Running head: NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

A Needs Analysis for EAP Writing Skills

Krista Boddy, Sufang Hou, and Adele Lonas
Colorado State University

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

A Needs Analysis for EAP Writing Skills

The goal of this present project is two-fold. The first objective is to determine what Adult
English Language Learners (AELLs) in Northern Colorado need to learn and know about basic
academic writing in order to perform successfully on the extended response section of the GED,
Accuplacer or Community College Placement Test (CCPT). While the GED is a requirement in
many places of employment, the Accuplacer and the Community College Placement Test are the
requisite placement exams for entering into academic programs at community colleges we have
targeted in Northern Colorado. Once the needs of our target AELLs have been determined, the
second objective will be to develop specific, appropriate resources that AELL teachers in the
relevant Adult Learning Centers might use to effectively prepare their students for any of the
three exams.
The principal factor analyzed in the present Needs Analysis (NA) is the target situation;
however, the discourse analysis we conducted is the basis for understanding our target situation.
For the target situation analysis, we researched the forms and functions of the essays as detailed
in the study guides, scoring rubrics, sample essay instructions, and sample essays of the GED
and Accuplacer. We considered the task characteristics of the GED and placement exams in
terms of time limitations and if the tests were computer or paper-based. We also observed a
remedial college-level composition class to see what and how basic academic writing concepts
are taught that reflect the expectations of the essay portion of the GED, CCPT and Accuplacer.
Additionally, to fully inform our understanding of the discourse of the target situation, we
looked at relevant vocabulary in the instructions and sample essays from the GED, Accuplacer,
CCPT, SAT and ACT, in order to create a more comprehensive corpora of keywords and
phrases. Our purpose in conducting a corpus analysis of the instructions and exams was to

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

identify keywords or language chunks that might be unfamiliar to AELLs. Our purpose in
conducting the corpus analysis of the exam samples was to detect common functional vocabulary
and collocations that are frequently used in exemplary samples. Similarly, we analyzed the
patterns in syntax that allow students to meet the requisite variations in coherent, complex
sentence structure on the exams.
In addition to the target situation and discourse analyses, we analyzed the present
situation specific to AELLs at an Adult Basic Education (ABE) program in Northern Colorado,
while also considering overall national statistics and studies that highlight, analyze and detail the
struggles of AELLs in obtaining a GED or transitioning successfully into academic programs.
The present situation is inclusive of how learner factors are defined and impacted by the present
situation in Northern Colorado. For the present situation, we also interviewed a specialist who
works in test development and placement, in order to understand the present challenges of
AELLs in meeting the minimum requirements of the exams in order to be placed in either noncredit remedial reading and composition classes, or in credit composition classes.
Theoretical Foundations
Overall, a Second Language Needs Analysis (NA) is a study that is conducted in order to
collect information about two components of a language learning situation. Information is
collected about a Target Language Use (TLU) domainthe context in which a specific second
language learner is or will be interacting and performing tasks; and a specified target population,
the second language learners who are expected to interact and perform tasks within the specified
domain. As stated in Ahmadvand, Barati, and Ketabis (2015) article, Rights Analysis of ESP
Course: Towards Democratizing ESP Education, the purpose of the needs analysis is to [gain]

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

access to detailed information about the linguistic as well as the cognitive challenges students
face in academic [and occupational] contexts (p.2).
The goal of an NA is to match the language skills, knowledge, and strategic competence
that is taught to the second language learners with what will be expected of them in the TLU
domain. As clarified by Casper (2003), The information gleaned from a needs analysis can be
used to help you define program goals. These goals can then be stated as specific teaching
objectives, which in turn will function as the foundation on which to develop lesson plans,
materials, tests, assignments and activities. A needs analysis that includes all principal
stakeholders ensures that the course will be productive and specific to the context of student
learning. It also will meet all proposed objectives in terms of stakeholders time and funds
invested.
Conducting a language NA is important because the second language context confronting
a learner may involve interaction, communication, and task performance that requires both
general communicative competence in the second language, and skills, knowledge and strategic
competence specific to a targeted situational context. Additionally, learners will also need to
understand the underlying language forms, usage, and meaning that the skills and strategic
competence depend on. Van Avermaet and Gysen (2006) assert that, for immigrants in
particular, functioning in a societal domain is determined by what [the individual] needs to be
able to do with the language (p.2). For the same reason, the target population may remain
unprepared if they only receive general second language training that fails to look at the contexts
in which they function on a daily basis, since specialized content, context-specific vocabulary,
skills, and competence are not taught in general second language courses. Long (2005) states,
language teaching using generic programs and materials, not designed with specific groups in

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

mind, will be inefficient, at the very least, and in all probability, grossly inadequate (p. 1). In
providing inefficient and grossly inadequate instructions, second language learners can
easily become de-motivated by language course content that does not appear directly relevant to
their real world objectives (Batsurkmen, 2010, p. 8).
Theoretical Goals and Principles
As highlighted above, the overall goal of a NA is to ensure that language instruction
goals and objectives meet the needs of the specific group of learners in mind, and that the
instruction methodology and course materials are specifically designed to those goals, objectives
and target population. This will in turn prevent students from becoming de-motivated in what are
often high-stakes language learning situations. Likewise, adhering to the overall goal of a NA
can increase understanding of the underlying principlethat the course designers and language
instructors are the principal figures able to ensure the language learners success in the TLU
domain. For the same reasons, they are accountable to the language learners in ensuring that the
course design and methodology are relevant to the needs of the learners and likely to sustain their
motivation. Van Avermaet and Gysen (2006) clarify the course designers and instructors
accountability to students in stating that Subjective needsare based on the learners own
statements. They do not necessarily coincide with objective needsFor one, subjective needs
may not only pertain to the goals learners have in mind when using the language, but also to
what and how they want to learn it (p.4).
However, because language programs are regulated by educational policy at the
organizational, local, state, and federal level, the underlying principal of a NA must also be
inclusive of meeting the needs of overarching stakeholders. In meeting such needs, programs and
instructors are more accountable to fulfilling program objectives and goals. Higher standards

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

provide evidence of program success in meeting the target populations needs and also procure
future funding. Since in many cases, it is educational policy at the organizational, state, and
federal level that sets the objectives of language programs in terms of the particular tasks that
immigrants [are assumed]... to perform in particular language use situations and domains, (Van
Avermaet & Gysen, 2006, p.3), conducting NAs can also help clarify the actual role of both
native and second languages in the tasks that immigrants perform on a daily basis, allowing for
[a work, learning environment] and a society in which all languages and language varieties have
their own space (p. 3).
Current Approaches
Past and current approaches to conducting an effective second language NA include
standard methods of observations, surveys, interviews, and a review of existing literature on the
target language use domain. Standard approaches can be supplemented with ethnographies such
as case studies; with focused analyses on the target situation; and with present situation analyses
including learner factors and teaching context (ESP Class Handout, 2016). Other approaches to
creating an integral NA include looking at students and other stakeholders motivational
profiles; at students learning styles and strategies; and at available resources in comparison to
needed resources (Bindaka & Christopoulou, 2002). A NA can also be enriched by discourse
analyses of spoken and written texts in order to determine requisite and high-frequency
vocabulary specific to the target situation. Likewise, genre analyses can help identify the
organizational methods used to create textual cohesion and coherence in the written and spoken
communicative genres that learners will be employing.
Current approaches also include conducting NAs using a task-based approach
(Ahmadvand, Barati, & Ketabi, 2015, p. 3). As Van Avermaet (2006) defines it, a task-based

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

approach attempts to take learners language learning needs as its starting point by interpreting
them in the first place as an answer to the question why do immigrants want to learn the
language of the majority group? (p. 2). Taking a task-based approach is the basis of
conducting a critical needs analysis, which leads to recognizing the implication of a power
dynamic of who is in a position of control over the needs, and whether the needs are to be met or
not (Ahmadvand, Barati, & Ketabi, 2015, p. 7). Ahmadvand, Barati and Ketabi (2015) state that
a critical needs analysis looks at the power relations in academic [and other] contexts by
questioning socially constructed and externally imposed rules in order to ensure ...the
democratic participation of all ESP stakeholders, including students, teachers, departments,
institutes, and governmental policy-makers to exercise their interests and rights in decisionmaking about ESP course design and implementation (p. 7).
Past and Current Needs Analyses
Published needs analyses in our domain tend to focus more broadly on AELLs needs in
the overall transition from community ESL programs to academic programs in community
colleges. Despite the broader focus, academic writing skills are mentioned. One community
college in particular in Washington State designed a specific task force, ESL-to-Credit, in
order to research what their target AELLs needed in order to perform successfully and complete
academic programs (Shen, 2015). Although little information is provided as to the methodology
of the actual NA, the task force looked at the present situation inclusive of the target population,
recruitment, student services, admissions, advising, cost, transcript evaluation, professional
development of staff. It also evaluated the target situation including the curriculum and
instruction of the academic programs into which AELLs were transitioning. One of the outcomes
of the NA was to develop a course called, Transition to College which bridges the ESL and

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

credit programs and provides AELLs with scaffolded support specific to teaching basic academic
writing skills such as annotating, process writing, and test-taking strategies (Shen, 2015). During
the first year of implementing the Transition to College program, all twenty participants passed
the Compass Test (a placement test used by community colleges), and thirteen of the twenty
students enrolled in a credit-based program. In subsequent years, the program was further
developed to respond to initial limitations. Additional focused courses are now offered specific
to the transition, a particular professional field, and academic skills specified by the student
(Shen, 2015).
Related to Shens (2015) discussion on the needs determined by the ESL-to-Credit task
force, Flores and Chlup (2005) detail a workshop conducted at a Washington State Community
College for instructors to address instruction across the curriculum of the ESL and credit
programs. The authors highlight that the workshop, which included twenty participants,
functioned as a pilot study for the Texas Center for Advancement of Literacy and Learning in
determining how to best support AELLs needs in transitioning to credit programs in Texas. The
participants represented ESL, Spanish, GED, ABE (Adult Basic Education), remedial English,
English Composition, and Humanities instructors. A representative from Bilingual Services and
the Writing Center also attended. The practitioners completed a survey, participated in a round
table discussion, and engaged with a speaker in critical discussions on the socio-cultural issues
that surround learning and on the use of various holistic curriculum models in language
instruction. They also participated in a follow-up discussion focused on implementation of the
strategies pinpointed to meet students needs (Flores & Chlup, 2005).
Highlighted outcomes which are specific to basic academic writing and relevant to the
present NA include composition instruction, process writing, and peer review; and developing

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awareness of cohesion, rhetorical organization, and grammar (Flores & Chlup, 2005). Five
specific outcomes of the workshop are identified; of the five outcomes, two in particular are
relevant to the focus of our NA. First, upon completion of pre-college remedial English classes,
there is no procedure to measure the student readiness for English Composition, which can
then lead to a student advancing to the requisite composition course without developing the
needed skills to perform successfully; and second, collaboration of ESL and English 101
instructors to ensure consistency in pre-college course content can help regularize student
outcomes and readiness for English Composition (Flores & Chlup, 2005). In terms of the present
NA, collaboration and consistency in course content can translate to the full integration of basic
academic writing skills needed to perform successfully on the essay portion of the GED and
community college placement exams (Flores & Chlup, 2005).
A third study, conducted at Sunkist Community College in California (Becker, 2011),
also served to emphasize AELLs needs in order to perform successfully in a credit program. The
purpose of the study was specifically to determine the learner factors of AELLs in a transitional
ESL program who desired to progress in their careers or access desired jobs. The study followed
the students through the course of the program to determine the causes of learner factors that
prevent AELLs from meeting their goals.
The methodology used was ethnographic and based on interviews with seventeen AELLs
in the transitional program. The interviewees responses were analyzed using the constructs of
cultural capital and habitus (Becker, 2011, p. 16), which are defined as the resulting impact
of prior educational experience and socio-economic background before immigration on the
behaviors, perceptions and decisions that can influence concepts of educational and socioeconomic mobility after immigration (p. 16). The interviewees responses were coded based on a

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phenomenological design to detect patterns across the interviewees narrated experiences (p.
16). The first pattern detected was that AELLs coming from positions of socio-economic
security, prior university, and professional experience in their own countries were most likely to
succeed in transitioning from ESL programs to academic programs. Second, students coming
from positions of socio-economic insecurity and marginalization in their own country almost all
deferred pursuing further studies due to family, parental obligations, and economic burdens.
However, many also alluded to inherent personal and language-group deficiencies in the
academic arena as reasons for postponing their transition into credit (Becker, 2011, p. 21),
The outcomes of the study, beyond identifying the patterns preventing academic
mobility, are that when AELLs who come from marginalized backgrounds are provided with
adequate personalized support--similar to the focused support offered to students in the
Transition to College (Shen, 2015) program in Washington State--students are able to work
through obstacles and their generational history (Becker, 2011, p. 21). The implication of the
study is that AELL success depends on the active involvement of all members of the learning
community in supporting AELLs learning goals.
While we were unable to locate NAs specific to supporting AELLs in preparing them for
the essay portion of the GED and standardized college placement tests, the three studies on
supporting AELLs transition to credit programs all emphasize the need for scaffolded support
specific to basic academic skills, inclusive of composition. They also clarify the need for
collaboration with basic composition instructors, consistency in course content; focused attention
in developing academic skills; and moral support and encouragement in developing academic
skills.

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In contrast, Hambleton and Jirka (2004) as well as Pinsonneault and Reid (2004) address
more specific aspects of our present NA. Hambleton and Jirka (2004) provide a background of
standardized tests, accessible advice, and strategies for instructors to share with ABE students
taking standardized tests. Pinsonneault and Reid (2004) provide suggestions on how to use the
rubric of the REEP Writing Assessment (RWA) (1995) to structure focused lesson plans on the
areas assessed by the RWA: Content & Vocabulary, Organization & Development, Structure,
Mechanics, and Voice (NRS Assessment Database, n. d.). Because the RWA (1995) was
designed specifically to assess the writing of AELLs, the content, skills and levels of
performance identified on the rubric are more specific to how AELL writing develops at all
levels.
An additional resource that will support developing resources specific to intermediate and
advanced AELL needs is the Professional Development Monthly Advisor and Planner: Writing
Instruction (Miller, 2011) which is a compendium of resources for ESL instructors focused on
supporting student development in writing in English at all levels.
The principal way in which we are addressing the gap in methodology specific to our
TLU domain is by conducting a discourse analysis of the essay portion of the GED and the
community college placement exams used in Northern Colorado (i.e., CCPT and Accuplacer
WritePlacer). We will then compare and contrast the basic academic writing skills requisite to
pass those exams with the writing skills demonstrated in AELL writing samples; with insight
provided by both students and teachers through interviews and questionnaires; and with the
outcomes pinpointed in the past studies specific to basic academic writing and academic skills.
Likewise, we will also combine those focused outcomes with the content and skill areas
identified on the RWA rubric (1995) and The CAELA Guide for Adult ESL Trainers, III-E-1,

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Teaching Writing to Adult English Language Learners (2007). Because the GED is timed and costly

for examinees, and the CCPT, although untimed, can only be taken once, the results of our NA
will focus on guiding the development of resources to support AELLs success on the GED,
CCPT or Accuplacer.
Pedagogical Situation
Target Population
The target population of this needs analysis is adult English language learners, typically
twenty-five years old or older, who are at the intermediate or advanced level (according to TABE
Reading Scores) of English language classes. The target population includes adults in
community ESL programs in Northern Colorado who are considering either taking the GED
exam, or the CCPT or Accuplacer exams in order to enter an academic or vocational mainstream
program offered by community colleges in Northern Colorado. A large percentage of this
population has lower-levels of formal education either in their country of origin. In most cases,
they have not completed high school, and in some cases, were unable to complete middle school.
For the same reason, the target population is mostly unfamiliar with basic academic writing, and
likely has much anxiety about writing, in particular in prompted, on-demand situations.
Target Language Use Domain
The Target Language Use (TLU) domain is specifically the GED tests, both the new and
the older version, and the Community College Placement Test (CCPT), which replaced the
Accuplacer test as the local community colleges placement exam in the fall of 2015. GED test
takers can go to Wyoming to take the older version and paper-based version of the GED, but
currently, only the new computer-based GED is offered in Colorado; the CCPT is also computerbased. Neither of these exams is specific to English Language Learners. More specifically, the

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TLU domain of this needs analysis is the prompted, on demand, timed or untimed essay that
students must write when taking the exams.
As highlighted previously, our objective with the three analyses we conducted was to
identify the gap between the present situation and the target situation inclusive of learner factors,
as it is specific to the context in order to assess how to meet learners and program needs and
goals more effectively. In identifying the gap and assessing how to meet learner and program
needs, our goal is to develop a writing course that can be used within AELL community
programs to better support AELLs who wish to take the GED or the CCPT, either for work, or to
be admitted to an academic program at the local community colleges.
Present Situation Analysis
The overall context and motivation for our NA stems from the specific needs of the target
population as they are illustrated by both current national statistics in relation to AELLs in ESL
programs, and by personal experience in working with individual AELLs who have expressed
frustration and anxiety in relation to basic academic writing.
The Community College Consortium for Immigrant Education (CCCIE) highlights that
of the approximate 31.9 million immigrants age twenty-five or older, one-third did not attend or
complete high school (Fast Facts, CCCIS, 2016). Of the adult immigrants enrolled in ESL
programs, less than ten percent transition to college academic or vocational programs. Of those
who do, the majority are immigrants who already completed higher education programs and
studies in their countries of origin (Becker, 2011, p.16) and are therefore familiar with academic
contexts and expectations, and have developed transferable academic skills from their L1
(Becker, 2011, p.20). In contrast, immigrants who did not have access to educational
opportunities in their countries of origin because of social and economic marginalization,

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struggle more to progress in English language programs, and are less likely to transition to
academic or vocational programs. The statistics relate to AELLs needs in order to progress from
community ESL programs to either vocational or academic tracks in community colleges, and/or
to take the GED in hopes of procuring a higher income and greater economic stability.
Furthermore, as highlighted in the 2013 Legislative Report on Remedial Education and
presented by the Colorado Department of Higher Education, among all ELLs who transfer to
academic programs, 80%...need remediation (p. 11); of those receiving remediation, less than
five percentwill eventually go on to earn a degree (p. 13). Of the students requiring
remediation, writing is second with a medial rate 31% (Colorado Department of Higher
Education, 2014, p.13).
In light of the national and state statistics on AELLs, our motivation in conducting the
present needs analysis also stems from reviewing resources and programs that have been
developed in other states in order to support AELLs in their learning goals in comparison to the
current local context in Northern Colorado. In considering that writing was listed as the second
subject needing remediation, we focused our search for programs and resources on writing as
highlighted in the discussion of past studies.
For the same reason, the goal of the present situation analysis in our local context is to
identify what aspects of basic academic writing AELLs understand and are taught in ESL and
Pre-GED classes in comparison to a university basic composition class; what AELLs identify as
their learning needs in relation to their educational objectives and writing; and what instructors
perceive as their students needs. The multiple components of the present situation analysis
ensure, as Long (2005) states, that we add breadth and depth to [our] analysis and that we

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validate [our] findings in order to better meet students needs in developing resources for
AELL instructors (p. 63).
The sources of data collected for the first part of the present situation analysis include
classroom observations of three different types of AELL classes: one intermediate ESL class in
an Adult Basic Education (ABE) program, one ABE Pre-GED course with AELLs in attendance,
and one remedial college composition course (CO-130) in a local university with primarily
AELLs in attendance. Another significant source of data was a questionnaire provided to AELLs
in the above courses (See Appendix A). A third source of data collected were interviews of
AELLs from each class observed, two instructors (ESL and Pre-GED), and a professional tester
at a local community college testing center (See Appendix B for interview questions).
Present Situation Learner Factors Analysis
The goal of the present situation analysis is to ascertain what the target group of learners
can and cannot do in regards to basic academic writing. As noted earlier, the federal and state
statistics for immigrant adult education reveal significant achievement gaps and that writing was
second of the subjects needing remediation (Colorado Department of Higher Education, 2014, p.
13). The learner factor analysis serves to pinpoint learners perspectives on writing in terms of
their strengths, weaknesses and perceived needs. While much information gathered about the
learners strengths, weaknesses and perceived needs came from observations, questionnaires and
interviews, a significant source of data for this analysis also comes from AELLs writing
samples.
Data from the observations, questionnaires, interviews and student samples were
coded/analyzed by three different researchers conducting the NA. One researcher analyzed
observation notes and audio recordings; one researcher analyzed learner questionnaires, and a

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third researcher triangulated data from recorded interviews from AELLs, instructors, and a
community college testing center specialist, and analyzed student samples for organizational,
syntactical, and lexical errors.
Class Observations
One-time observations of each class (Non-credit ABE ESL, non-credit Pre-GED, and
CO-130) totaled approximately four hours of class instruction. In general, the three lessons we
observed were in different phases of writing instruction and had various goals and objectives.
For example, the non-credit ABE ESL class meets three hours a day (9:00 AM-12:00 PM) every
Tuesday and Thursday in an adult learning center. All of the students are second language
learners with different L1s and at least intermediate English proficiency level according to ABE
standards. As most of the students are mothers, they cannot attend class every day because of
family obligations and parental responsibilities.
While the instructor covers all four skills of language (listening, speaking, reading and
writing) in each lesson, we only observed the writing portion of the lesson from 10:30 AM-12:00
PM. The topic of the writing lesson we observed was learners life events; the overall objective
of the lesson was, after sequentially organizing key events in an outline, to produce an essay with
a topic sentence, three supporting sentences and a concluding sentence about each individual's
life.
The non-credit Pre-GED class, which meets for three hours (5:30 PM-8:30 PM) two
nights a week (Tuesday/Thursday), had six students, three of whom were English native speakers
and three of whom shared Spanish as their L1. The topic of the lesson was to write a threeparagraph essay about a life-changing event. Most of the lesson, which lasted approximately 45
minutes, involved the instructor modeling the steps of brainstorming an outline. The instructor

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modeled on the whiteboard how to use wh-questions to organize ideas into three separate
paragraphs using her own life event as an example. Students then needed to come up with
sentences using who, what, where, when, why and how to prompt their sentences.
Finally, we observed the remedial college composition class (CO-130) at a local
university, which meets from 11:00 AM - 11:50 AM every Monday, Wednesday and Friday
during the spring semester. There were nineteen students in attendance, fourteen which were
AELLs with L1s in Arabic and Chinese. The topic of the lesson was to analyze strengths and
weaknesses of rhetorical responses in sample essays. The lesson objective was for students to be
able to notice weaknesses in the organization and development of sample essays to then revise
them. The types of writing assignments from this class provided helpful information into the
writing tasks students are expected to perform at the remedial college writing level. Students
seemed to follow closely with the instructor, as she modeled how to annotate sample writings.
The course seemed to move quite fast in the observers opinions.
Class Observation Trends
Class observations were mainly organized by focusing on different objectives and goals
of each class and their phases in the writing process. Although the three classes were in different
phases, they could be connected together to identify what students need to know to be ready to
pass the relevant tests. The ESL and Pre-GED students were struggling more with writing tasks
such as brainstorming, organizing ideas into paragraphs, and using transition words to connect
ideas. As some of the ESL and Pre-GED students English proficiency is low, they also had
difficulties with vocabulary and spelling, and they lacked the ability to organize their sentences
in English. Thus, ESL and Pre-GED teachers can and should put more effort into teaching basic

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academic vocabulary and dividing each step of the writing process into smaller scaffolded units,
such as brainstorming, outlining, drafting, revising and editing.
Student Questionnaires (See Appendix A)
One issue that arose from the questionnaires was the concept of ranking. On some of the
questionnaires, the students ranked the options given for each question in order as directed, from
one to four. However, on others, students ranked each option from one to four. For the same
reason, some of the questionnaires could not be included. The results of the remaining
questionnaires have been categorized as follows: the results of those in the ABE ESL and ABE
Pre-GED program are split between those who want to take the GED or continue studying, and
other (getting a better job or helping their children with homework); the results of students in the
basic college composition class are grouped together. The basic academic skills are analyzed
based on the collective order of importance the students assigned to each skill. For example, for
Group 1, more students ranked grammar as the most important academic skill more frequently
than the other skills, so it is ranked as the skill that they perceive to be the most important. In
some cases, the degree of importance was divided between two skills, as seen in the Basic
Composition questionnaire results (see Table 1 below for detailed results).
Various trends were identified after categorizing and coding the skills that students
ranked as the most important skill, their perceived strength, and their perceived weakness. For
the skill evaluated to be the most important, students in the ABE classes predominantly ranked
grammar as the most important and reading comprehension as least important, while students in
the Basic Composition class ranked grammar as least important, but reading comprehension as
the most important. Similarly, for the skills that students perceived themselves to be strongest in,
students in the ABE classes rated reading comprehension first, whereas students in the basic

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composition class rated reading comprehension as third. In contrast, the ABE ESL students and
the ESL composition students rated vocabulary as the component of basic academic writing they
would like to improve the most.
Table 1
Student Questionnaire Trends
Group 1:
Intermediate/
Advanced
ELLs and PreGED ELLs

Most
important
academic
skills

Academic skills
the student is
strongest in

Academic skill
Life goals
the student
wishes to improve
the most

Take GED or
attend
community
college

1.Grammar
2.Reading
comprehension
3.Writing
organized
paragraphs
4.Note taking

1.Reading
comprehension
2.Grammar
3.Note taking
4.Writing
organized
paragraphs

1.Vocabulary
2.Writing
organized
paragraphs
3.Grammar
4.Compound/
complex sentences

GED/College/
Vocational
School

Get a better
job or help
with childrens
homework

1.Grammar
2.Note taking
3.Writing
organized
paragraphs
4. Reading
comprehension

1.Reading
comprehension
2.Grammar
3. writing
organized
paragraphs
4..Note taking

1.Vocabulary
2.Grammar
3.Writing
organized
paragraphs
4.Compound/
complex sentences

Communicate
better in
English

Group 2: Basic 1.Reading

comprehension
Composition
Class (CO-130) 2.Note taking
3.Writing
organized
paragraphs
4.Grammar

1.Grammar
2.Note-taking/
grammar
3.Reading
comprehension
4.Writing
organized
paragraphs

1.Vocabulary
2.Compound/
complex sentences
3.Writing
organized
paragraphs
4.Grammar

Pursue a
college career

The results of the questionnaires highlight a gap in what is prioritized on placement tests,
and students perception about the importance of focus and organization in writing. While

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reading comprehension is important, especially in being able to successfully analyze arguments

in a given reading as on the GED, only the basic composition students recognized this.
Additionally, none of the students who responded to the questionnaires ranked writing
organized paragraphs as a priority in academic writing. Since writing organized paragraphs is
the priority in writing on all three exams, it highlights a gap in students perceptions of what
academic writing is, what its basic characteristics are, and how to demonstrate those
characteristics.
Interviews (See Appendix B for questions)
Six people total were interviewed over the span of a month. Three different types of
interviews were conducted for the current NA study: an AELL from each observed class (i.e.,
ESL, Pre-GED, CO-130), two ABE instructors (i.e., one ESL and one Pre-GED), and a phone
interview with a professional tester at one of the community colleges in Northern Colorado. All
interviews were recorded, with the exception of the phone interview with the professional tester.
Interview times ranged from as little as seven minutes to an hour, with most averaging about 15
minutes.
The interview with the professional tester lasted the longest (approximately an hour), as
the informant shared much information regarding the CCPT, which will soon replace the
Accuplacer in Northern Colorado as the only community college placement exam offered by the
principal community colleges. The main issue the informant highlighted regarding the CCPT is
inconsistency in scoring test-takers essays due to problems with the computer software. The
software is unable to handle complex sentence structures and complex rhetorical organization.
For the same reason, the testing department has created an override process in which readers
from the colleges English department review the essays to more accurately score and place

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

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students. The informant also stated that the company that developed the test has failed to respond
to the problems in scoring the essays. Additionally, the test developers (McCann Associates)
have not yet collected adequate sample essays in order to measure the reliability of the computer
software program used in scoring. According to the informant, the CCPT software analyzes the
examinees essays based on keywords related to rhetorical organization, grammatical accuracy,
language mechanics (spelling, punctuation), indentation, subject/verb agreement, and logical
organization (Informant in Testing Field, personal communication, March 14, 2016).
This valuable information provides insight into the gap between what the test instructions
emphasize in terms of the rhetorical priorities in writing the response, and what the software
scoring the essays is programmed to measure as evidence of those priorities. It also provides us
with knowledge of the exact situation AELLs are expected to navigate in preparing for the CCPT
essay test.
Learner Interviews and Trends
The learner and instructor interviews also provided useful information with regard to the
TLU domain. Three AELLs were interviewed, one from each class (ESL, Pre-GED, and CO130). The ABE ESL learner was a female from India, age 20, whose L1 is Punjabi. Her goal in
learning English is to improve her language skills enough to be admitted to the local community
college to study electrical engineering. The Pre-GED AELL was a 47-year-old female, whose L1
is Spanish. Her goal, as stated during the interview, is to complete her GED to obtain better
employment. The AELL from CO-130 was an 18-year-old Chinese student who aspires to
complete graduate studies in Entrepreneurial Science Technology.
In analyzing the recordings and notes taken during the interviews, it became clear that the
two ABE ESL learners struggle with writing essays in English, while the basic composition

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student feels that she is competent at writing essays. The ABE ESL students ranked themselves
as three and five on a scale from 1-10 in terms of competency in writing academic essays; in
contrast, the CO-130 student ranked herself as eight on the same scale of competency. However,
all three interviewees stated they wanted to improve their English writing skills due to their
belief that academic writing skills are necessary to achieve their educational goals. The two ABE
learners (ESL and Pre-GED) in particular expressed a desire to learn more transitional words,
complex sentences, academic vocabulary, and better word-choice. All three AELLs believed
their current programs are preparing them to reach those goals.
Instructor Interviews and Trends
During the interviews, the ESL and Pre-GED instructors expressed some of the
challenges their learners confront in writing essays. The challenges include cohesion and
coherence, organizing ideas, and developing a point of view; and creating topic sentences,
writing grammatically complex sentences, punctuation, mechanics and spelling. Both instructors
believe that their current students are improving as the semester proceeds, and that explicitly
teaching writing concepts using specific examples and modeling has supported students in their
progress. The greatest challenges in teaching writing for both instructors is targeting the range of
writing skills and educational backgrounds of their learners, and trying to meet each individuals
writing needs. Both instructors also commented that they use the more advanced writers in the
class to help guide the others in writing activities.
Sample Student Essays
As stated before, we also collected sample essays from the target AELLs in the ABE ESL
class as part of our present situation/learner factor analysis. After analyzing these, we noticed the
following patterns regarding writing weaknesses (see Table 2 for summary).

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Table 2
Weakness Trends from Sample Essays from Target Learners
Writing Errors

Examples/Details

Lack of
organizational
structures

Topic, details, and conclusion all mixed in together

Missing concluding sentences
No indentation for new paragraphs

Lack of focus

Going off topic, changing topic, run-on sentences which arent related

Grammatical errors

Past-tense errors of irregular verbs (gived, feeled), run-ons, present

perfect misused, excess verbs (I am live), subject/verb agreement (is
the problems), adding s to important, stuff, different

Mechanic errors

Spelling (my for me), punctuation, capitalization (American)

Less than 300 words

CCPT and Accuplacer essays require 300 words minimum

Incorrect word order

I want to speak fluently English

Missing words

It is, the (articles in general)

Unnecessary breaks in Starting a new paragraph after the topic sentence.

paragraphs
The agreement
between articles and
nouns

Forget to add articles before count noun, for example, I love to be

mom.

Subject-verb agreement is one area of concern in AELL writing, and this is an error
identified in the student sample essays. Additionally, the quality of the essays might be further
enriched by an increased use of adjectives and adverbs, and of appositives, or nouns or noun
phrases that rename another noun or noun phrase in providing extra information to the reader
(Oshima & Hogue, 2014, p. 129). AELLs can additionally practice using adjective clauses and
relative clauses (which, that, who) to create more complex sentences and to develop overall
cohesion, making their paragraphs more fluid, coherent and informative.

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Discourse Analyses

The purpose of the discourse analysis is to understand the target situation. The target
situation--succeeding on the essay section of GED or community college placement tests--is
inextricably linked with the discourse analysis: in order to understand the target situation and the
TLU domain in which the students are expected to perform, it is imperative to understand the
vocabulary, syntax and rhetorical moves of the genres in which the students are expected to
perform. Conducting a discourse analysis allows us to notice more critically the range of
rhetorical components employed within the relevant genres that, as Stoller and Robinson (2013)
state, must coalesce for objectives to be achieved (p. 45). Whereas the corpus and syntactic
analyses lead us to notice the different linguistic strategies [requisite] to realize the moves and
their communicative strategies, (Swami, 2008, p.5) the genre analysis leads us to identify both
the moves, the sequence of the moves, and the relationship between one move and the next in the
development of the TLU domain texts.
Typical Text Types and Genres
The genre of written texts employed on the GED, CCPT, and Accuplacer include
prompted basic argument analysis, and reflective position statements. The new GED extended
response essay, an argument analysis, is invariably the more challenging of the three exams. The
prompt in the study guide and in the teachers resource guide is a passage one and a half pages in
length that presents two sides of an issue. Examinees are asked to consider in their written
response both sides of the issue and then justify why they believe one side is more effectively
argued. Examinees are given 45 minutes to read, assess the two sides of the argument, plan and
draft their essay. In the Extended Response Resource Guide for Adult Educators provided by
GED Testing Service (2014) no word count range is provided. However, sample essays and an

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25

analysis of the score each would rhetorically receive is provided. It is clear through the scored
samples that longer essays with multiple paragraphs receive higher scores.
For the CCPT and Accuplacer, the prompts are short, hypothetical questions or
statements to which the test-taker responds by choosing a position on the issue to justify. The
easiest exam might be considered the Accuplacer, since there is a larger pool of possible
prompts, sample student essays are provided to future test-takers, and a word count is provided.
While in the CCPT study guide (2016) provided by the Community College of Aurora, four
prompts are provided, the actual test only uses one (Informant in Testing Field, personal
communication, March 14, 2016). No word count is provided in the study guide, but the
expectation communicated to us is that students should write between 300-600 words (Informant
in Testing Field, personal communication, March 14, 2016). Although the hierarchy of rhetorical
concerns for both is clear and puts a strong emphasis on focus, clarity and organization in the
development of ideas, as commented earlier, the software used to measure the CCPT essays is
unable to score complex organization or syntax, while measuring mechanical errors, a lack of
indentations, identifiable introductions and conclusions, and spelling more strictly (Informant in
Testing Field, personal communication, March 14, 2016).
Genre Analysis
Below, the physical characteristics of the TLU domain of three different writing
placement exams are provided. The word count, the time allowed to respond to the prompt, and
if the exam is computer-based or offers the option of paper-based are included below. The
overall essay genre, the rhetorical features measured in each of the three exam responses and
sample prompts are listed in conjunction with the rhetorical moves of sample essays. The two
sample essays used to analyze the rhetorical moves were both rated as fulfilling the maximum

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26

score requirements. The moves within each paragraph are noted, as well as the paragraph
divisions. The rhetorical features highlighted in the instructions synthesize both those that are
listed in the actual prompt, and those that are integrated into the actual instructions. Tables 3a, 3b
and 3c show the results for each of the tests.
Table 3a
Rhetorical Features of the new GED
Timed (45 min.), no word count,
computer-based.

Argument Analysis of a 1-2 page literary/

information text.

Student Sample
Rhetorical Moves:

Desired rhetorical features:

(synthesized from the study guide,
teachers resource guide and
scoring rubric):
1. Clear analysis of argument and
use of supporting evidence
2. Clarity, strength and justification
of the chosen position
3. Careful consideration of
audience and purpose
4. Logically sequenced
development of ideas.
5. Command of standard English
incorporating the use of transitional
words and phrases to connect
sentences, paragraphs, and ideas.
6. Precise vocabulary and varied
sentence structure
7. Free of mechanical and English
usage errors

Sample Passage: Analysis of Daylight

Savings Time (1.5 pages in length)
Sample Prompt:
The article presents arguments from both
supporters and critics of Daylight Saving
Time who disagree about the practice's
impact on energy consumption and safety.
In your response, analyze both positions
presented in the article to determine which
one is best supported. Use relevant and
specific evidence from the article to support
your response.
Type your response in the box below. You
should expect to spend up to 45 minutes in
planning, drafting, and editing your
response

1. (Par.) Introduction to
background information.
2.Further explanation of
important background
information
3. (Par.) Introduction to first
position with first
supporting reason.
4. Explanation of the first
reason.
5. Repeats for reasons 2-4.
6. Summary of first
position.
7. (Par.) Introduction to
second position with first
supporting reason.
8. Further brief explanation
and evidence directly
quoted from text for first
supporting reason.
9. Interpretation of
evidence.
10. Transition to second
supporting reason using
directly quoted evidence
from text.
11. Interpretation of
evidence.
12. Further explanation of
second reason.
13. (Par.) Introduces
conclusion by briefly
conceding to the first
position.
14. Refutes first position
with chosen position

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

27

referring back to evidence

in the text.
15. Expands briefly on own
position by summarizing
key points previously stated.
16. Provides concluding
insight.

(GED Testing Service, 2016)

Table 3b
Rhetorical Features of the Accuplacer WritePlacer
Untimed, computerbased, 300-600
words.

Position Statement/Response to a hypothetical problem

posed.

Student Sample
Rhetorical Moves:

Desired rhetorical
features:
1. Strength and
clarity of the focus of
the main idea and
point of view
2. Clear purpose and
awareness of
audience
3. Demonstrates
critical thinking.
4. Organization of
ideas is logical and
clear
5. Ideas are
developed through
adequate explanation
and use of supporting
details.
6. Sentence structure
is effective and
varied.
7. Command of
English and
mechanical
conventions is free of
errors in usage.

Sample Passage: A woman recently received an inheritance of

$25 million from an unknown, distant relative. She cannot
decide what to do: spend it, save it, or give most of it away.
Sample Prompt: If you suddenly received a large sum of
money, what would you do with it?

1. (Par.) Hook (repeats

the question and
comments briefly on
the focus).
2. (Par.) Background
Information: provide
personal context related
to and in support of the
position she will take.
3. (Par.) Direct
response to the question
introducing first point.
4. States reason one,
then develops it by
providing one sentence
of detail. (Repeats the
process for five
reasons).
6. Makes a concluding
statement that connects
back to the present
context.
7. Overall expansion
and justification of
reasoning for the first
point.
8. (Par.) Transition to
second point.
9. (Par.) Statement of
second point.
10. Connection of
second point to the self.
11. Connection of
second point to the
world.

Sample passage 2: An actor, when his cue came, was unable to

move onto the stage. He said, I cant get in, the chair is in the
way. And the producer said, Use the difficulty. If its a
drama, pick the chair up and smash it. If its comedy, fall over
it. From this experience the actor concluded that in any
situation in life that is negative, there is something positive
you can do with it.
Sample prompt: Can any obstacle or disadvantage be turned
into something good?

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

28

12. Reasoning and

justification.
13. (Par.) Brief
summary.
14. (Par.) Concluding
Point.

(Accuplacer Website, 2008).

Table 3c
Rhetorical Features of the CCPT
Untimed, Computer-based

Reflective Essay/ Position Statement in response to a

hypothetical problem or question.

Desired Rhetorical features:

1. Clarity of focus and meaning of
the main idea and point of view.
2. Content is development through
explanation of ideas and use of
supporting details
3. Organization demonstrates wellstructured sentences, and
appropriate language and word
choice
4. Language use and style
demonstrates command of academic
English conventions and is free of
errors.
5. The introduction includes a
proper hook, bridge and thesis.
6. Body paragraphs are of
appropriate length
7. The conclusion includes a
restatement of thesis and summary
of essay content.

Sample Prompt 1:
If you founded your own college or university, what topic
of study would you make mandatory for all students to
study and why? What would be the values and priorities of
your institution and why?
Sample Prompt 2:
Write an essay in which you argue for legislation that
would change the driving age from sixteen to eighteen.
Sample Prompt 3: Think about the person you admire the
most. You have been chosen to introduce this person to an
audience. Who will that person be, and what will you say
about that person?

No sample
essay given.

Sample Prompt 4: Technology and the changes it brings

can have a very big effect on our lives. Which technology
has had a significant effect on life in this country? Why?

(CCPT Study Workbook, Community College of Aurora Testing Center, n. d.).

As exemplified in Tables 3a, 3b and 3c, the GED, while being the only timed essay, is
also the most challenging. The desired rhetorical moves communicated in the instructions are
similar to those communicated in the Accuplacer WriterPlacer and CCPT; however, in
comparing the rhetorical moves performed in the sample essays, it is clear that the degree of
complexity in organization and development between the GED and placement exams contrasts
greatly. While this might be attributed to the genre in which the student will write--an argument

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29

analysis being more complex than a reflective position essay--it is also clear through the sample
GED essays that the level of expected or assumed writing skills surpasses that of the Accuplacer
and feasibly, the CCPT, particularly regarding the development and cohesion of ideas and the
use of supporting details and evidence from the text.
Corpus Analysis
The covered tests in the corpus analysis are the GED, CCPT, Accuplacer WritePlacer,
ACT, and SAT. The ACT and SAT tests were included in the analysis because many community
colleges may exempt students from taking the placement test if they have satisfactory scores
from either the SAT or ACT in the past five years. As mentioned earlier, sample essays from the
CCPT are not included since it is a new placement test in use since Fall 2015.
Writing materials were categorized into three types: instructions, prompts and sample
essays, which were put into three files. Two tools we used to identify a keywords list, typical
collocations, and discipline-specific terms and chunks were the Compleat Lexical Tutor V.8 (n.
d.) and AntConc Version 3.4 (Anthony, 2016). Keywords in instructions are important as
students need to recognize all keywords in order to understand the instructions and respond
appropriately. Our keywords list from essay instructions can be seen in Table 4 below.
Table 4
Keywords List from Essay Instructions
Instructions Keywords list
GED

assign, essay, topic, evaluate, score, test, language, write, return, page, complete,
answer, book, follow, part, both

CCPT

prompt, essay, proper language, student, write, study, person

ACT

essay, page, test, write, idea, book

Accuplacer

extend, essay, express, position, idea, develop, support, issue, write

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

SAT

30

essay, passage, author, persuade, feature, analyze, claim, write, evidence,

explain, argue, answer, read, line, book
We used AntConcs collocation function to identify typical collocations. When

identifying typical collocations and chunks, we decided to analyze each file separately in order to
identify the different typical collocations or chunks in each file specifically relevant to
instructions, prompts or sample essays. We also sorted collocations/chunks by frequency. The
results will be used in developing relevant resources for language instructors to use in teaching
writing. Table 5 includes the typical collocations/chunks identified in each file (i.e., instructions,
sample essays, and prompts).
Table 5
Typical Collocations/Chunks
Typical
collocations/chunks
in instructions

your essay, your ideas, your writing, your assigned topic/essay,

complete your essay, you will, an essay, the essay, writing test

Typical
collocations/chunks
in sample essays

be able to, be used to, can be turned into, such as, many people, they
are, they (+modals) have, something good, learn from, extremely
difficult, negative situation

Typical
collocations/chunks
in prompts

your personal observations, experience and knowledge, write an essay,

the world, our lives, our perspective, an important decision, the betterargued position, extended response, incorporate relevant and specific
evidence

Through studying sample essays from the Accuplacer, GED, SAT, and ACT, we also
identified frequently used transition words/phrases. In the sample essays, the transition words/
phrases allow students to use to connect or expand on ideas, or to introduce a shift in focus or a
contrasting idea. All the transition words are categorized into different types according to their
function. Examples of transition words and phrases are seen below in Table 6, and are discussed
further in the syntax analysis.

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31

Table 6
Transition Words/Phrase List from Sample Test Essays
Function

Transition words/phrases

Contrast

however, on the other hand, more often than not, although, even though, rather,
while, but

Addition

moreover, more specifically, in addition, also

Conclusion therefore, in conclusion, clearly, so

Cause

because of, because, if, unless, in order to, since, granted

Examples

for example, for instance, such as, take the example of

Opinions

I think, I believe, at first, after all

Syntax Analysis
For the GED, Accuplacer and CCPT, test instructions and rubrics state that students
should be able to write their ideas in logically ordered sentences. Transitions signals such as
also, moreover, similarly, however, therefore, for instance, etc. used to connect sentences and
paragraphs support overall cohesion and coherence by creating relationships between ideas
(Oshima & Hogue, 2014).
In addition to the need for transition words and phrases to ensure cohesion
and coherence, to obtain a maximum score an examinee should also demonstrate that Sentence
structures are consistently varied and clear; strategic and effective tone, style and register, and
few minor errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics (ACT Writing Test Booklet, 2015).
Rather than a bulleted list of ideas, test-takers should be able to link ideas, and use pronouns and
conjunctions to connect relationships. The use of signal words to sequence ideas (first, second,
third) and to introduce examples (for example, for instance, such as) can help the examinee
organize their details and provide clarity to the reader (Oshima & Hogue, 2014). The use of

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32

coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so) and subordinating conjunctions (because, while,
when, as, until) will also allow for more complex and varied sentence structures. In addition to
those identified in the sample essays analyzed, the Longman Academic Writing Series 3:
Paragraphs to Essays (4 ed.) provides a helpful chart of signal conclusion words such as (in
th

short, indeed, it is clear that, all in all, in summary, to summarize) (Oshima & Hogue, 2014, p.
64).
In support of what we identified through our discourse analysis, we reviewed the College
and Career Readiness (CCR) Anchor Writing Standards, a branch of the Common Core
Curriculum Standards, to identify the federal government requirements for AELLs in Adult
Basic Education programs (Pimental, 2013). The CCR Writing Anchors state that individuals
grades 9-12 should, Use words, phrases, clauses, to link the major sections of the text, create
cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and
evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims (Pimental, 2013). The focus on cohesion and
coherence reiterates the hierarchy of rhetorical concerns communicated in the test instructions.
Results and Discussion
The current NA revealed numerous gaps between the TLU tasks of taking the GED or
community college placement exams and the ability of the learners to accomplish these tasks.
Not only did the present situation analysis of current statistics highlight that most adult
immigrants enrolled in ESL programs do not transition to college academic or vocational
programs, but that of those who do, most need remediation, particularly in writing skills. The
class observations, personal interviews, learner questionnaires, and sample essays all informed us
about the perceptions and needs of AELLs regarding basic academic writing. The discourse
analysis, inclusive of vocabulary, rhetorical features and syntactical features relevant to our TLU

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

33

domain also helped to ascertain the specific language and discourse needs in writing reflective
position statements and argument analyses.
The findings of this NA support our goal to effectively bridge the gap between the TLU
domain and the present situation. In examining authentic writing samples from both the
standardized tests (GED, ACT, SAT, and Accuplacer) and the target learners for the NA, we are
able to map out the greatest areas of weaknesses in overall ABE ELL performance in basic
academic writing. For example, the genre analysis of the samples from the standardized tests
supported understanding the specific moves expected of examinees, which we can compare to
those seen in the student sample essays written by AELL learners aspiring to take the
standardized tests. The corpus analyses pinpointed keywords, transitional phrases, vocabulary
frequency ranges, and the typical collocations/chunks in sample instructions, prompts and essays
that ELLs would need to know in order to respond to follow the instructions and to effectively
respond to the prompts. Responses from student questionnaires and interviews with learners and
instructors provided additional insight into AELL writing needs, and insight into the gap between
ABE ELLs perceptions and instructors perceptions of their needs to achieve their educational
goals. For example, the ABE AELLs interviewed noted prioritized their weaknesses in grammar,
whereas both instructors prioritized cohesion, coherence and the organization of ideas. The use
of authentic materials in our Needs Analysis will allow us to match both the TLU domain and
students needs more effectively.
The findings of the analyses also reflect the issues and gaps discussed in prior research
and literature related to the writing needs of our target population once the students pass the
placement tests and transition to credit programs. While Shens (2015) NA reports the need for
scaffolded instruction in basic composition courses that teach academic writing skills such as

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

34

process writing and annotating, Flores and Chlup (2015) recommend explicit composition and
process writing instruction, and peer review. In relation to basic academic writing, the three
studies reviewed also emphasized the need for greater support of AELLs in their transition from
ESL classes to credit programs, through the collaboration of composition instructors, consistency
in course content, focused attention in developing academic skills, and encouraging AELLs
throughout the writing development process. The results of these studies reiterate the needs we
identified in our target population for scaffolded, explicit instruction in basic academic writing
and its related components.
Implications
As stated, our NA reveals the hurdle AELLs face in being required to take community
college placement tests in order to transition from non-credit ESL programs to credit community
colleges programs. It underscores the gaps in AELLs writing skills that ESL instructors need to
be aware of in order to support students successfully in meeting their educational objectives.
The sample prompts from the GED, CCPT and Accuplacer show a vast contrast among the three
tests in the assumed writing abilities of the test-takers; the sample essays from the GED and
Accuplacer reflect this difference. This range of expectations in terms of writing ability will be
important to address in creating comprehensive resources specific to students needs.
Furthermore, when the essays provided in the study guides are compared to the target
populations essays, the additional gap between the expectations communicated on a placement
exam and the students actual abilities emphasizes the need for the development of resources that
explicitly address the multiple gaps through writing tasks that match the TLU tasks. Overall, few
ABE ESL programs offer focused writing courses to prepare learners for basic academic writing,
be it to successfully pass the writing portion of the GED and placement exams, or to excel in

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35

credit programs, but unfortunately, no ABE ESL programs offer this support in the programs
reviewed in Northern Colorado. This contradicts the understanding that the better prepared
AELLs are in ABE programs, the more likely this target group of learners will enter and
complete credited programs and achieve their educational goals.
Limitations
Due to time and distance limitations, the current NA only observed three contexts of
writing instruction with one observation of each, which limits our comprehensive understanding
of the target populations needs. Similarly, interviewing more than one student from each class
would give us a more in-depth idea of students perceived needs and struggles. An additional
limitation is that not only were we unable to interview the basic composition instructor in order
to learn more about ELLs academic writing needs once placed in a composition program at the
university level, but that we were unable to observe a remedial community college composition
class or interview students and the instructor of students from such a class, which is more
authentic in relation to our TLU domain. In relation to this limitation in our NA, it also would
have been advantageous to observe other community ESL programs and interview instructors
and students from those programs regarding the instruction and learning of basic academic
writing for AELLs needs.
Conclusion
As highlighted earlier, the main goal of our NA is to determine the specific academic
writing skills necessary for AELLs to perform successfully on the writing portion of community
college placement tests. This information is meant to guide us in developing specific and
appropriate resources that AELL teachers can use to prepare their students to pass the relevant
exams. To meet the TLU task of passing the essay portion of the GED or community college

NA FOR EAP WRITING SKILLS

36

placement tests, AELLs will need to write focused reflective position and argument analysis
essays demonstrating a clear point of view; developed arguments with supporting evidence,
organized rhetorical moves that match those of the specific writing genre; and precise wordchoice. Their essays will also need to contain minimal grammatical, mechanical, and punctuation
errors (CCPT Study Workbook, n. d.). Furthermore, the College and Career Readiness (CCR)
Anchor Writing Standards, which are current federal and state guidelines for adult education
curriculum standards, highlight specific writing standards that AELLs should be able to meet
(Pimental, 2013). This mandate, contrasted with current research about the limited number
AELLs able to meet those standards and transition from non-credit ABE programs to college
academic or vocational programs, along with the findings of this NA underscores the need for
adult educators to better serve this target population. In conclusion, the results of the factors
analyzed for this NA provide insight into the complexity of supporting AELLs in developing
academic writing skills and being able to demonstrate them on high-stakes standardized tests,
timed or un-timed. This insight will guide us in designing scaffolded instruction specific to our
local target population that arms them with the basic academic writing skills requisite to
successfully pass the GED or community college placement tests, and to pursue their long-term
employment, educational or career goals.

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37
References

Accuplacer Website (2008). College Board WritePlacer Guide with Sample Essays. Retrieved
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ACT Writing Test Booklet (2015). Practice Writing Test. Iowa City, IA: ACT, Inc.
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Appendices
Appendix A

Needs Analysis Questionnaire

Biographical Info:
Age: ______
First Language _____________
How long I have studied English ____________
How long I have lived in the US ____________
1. Circle the main reason you wish to learn academic English skills: Circle one
a. To continue in my education (GED or community college)
b. To get a better job
c. To help my kids with their homework
d. I dont want to learn academic English skills - If you circled this, what English skills do you
want to learn? ________________________________ (dont fill out the rest of the form)
2. Rank the most important academic skills you wish to learn in English (1 = Most important, 2 =
somewhat important, 3 = not as important, 4 = Least important):
a. Creating grammatically correct sentences
_______
b. Writing academic paragraphs
_______
c. Reading complex English writings
_______
d. Taking notes
_______
3. Rank the English academic skills you feel the strongest in (1 = Strongest, 2 = somewhat strong, 3 = not
very strong, 4 = Weakest):
a. Creating grammatically correct sentences
_______
b. Writing academic paragraphs
_______
c. Reading complex English writings
_______
d. Taking notes
_______
4. Rank the item you wish to improve most in English writing (1 = Improve most, 2 = somewhat improve,
3 = improve less, 4 = Improve least):
a. Grammatically correct sentences
_______
b. Complex English sentences (compound sentences) _______
c. Academic vocabulary
_______
d. Organizing paragraphs
_______
5. My goal is to: Circle one
a. Get more education (college) so I can have a career
b. Learn English so I can communicate with others
c. Complete my GED, but not continue in school
If you circled a, list your interest of study/career ________________________________

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Appendix B

Needs Analysis Interview Questions

Current Students

What are your job/career goals?

What do you believe you need to do to achieve your goals?

Do you believe this program is preparing you to reach your goals? If not, what could this
class offer?

In your opinion, how well are you doing in the course? What are your favorite/least
favorite assignments in the course?

What English academic skills do you find are the most difficult?

Do you want to improve your English writing skills?

How motivated and interested are you in learning to write in English?

What types of writing assignments do you struggle with the most?

In general, how do you rate the level of your ability to write essays (on a scale from 1 to
10)?

What skills will help you improve your academic writing (practice analyzing arguments
and using evidence in essays, developing and organizing ideas and structure of essays,
practice writing grammatical and complex paragraphs)?

Do you feel prepared in your essay writing skills?

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Content Instructor

Do ESL students grasp the writing concepts presented in the textbook?

Do you feel the course textbooks or materials are sufficient to serve the students needs?

What are some typical examples of situations/contexts in which international students

struggle to write essays?

What types of tasks are international students expected to be able to do in writing

paragraphs/essays?

What are the main writing assignments? What abilities do learners need to have in order
to be able to carry out the writing assignments?

What seems to be the most challenging tasks for international students in your courses?
In your opinion, why do students struggle with those tasks?

What types of problems do your international students have, if any, with learning writing
strategies?

What writing strategies do you find to be most effective when dealing with these
problems?

How do you usually assess your students performance? Explain.

Do you find that ESL students are improving as the semester proceeds?

In your opinion, what are the greatest needs of your ESL students?

What is your evaluation of the ESL students ability to write well-organized and detailed
essays?

Additional aspects: include specific questions about the class (assignments, procedures,
etc.) you observed.

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Language Instructors

In general, whats your estimate of the overall level of students language ability?

Do ESL students grasp the writing concepts presented in the textbook?

Do you feel the course textbooks or materials are sufficient to serve the students needs?

To what extent do course materials include specific writing content?

In your opinion, whats missing in the textbook or the course materials?

Do you use any supplementary materials in your course?

What kinds of writing resources do you use to plan your lessons/ find useful?

What type of writing tasks/activities do your students participate in?

What do they enjoy doing/ hate doing?

Do your students have difficulty writing essays and if so, what is the task they have
trouble with?

In your opinion, what are the students needs in regard to academic writing skills?

What are the most useful writing strategies for your students to apply?

How do you usually assess your students performance? Explain.

What do you think is the biggest obstacle in teaching the course? (Textbook, materials)

What are the challenges that you face in teaching writing skills in this course?

What would you suggest to include in a future course?

What is your evaluation of the students ability to write well-organized and detailed
essays?

Additional aspects: include specific questions about the class (assignments, procedures,
etc.) you observed.