KISS Maintaining A Balance

keep it simple science
TM
Baulkham Hills High School SL#802445
HSC Biology Topic 1
MAINTAINING A BALANCE
What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. THE FUNCTION OF ENZYMES & HOMEOSTASIS
2. TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN ORGANISMS
3. INTERNAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN ORGANISMS
4. EXCRETION & WATER BALANCE
but first, an introduction...

Living Things are Made of Cells
Homeostasis
The enzymes that control all the chemical reactions

in every living cell are very sensitive to the
temperature and the pH (acidity) of the
surroundings. It is vital that the internal
environment of any organism is kept as constant as
possible so that the enzymes and the chemistry of
each cell keep operating normally.
All living things are composed of microscopic units

called cells. You learned in a previous topic about
the structure of a cell and the functions of the
organelles.
GENERALIZED DIAGRAM OF A LIVING CELL
Organelles
The process of keeping everything the same is called

homeostasis, and is one of the most important and
vital processes in every organism. In this topic you will
study some of the basic mechanisms of homeostasis,
and how certain body systems are involved by
absorbing, transporting, regulating and excreting the
vital chemicals of life.
Membrane on the
outside contains the
cell , and controls
what goes in or out
Nervous System
Regulates body
temperature
Cytoplasm
jelly-like liquid fills

the cell
Circulatory System
transports gases,
nutrients & wastes
Each cell is alive in its own right, and capable of all

the life functions: growth
reproduction
movement
assimilation
response to changes in its environment
Respiratory System
Gas exchange
Excretory System
Regulates water
balance and excretes
metabolic wastes
Metabolism is Chemistry
Controlled by Enzymes
What goes on inside a living cell is mainly a matter
of chemical reactions... new molecules are built,
others are torn apart. Special reactions release the
energy needed to make all this chemistry happen.
In this topic you will learn about the importance of
Enzymes... the special molecules that control the
chemistry of each cell.
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
As well as the homeostatic processes in mammals

and some other animals, you will study some
regulatory processes in plants.
1
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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and
important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the
whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
Effects of Temp, pH
& substrate conc. on
enzyme activity
Concept of
Negative Feedback
Endotherms
Ectotherms
Receptor,
Control Centre
Effectors
Shape &
specificity of
Enzymes
Temperature
range of life
Processesses
of heating &
cooling
Plants
Temperature
regulation in...
Hypothalamus
& Effector
Organs
Enzymes
&
Homeostasis
Temperature
Regulation
in Organisms
Functions &
characteristics
of Enzymes
MAINTAINING
A
BALANCE
Coping with salt
Blood &
Blood Vessels
Water conservation in
Aust. Plants
Excretion
&
Water
Balance
Water Balance
in Aust. insects
& mammals
Transport in
Plants
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
How the gases

are carried
Kidney & Nephron

Structure & Function
Oxygen
saturation
Translocation
in Phloem
Enantiostasis
Homeostasis
ADH & Aldosterone
Internal
Transport
Systems
Importance of
water &
Water Balance
Dialysis & HRT
Transpiration
in Xylem
Excretion
Filtration & Reabsorption
Substances
carried in
blood.
Where from,
where to?
Artificial
blood?
Importance of
Haemoglobin
Blood products
TM
1. THE FUNCTION OF ENZYMES & HOMEOSTASIS

The Importance of Shape
Many of the properties of enzymes are related to their
precise 3-dimensional shape.
Metabolism is Chemistry
Everything that happens inside a living thing is really a
matter of cell chemistry... metabolism. For example...
The shape of the enzyme fits the substrate molecule(s) as

closely as a key fits a lock.
In order to move, protein fibres inside muscle cells must

be made to slide past each other. This is achieved by
chemical reactions occurring along the muscle fibres.
For your body to grow, cells must divide and add more
membranes, cytoplasm and organelles to increase the cell
size. This involves the chemical construction of new DNA
molecules, new phospholipids for membranes and so on.
Various
Enzyme
Only this
one fits
All these chemical reactions require energy. Energy is

delivered by the ATP molecule, itself the product of a
series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria... cellular
respiration.
This is why enzymes are substrate-specific... only one

particular enzyme can fit each substrate molecule. Each
chemical reaction requires a different enzyme.
Enzymes
Changes in temperature and pH (acidity) can cause the

shape of the enzyme to change. If it changes its shape even
slightly, it might not fit the substrate properly any more, so
the reaction cannot run as quickly and efficiently. This is
why enzymes are found to work best at particular
optimum temperature and pH values.
Every one of these reactions requires a catalyst... a

chemical which speeds the reaction up and makes it
happen, without being changed in the process.
In living cells there is a catalyst for every reaction type.
Biological catalysts are called enzymes, and:
are protein molecules
(made of folded chains of amino acids)
have a particular 3-dimensional shape, which fits the
substrate molecule(s) of the reaction
are highly substrate-specific. This means that each
enzyme will only catalyse one particular reaction, and no
other.
will only work effectively in a relatively narrow range of
temperature and pH (acidity).
Substrate...
Enzyme shape at
optimum pH and
temperature
Shape changes slightly

at different pH or temp.
...ENZYME
molecule
Twists & folds

Polymerization
Enzymes
Active Site
has a shape
to fit the
substrate(s)
exactly
ENZYME
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
...no longer
fits enzyme
Protein, with precise 3-D

D shape...
Polypeptide chain
Substrate
molecules are
chemically
attracted to
the enzymes
active site
Substrate
Molecules
All of these reactions, and more, add up to metabolism:

the sum total of all the thousands of chemical reactions
going on constantly in all the billions of cells in your body.
Amino acid molecules
Different
Substrate molecules
brought together and
react with each other
ENZYME
Product released
from enzyme
ENZYME can react with more substrate
TM
The pH Scale
Optimum Temperature
Not all enzymes will peak at the same temperature, or
have exactly the same shape graph. In mammals, most
enzymes will peak at around the animals normal body
temperature, and often work only within a narrow range of
temperatures.
The acidity or alkalinity of any solution or environment is

measured on a numerical scale known as pH.
On the pH scale, anything which is neutral (neither acid nor
alkaline) has a pH = 7.
increasing
acidity
3
increasing
alkalinity
Neutral
10
An enzyme from a plant may show a much broader graph,

indicating that it will work, at least partly, at a wider range
of temperatures.
11
An enzyme from a thermophilic bacteria from a hot

volcanic spring will show a totally different peak
temperature, indicating that its metabolism will perform
most efficiently at temperatures that would kill other
organisms.
The inside environment of a cell, and most parts of an

organisms body, is always very close to pH 7... i.e. neutral.
An exception is in the digestive system where conditions are
usually quite strongly acidic in the stomach (approx. pH 2).
Enzyme Activity Graphs

You will have carried out experimental work to measure the
activity of an enzyme under different conditions of
temperature, pH and the concentration of the substrate
chemical.
Reaction Rate
Mammal
Enzyme
You may have measured the rate of a chemical reaction

being catalysed by an enzyme, such as:
the rate of milk clotting by rennin (junket tablets)
the rate of digestion of some starch by amylase
the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by
catalase enzyme.
Plant
Enzyme
A common way to measure the rate of a reaction is to

measure the time taken for a reaction to reach completion...
the shorter the time taken, the faster the reaction. This why
the reciprocal of time taken (1/time) is used as the measure
of rate of reaction.
20
40
60
Temperature
80
100
(oC)
The graph of reaction rate (or enzyme activity) against

temperature is usually not symmetrical. It tends to rise
gradually at temperatures below the optimum, but often
falls more steeply at temperatures above optimum, because
the denaturation of the enzyme can lead to a rapid decline
in activity.
The Effect of Temperature

When enzyme activity is measured over a range of
temperatures, the results produce a graph as below.
1/time taken for reaction (rate)
Thermophilic
bacteria enzyme
Explanation: As temperature rises the rate increases because

the molecules move faster and are more likely to collide and
react. All chemical reactions show this response.
Experimental
Points
However, beyond a certain peak temperature, the enzymes

intricate shape begins to be distorted. The substrate no longer
fits the active site so well, and the reaction slows. If the
temperature was lowered again, the enzyme shape, and
reaction rate could be restored.
If the temperature reaches an extreme level, the distortion of
the enzymes shape may result in total shut-down of the
reaction. The enzyme may be permanently distorted out of
shape, and its activity cannot be restored. We say the enzyme
has been denatured.
Temperature
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
TM
The Effect of Substrate Concentration
The Effect of pH
When the temperature is kept constant and the enzyme
tested at various pH levels, the results will produce a graph
as shown.
1/time (rate) Enzyme Activity
Generally in any chemical reaction occurring in solution the

rate of the reaction increases if the concentration of the
reacting chemical(s) is increased. The explanation is simply
that if the molecules are more concentrated, then it
becomes more likely that they will collide and react with
each other.
Reaction Rate
When an enzyme is involved, the situation is a little more

complicated:
10 11 12
pH
Generally, all intra-cellular enzymes (i.e. those from within

a cell) will show peak activity at a pH close to neutrality...
their optimum pH is close to 7.
Substrate Concentration
The digestive enzyme pepsin from the stomach shows an

optimum pH about 2 or 3, allowing it to work best in the
acidic environment.
Initially the rate of the reaction increases as the substrate

concentration goes up, just as it does with any reaction.
Intra-cellular
enzyme
Soon though, the graph begins to flatten out and level off
because the enzyme molecules are saturated with
substrate and cannot work any faster.
Pepsin.
(Stomach
enzyme)
Enzyme Activity
If, at this point, you were to add more enzyme then the
reaction rate would once again go up. It would level off
again as the enzyme molecules were once again swamped
and saturated with the substrate.
10 11 12
Extra enzyme
added
pH
Reaction Rate
The shape of the pH graph is usually symmetrical on either

side of the peak... optimum pH.
The explanation for the shape is as follows:
at the optimum pH the enzymes 3-D shape is ideal for
attracting the substrate, so reaction rate is maximum
at any pH higher or lower than optimum, the enzymes
shape begins to distort, and reaction rate declines as the
substrate no longer fits so perfectly.
Substrate Concentration
at extremes of pH, the enzyme can be irreversibly

denatured and shows no activity at all.
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
TM
Homeostasis
Homeostasis always involves Negative Feedback. This is

when any change in a system causes a shift in the opposite
direction.
Since...
an organisms metabolism is largely a matter of chemical
reactions, and
each reaction is catalysed by an enzyme, and
each enzyme is quite sensitive to temperature and pH
For example, a thermostat control of an oven:
Oven
If temperature
is too high
In a Positive Feedback system any change re-reinforces

itself by causing more change in the same direction.
If temperature
is too low
The result is that the temperature of the oven remains fairly

stable. It oscillates up and down a little, but always stays
close to the temperature the oven was set at.
For example, a fire growing bigger...
produces
heat
Temperature
Sensor
(detector)
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ACTION
Feedback Mechanisms
The mechanism of Homeostasis involves feedback... a
situation where the result of some action feeds back into
the system to cause the next change to the system.
s
ol
co
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ACTION
As well as regulation of temperature and pH, homeostasis

involves the regulation of many other factors such as:
water and salt balance in body fluids
blood sugar levels
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
small fire
heat
e
Ov
... it follows that the interior environment of the organisms

body and cells must be maintained at stable levels of
temperature and pH close to the optimum for the enzymes.
The process of maintaining a stable, internal environment
is called Homeostasis.
Turn heater
ON
s up
Turn heater
OFF
Negative Feedback
causes a system to
maintain stability.
Heat ignites
more fuel
The key parts of a feedback system are:

a receptor, to measure and monitor the conditions
a control centre, which decides how to respond, and
effectors, which carry out the commands of the control
centre and make the necessary adjustments to the system.
Fire grows
larger
Produces
more heat
In animals, it is the Nervous System which is largely

responsible for carrying out the receptor and control centre
functions necessary for many aspects of homeostasis.
Heat ignites
more fuel
In mammals, which maintain fairly constant body

temperatures, it is the Hypothalamus at the base of the
brain which monitors blood temperature and sends out
command messages for negative feedback, rather like the
oven thermostat system.
Fire grows
larger
Positive Feedback
always causes a
system to grow
out of control, or
shrink away to
nothing
Cerebrum
Pituitary
Gland
It never results in
stability.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Spinal chord
TM
Worksheet 1
3. Sketch a graph of Enzyme activity against pH.
Part A Fill in the blanks. Check your answers at the back.

The sum total of all the chemical reactions in an organisms
body is called a)....................................................... Each
reaction requires a catalyst, which is a chemical which
b)............................................. the reaction, without being
c)........................................... itself.
Biological catalysts are called d).....................................
These have the following properties:
They are molecules of e)......................................, which are
polymers of f)................... ...................
Each one has its own unique g)........................., which
perfectly fits the molecule(s) of the reaction. These
molecules are referred to as the h)..................................
Because each enzyme only fits its own particular
h)............................., they are said to be h)................................
i)...............................................
Enzymes will only work effectively in a narrow range of
j)............................................. and k)........................ This is
because their l).................................. changes so that they no
longer fit their substrate.
4. Explain why the graph shows a peak of optimum

activity at a certain pH.
5. Why does activity decline at pH values higher or lower

than the optimum?
6. Sketch a graph of enzyme activity against substrate

concentration.
The pH scale is a numerical measurement of m)......................

and n)...................................... Things that are neutral have a
pH= o)............. Acids have pH values p).................... 7, while
alkalis (bases) have pH q).......................... The pH inside
living cells, and in most parts of an organisms body is about
r)..........., but an exception is the s)............................... which is
quite strongly t).....................................
Part B Enzyme Graphs
1. Sketch the shape of a graph of Enzyme Activity against
Temperature.
7. Explain
a) why the graph rises
b) why the graph levels off
Part C Fill in the blanks
Homeostasis is the process of keeping an organisms
internal environment a)......................................... The factors
that need to be maintained include b)..................................
and c)................... as well as d)............................. and salt
balance, e)...................... .............................. levels and oxygen
and carbon dioxide levels.
2. Explain the shape of the graph;

a) at temperatures below the optimum
Homeostasis involves f)..................................... feedback.

The 3 parts of any feedback system are the
g)........................................, which measures or monitors
conditions, the h)........................................ which decides
how to respond and issues commands, and the
i)........................................... which carry out the commands.
In animals generally it is the j)..........................................
system which is largely responsible for monitoring and
control. In mammals, homeostasis of body temperature is
controlled by the k).............................................. at the base of
the l).................................................
b) at temperatures above the optimum.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
TM
2. TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN ORGANISMS

Temperature Control in Mammals
Main Parts of the System

Receptor and Control Centre is the Hypothalamus at the
base of the brain. Special cells constantly monitor the
temperature of blood flowing by. If blood temperature
varies by even a fraction of a degree, nerve messages are
sent to the effectors.
The Effectors include blood vessels, sweat glands,
endocrine (hormone) glands, muscles and body hairs.
In a healthy human the internal core temperature of the

body is about 37oC and is maintained within about 0.5oC at
all times. If the body temperature goes up, or down, by
more than about 4oC, this is a life-threatening situation.
Control of body temperature is achieved as shown in this
schematic diagram:
BODY TEMPERATURE REDUCES

BLOOD COOLS
to Effectors
Nerve Command
COOLING MECHANISMS
Blood vessels dilate
Sweat glands activated
Hair lowered
Metabolic rate reduced
BODY TEMPERATURE
TOO HIGH
BODY TEMPERATURE
TOO LOW
Nerve Command
to Effectors
HYPOTHALAMUS
monitors blood
temperature
WARMING MECHANISMS
Blood vessels constricted
Muscles begin shivering
Hairs erected (goose bumps)
Metabolic rate increased
BODY TEMPERATURE INCREASES

BLOOD WARMS
How the Effectors Make a Difference
Muscles
Nerve signals can cause the skeletal
muscles to begin shivering. This extra
muscle activity generates more heat
Blood Vessels
Body Hairs
to warm the body.
Dilation (widening) of veins,
Each hair on your body has a tiny muscle
arteries and capillaries near the
at its base which can cause the hair to Hormones
skin allows more blood to flow
stand up erect and give you goose are chemicals which control
out near the skin surface.
bumps. This traps a layer of still air various body functions, including
This allows more body heat to
against the skin and helps insulate and the rate of metabolism and heat
escape from the skin, thus
production.
prevent heat loss.
cooling the body.
The
hormone
thyroxine
(produced
by
the
thyroid
gland in
If the hair follicle muscle is relaxed the
Constriction (narrowing) of
the
neck)
does
exactly
that
and is
hair lies flat and allows more heat loss.
blood vessels causes less
under
the
control
of
the
blood to flow near skin. Sweat Glands
hypothalamus,
via
another
Less heat flows out to skin When activated, the sweat glands secrete perspiration.
hormone from the pituitary
to be lost. Body heat is The water evaporates from the skin, carrying away body gland.
heat... this has a powerful cooling effect.
retained more.
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
TM
The Temperature Range of Life
Temperature Control in Ectotherms
Homeostatic control of body temperature allows an

organism to maintain its cells at a temperature close to the
optimum for its enzymes. This allows metabolism to run
efficiently, despite changes in the surrounding temperature
of the environment.
Ectotherms are the cold-blooded animals, such as

reptiles, amphibians, insects, fish and worms. Coldblooded is a misleading term and is best avoided, since
these animals are NOT always cold, but rather they rely on
the outside environment for their body heat... they do not
generate heat internally like a mammal or bird.
However, homeostasis has its limits, and no organism can

remain active and thriving under the full range of
temperatures of the biosphere of the Earth. Different
organisms have adapted to survive in extreme cold
environments, or in extremely hot conditions, but never
both extremes.
Ectotherms have a variety of adaptations, many of them

behavioural, to regulate their body temperature and keep it
within the range in which they can be active; generally
between 10-30oC.
Ectotherms seek, or avoid
the heat of the Sun
Extreme Heat
There are thermophilic bacteria (members of the Archaea)
which live and thrive in volcanic hot springs at
temperatures up to 120oC.
In terrestrial environments such as hot deserts, the
temperature can often reach 40oC and sometimes as high
as 60oC. Many plants and animals are adapted to survive
these extremes, but few remain active in this heat.
Generally in deserts the animals seek shelter and become
inactive, while plants shut down their metabolism and
merely survive.
Reptiles sun-bake
when too cool...
For example, the Blue-Tongue Lizard will lie in a sunny

spot with its body flattened and turned side-on to the Sun
on a cool morning. This way it absorbs heat more quickly
to get its body temperature high enough to become active.
Extreme Cold
Once again, there are many organisms which can survive
extreme cold, but few that remain active. Certain types of
algae and photosynthetic bacteria are found to live within
the snow and ice near the poles and are still metabolically
active at temperatures as low as -10oC. Below this, the cells
become inactive, but survive and re-activate when it warms
up again.
As the day becomes hotter, the lizard will turn facing the
Sun to absorb less heat, and seek shade to avoid overheating.
In prolonged periods of cold weather, such as winter in the
Australian Alps, ectotherms cannot be active because the
environment cannot supply them with the body heat they
need. Animals such as the Copperhead Snake and the
Corroboree Frog seek shelter underground and become
dormant throughout the winter.
Generally however, plants and animals cannot tolerate their

body temperature going below 0oC, since ice crystals forming
in cell cytoplasm can destroy membranes and kill cells. Also,
the chemical reactions of metabolism run so slowly at low
temperature, that life functions are not possible.
Of course, many animals do live and survive in the cold
because they can produce their own body heat (mammals
and birds) and are equipped with body insulation and
homeostatic mechanisms to maintain their core
temperature despite the cold environment. Perhaps the
world champions in this regard are the Emperor Penguins
which maintain core body temperatures around +33oC
throughout the Antarctic winter in air temperatures as low
as -50oC... an amazing difference of over 80oC!
In a process similar to the hibernation of bears, the animals

heartbeat and breathing slow down, their metabolism
almost stops and their body temperature chills to only just
above freezing. As long as they are more than about 50
centimetres underground, the ground will not freeze even
though buried in snow for several months. If they havent
burrowed deeply enough they will freeze to death!
Cold Water Environments

Even when ice forms on the surface, water environments
rarely fall below +4oC, and are remarkably stable in
temperature. Life-forms do not need to cope with change,
although they may need serious insulation to stay warm. It
is the terrestrial environment that is more of a challenge.
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
... and seek shelter

when too hot
TM
Temperature Control in Endotherms
Responses of Plants to Temperature Change
Endotherms are the animals which produce their own

internal body heat and maintain a relatively constant body
temperature... the birds and mammals.
Plants cannot respond to temperature change by moving

away or hiding. To cope with temperature extremes they
must have structural or physiological adaptations.
All endotherms rely heavily on having bodily insulation...

fur, feathers or blubber (fat). Humans are endotherms too,
but we rely mostly on our technology to provide heaters,
air-con, jackets, wetsuits, gloves, etc, to protect our fragile
bodies from extreme temperatures. What do other
endothermic animals in the wild do?
To cope with seasonal cold weather, many plants (especially

in the northern hemisphere) are deciduous... they shed their
leaves and basically shut down their metabolism for the
winter, rather like an animal hibernating. Their leaves
cannot be protected from freezing, so the strategy is to lose
the vulnerable parts, survive until next spring, and grow
new leaves then.
Firstly, they have all the responses for homeostasis

described earlier... dilation or constriction of blood vessels,
shivering and sweating etc. As well as these, they may have
extra adaptations to help regulate their temperature.
Coping with heat is another story. If there is plenty of

water available, such as in a tropical jungle, then the plants
cool themselves by allowing maximum evaporative cooling.
The leaves open their stomates and allow transpiration to
occur. The evaporation has a cooling effect, in the same
way that sweating cools an animal.
In hot environments such as the Australian deserts, many

mammals such as the Red Kangaroo or the Bilby, have
many adaptations to help them cool their bodies:
When it is hot and DRY as well, they have a problem.

Desert plants tend to have very small leaves and thick,
stocky shaped stems. This reduces the surface area being
hit by heat radiation from the Sun, and helps prevent overheating. The cacti plant group have taken the strategy to the
limit... their leaves are spines, and stems are fat and
rounded. They are also light coloured to reflect a lot of the
radiant heat away.
In the desert, big ears are cool!
Spikes for leaves

= lower surface
area
Pale colour
reflects
radiation
large ears, with good blood supply, increases the surface

area for heat loss
like the reptiles, they seek shade in the heat of the day
panting evaporates water from the mouth and throat, and
cools the oral membranes which have a rich blood supply.
they may lick their forearms. The evaporation of saliva
cools their body in the same way as sweating.
(Note: many desert animals lack sweat glands because they
cannot afford the water loss of perspiration.)
Low surface
area stem
The sclerophyll plants of Australia (gum trees for example)

also have small narrow leaves to reduce heat absorption
from the Sun. Their other trick is to allow the leaves to
droop downward. This allows them to catch light for
photosynthesis in the cooler mornings when the Sun is low,
but avoid absorbing heat when the Sun is overhead in the
heat of midday.
In the cold, endotherms go for thick fur coats (Wallaroo)

or layers of fat (Australian Fur Seal) to limit the loss of
body heat.
Penguins, such as the Fairy Penguins along Australias
southern coast, have a special blood shunt in their legs.
In warm conditions the shunt is closed and blood flows
normally to the feet. Since the feet are about the only part
of their body not well insulated, in cold water they could
lose a lot of body heat.
So in cold water the flow of blood from body toward the
feet is shunted via a special vein with a valve in it, back
into the body. The feet receive virtually no blood, so
conserving body heat.
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
Narrow,
drooping
gum tree
leaves
10
TM
Worksheet 2
Fill in the blanks
Check your answers at the back.
Animals which can regulate their body

temperature are called w)......................................
Examples are the x)................................ and
y)........................................ They use all the
homeostasis techniques above, and rely on
body insulation with fur, z)........................... or
aa)................................... as well.
Temperature regulation in mammals is

controlled by the a).............................................
at the base of the brain. If body temperature is
too high it sends commands to the
b)................................ organs to cool the body.
Cooling mechanisms include c)............................
of blood vessels to allow d)...................
(more/less) blood to flow near skin. Also, the
e)............................... glands may be activated,
allowing f)............................... to flow. As it
g).............................. from the skin, it carries
heat away. Metabolic rate may be reduced, to
reduce heat production. This is achieved by
h)............................. which are control
chemicals. An example is Thyroxine, produced
by the i)................................... gland.
In extreme environments endotherms may

have extra adaptations as well. In Australian
deserts many animals have large ab)....................
to radiate heat away. They dont have sweat
glands because
they cant
afford to
ac).............................................................................
but may lick their ad)............................... or pant
to achieve some evaporative cooling.
In cold environments, thick fur or blubber
gives ae)......................................................to
retain body heat. The penguins have a special
adaptation in the blood vessels to their legs. In
cold water, the blood flow to the feet is
af).............................................................................
so that less heat is lost through the uninsulated
feet.
If the body is too cool, then the hypothalamus

commands various warming mechanisms.
Blood vessels can be j)...........................................
to reduce blood flow to k)............................
Body hairs are l).............................. to trap a
layer of still air, which acts to
m).............................. better. Nerve commands
to
muscles
can
cause
them
to
n)........................................ which produces extra
heat. The metabolic rate can be raised by
hormones too.
Plants also have many adaptations to cope with

temperature extremes. In cold climates many
plants are ag)............................................. which
means they ah)....................................................
in winter.
In hot climates with plenty of water, plants
open their ai).....................................................
allowing evaporation to cool them. In dry
climates, plants cannot afford the water loss, so
they have other ways to stay cool without
losing water. For example, cacti have
aj).......................-shaped leaves to reduce the
surface area absorbing heat from direct
sunlight. They are often ak)...........................coloured to reflect heat radiation.
Animals which rely on the environment to

supply their body heat are called
o)........................................... Examples are
p)........................................., amphibians, fish etc.
In terrestrial environments they often seek or
avoid the heat of the q)................ in order to
regulate temperature. An Australian example is
the r)...................................., which often
s)................................ in the morning to warm
up, and t)..................................................... when
too hot. In cold winters, ectotherms cannot get
any heat from the environment and many, such
as the u).................................................... survive
by v)............................................................ for the
winter.
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
The Australian al)........................................

plants mostly have am).....................................
(shape) leaves to reduce surface area, and
often
allow
the
leaves
to
an)................................................. (orientation) to
avoid the Suns heat at midday.
WHEN COMPLETED,
WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
11
TM
3. INTERNAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN ORGANISMS

Internal Transport in Mammals
Arteries
carry blood from the heart out to the body tissues. The
walls of an artery are relatively thick and muscular to
withstand the high pressure in the blood when the heart
pumps.
As is the case with most animals, mammals rely mainly on

their Circulatory System for internal transport of
substances... their blood, heart and blood vessels; veins,
arteries and capillaries. A basic knowledge of how the
system operates was covered in Preliminary Topic 2.
Artery walls are very elastic, and when a pulse of high

pressure blood passes through, they expand outwards and
then contract again, helping to push the blood along. This
rhythmic expanding and contracting is what you can feel as
your pulse wherever an artery is close to the skin, such as
in your wrist or throat.
Blood and Blood Vessels

You will have examined blood under a microscope and
seen something like this:
RED BLOOD CELLS
Veins
carry blood back from the body tissues to the heart. The
blood here is under lower pressure and the walls of a vein
are relatively thin. With little pressure to push blood
forward, it is the contraction of the surrounding muscles
which helps push the blood along.
Light microscope view
Electron
microscope
view
Veins may contain valves to prevent back-flow of the blood.

VEIN
Cross-S
Section
ARTERY
Cross-S
Section
Size = 7 m
Connective Tissue
blood
You should be able to sketch diagrams of blood cells, and

have an idea of their sizes.
blood
Layers of
muscle
Sketch of Blood Cells
Side view of VEIN

showing a valve.
White Cell
much larger than
red cells
Blood can flow one way,

but not back the other.
Red
Cells
no
nucleus
Shaped like a
donut with the
hole closed
over
CAPILLARY Cross-S
Section
large, irregular
nucleus.
Wall just 1 cell thick for

easy diffusion
Ratio: about 600 red

cells to 1 white cell
Capillaries
are the tiny blood vessels which form a network throughout
the tissues so that every living cell is close to the blood
supply. The walls of a capillary are only 1 cell thick, so
diffusion of substances from blood to cells (or cells to
blood) is easily achieved.
Red Blood Cells

contain the red pigment haemoglobin, which carries
oxygen. This is covered in more detail later.
White Blood Cells
come in a huge variety of types, but all are involved with
defence against disease. This is covered in a later topic.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
blood
flow
The inside of a capillary is so small that red blood cells

often travel through it in single file.
12
TM
Substances Carried in the Blood
Changes to the Blood as it Circulates

As the blood circulates around the body its chemical
composition undergoes a number of changes...
Oxygen O2
is carried in the red blood cells by haemoglobin.
Nutrients & Nitrogenous Wastes

As the blood flows through capillaries surrounding the
digestive system it picks up increased quantities of sugars,
amino acids, salts, water, vitamins, etc that have been
absorbed from the gut. (However, lipids are first absorbed
into the lymphatic drains and enter the blood much later)
Carbon Dioxide CO2

is partly carried by the haemoglobin in red blood cells, but
most of it is carried in the blood plasma, in the form of
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
You will have carried out an experiment to see the effect
of dissolved CO2 on the pH of water.
This blood from the gut is collected in a vein which takes it

directly to the liver. Here some of the nutrients may be
absorbed from the blood for storage or chemical
processing (e.g. glucose is extracted from the blood and
polymerized to form glycogen and stored in the liver). Also
in the liver, large amounts of the nitrogenous waste urea is
added to the blood to be carried away and later excreted.
You might have chemically produced some CO2 and

bubbled it through water. Using a pH meter, or perhaps
Universal Indicator, you will have measured any change
in the pH of the water.
You would have found that the pH went down...
i.e. the water became more acidic.
Later, as blood flows through capillaries in body tissues

such as muscle or bone, nutrients are absorbed from the
blood into the cells which need energy (glucose) and new
chemical building blocks (amino acids, lipids).
Explanation and Chemistry:

Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O
Sooner or later, every bit of blood flows through the

kidneys which extract the nitrogenous wastes and excess
salts and water for excretion as urine.
H2CO3
Carbonic acid is a weak acid which partly ionizes

H+
H2CO3
Hydrogen ion
makes water more acidic
CHANGES IN NUTRIENTS, WATER & WASTES

AS THE BLOOD CIRCULATES
HCO3-
Lungs
Bicarbonate ion.
This is how CO2 is carried
in blood
Water
is carried as the liquid solvent of blood plasma.
Heart
Some Nutrients
to storage
Veins
Salts & Products of Digestion

such as sugars and amino acids, are generally water soluble
and are carried dissolved in the blood plasma.
Lipids (Fats)
absorbed from the digestive system are packaged in a
protein coat which makes the fat molecule miscible in
water. This means that, while not fully dissolved, the
molecules can be dispersed in water and carried without
joining together into droplets of fat and separating from
the water.
Wastes
into
blood
Liver
Arteries
Digested
Nutrients
into blood
Gut
Wastes and excess water,
salts excreted in urine
In this form they are carried dispersed in the blood plasma.

Kidneys
Nitrogenous Wastes
such as urea, are water soluble and carried dissolved in the
blood plasma.
Nutrients from
blood to cells
Body tissues
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
13
TM
Respiratory Gases O2 & CO2

As blood passes through capillaries in body tissues, oxygen
is released from the haemoglobin molecules and diffuses
along the concentration gradient into the body cells.
The Need to Remove Carbon Dioxide

As already discussed, carbon dioxide doesnt just dissolve in
water, it reacts to form a weak acid.
CO2 + H2O
There is always a concentration gradient favouring this

because the cells are constantly using up oxygen for cellular
respiration.
carbonic
acid
Revision
C6H12O6 + 6O2
Meanwhile, the concentration of carbon dioxide is high

because of its constant production by cellular respiration,
so it diffuses from the cells into the blood.
The Importance of Haemoglobin

Blood is red because of the many red cells, and red cells are
red because they are packed with the red-coloured, ironcontaining protein haemoglobin.
CO2
In the lungs, where the oxygen concentration is very high,

some oxygen dissolves in the moisture lining the alveoli then
diffuses into the blood flowing in the surrounding capillaries.
Carbon dioxide
Lungs
Oxygen
Air
Blood
Oxygen is not very soluble in water, however, and if thats all

there was to the story, then our blood could never carry enough
oxygen to supply our cells with what they need. Haemoglobin
molecules have a great attraction for oxygen molecules and
quickly pick up 4 O2 molecules each. Because of this, our
blood can carry thousands of times more oxygen than would
be possible by simply dissolving oxygen in the blood plasma.
CHANGES IN
OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE
AS THE BLOOD CIRCULATES
Arteries
Heart
Hb
Veins
Air
Blood
bicarbonate
ion
To avoid this problem, CO2 is carried away by the blood as

rapidly as it is produced in the cells.
When the blood gets to the lungs the opposite occurs.

Inside the alveoli (air sacs of the lungs) the air has a very
high concentration of oxygen and is very low in CO2.
Therefore, oxygen diffuses into the blood, while carbon
dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air.
O2
HCO3-
At the concentrations produced by a typical cell, the hydrogen

ions could easily lower the pH of the cytoplasm by 0.5 pH
unit or more. Remember that enzymes are very sensitive to
pH changes and quickly change shape and lose their catalytic
activity. This would be disastrous for cell metabolism.
the important
product.
ATP is the energy
supplier in cells
Chemical
wastes
hydrogen
ion
Its the hydrogen ions that create problems. Hydrogen ions

are acids and can lower the pH of cell cytoplasm.
6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Glucose and Oxygen

delivered to cells by the
blood stream
H+
H2CO3
O2
HbO2
abbreviation for
Haemoglobin
Oxyhaemoglobin
When the blood gets to the body tissues with its load of
oxygen, something very clever happens...
The high concentration of dissolved CO2 lowers the pH of
the blood slightly. This causes the haemoglobin proteins to
change shape slightly and release the oxygen molecules.
HbO2
Body tissues
Oxygen
Blood
Cells
O2
Of course, this isnt really clever in any sense of intelligence

among haemoglobin molecules. It is the result of Natural
Selection and Evolution... it gave a huge survival advantage to
some primitive ancestor millions of years ago, so all mammals
(and many others) have inherited this quite amazing substance.
CO2
This gas exchange and transport is essential for delivering

oxygen to every cell for cellular respiration...
... but why must CO2 be removed?
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
The oxygen diffuses into the cells, and the freed haemoglobin
molecules can pick up some of the CO2 molecules and carry
them back to the lungs.
Carbon dioxide
Cells
Blood
O2
Hb
14
TM
Oxygen Saturation & Its Measurement
Products of Blood Donation
The concentration of O2 and CO2 in the blood is of great

interest to doctors monitoring a patient, or an athlete in
training, or even to a pilot or mountain-climber at high altitude.
The Australian Red Cross Blood Service collects about a

million blood donations per year. Most of this blood is
used for people who need regular treatment with blood
products for conditions such as leukemia.
The most important measurement is percentage oxygen

saturation (%SpO2). A reading of 100 would mean that
100% of all haemoglobin in an artery is totally saturated
with oxygen. Readings between 95-100% indicate good
health, fitness and adequate oxygen supplies.
Only a very small amount is kept as whole blood for

emergency transfusions. Most donated blood is separated
into about 20 different fractions or products, so each
donation can treat many different patients.
Lower readings (e.g. 80%) could indicate:

respiratory or circulatory problems in a patient
lack of fitness, or excessive exertion in an athlete
need for supplementary oxygen for a pilot or climber.
The main blood products are:

Red Cell Concentrate which contains about twice as
many red cells as normal, is used to boost the oxygencarrying capacity of patients with anaemia or after blood
loss.
In years gone by, %SpO2 was measured by taking blood

samples and carrying out complex chemical testing. With
modern technology, however, the readings are done
instantly and non-invasively by a small, portable instrument
clipped onto the end of the finger or ear lobe.
Platelet Concentrate is given to patients who need extra

blood-clotting capability, such as leukemia sufferers, or
following severe blood loss.
Finger-c
clamp Oximeter measures %SpO2
White Cell Concentrate is given to patients needing a

boost to their immune system, perhaps following a severe
infection.
Light source sends red

light and infra-red
Plasma is the liquid part of the blood and is often given in

emergency to boost the volume of blood following severe
blood loss.
Cryoprecipitate is a fraction collected from plasma and
contains blood-clotting factors. It is used to treat severe
haemorrhaging.
Receiver measures
absorption of light
by haemoglobin
Factor VIII and Monofix are extracts from plasma used to

treat people who have haemophilia... an inherited, incurable
disorder in which the blood will not clot properly. These
blood products allow patients to lead a relatively normal
life.
The Oximeter works by sending red light and infra-red

beams through the flesh. The amount of each light
absorbed by the haemoglobin gives a direct measurement
of %SpO2, because haemoglobin carrying oxygen, or
without, or with carbon dioxide, all absorb these light
beams differently.
Perfluorocarbon-Based Substitutes
Another area of research aims to
develop a truly artificial blood
Haemoglobin-B
Based Oxygen Carriers
are one of the areas of current research.
substitute. The most promising base
chemicals are the perfluorocarbon
Haemoglobin extracted from animal blood compounds.
can be purified and treated so that it is
disease-free and cannot cause any allergic These can carry up to 5 times more
or rejection responses in patients.
oxygen than blood can, can be stored
indefinitely at room temperature.
The products can be stored for years at
They can be made totally sterile and
room temperature, and is highly effective
at carrying oxygen and releasing it into the disease free.
ARTIFICIAL BLOOD?
Why Is It Needed?
Fresh blood cannot be stored
for long, and many parts of the
world lack the necessary storage
facilities.
Many blood products can set off
immune-responses in long-term
patients, even after correct bloodtyping. (Similar to rejection of a
transplanted organ)
tissues.
At least 5 different products are being
Donated blood can carry

Currently undergoing clinical trials, but not tested and trialled (USA), but none
diseases, such as hepatitis or HIV.
yet approved for medical use.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
15
are yet approved for medical use.
TM
Transport Systems in Plants
Active & Passive Transport
Note that the flow of water in the xylem costs the plant
nothing in energy to run the system... it is passive
transport.
In Preliminary Topic 2 you were introduced to the

transport systems in plants...
Xylem Tubes Carry Water
In contrast, the other transport system in plants is an

active transport system... the plant must constantly
supply energy to make it happen.
Hollow, dead cells, joined end

to-end forming a tube
Phloem Tubes Carry Food Nutrients
While the xylem tubes are formed from dead cells, the
phloem are living cells joined end-to-end. The ends of each
cell are perforated (sieve plates) so each cell is open into
the next so they form a continuous tube.
PHLOEM CELL
alive and filled with

cytoplasm.
Cell walls
re-inforced
with rings
and spirals
of lignin
Circulation of
cytoplasm carries
sugars through
each cell
sugars
actively
transported in
the cytoplasm
of the cells
Sieve plate
between cells
Xylem tubes are dead, hollow cells, joined end-to-end

forming a continuous tube from root to leaf. The xylem
tubes transport water (and dissolved minerals). How do
they work to lift water from roots to leaves, against the
force of gravity?
sugars
diffuse
from one
cell
into the
next
Companion
cell
has many
mitochondria to
provide ATP to
the phloem cell
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the

leaves. When the stomates are open, water can constantly
evaporate, creating a tension, or pull in the remaining
water in the leaves.
While the xylem is a one-way flow system, the phloem

system can carry food (especially sugars) in either direction.
If a lot of photosynthesis is occurring, the phloem will carry
sugar to storage sites in roots or stem. If photosynthesis is
not possible for an extended time, then the phloem will
carry sugars back from the storage sites to feed the leaf cells,
or supply a growing flower or fruit.
Water molecules are quite strongly attracted to each other

and tend to cling tightly together. This force is called
cohesion and is the reason that water tends to form
droplets... little blobs of water that cling together.
So, when water evaporates from leaves and creates a pull
force, each water molecule pulls on those behind it because
of the cohesion. Each molecule pulls others upward and so
the entire column of water in a xylem tube moves upwards
to replace the water lost by transpiration. So water is pulled
upwards by a combination of transpiration and cohesion.
This flow is called the transpiration stream.
LO
TU
BE
S
tio
ca
slo
Sugar is removed by active

transport, requiring energy.
Water flows out due to
osmosis, lowering pressure
16
how it works
EM
an
Tr
Sugar solution
flows due to
pressure
differential
In very narrow tubes (capillaries) the water will climb

upwards against gravity because of adhesion, and drag
more molecules along by cohesion. This happens in xylem
and helps lift water upwards.
Translocation...
PH
Another factor which helps the process is called

capillarity or the capillary effect. This is the way that
water can climb up the walls of a container forming a
meniscus in a test tube, for example. This happens because
water molecules are not only attracted to each other
(cohesion) but also to some other substances such as
glass. This attraction is called adhesion.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
Sugar is carried in by active

transport, requiring energy.
Water flows in due to
osmosis, raising pressure
Higher Pressure
DESTINATION
Lower Pressure
Worksheet 3
Part A
TM
Part C Fill in the blanks Check your answers at the back.
WHEN COMPLETED,
Fill in the blanks
WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION
Oxygen is carried by the a)...............-coloured, b)...................containing protein called c).........................................................

It has a great affinity for oxygen molecules, and each
molecule can absorb d).................... (number) oxygen
molecules, in which form it is called e)............................................................ In the body tissues, the presence
of f)......................................... gas lowers the pH slightly,
which causes haemoglobin to change shape slightly and
g).......................................... the oxygen, which then
h)..................................... into the cells.
SUMMARIES
Blood is made up mainly of a liquid called a)..........................

and many blood cells. The most numerous blood cells are the
b)........................... which contain the protein c).............................
responsible for carrying d).............................. gas. Most of the
carbon dioxide in blood is carried in the form of
e).................................... ions. These are made when carbon
dioxide reacts with f).................. forming g).......................... acid.
Most other substances carried in blood are dissolved in the
h)....................................... This includes nutrients such as
i).................................... and j)......................................., water and
salts, and the nitrogenous waste k).............................
Lipids (fats) are first wrapped in a coating of l)............................
so they can be dispersed without separating.
The
%SpO2
is
a
measure
of
the
i)............................................. in a persons blood. Good
health, fitness and adequate oxygen supply are indicated by
readings above j)..............% This can be easily measured by
a k).............................................. which sends beams of
l).......................................... and .............................................
through a finger or ear-lobe. Oxygen saturation is measured
according to how much of each type of light is
m)....................................... by the blood.
Most blood donated to the Blood Bank is separated into
different fractions for different uses. Some of the main
blood products are:
n)..................... Cell Concentrate, to boost O2-carrying
capacity.
White Cell Concentrate, to boost
o)...............................................
p).................................. Concentrate, to help blood clotting
q)...................................., which is the liquid part of the
blood,
used
in
emergency
to
increase
r).....................................................
There are 3 types of blood vessels: the m)...................................

have thick muscular walls to withstand the high n)......................
of the blood being pumped from the o)..................................
p)................................ have thinner walls, and have q)...................
along their length to prevent blood r)............................................
Capillaries have walls which are s)..........................................thick
and form a network throughout the bodys t)..............................
As the blood flows around the intestines it picks up
u)......................................... It then flows straight to the
v)...................................., where some nutrients are removed for
w).......................&............................, and wastes such as
x).............................are added. These wastes are later removed
from the blood by the y)............................ and excreted with any
excess z)........................... & .......................... as urine.
Research is going on into developing artificial blood. This is

needed
because
fresh
blood
cannot
be
s)..................................... for long, and can cause
t)............................................................. in some patients, and
there is a danger that donated blood might carry
u).....................................................
Two of the areas of research for artificial blood are
v)................................-Based w)................................. Carriers,
made from animal blood, and completely artificial
substitutes
based
on
the
chemicals
called
x)......................................................
Meanwhile, when blood flows through the capillaries of the

lungs, aa)........................... gas is absorbed into the blood and
ab).............................. gas is released from blood into lungs.
When blood flows through the body tissues, nutrients move
from ac)............................ to ad)................................. as does
ae)............................... gas, while af)..................................... gas
moves the other way.
Part B Questions
1. Write 2 chemical equations to summarize how carbon
dioxide reacts with water. In what form is CO2 carried in
blood?
Part D
Transport in plants is carried out by 2 separate systems. The
a)..................................... tubes carry water and dissolved
minerals from the b)............................. to c)...............................
These tubes are d).............................. (dead or living) cells. The
transport is e)......................................... (active or passive) and
the movement of water is called f).................................................
Basically the process works because, as water
g)......................................... from the leaves, this pulls water up
from above because water molecules are h).............................
and tend to cling together.
2. With reference to a chemical equation, explain why it is

essential to remove carbon dioxide from body tissues.
Meanwhile, the i)..................................... vessels carry out

j)................................................. (name of process) which moves
k)................................................ around the plant to wherever it is
needed. The cells are l)..................................... (dead or living)
and the transport is m).........................................(active/passive)
requiring the plant to n)......................................................... in
order to make the process happen.
3. With reference to a chemical equation, explain how

transfere of oxygen from blood to cells is facilitated.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
17
TM
4. EXCRETION & WATER BALANCE

The Importance of Water
Kidneys Also Excrete Metabolic Wastes
Life cannot exist without water. All living cells are about
75% water. The functions of water in living things include:
What Are the Metabolic Wastes?

The many chemical reactions of metabolism sometimes
produce chemicals which are toxic to cells, often because
the chemical, when dissolved in water, can change the pH
and reduce enzyme activity.
Water is the solvent of life

All the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in
water solution, and the transport of materials in cytoplasm,
blood or phloem takes place mainly in water solution.
Therefore, it is essential that these wastes are removed

(excreted) as soon as possible. The major wastes are:
Water is involved in life chemistry

Water is a reactant or product of many metabolic reactions.
The reactions of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are
just two of the many examples.
Carbon dioxide, produced by cellular respiration.

As covered previously, it will lower the pH (acidic).
It is carried in the blood and excreted by the lungs.
Water is vital in temperature regulation

Water has a very high specific heat capacity. This means it
can absorb (or lose) relatively large quantities of energy
with minimal temperature change. This helps stabilize the
temperature of all living things.
Nitrogenous wastes, (contain nitrogen) are produced

mainly from the metabolism of proteins.
There are 3 main compounds that can be produced:
Ammonia
in fish and aquatic invertebrates
Uric acid
in birds, reptiles and insects
Urea
in mammals and amphibians
Water also has a very high heat of vaporization. This means

that when it evaporates it absorbs huge amounts of heat.
This is why evaporation of perspiration from the skin has
such a cooling effect.
Excretion & Water Balance in Fish

Fish produce the waste ammonia which is very alkaline and
toxic. Luckily it is very soluble in water. Since they live
surrounded by water, fish simply excrete ammonia from
their gills by simple diffusion.
Water supports and cushions cells and organs

Many plants and animals rely on water for body support.
Non-woody plants pump their cell vacuoles full of water to
make cells tight and keep stems and leaves upright.
Animals such as worms rely on the hydraulic pressure of
water in their tissues to support their body and maintain its
shape.
Their kidneys are used not so much for excretion, but for
maintaining their water balance. Freshwater fish and
saltwater fish have opposite problems with water balance.
SALTWATER FISH
In vertebrate animals the water solutions in the tissues

helps to cushion organs against bumps and impacts.
(eg cerebrospinal fluid around the brain)
sis
Constantly
drink to
replace
water
(but get
salt, too)
Homeostasis of Water & Salts

Its not just the water that is important, but its
concentration, and the concentration of substances
dissolved in it, such as salts.
Gills excrete Ammonia,

Carbon Dioxide and
excess salt
If the concentrations are not kept at the correct levels, then

osmosis may cause problems. Cells could lose water and
dehydrate, or gain too much water and be damaged.
FRESHWATER FISH
THE CONCENTRATION OF WATER &

DISSOLVED SALTS MUST BE MAINTAINED
THIS IS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF HOMEOSTASIS
Kidneys produce
small amounts
of urine to
save water
Tiss
u
(mai es gain
nly t
w
hrou ater by
gh g
o
ills) smosis
Do not
drink
IN MOST ANIMALS
WATER BALANCE IS REGULATED
BY THE KIDNEYS
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
Wat
(ma er loss
inly
f
thro rom ti
ugh ssue
sb
gill
yo
s)
smo
Kidneys produce a
lot of dilute urine to
remove water
from body
18
Gills excrete Ammonia & Carbon

Dioxide, and actively
absorb salts
TM
Excretion in Terrestrial Environments
How the Kidneys Work in Mammals
The fish can get away with production of highly toxic

ammonia. They can rely on constant diffusion of
ammonia from the blood in their gills into the water
environment which surrounds them.
Each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons. Each

nephron is a complicated tangle of blood vessels and renal
tubules (=small tubes), but what happens in a nephron can
be summarized in a very simple way... K.I.S.S.
In terrestrial environments, waste gases can do exactly the

same; thats how carbon dioxide is excreted... by simple
diffusion from the blood to the air in the lungs. However,
nitrogenous wastes are not gaseous and need to be excreted
in water solution. This means that:
Filtration
removes some of the water and many small dissolved
molecules (including the waste urea) from the blood into the
renal tubules. This occurs because the walls of the
glomerulus are leaky and the blood is under high pressure.
nitrogenous wastes are produced not as ammonia, but the

less toxic compounds urea (mammals) or uric acid
(birds, reptiles, insects)
Reabsorption
then occurs to move useful substances back into the blood.
This is achieved by:
Active Transport of sugar, amino acids & salts from the
renal tubules back into the blood. This requires energy to
be used to transport these chemicals across the cell
membranes, against a concentration gradient.
Osmosis then occurs, which causes water to flow from the
tubules back into the blood. This is Passive Transport and
costs the body no energy.
excretion is via the kidneys, and the simple processes of

diffusion and osmosis are not adequate to achieve this.
For simple diffusion to achieve excretion it would require
huge amounts of water to be excreted too, and no terrestrial
animal can afford to do this, especially in a desert.
Renal Tubules
Glomerulus
THE NEPHRON
of the KIDNEY
a coiled blood vessel

Blood in
from artery
This blood contains urea
Filttrattion
n
occurrs herre
Bowmans Capsule
Reabsorrpttion
n
occurrs
herre
a receiving cup to collect

the filtrate liquid
from the blood
Urine
flows to
collecting
duct
Blood Capillary
Network
shown in simplified form
Blood out
then via
Ureter to
Bladder,
for
excretion
to vein
This blood has had wastes removed,
and water balance adjusted for
Homeostasis
Filtration is the process in which some water and
Reabsorption is the process in which any useful

substances (such as sugars & amino acids) are
absorbed back into the blood. Water & salts are also
reabsorbed, but in varying quantities... the body is
adjusting water balance for Homeostasis
many dissolved substances (including sugar, salts &

urea, BUT NOT any cells or blood proteins) leave
the blood and flow into the renal tubules.
Urea is not reabsorbed back into the blood.

Urea and some water continue along the tubule. This liquid is URINE.
Urine flows into the Ureter and is carried to the Bladder for storage.
When the bladder becomes full, the urine is excreted via the Urethra.
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
19
TM
The Kidneys & Homeostasis

The kidneys are not just used for excretion. As well, the kidneys can adjust the water balance of the body by allowing
more, or less, urine to be produced. In this way the kidneys are a vital part of homeostasis.
Once again, the Hypothalamus is involved, but the control mechanism is by hormones... chemicals which are released into
the blood and exert a control function on some target organ. In this case the hormone is called Anti-Diuretic Hormone
(ADH) and the target organ is the kidney, specifically the nephron tubules.
Pituitary Gland releases
more ADH
(Also nerve signals to brain
cause thirsty feeling so
you will want to drink)
BODY RETAINS MORE WATER,

excretes less urine.
Urine is more concentrated
Note the typical pattern of a

negative feedback system
to Pituitary Gland
Nerve Command
ADH causes more

reabsorption of water
from kidney tubules
WATER LEVEL IN
BODY TOO LOW
WATER LEVEL IN
BODY TOO HIGH
BODY PASSES MORE WATER,

excretes more urine.
Urine is more dilute.
Less ADH causes less

reabsorption of water
from kidney tubules.
The effect of ADH is to alter the permeability of the

membranes lining the tubules of the kidney nephrons.
Increased ADH levels make the membranes more
permeable to water, so more water is reabsorbed back into
the blood. This means that less urine is produced.
If salt levels are too low, special cells in the adrenal glands
detect this and increase the production of aldosterone into
the bloodstream. This causes the cells lining the nephron
tubules to actively transport more sodium ions back into
the blood. Chloride ions follow the sodium, and so more
salt is reabsorbed.
If the body is over-hydrated, the production of ADH is

reduced. This causes the tubules to become less permeable
to water so less is reabsorbed into the blood. The result is
more urine being produced.
If salt levels are too high, the adrenal glands produce less
aldosterone so less salt is reabsorbed, and the excess salt
will be excreted in the urine.
ADH is the hormone controlling the water levels, but this

is only part of the osmotic balance story... the salt levels
can be controlled too. Read on...
Pituitary Gland releases

less ADH
(Also nerve signals to brain
cause feeling that you do
NOT want to drink)
Control of Salt Levels by Aldosterone

Sitting on top of the kidneys are the Adrenal Glands
which produce a variety of steroid hormones controlling a
number of body functions. One of the adrenal hormones
is Aldosterone which controls reabsorption of salt from
the nephron tubules.
How the Hormones Work

The hypothalamus monitors the blood flowing through it
for the osmotic balance of water and dissolved salt. If
the body is even slightly dehydrated, more ADH is released
by the pituitary gland and circulates in the blood stream.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
Nerve Commands
HYPOTHALAMUS
&
PITUITARY GLAND
Between ADH and aldosterone the body maintains a

constant osmotic balance of water and dissolved salt...
Homeostasis.
20
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Kidney Structure & Nephrons
Addisons Disease & HRT

Addisons Disease occurs when a persons adrenal glands
do not produce enough aldosterone, even when their salt
levels are too low. Their nephrons constantly fail to
reabsorb salt and so the osmotic balance of the body is
chronically out of order.
You may have dissected a kidney in your laboratory work in

class. You should be able to relate the gross structure of the
kidney and urinary system to the structure and functioning of
the nephrons. This is summarized by these diagrams.
This leads to a variety of problems and malfunctions

throughout the body involving the heart, intestines and
liver, and may cause psychological disorders as well.
DISSECTED KIDNEY
This is a disease that can be sucessfuly treated by

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT).
Position of an Adrenal Gland

(not usually present in school
specimens)
Renal Cortex
Dark red in colour due

to the many blood
capillaries of the
nephrons
Artery &
Vein
A person with Addisons Disease can be treated with

appropriate doses of steroid hormones (usually cortisone)
and although they cannot be totally cured, they can lead a
normal, symptom-free life on HRT.
Medulla
Lighter in colour... less

blood vessels.
Here many collecting
ducts carry urine to the
ureter
Renal Dialysis
If a persons kidneys cease functioning properly he/she can
no longer remove toxic wastes such as urea from the blood,
nor maintain homeostasis of water balance. In the case
of complete kidney failure, this condition is fatal within
about 3 days without treatment.
Ureter
carries urine to
bladder
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
Over the past 40 years or so, many people have been

successfully treated by receiving a kidney transplant.
However, they may have to wait months or years to find a
suitable organ donor. In the meanwhile, they need to be
treated by Renal Dialysis... the use of medical technology
to remove wastes from the blood artificially. In effect, a
renal dialysis machine is an artificial kidney.
Kidneys
Ureters
The simplified diagram explains how this works.

Blood
returns to
patients
vein
FLUID
IN
wastes such
as urea
diffuse
Patients blood
from an artery
out of the
blood
Bladder
Urethra
Dialysis
fluid flows
past the
tubes
carrying the
blood
Comparison of Renal Dialysis

with Natural Kidney Function
Similarities
Both processes remove urea and other wastes from the blood.
Both rely on movement of dissolved substances through
semi-permeable membranes.
OUT
Pump
Blood flows through dialysis tube with
semi-permeable membrane walls
Differences
Kidney function involves the 2 steps of filtration and
reabsorption; dialysis involves only 1 step of diffusion
of wastes from blood.
In a kidney, movement across membranes is
achieved by both active transport and by passive osmosis
and diffusion; dialysis involves only passive diffusion.
The dialysis fluid contains water, salts, sugars, minerals etc

exactly as in healthy blood plasma. Since there is no
concentration gradient for these chemicals they do not
diffuse in or out of the blood. However, the wastes such as
urea are in higher concentration in the blood, and so they
diffuse from the blood into the dialysis liquid, which is later
disposed of.
HSC Biology Topic 1
copyright 2005-2007
21
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Water Balance in Australian Animals
Water Conservation & Excretion

in Australian Mammals
The different conditions of each environment dictate what

an animal must do to to achieve homeostasis of its water
balance. In each environment there are different problems
to be overcome, and the animals body organs must
respond appropriately. Exactly how homeostasis is
achieved will be reflected in the urine the animal produces.
Comparison of Urine Production
in Different Environments
Marine Fish (revise page 18)
problem: constant loss of water by osmosis.
urine: small amount, to conserve water.
Urine does not contain wastes, since ammonia
is excreted from the gills.
Freshwater Fish (revise page 18)
problem: constant gain of water by osmosis.
urine: large volume, to remove water.
Urine does not contain wastes, since ammonia
is excreted from the gills.
Terrestrial Mammal
problem: must excrete wastes in urine, but cannot
afford to lose too much water, especially in dry
Australian ecosystems.
urine: generally small volume, to conserve water.
Urine is relatively highly concentrated in wastes
such as urea.
Many Australian environments are desert or semi-arid and

water conservation is vital for survival. Some adaptations
for temperature control, while conserving water, were
covered earlier in this topic (see page 10).
Many Australian mammals have excretory systems that also
contribute to water conservation, while managing to
efficiently remove their nitrogenous waste, urea.
Photo by Diana
The desert-living Red Kangaroo, the Spinifex Hopping

Mouse, and even the Koala (which rarely drinks) all have
the ability to produce very small amounts of highly
concentrated urine.
They achieve this by:
having longer tubules in their kidney nephrons, which
allows for more reabsorption of water back into the blood,
thus less urine is produced.
the cells lining the tubules are able to actively transport
urea from blood into the urine. So, not only is urea not
reabsorbed from the filtrate liquid, but is actively
pumped from the blood.
Water Conservation & Excretion in Insects

All insects are small, and most are adapted for flight. This
means they cannot afford to carry large amounts of water
in their bodies just for the purpose of excreting urine.
Their excretory system must be able to remove nitrogenous
wastes, while losing only a minimum of water.
Firstly, their nitrogenous wastes are processed chemically
into the form of uric acid, which has a low solubility in
water. This means that, when their urine is separated from
the blood (filtration) and then concentrated by
reabsorption of water, the uric acid precipitates as a solid.
The result is less water and more urea in their urine.
Enantiostasis
Enantiostasis is a special case of homeostasis. It refers to
the maintenence of metabolic and physiological functions,
(i.e. homeostasis) despite significant variations in the
surrounding environment.
After further reabsorption of water, the insects urine is a

semi-solid paste, which is passed into the rectum and
excreted with their solid digestive wastes.
The Malpighian Tubes are
the insect equivalent of
kidneys
An important example is an estuary, where river meets sea.

Organisms are able to maintain their water and salt balance,
despite wild fluctuations in the water and salt
concentrations around them, every time the tides change.
Intestine
Some of the ways they cope with this are:
ANUS
burrowing into the mud, where the salt concentrations are

more stable (e.g. crabs, yabbies)
closing their shell, to avoid extreme conditions they
cannot cope with. (e.g. oysters)
switching their excretory systems from water conservers
when salty, to water excreters when fresh. (e.g. fish)
MOUTH
MALPIGHIAN TUBES extend through
insects body, collecting and
concentrating urine.
Urine is emptied into the gut for
excretion.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
22
TM
Water Conservation in Australian Plants
How Plants Cope With Salt
The characteristics of Australias sclerophyll plants were

dealt with in the Preliminary Course topic Evolution of
Australian Biota.
Many of the Australian coastal estuaries are home to

Mangrove trees which have a number of adaptations to
cope with the salt water that covers their roots with every
high tide.
In summary, the sclerophyll plants include the gum trees,

banksias and acacias (wattles) and all show numerous
adaptations to conserve water in our arid climate, such as:
To maintain their osmotic balance they must both

conserve water and deal with high levels of salt. One of the
most common species is the Grey Mangrove, Avicennia
marina, which has all the following adaptations:
Small & narrow to reduce

Surface Area for less
evaporation
GUM LEAVES
leaves with a thick, waxy cuticle and fine hairs on the

undersurface, all to minimize water loss.
salt glands in the leaves which excrete a concentrated salt
brine onto the leaf surface. The salt gets washed away
when it rains.
salt is deposited in older leaves, so when they drop off
they carry a load of excess salt away.
Thick, waxy
cuticle
minimizes
evaporation
special tissues within their roots which allows water to

pass through, but reduces the passage of salt. This helps to
reduce the salt intake.
Droop downwards to avoid the heat

of midday for less evaporation
Mangroves
coastal NSW
small, narrow, drooping leaves with thick, waxy cuticles

In dry times, gum trees shed many of their leaves so that
there are less surfaces for evaporation. In some species,
such as the River Red Gum, entire branches are sacrificed
by cutting off their water supply so that they die. (This is
why gum trees are dangerous... whole dead branches often
fall off onto cars, homes or campsites.)
Species such as Spinifex grass limit evaporation by having
fine hairs all over their leaves. This traps a layer of air near
the leaf so that wind cannot increase evaporation rates.
Generally, all Australian sclerophylls have fewer stomates
on their leaves to limit the water loss from transpiration.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
23
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So, an increase in ADH secretion leads to greater

al)................................. (excretion/retention) of water, while
a decrease in ADH results in am)..........................
(more/less) urine production.
Worksheet 4
Fill in the blanks Check your answers at the back.
Water is vital to all living things because:
1. It is the a)................................... of life, and most
substances are b).............................. in water solution.
2. Water is involved in many c)............................... reactions,
such as photosynthesis or d).............................................
3. Water has very high heat e).................................... and
heat of f).................................... so it is vital to temperature
control
4. Water g)................................ and cushions cells and organs.
For example, plants rely on water in cell
h).................................. to keep leaves and stems upright.
Maintaining the correct balance of both water and
dissolved i)................................ is another aspect of
j)......................................
Another hormone called an)....................................... is

produced by the ao).......................................... glands
controls the reabsorption of ap).................................. Some
people do not produce enough of this hormone and so
have a chronic salt-balance problem called
aq)................................. Disease. This disease is treated by
ar)................................................... Therapy (HRT).
If a persons kidneys fail, they can have their blood
cleaned of wastes by the process of Renal
as)..................................... This is similar to kidney function
in that both involve movement of dissolved chemicals
through at)............................................... membranes. It is
different from kidney function in that it involves only
au)............
(number)
process,
which
involves
av).............................. (active/passive) diffusion. Kidney
function has aw).................... (number) steps, and involves
both ax).............................. (active/passive) transport and
osmosis.
In vertebrate animals, the control of water balance is done

by the k)..............................., which also are responsible for
excretion of l).................................. wastes. Different animals
produce different wastes: the fish produce mainly
m)...................................... while birds and insects produce
n)................................................... and mammals produce
o).................................. In fish, the kidneys are used mainly
for p).......................................... because excretion of the
ammonia takes place from their q)................................
Insects process their nitrogenous wastes into the chemical

ay)......................................... which has very low solubility.
This allows them to excrete urine which is almost entirely
az)........................... Many Australian mammals excrete very
ba)................................
(small/large)
amounts
of
bb)................................... (dilute/concentrated) urine. They
achieve this by having increased ability to reabsorb
bc)............................... from the nephron tubules, and can
bd).................................... (actively/passively) pump urea
from be)............................. into the bf)...................................
Each kidney contains about 1 million units called

r)................................ There is a coiled blood vessel, the
s).....................................
which
is
inside
the
t).............................. capsule. Here the process of
u).............................................. takes place, where water and
many dissolved substances leave the blood and flow
throught the v)..............................................
The second
process is w)......................................... in which any useful
substances (most of the water, plus x)............................... and
..................................) are absorbed back into the
y)...................................... by a combination of active
transport and z)..................................... Some water plus the
aa).............................. are not reabsorbed but pass into a
ab)..................................... duct, and down the
ac)..................................... to the bladder to await excretion.
The kidneys also have a role in ad)..........................................
by
adjusting
the
amounts
of
water
and
ae)......................................... that are reabsorbed into the
blood. This function is controlled by the
af)................................. which monitors water balance and
controls the release of the hormone ag)..............................
from the ah)................................... gland. This hormone
increases the permeability of membranes in the
ai)...............................so that aj)............................. (more/less)
water will be absorbed, and ak)............................ (more/less)
urine formed.
HSC Biology Topic 1
Copyright 2005-2007
When an organism can maintain homeostasis despite

significant variations in the environment, this is called
bg).......................................... A good example is the way that
estuarine animals can maintain bh)......................................
balance despite the fluctuations in salt concentrations as the
bi)......................... change. Mangrove plants deal with salt by
special root tissue to bj).............................. its entry, or by
bk).................................. salt onto their leaves, or by
bl).......................... salt in older leaves which are later shed.
Many Australian plants are well-adapted to conserve water
by such features as leaves which are
bm)............................................ (shape & size) and are
covered with a thick, waxy bn)...........................................
They often have fewer bo)......................................... on their
leaves, or may be covered with bp)..................................... to
trap a layer of air.
WHEN COMPLETED,
WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
24
TM
Blank Mind Map

Use this scaffold to try and learn all the parts of this topic.
Some students find that if they know whats in the topic,
they also remember the facts & concepts that need to be learnt.
MAINTAINING
A
BALANCE
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
25
TM
Practice Questions
5. The effect on enzyme activity of increasing the substrate

concentration is best described as:
A. Activity rises to an optimum level, then declines again.
B. Activity always rises as substrate concentration increases.
C. Activity declines as substrate concentration increases.
D. Activity rises, then levels off as the enzyme becomes
saturated.
These are not intended to be "HSC style" questions, but to

challenge your basic knowledge and understanding of the topic,
and remind you of what you NEED to know at the K.I.S.S.
principle level.
When you have confidently mastered this level, it is strongly
recommended you work on questions from past exam papers.
Part A
6. Which of the following is least likely to be controlled by

a negative feedback system?
A. Body temperature
B. Blood sugar levels
C. Rate of digestion
D. Water & salt levels.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following is NOT true about enzymes?

Enzymes:A. are catalysts which speed up chemical reactions.
B. are carbohydrate molecules of a special shape.
C. will only work within a narrow range of temperature & pH.
D. are substrate-specific; each only works for one substrate.
The graph shows the rate of
an enzyme-catalysed reaction.
Questions 2 and 3 refer to it.
8. Which of the following is a response by an effector

organ which would be appropriate when the body is too
warm?
A. Muscles begin shivering.
B. Blood vessels dilated.
C. Body hairs erected, forming goose bumps.
D. Metabolic rate increased by the hormone thyroxine.
C
Rate of reaction
2. Which part of this graph

(A,B,C or D) corresponds to the
enzyme having the best 3dimentional shape to fit its
substrate?
7. The control centre for homeostasis involving the

nerve system is the:
A. Hypothalamus
B. Cerebrum
C. Cerebellum
D. Pituitary gland
D
Temperature
3. At point D on this graph, you

could describe the enzyme as:
A. saturated with substrate.
B. optimum shape.
C. decomposed.
D. denatured.
9. Which statement is correct?

A. Ectotherms such as fish, generate their own body heat.
B. Endotherms such as birds, rely on their surroundings to
supply their body heat.
C. Ectotherms such as mammals, generate their own body
heat.
D. Ectotherms such as reptiles, rely on their surroundings
to supply their body heat.
4. This graph compares the performance of 2 enzymes at

different pH levels.
10. A typical response of an ectotherm to over-heating is:

A. sweating
B. sun-baking
C. seeking shade
D. shivering
Enzyme Q
Enzyme P
Enzyme Activity
11. An important adaptation in Australian mammals to help

keep cool in a desert environment is:
A. a lot of sweat glands in the skin.
B. a stocky, thick-set shape to minimize heat absorption.
C. large ears to acts as heat radiators.
D. thick fur to prevent heat getting to their body.
6
pH
12. A blood vessel with relatively thin muscle layer and

equipped with one-way valves is most likely a:
A.Vein
B. Arteriole
C. Artery
D. Capillary
10
It would be reasonable to conclude that:

A. P is a stomach enzyme, Q is an intra-cellular enzyme.
B. P is from a plant cell, Q is from a mammal cell.
C. Q performs better than P under all conditions.
D. Both would be at their optimum activity at about 40oC.
HSC Biology Topic 1

Copyright 2005-2007
13. As blood flows through a capillary in an active muscle,

you would expect changes in the substances carried in the
blood, as follows:
A. Increase in CO2, decrease in O2 and sugars.
B. Decrease in CO2 and sugars, increase in O2
C. Inrease in CO2 and sugars, decrease in O2
D. Decrease in CO2 and O2, decrease in sugars
26
TM
Part B
14.
Which line correctly identifies the way in which most of the
oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are carried in the blood?
Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
A. dissolved in plasma,
in haemoglobin
B. in haemoglobin,
dissolved as bicarbonate ion
C. in white cells,
in haemoglobin
D. in haemoglobin,
dissolved as carbonic acid
21. (4 marks)
Discuss the importance of shape to the characteristics of
an enzyme, with specific reference to
a) why each enzyme will usually only catalyse only one
reaction.
15.
The Oximeter is able to measure percentage oxygen
saturation of the blood because, depending on the amount
of oxygen present:
A. the blood pH changes
B. the ratio of red and white cells changes
C. the blood flows at a different rate
D. haemoglobin absorbs light differently
b) why enzymes only work within fairly narrow ranges of

temperature and pH.
22. (8 marks)
The following data was collected in an experiment in which
the time taken for a chemical reaction catalyzed by an
enzyme, was measured at different temperatures.
Time taken for reaction (min.)
Temp (oC)
5
4.0
10
2.0
15
1.0
20
0.2
25
2.5
30
10
a) Tabulate this data appropriately, adding a third column
for Reaction Rate and calculating values for this.
16.
Which statement about plant transport systems is correct?
A. Xylem use active transport for Transpiration.
B. Xylem cells are alive and carry out Translocation
C. Phloem cells use active transport to move nutrients
D. Phloem tubes carry out Transpiration by passive means
17.
A freshwater fish:
A. produces a large volume of dilute urine
B. produces a small volume of concentrated urine
C. excretes urea in large amounts via the kidneys
D. excretes water from its gills and must drink to replace it
b) Construct a graph of Temperature v Rate.

c) Is it likely that this is a human enzyme? Explain.
23. (5 marks)
a) What is meant by Homeostasis
b) What is the link between the necessity for homeostasis
and enzymes?
c) Using a simple example, explain the concept of
negative feedback as a way to maintain stability of any
system.
18.
In the mammalian kidney nephrons the formation of urine
occurs in 2 stages. Which line describes correctly the
location of each process?
Filtration
Reabsorption
A.
Glomerulus
Bowmans capsule
B.
Renal tubules
Ureter
C.
Glomerulus
Renal tubules
D.
Bowmans capsule
Collecting duct
24. (8 marks)
a) Discuss the role of the hypothalamus in the regulation of
body temperature in a mammal.
19.
An increase in the level of the hormone ADH would
cause the kidney nephrons to:
A. reabsorb less salt
B. reabsorb more water
C. reabsorb more salt
D. reabsorb less water
b) Give an outline of how the blood vessels function as

effectors in the regulation of body temperature.
c) List 3 other effectors (apart from blood vessels) involved
in temperature regulation.
25. (6 marks)
a) Explain the difference between an ectotherm and an
endotherm.
20.
Insects conserve water by excreting their nitrogenous
wastes in the form of:
A. a semi-solid paste of uric acid
B. a small volume of urine, highly concentrated in urea
C. a large amount of ammonia-containing urine
D. pellets of solid urea
HSC Biology Topic 1
Copyright 2005-2007
Longer Response Questions
Mark values given are suggestions only, and are to give you an idea
of how detailed an answer is appropriate.
b) Using a named Australian example, outline how an

ectotherm regulates its body temperature.
c) Using a named Australian example, outline 2 adaptations
of desert-living endotherm to keep their bodies cool.
27
TM

32. (4 marks)
Outline the processes of Filtration and Reabsorption in the
nephron of a mammalian kidney. Identify where each process
occurs and the main events occurring.
26. (3 marks)
Describe some adaptations of sclerophyll plants which help
them minimize absorption of heat from the Sun.
27. (5 marks)
Describe the structural difference(s) of veins and arteries,
and relate these differences to the functions of these blood
vessels.
33. (6 marks)
Compare and contrast the role of the hormones ADH and
Aldosterone in the maintenence of mammal homeostasis. Your
answer should include
source of each hormone
precise effect on the target organ
how this contributes to Homeostasis
28. (9 marks)
a) Contrast the way(s) that the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide
are carried in the blood.
34. (5 marks)
a) Outline the process of excretion of nitrogenous wastes in
insects, explaining how it contributes to conservation of water in
their bodies.
b) These gases are described as the respiratory gases because of

their involvement in cellular respiration. Summarize this process
with a chemical equation.
c) How is the release of oxygen from the bloodstream facilitated
by the high concentration of carbon dioxide in the body tissues?
b) Using a named example of an Australian mammal, explain how

the excretion of nitrogenous wastes is achieved with minimum
water loss.
29. (4 marks)
Identify 2 of the blood products extracted from donate blood,
and describe the uses of these products.
35. (8 marks)
a) What is Enantiostasis? Give an example of an environment
where this process is vital and outline some of the strategies for
achieving enantiostasis in the named environment.
30. (6 marks)
Construct a table to contrast the processes of Transpiration and
Translocation in plants. Your answer should cover:
the name and nature of the vessels involved
the substance(s) transported
the basic nature of the processes
b) Identify strategies for conservating water in 2 named Australian

plants.
c) Describe 2 strategies used by mangrove trees to maintain water
balance in a saline environment.
31. (4 marks)
Discuss briefly the importance of water in living organisms,
identifying 4 functions of water.
Need to contact us?
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FAX (02) 6583 9467
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TM
ABN 54 406 994 557
HSC Biology Topic 1

Copyright 2005-2007
PO Box 2575
PORT MACQUARIE NSW 2444
28
TM
Answer Section
Worksheet 1 (continued)
Worksheet 1
Part C
a) stable / at the same level
c) pH
e) blood sugar
g) receptor
i) effectors
k) hypothalamus
Part A
a) metabolism
c) used up / consumed
e) protein
g) 3-dimensional shape
i) specific
l) shape
o) 7
q) above 7
s) stomach
b) speeds up
d)enzymes
f) amino acids
h) substrate(s)
j) & k) temperature & pH
m) & n) acidity & alkalinity
p) below
r) 7 / neutral
t) acidic
Worksheet 2
a) hypothalamus
b) effector
c) dilation
d) more
e) sweat
f) perspiration
g) evaporates
h) hormones
i) thyroid
j) constricted
k) the skin
l) raised / erected
m) insulate
n) shiver
o) ectotherms
p) reptiles
q) Sun
r) Blue-tongue lizard
s) sunbakes
t) seeks shade
u) copperhead snake / corroboree frog
v) becoming dormant
w) endotherms
x) & y) mammals & birds
z) feathers
aa) blubber (fat)
ab) ears
ac) lose water
ad) fore arms
ae) insulation
af) shunted back into the body
ag) deciduous
ah) shed their leaves
ai) stomates
aj) needle / spine
ak) light
al) sclerophyll
am) narrow
an) droop downwards
Activity
Part B
1. graph
2.a) reaction rate (=activity)
increases as temp. goes up
because molecules are more likely
to collide and react with each
other.
Temp
b) Above the optimum the shape of the enzyme protein begins

to change and be distorted. The substrate(s) no longer fit the
enzyme perfectly, and activity declines rapidly.
Activity
3. graph
4. At the optimum pH the shape
of the enzyme is a perfect lock
& key shape to fit the substrate,
so activity is at a maximum.
Worksheet 3
pH
Part A
a) plasma
c) haemoglobin
e) bicarbonate
g) carbonic
i) sugars
k) urea
m) arteries
o) heart
q) valves
s) one cell
u) digested nutrients
w) processing & storage
y) kidneys
aa) oxygen
ac) blood
ae) oxygen
5. At pHs either side of optimum

the shape of the enzyme changes so that the fit with the
substrate is no longer perfect, so activity declines.
6. graph
Activity
7. a) As the concentration of
substrate molecules increases, it
becomes more likely that they
will collide with an enzyme and
Substrate concentration
undergo the reaction. So
reaction rate increases.
b) However, once all the available enzyme molecules are being
used, (they are saturated with substrate) increasing the
concentration cannot increase reaction rate any further, so the
graph levels off.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
b) temperature
d) water
f) negative
h) control centre
j) nervous
l) brain
29
b) red
d) oxygen
f) water
h) plasma
j) amino acids
l) protein
n) pressure
p) Veins
r) flowing backwards
t) tissues
v) liver
x) urea
z) water & salts
ab) carbon dioxide
ad) cells
af) carbon dioxide
TM
Worksheet 4 (continued)
ac) ureter
ad) homeostasis
ae) salt
af) hypothalamus
ag) ADH
ah) pituitary
ai) renal tubules
aj) more
ak) less
al) retention
am) more
an) aldosterone
ao) adrenal
ap) salt
aq) Addisons
ar) Hormone Replacement
as) Dialysis
at) semi-permeable
au) one
av) passive
aw) two
ax) active
ay) uric acid
az) solid / dry
ba) small
bb) concentrated
bc) water
bd) actively
be) blood
bf) tubules / urine
bg) enantiostasis
bh) water & salt
bi) tides
bj) limit
bk) secreting / excreting
bl) storing / accumulating
bm) small & narrow
bn) cuticle
bo) stomates
bp) hairs
Worksheet 3
Part B
1. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3
Carbonic acid is a weak acid which partly ionizes
H2CO3
H+ + HCO3Carbon dioxide is mostly carried as bicarbonate ion.
2. The equations show that carbon dioxide reacts with
water forming an acid. If allowed to accumulate, this would
lower the pH, which could seriously affect the activity of
enzymes and disrupt metabolism.
3. As shown in the equations above, the presence of carbon
dioxide lowers the pH. In tissue capillaries, the slightly
lowered pH alters the shape of the haemoglobin molecules
slightly. This causes them to release the oxygen molecules
they are carrying, which then diffuse into the cells.
Part C
a) red
b) iron
c) haemoglobin
d) 4
e) oxyhaemoglobin
f) carbon dioxide
g) release
h) diffuse
i) percent oxygen saturation
j) 95%
k) Oximeter
l) red light & infra-red light
m) absorbed
n) Red
o) immunity
p) Platelet
q) Plasma
r) blood volume
s) stored
t) immune-responses
u) diseases
v) Haemoglobin
w) Oxygen
x) Perfluorocarbons
Part D
a) xylem
c) leaves
e) passive
g) evaporates
i) phloem
k) nutrients / sugars
m) active
Practice Questions
Part A
1. B
2. B
3. D
4. A
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
b) roots
d) dead
f) transpiration
h) cohesive
j) translocation
l) alive
n) use energy
17. A
18. C
19. B
20. A
21.
a) Enzymes are protein molecules and each has a a particular 3dimensional shape which fits its substrate like a key fits a lock.
Usually each enzyme will only fit one particular substrate, so it
will only catalyse one reaction.
b) Any change in temperature or pH can change the shape of an
enzyme, by causing the protein chain to alter the way it is folded
and twisted. As its shape changes, its ability to fit the substrate
will change too. Thus each enzyme only works fully within
relatively narrow ranges of temperature and pH.
b) dissolved
d) metabolic / chemical
f) vaporization
h) vacuoles
j) homeostasis
l) nitrogenous
n) uric acid
p) water balance
r) nephrons
t) Bowmans
v) renal tubules
x) sugars / salts / amino acids
z) osmosis
ab) collecting
13. A
14. B
15. D
16. C
Part B Longer Response

In some cases there may be more than one
correct answer possible. The following model
answers are correct, but not necessarily perfect.
Worksheet 4
a) solvent
c) chemical
e) capacity
g) supports
i) salts
k) kidneys
m) ammonia
o) urea
q) gills
s) glomerulus
u) filtration
w) reabsorption
y) bloodstream
aa) urea
Multiple Choice
5. D
9. D
6. C
10. C
7. A
11. C
8. B
12. A
22.
a) Table should
be ruled
have clear headings
The values in the 3rd column should be:
Reaction Rate (min-1)
0.25
0.5
1.0
5.0
0.4
0.1
(These values are calulated as 1/time taken)
30
22. (continued)
b)

25.
a) Endotherms are animals which generate their own body heat.
Ectotherms rely on their environment to supply their body heat;
they do not generate internal body heat.
b) Ectotherms such are the Blue-Tongue Lizard often use
instinctive behaviours to regulate temperature. When too cold, it
will sunbake, flattening its body to increase the surface area
exposed to the Sun. When too hot, it will seek shade and avoid the
heat of the Sun.
c) Desert-living endotherms, such as the Bilby, cannot afford the
water loss involved with sweating to cool off. Instead, they have
large ears to radiate heat away. They seek shade in the heat of the
day and are active only in the evenings and early morning. Instead
of sweating, they pant so that evaporation from the mouth and
throat has a cooling effect.
Reaction Rate v Temp. Graph
Reaction Rate (1/min)
c) No.
The graph shows
that at human
body temp. (37C)
the enzymes
activity is almost
zero. This
enzyme would
NOT function in
a human body.
TM
10
15
20
Temperature
25
30
(oC)
23.
a) Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a stable,
internal environment, for such things as temperature, pH,
water balance, etc.
b) Homeostasis is vital so that the optimum conditions (of
temp., pH etc) for enzymes to function efficiently are
maintained. Efficient enzyme activity is essential so that the
reactions of metabolism occur at a rate appropriate for life
functions.
c) example: thermostat control of an oven
A temperature sensor constantly monitors the temp.
If oven is too cool, the control mechanism sends an
electrical signal to turn the heating element on. (effector)
If the oven is too hot, a signal is sent to turn the heating
element off, so the oven will cool down.
By always taking action in the opposite direction (negative
feedback) a relatively stable temperature is maintained.
26.
Sclerophyll plants have
small, narrow leaves to reduce surface area exposed to Sun
shiny leaf cuticle to reflect some radiant heat
leaves which droop downwards. This allows for absorption of
light for photosynthesis in the cool of the morning, but avoids
heat absorption in the heat of midday.
24.
a) The hypothalamus is both the receptor and control
centre for regulation of body temperature.
Blood flowing through the hypothalamus is constantly
monitored by special, heat-sensitive cells lining the blood
vessels. If body temperature is even slightly high or low, the
hypothalamus sends nerve messages to various effector
organs to either warm or cool the body back to its correct
temperature.
b) The peripheral blood vessels are effector organs for
temperature regulation. Veins and arteries can be
constricted (narrowed) to reduce the blood flow to the skin.
This reduces the amount of heat lost through the skin,
thereby helping to warm the body. The opposite process of
dilating (widening) the blood vessels allows more blood
flow to the skin. This allows more heat to be lost from the
skin, thereby cooling the body.
c) Three other effector organs:
Sweat glands (perspiration), skeletal muscles (shivering),
thyroid gland (hormone thyroxine), body hair muscles
(goose bumps).
28.
a) Oxygen is carried attached to the haemoglobin molecules in the
red blood cells.
Most carbon dioxide is carried in solution in the blood plasma as
bicarbonate ion, HCO3-.
b) C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
c) The high concentration of dissolved CO2 causes the pH to be
slightly lower (because CO2 reacts with water forming carbonic
acid). This change in pH causes a change in the shape of the
haemoglobin molecule, which causes it to release oxygen, which
can then diffuse into the surrounding body cells.
HSC Biology Topic 1

copyright 2005-2007
27.
Arteries have thick, muscular walls. This allows them to withstand
the high pressure blood they carry as the heart pumps. Being
elastic, the walls can expand outwards under pressure, then
contract and help squeeze the blood on its way.
Veins have thinner walls since the blood they carry back to the
heart is at low pressure. Veins are equipped with valves to prevent
back-flow. The thin walls of a vein allow them to be compressed
by neighbouring muscles, which helps squeeze the blood forward.
29.
Red Cell Concentrate contains about 2x as many red cells as
normal blood. It is used to treat people with severe anaemia, or
following severe blood loss.
Platelet Concentrate is given to patients who need extra bloodclotting capability, such as leukemia sufferers.
31
TM
34.
a) The insect equivalent of kidneys are the malphigian
tubes which run all though the body and collect and
concentrate nitrogenous wastes in the form of uric acid.
Since this is basically insoluble, the urine can be
concentrated to a semi-solid paste by reabsorbing virtually
all the water, before passing the wastes into the rectum for
excretion with the digestive wastes. This means there is
virually no loss of water during excretion.
30.
Vessels
involved
Substances
transported
Processes
involved
Transpiration
Xylem
Translocation
Phloem
Water & dissolved Nutrients, especially

minerals
sugars
Passive transport
Active transport
31.
Water is the solvent of life
All the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in
water solution, and the transport of materials in cytoplasm,
blood or phloem takes place mainly in water solution.
Water is involved in life chemistry
Water is a reactant or product of many metabolic reactions.
The reactions of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are
just two of the many examples.
Water is vital in temperature regulation
Water has a very high specific heat capacity. This helps
stabilize the temperature of all living things.Evaporation of
sweat is an important cooling mechanism in mammals.
Water supports and cushions cells and organs
Animals such as worms rely on the hydraulic pressure of
water in their tissues to support their body and maintain its
shape. In vertebrate animals the water solutions in the
tissues helps to cushion organs against bumps and impacts.
(eg cerebrospinal fluid around the brain)
b) The Spinifex Hopping Mouse is a desert-dweller which

produces very small amounts of very concentrated urine.
This is achieved because:
the nephron tubules are very long, allowing for more
reabsorption of water, and less volume of urine.
the cells lining the tubules are able to actively transport
urea from the blood into the urine. This allows the urine to
be even more highly concentrated than in other mammals.
35.
a) Enantiostasis is a special case of homeostasis, in which
an organism maintains a stable internal environment
despite significant changes in the environment around it.
An example of a habitat where this is important is a tidal
estuary, where the tides cause the salinity of the
environment to fluctuate.
To maintain their osmotic balance while their evironment
changes from virtual fresh water, to salty and back again,
requires estuarine organisms to cope by strategies such as:
burrowing into the mud where the salinity is more
constant. (eg crabs & yabbies)
adjusting the functioning of their kidneys from water
excreters to water conservers as the tides change. (eg fish)
32.
Filtration occurs in the glomerulus. Some of the water of
the blood plasma and its dissolved sugars, minerals, urea etc
seep out of the blood vessel, like water through a filter
paper. Blood cells and proteins cannot leak out.
This filtrate flows along the renal tubules where
reabsorption occurs. Useful nutients (sugars, amino acids)
are actively transported back into the bloodstream. Most of
the water in the filtrate flows back to the blood by osmosis.
A portion of the water with dissolved urea flows on to be
excreted as urine.
b) Spinifex Grass has fine hairs all over its leaves. This traps
a layer of still air near the leaf, reducing the evaporative
effect of the wind.
Gum trees, such as the River Red Gum, has leaves with very
few stomates, and a thick, waxy cuticle to minimize water
losses.
c) Mangroves:
secrete salty brine onto the leaf surface. This washes away
when it rains.
accumulate salt in older leaves which are then shed,
carrying away a load of excess salt.
33.
ADH is secreted by the pituitary gland (under control of
the hypothalamus) It alters the permeability of the renal
tubules to water. Increased ADH allows greater water
reabsorption, and less urine production.
Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal glands. It stimulates
the cells lining the renal tubules to actively transport more
sodium ions back into the blood from the renal fitrate. This
retains more salt in the body to adjust osmotic balance.
NOTICE ANY ERRORS?

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but were only human
If you notice any errors, please let us know
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KISS Maintaining A Balance

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KISS Maintaining A Balance

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keep it simple science

Baulkham Hills High School SL#802445

HSC Biology Topic 1

What is this topic about?

but first, an introduction...

The enzymes that control all the chemical reactions

All living things are composed of microscopic units

The process of keeping everything the same is called

jelly-like liquid fills

Each cell is alive in its own right, and capable of all

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As well as the homeostatic processes in mammals

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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Coping with salt

HSC Biology Topic 1

How the gases

Kidney & Nephron

Dialysis & HRT

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1. THE FUNCTION OF ENZYMES & HOMEOSTASIS

The shape of the enzyme fits the substrate molecule(s) as

In order to move, protein fibres inside muscle cells must

All these chemical reactions require energy. Energy is

This is why enzymes are substrate-specific... only one

Changes in temperature and pH (acidity) can cause the

Every one of these reactions requires a catalyst... a

Shape changes slightly

Twists & folds

HSC Biology Topic 1

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Protein, with precise 3-D

All of these reactions, and more, add up to metabolism:

Amino acid molecules

ENZYME can react with more substrate

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The acidity or alkalinity of any solution or environment is

An enzyme from a plant may show a much broader graph,

An enzyme from a thermophilic bacteria from a hot

The inside environment of a cell, and most parts of an

Enzyme Activity Graphs

You may have measured the rate of a chemical reaction

A common way to measure the rate of a reaction is to

The graph of reaction rate (or enzyme activity) against

The Effect of Temperature

1/time taken for reaction (rate)

Explanation: As temperature rises the rate increases because

However, beyond a certain peak temperature, the enzymes

HSC Biology Topic 1

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The Effect of Substrate Concentration

Generally in any chemical reaction occurring in solution the

When an enzyme is involved, the situation is a little more

Generally, all intra-cellular enzymes (i.e. those from within

The digestive enzyme pepsin from the stomach shows an

Initially the rate of the reaction increases as the substrate

The shape of the pH graph is usually symmetrical on either