Modernizing China under Deng Xiaoping

Rachel Wong
ASIA 275: The Rise of Modern China
April 25, 2016

1
Since the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949, the country went
through several tumultuous decades, from the Great Leap Forward in the late 1950s to the Great
Proletariat Cultural Revolution during the 1960s. Under Mao Zedongs rule, China followed
strict communist ideology; families lived in communes and scrap metals was sent away for steel
production. The nation as a whole became isolated from the rest of the world and strived for selfsufficiency. As Deng Xiaoping rose to power as a powerful political figure in the 1950s, his
practical and realistic demeanor contrasted with Maos idealistic image. His presence in the
political realm in China brought a more moderate perspective to the table, one that makes
modernization a reachable goal for China. A realistic and pragmatic politician, Deng Xiaoping
successfully led China into the international community during the late 1970s and throughout the
1980s with his rational and unwavering thinking and genuine dedication to Chinas prosperity,
implementing reforms that would transform China into a strong country.
With an objective outlook as a politician, Deng Xiaoping was able to prioritize Chinas
problems and view them in their entirety, successfully modernizing the country at a quicker pace.
This characteristic allowed Deng to make rational decisions to benefit the majority of the
Chinese people. In the early 1960s, China was left in a tattered state; a nationwide famine
claimed millions of lives, and even caused some citizens to resort to cannibalism as a survival
tactic.1 After rising to power after multiple purges, Deng needed to act immediately and prevent
it from worsening. Reflecting back, Deng stated that he chose socialism over capitalism because

2013.

Tania Branegan. "China's Great Famine: The True Story." The Guardian. January 01,

2
capitalism would get China nowhere during a speech in 1984.2 He opted for socialism in hopes
that it would alleviate prevalence of hunger, poverty, and inflation rapidly.3
Likewise, it was Dengs objective attitude that led China to prosper. In order to make
modernization a reality, he emphasized on the importance of academia and intellectuals for
Chinese advancement. Opposite of Maos isolation ideology, Deng realized that independence
[did] not mean shutting the door on the world, nor [did] self-reliance mean blind opposition to
everything foreign.4 With this belief, Deng Xiaoping incorporated traces of capitalism into the
Chinese government-controlled economy. By focusing on several Chinese cities first, he would
use foreign investment funds as a solution to [spur] more and more [Chinese] people to become
prosperous until all are prosperous...5 While some people may prosper first like a capitalist
system, everyone will prosper in the end as the ultimate goal for communist China that Deng
emphasized. To further ensure success under communism, Deng reaffirmed Marxist and
socialist ideals through the Four Basic Principles in 1979, believing that it would carry China to
modernization without the influence of Western liberalism.6
Deng Xiaopings objectiveness can also be seen through his responses to political unrest
and opposition. Although Deng delegated power to many of his subordinates, senior officials
who detract from his ultimate vision for China cannot remain in office, such as Hu Yaobang and
Zhao Ziyang. His determination to make China successful on its own terms was seen through his
refusal to adopt Western values fully. While Deng agreed with a few capitalist principles, he

Xiaoping Deng. Speeches and Writings (Oxford: Pergamon, 1987), 96.

William Theodore De Bary. "Deng's Modernization and Its Critics." In Sources of
Chinese Tradition: From 1600 Through the Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia, 2000),
508.
4
Deng. Speeches and Writings, 41.
5
Deng, Speeches and Writings, 100.
6
Ibid., 492.
3

3
denounced bourgeois liberalization and did not lead China to take the capitalist road.7 When
protests for democratization and liberalization popped up across the country in the mid-1980s,
Hu Yaobang was criticized for his lack of opposition and push for bourgeois liberalism.8
Similarly, Zhao Ziyang was criticized heavily and punished for his gentleness and understanding
towards the students of the Tiananmen Square protests, placing him under house arrest in 1989.9
In Dengs view, both advocated for views that detracted from the socialism and communism;
therefore, their opinions must be suppressed; his focus on the end result heavily outweighs
everything else. Deng regarded unexpected incidents as an interruption to Chinas progress. Due
to his view, Deng believed that student protests at the Tiananmen Square were unnecessary,
going as far to classify protesters as counter-revolutionaries.10 From Dengs perspective, it is
plausible that the suppression of the protests was justified. By crushing the protests, the general
public would not dwell on the impossibilities of a democratic country, and China would shift its
focus back to modernization efforts.
Deng Xiaoping understood the inefficiencies of the governmental structure and
implemented various reforms for restructuring the government as well as strengthening
diplomatic relations with other nations. He strongly believed that China should be ruled by law,
and not by man. This ideal allowed for political stability and decreased the chance of possible
dictatorship. By having a defined hierarchy within the government, he was able to divide
responsibilities among the various official positions. From the late 1970s and throughout the

Michael E. Marti, China and the Legacy of Deng Xiaoping (Washington, D.C.: Brasseys,
2002), 17.
8
Matt Schiavenza, Chinas Forgotten Liberal Hero, The Atlantic, April 16, 2014.
9
Yardley, Jim. "Zhao Ziyang, Chinese Leader Purged for Supporting Tiananmen
Protesters, Dies at Age 85." The New York Times, January 17, 2005.
10

Hs, The Rise of Modern China, 933.

4
1980s, Deng re-established a government that supported his vision for quick modernization and
development; he denounced the old and radical supporters of the Cultural Revolution and the
Gang of Four. Dengs action in addressing his critics and eliminating them from the government
probably contributed to his success in having an effective unified government front.
Furthermore, he implemented mandatory retirement for employees in civil service and
gave younger individuals positions of power. Deng argued that younger officials may be more
knowledgeable, expecting them to emulate their heroic spirit of revolutionary struggle.11 Deng
also followed this regulation himself by refusing to lead China longer than he already has. By
executing this new rule, Deng reduced the number of government iron rice bowl jobs and
eliminated officials who were on the receiving end of financially stable positions without putting
in effort.
Additionally, Deng Xiaoping supported Chinas establishment of open diplomatic
relations with foreign countries, unlike Maos stricter stance on foreign relations. Through his
internationalist view, Deng readily accepted visitors from other countries and even learned
French and English himself.12 By having more faith in the benefits of the West, Deng sees the
West as a possible ally of China. In the 1980s, China became a member of the World Bank and
the International Monetary Fund. Its membership in these two international organizations
signifies a major change in the countrys attitude towards the rest of the world. Moreover, China
wished to normalize relations with other countries and establish a stable long-term relationship.
Continuing the relations that Mao had built with the United States during Nixons visit to China
in 1972, Deng also attempted to reach a resolution on the Taiwan issue with the American

11

Deng, Speeches and Writings, 100.

David Shambaugh, Deng Xiaoping: The Politician, The China Quarterly, September
1993, 481.
12

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government. However, Nixon was no longer in office by the 1980s, leaving Deng to establish a
new relationship with his successors. In 1979, President Carter received Deng for his United
States visit with the purpose to establish full diplomatic relations. For the duration of the trip,
Deng made a positive impression on the American legislators and public, projecting an image of
a down-to-earth politician rather than a conjured image of a radical revolutionary.13 As a result of
a successful visit, United States agreed to recognize the Peoples Republic of China as the only
legitimate power of China.14
On the other hand, Deng Xiaoping was hesitant to normalize relations with Soviet Union
however, believing that it would be damaging to China; Soviet Unions 1979 invasion of
Afghanistan caused China, in addition to the rest of the Western World, to worry about its sphere
of influence, spreading throughout South Asia.15 Soviet Union supported Vietnams invasion
into Cambodia and also stationed its troops along the Sino-Soviet border.16 It was not until the
late 1980s when Mikhail S. Gorbachev and Deng Xiaoping finally restored official relations,
ending the Sino-Soviet split.17 Due to Dengs insistence on establishing a good image for China,
he managed to repair and create amicable diplomatic relations with a few of the worlds
superpowers.
Despite being stripped of his government titles multiple times during the 1960s and
1970s, Deng Xiaoping managed to climb back up to power every time, showing his resilience
and dedication to Chinas success. During the 1966 Cultural Revolution purge, Deng was forced
to make a public self-criticism because of his moderate communist ideology stance, and the

13
14
15
16
17

Hs, The Rise of Modern China, 795.

Ibid., 789-790.
Hs, The Rise of Modern China, 794.
Ibid.
Ibid., 687.

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Chinese government sent him to the Jiangxi province to work in a factory.18 With the help of
Zhou Enlai, the Chinese premier during the early 1970s, Deng was reinstated to all of his
previous positions by the end of 1973.19 Dengs positive record of leadership also allowed Zhou
to train him as his successor since Zhou was diagnosed with cancer. However, Zhous death in
1976 also marked the year that the Gang of Four was able to gain enough power to strip Deng of
his positions yet again. Due to the instability of the Chinese government after Maos death and
the removal of the Gang of Four, Hua Guofeng, Zhou Enlais successor, decided to rehabilitate
Deng and placed him in a position of power once more.20 From his four-foot-eleven stature to his
resurfacing after each political purge, Deng Xiaoping was deserving of his newly earned
nickname, xiao pingzi (a little bottle, a homonym with Xiaoping).21
While Dengs rehabilitations can be partially attributed to luck and coincidence, it is also
difficult to ignore his competence in politics; Hua Guofeng rehabilitated Deng out of necessity
for the Chinese government, not out of pity. Deng Xiaopings dedication to Chinas success is
evident throughout his life, from his devout respect for the Communist Party of China (CPC)
since 1925 to his ideas for a modern China.22 Even before his 1976 purge, Deng was vocal about
Chinas need for development. After his 1974 New York visit to deliver a speech to the UN
Assembly, Deng was certain that China needed the political stability that United States possessed
in order for economic development occur.23 His seemingly anti-communistic views earned him
backlash from the rest of the Chinese government, and Deng was labeled as a counterrevolutionary. This show of vocality from Deng signifies his willingness to face criticism from
18
19
20
21
22
23

Schell, Dengs Revolution. Newsweek, March 3,1997, 20.

Hs, The Rise of Modern China, 764.
Ibid., 775.
Schell, Dengs Revolution.
Shambaugh, Deng Xiaoping: The Politician, 462.
Ibid.

7
the CPC in order to make his views public; Deng was confident in the correctness and
effectiveness of his opinion. The validity of Dengs opinions became apparent during the Fifth
Plenum of the Eleventh Central Committee in 1980; the party rejected Maos politics in
command for Dengs economics in command hoping to turn China into an advanced nation by
the year 2020.24
Dengs sense of dedication and responsibility towards China made him unafraid to
incorporate new ideals to push for modernization and economic growth. He realized the failures
of the past decades and knew that a closed door policy [proved] that a closed-door policy would
hinder construction and inhibit development.25 One of Dengs most infamous sayings
summarized his agenda: It does not matter if a cat is black or white, so long as it catches mice.
As long as the pace of economic growth is satisfactory, it should not matter to the Chinese
government whether the policies were capitalistic or socialistic. From Dengs standpoint,
combining market and planned socialist economies does not necessarily violate socialist
principles.26 Chinas modernization is the ultimate goal, and if it takes capitalist elements to
achieve it, Deng would implement capitalist elements in the Chinese economy. Deng did not fail
China with his undying dedication, carrying the responsibility of China on his two shoulders.
Even after his retirement from active participation in the government, Deng was kept updated
regarding the latest happenings regularly.27
While Deng admired and looked up to many colleagues in the CPC, he was able to
maintain his political stance throughout the years and disassociate himself from opposing
opinions. It is undeniable that Deng is a strong and loyal supporter of the CPC; however, he also
24
25
26
27

Hs, The Rise of Modern China, 777.

Deng, Speeches and Writings, 97.
Henry Grunwald and Ray Cave. An Interview with Deng Xiaoping, TIME, 1985.
Shambaugh, Deng Xiaoping: The Politician, 480.

8
refrained from supporting pure and radical communist ideology. Since the 1930s, Deng stood
behind Mao during his leadership as a protg and possible successor of Mao. Nonetheless,
Dengs own beliefs were unaffected by Maos political stance; after hearing about the severity of
the famine in early 1960, Deng began to distance himself from Mao and the Great Leapby
giving several speeches around the country to criticize problems in Maos thinking.28 Deng
admired Mao as a revolutionary during the earlier decades but he did not think Mao was suitable
as the paramount leader of a large country.29 Maoist ideals such as self-sufficiency and isolation
were not effective in Dengs perspective. Because of Dengs firm insistence on the legitimacy
and validity of his views, the public was able to recognize his value as Chinas next leader.
One of Dengs unchanging political beliefs was his emphasis on academic and the
sciences. He did not classify intellectuals as bourgeois; in his 1978 speech at the Opening
Ceremony of the National Conference on Science, he mentioned that the overwhelming
majority of [intellectuals were] already intellectuals serving the working class and other working
people.30 In the same speech, Deng also speaks of plans for establishing new research centers,
develop advanced technology in energy, lasers, space, and computers, as well as creating an
advanced training route for children who identify as gifted in the sciences. Interested in Western
technology and science, Deng interweaved political conservatism along with economic
progressivism, borrowing portions of Western economic practices for China.31 Deng was very
specific regarding Western technology and Western thought; he did not advocate for Western
liberalism or democracy and would take measures to suppress those with anti-communist and

28
29
30
31

Ibid., 467.
Hs, The Rise of Modern China, 691.
Deng, Speeches and Writings, 41.
Ibid., 843.

9
anti-socialist views.32 He strongly believes that China can succeed under its own political
system. In response to Western views of a communist China, Deng told the Western countries to
practice [their] capitalism; we practice our socialism. The well water shall not invade the river
water.33 From this quote, it is apparent that Dengs determination for a successful communist
China remained unwavering.
Economic reform remains one of the most influential and successful policies carried out
by Deng Xiaoping, who believed in lessening government control on the economy and
encouraging foreign investment would make a strong China. Dengs overhaul on economic
reform greatly impacted China, from a single household all the way up to the entire nation. The
Household Responsibility System restructured the failing communes that Mao implemented for
grain production. Dengs revised system encouraged farmers to specialize in a crop and allowed
them to keep or sell crops that exceed the governments quota, giving them another outlet to earn
additional cash income.34 In turn, the farmers and their families had more money to spend back
into the Chinese economy and improved their standard of living.35 The reformed system
increased crop yield as well as productivity; farmers did not need to dedicate as much time to the
fields compared to the commune days.
On a larger scale, Deng implemented four Special Economic Zones (SEZs) along the
southern coast of China in Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Xiamen, and Shantou. By allowing open foreign
investment in those cities, Deng knew that their prosperity would eventually spill into the

32
33
34
35

Marti, China and the Legacy of Deng Xiaoping, 17.

Shambaugh, Deng Xiaoping: The Politician, 473.
Hs, The Rise of Modern China, 942.
Ibid., 844.
Ibid., 845.

10
neighboring areas.36 Dengs strategic placement of the four locations, near Hong Kong, Macao,
and Taiwan, allowed the Chinese cities to benefit from international trade.37 With special rights
such as less governmental trade control and lower taxes, the SEZs successfully attracted more
foreign companies to do business there.
Deng also strengthened economic relations with other countries to help Chinas
modernization and development. During the 1980s, Japan proved to be a very beneficial trading
partner for China; aside from their geographical proximity to each other, both countries were
able to match each others imports and exports to maximize the benefits, reaching $10 billion in
Sino-Japanese trade in 1983.38 Chinas trade relations with Japan allowed for products to carry
competitive prices in the Chinese market.
China also developed trade relations with United States in the late 1970s and 1980s,
albeit under slightly different circumstances. Among the Chinese people, American-made
products were known for their quality and durability. The ability for the Chinese to import
American products introduced a new form of technology to the country, quickening Chinas pace
of modernization. However, American companies must go through a long application process for
their products to enter Chinese markets.39 Additionally, the United States was experiencing a
wave of recession and implemented protectionist measures, which did not help introduce
Chinese products into American markets. While Deng would have wished for better trade with
the United States in the 1980s, economic relations did not improve until years later.

36

Huan, Guocang, Chinas Open Door Policy, 1978-1984, Journal of International

Affairs 39 (1986), 6.
37
Hs, The Rise of Modern China, 860.
38
Hs, The Rise of Modern China, 861-862.
39
Ibid., 862.

11
Without doubt, Deng Xiaopings leadership of China was extremely effective; his goal of
modernizing China was never out of his sight. By combining Dengs ability to analyze the
countrys political and economic situations objectively and his rational decisions, he effectively
made a name for China in the international community. Countries that caught a glimpse of
Chinas development and politicians that met with Deng were impressed with its progress and
his genuine loyalty to his country. Dengs successes can also be attributed to his consistency in
beliefs, never allowing others radical opinions to sway his own. Even his admiration for Mao
Zedong was not enough for Deng to accept pure Communist ideology. Dengs logical sense
questioned Maos unchanging stance on radical thought when insistence on radical Communist
thought led China anywhere but forward. By the time Deng removed himself from the highest
positions in the government after decades of service to China in the early 1990s, China became
the strong country that Deng envisioned in the beginning of his political career. China was no
longer a country filled with backwardness but rather a up-and-coming country vying for the
title of the worlds leading superpower. The current state of China would not have existed if not
for Dengs vocality on introducing Western science and his moderate stance on ideology.

12
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