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Stress
Term used by structural geologists to describe
force.
Is the amount of force applied over a given area.
Is a measure of how concentrated force is.
May be applied uniformly in all directions
(uniform stress) or non-uniform (differential
stress)
Is the action that strains rocks
Types of Stress
a.
Compressional
- is differential stress that shortens and thickens
a body of rock by folding, flowing and faulting
- associated with convergent plate collisions
b. Tensional Stress
- is differential stress that tends to lengthen or
pull apart a rock unit
- Associated with divergent plate boundaries
where plates are rifted apart.
- Causes displacement of rocks along faults
c. Shear force
- Is differential stress that causes two adjacent
rock units to slide past each other
- Occurs along weaknesses such as bedding
planes, foliation and fault lines
- Produces large scale offsets along transform
plate boundaries
Types of Deformation
a. Elastic Deformation
- where rocks return nearly its original size
and shape when the stress is removed.
- Occurs if stress is applied gradually over
long periods of time
Elastic Deformation
b. Brittle Deformation
- applies to a rock body where the elastic
limit (strength) is surpassed and fractures
- Occurs on the surface where there is no
pressure from above and is rapid
- Changes in rock are permanent
Brittle Deformation
c. Ductile Deformation
- elastic limit of rock is surpassed causing the
rock body to flow .
- Changes occur in size and shape without
fracturing
- Changes in rock are permanent and occur
slowly over time
Ductile Deformation
2. Confining Pressure
- is low at the surface and produces brittle
deformation
- Increases with depth and causes ductile
deformation
3. Rock Type
- sedimentary rocks are more ductile because
because of weakness along bedding planes and in
the cementation of sediments
- Metamorphic rocks are more ductile due to
weakness along lines of foliation
- Rock salt, gypsum and shale are weak/ductile
- Limestone, schist and marble intermediate
Contd
4. Time
Small stresses applied to rock over long periods
of geological time may cause rocks to become
elastic or ductile
Rapid application of force causes brittle
deformation (faulting)
2. Dip (inclination)
Is the angle of inclination to the surface of a
rock/fault measured from a horizontal plane
Includes the angle of inclination and a
direction
Is always at a 90 angle from the strike.
2. Strike-Slip Faults
a. Left lateral
b. Right lateral
3. Transform Faults
Parts of a Fault
c. Thrust Fault
Is a reverse fault that dips < 45
Hanging wall moves up and over footwall
Hanging wall can move from mm to
hundreds of km
Common in convergent plate boundaries
where extreme compression exists: Alps,
Himilayas, Appalachians, Andes, Rockies
Dover Fault NL
a. Left lateral
Rock is displaced to the
left as you face the fault
line
b. Right lateral
Rock is displaced to the
right as you face the fault
line
Ex. San Andreas
3. Transform Faults
Are very long strike-slip faults that displace
mid oceanic ridges
Mark the edge of a plate boundary where
two plates slide past each other without
creating or destroying crust.
Connect divergent boundaries to convergent
boundaries ex. San Andreas fault
Folding
Is the bending of rock layers
Caused by slow continual compressional
forces at depth which results in ductile
deformation
Common in sedimentary and volcanic rocks
Can be symmetrical, asymmetrical or
overturned
Types of Folds
1. Anticline
- upfolding or arching of rock layers
- Looks like an A
2. Syncline
- downfolds or troughs