
sperm production.
The major internal organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina and
uterus which act as the receptacle for semen and the ovaries, which produce the female's
ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the fallopian tubes
connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response to hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg
or more in the case of multiple births is released and sent down the fallopian tube during
ovulation. If not fertilized, this egg is eliminated as a result of menstruation

3.0 Adaptation physiology processes for mountain climbers

For the mountain climbers, the physiology processes will
different compare with human at the normal altitude. When their climb
the mountain, the environmental stresses at high altitude. In addition,
the air pressure is lower. This is usually the most significant limiting
factor in high mountain regions. At the high altitudes, it more
difficult for oxygen to enter our vascular systems during inhalation and
it will result of hypoxia. Hypoxia is inability to do normal physical
activities. There have early symptoms if someone experiencing in hypoxia

include vomiting, headache and fatigue. If our body can not adapt with
the environment, it will result in death within a few days. There is
also an increased risk of heart failure due to the added stress placed
on the lungs, heart, and arteries at high altitudes.

The causes of Hypoxia is decrease in muscle fiber density. It is because decrease in

the activity of enzymes responsible for aerobic oxidative metabolism and muscle
oxidative. Moreover, it can cause diaphragm and abdominal muscle contractile fatigue
and reduction in maximal rate of O2 uptake. Lastly, it also causes of weight loss.
At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the carotid bodies,
which causes an increase in the breathing rate. However,it also causes the adverse effect
of respiratory alkalosis, inhibiting therespiratory center from enhancing the respiratory
rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused
by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary.
When the heart beats faster, blood pressure go up sharply as our hearts pump harder
to get more oxygen to the cells. The stroke volume is slightly decreased and non-essential
bodily functions are suppressed, resulting in a decline in food digestion efficiency (as the
body suppresses the digestive system in favor of increasing its cardiopulmonary
reserves). These are stressful changes.
The red blood cells and capillaries also are produced to carry more oxygen. The
lungs increase in size to facilitate the osmosis of oxygen and carbon dioxide. There is
also an increase in the vascular network of muscles which enhances the transfer of gases.