Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Guide
Version 2.0
INTRODUCTION
The drilling rig is a complex system consisting of people and equipment who must work
safely under extreme conditions. The rigs can range from a truck mounted work-over rig to a
large ocean going drill ship. Rigs are primarily divided into two major categories; land and
marine. It is important to be cognizant of each rig type so that you as a logging engineer will
be able to competently participate in the safe and hopefully productive completion of the
well. The drilling rig and personnel perform very special functions at different times.
In the oil field, the customary unit of measure of rig production is the foot. In many parts
of the world the meter is used in place of the foot; a meter equals about 3.281 feet. The foot
is a convenient unit by which to measure the product of a drilling operation and pay the
contractor who drilled or made the hole. It is a fact of life in the drilling industry, however,
that the cost per foot of making hole varies directly in relation to the depth to which the foot
of hole is drilled. The deeper the hole, the more costly each additional foot drilled.
Most rigs are owned by an individual or a firm known as a drilling contractor. Companies
engaged in finding, producing, or refining petroleum, own the majority of leases, or wells.
These companies are often called operators, or operating companies. Representing the
operator is the company man or drilling supervisor. The operator hires or contracts, the
drilling contractor to drill the well. In most cases, drilling contracts are drawn on a day work
basis, which means that payment is made for each day the rig is used, plus certain extras.
Both the operator and the contractor are interested in such details as the time required for
completing the job; the safety of the equipment, property, and personnel throughout the
operation; and the ability of both the men and the equipment to do acceptable work.
The mud logging engineer needs to become familiar with the basic equipments,
techniques and terms used in drilling operations. Although he has no direct responsibility for
the drilling or the rig, the mud logging engineer has to be conversant with the equipment and
procedures so that he can advise on certain aspects and so that he can understand the
effects of drilling methods affecting the parameters he uses for his interpretation. It is also
important for the mud logging engineer to develop good working relationship with the drilling
personnel to keep a two-way flow of information and gain the greatest benefits for the
operation.
This guide is rather meant as a briefing instruction to those mud logging engineers who
are newly involved in rig drilling operations, facing new concepts, routines and formats. It is
also tried to introduce and illustrate modern or future development that may be new to some
old hands with no recent exposure to the actual work. However, owing to the fast
development of techniques and methods, even this booklet will be out dated partly in very
short time.
Page 2 of 196
RIG TYPES
Drilling rigs are classified according to field operations into two major types (land rigs
and off shore rigs) which by turn reclassified into other types depending on each rig
capability and working environment. Accordingly, rig type can be one of the followings:
Land rigs:
Land rigs are generally either wheel mounted portables or a component system that
must be moved by trucks and cranes. The drilling floor generally sits on top of a steel
substructure that could be 30 feet high or more. A drilling mast (derrick) is attached to and
raised above the floor. In general, the deeper wells need a larger, taller rig. The mast must
be capable of supporting the vertical load and weight of the stacked drill pipe. It must also
withstand wind loads of 100 to 130 miles per hour. Shallow wells and wells being completed
or repaired will probably use a portable rig. This rig can be driven to the well site, raised up
hydraulically and guy wired in place. When the well is completed, the mast is hydraulically
lowered and the rig is driven off.
Page 3 of 196
Page 4 of 196
Page 5 of 196
Page 6 of 196
Drill ship
Page 7 of 196
Offshore platform
Page 8 of 196
Page 9 of 196
Page 10 of 196
However, all rigs must have five basic systems or operations performed. These include:
1. Hoisting system: used to raise and lower drill pipe, casing, and tubing.
2. Circulating system: used to remove cutting and maintain pressure in the well bore.
3. Rotating system: used to turn the drill stem to make hole.
4. Power production system: used to produce mechanical and electrical power.
5. Blowout prevention system: used to seal off the well bore to control formation fluids.
Page 11 of 196
Page 12 of 196
Page 13 of 196
Page 14 of 196
Page 15 of 196
5. Slips:
These devices are used to hold the weight of the drill
string when it is not supported by the hook (during
connections or tripping time). Slips are made of hinged
sections with a single opening. They are placed around
the pipe, their tapered outer sections fitting against either
the inside surface (bowl) or the master bushing or against
the inserts. As the pipe is lowered, the slips tapered
section causes them to close tightly around the pipe.
The downward motion of the drill pipe must be
stopped with the draw works brakes, not with the slips.
The drawing shows the effects of stopping the motion of
the pipe with slips. This can occur when the floor hands
are not careful to set the slips at the proper time when the
driller has stopped the pipe.
Do not let the slips "ride" on the pipe while the pipe is
being pulled out of the hole. This practice accelerates the
wear on the gripping elements of the slip. It also risks
having the slip ejected from the master bushing bowl
when a tool joint comes through and causing possible
injury to personnel.
Be careful not to catch the tool joint box in the slips
when the driller slacks off. This often happens when
coming out of the hole and the driller does not pick up
high enough for the slips to fall around the pipe properly.
This can ruin the slips, damage the tool joint box and
damage the body of the pipe.
Page 16 of 196
Swivel
Drill string
Page 17 of 196
Rotary table
Page 18 of 196
Page 19 of 196
Drill collars
Page 20 of 196
Reamers:
Reamers usually have the same diameter as the bit and run a
little distance above it. The reamer function is to cut the hole out to
full size behind the bit. There are many types of reamers depend on
the formation that they will pass through. For example, roller reamers
are classified into three roller cutter types:
Soft formation cutters deliver maximum reaming action in soft
formations like soft limestone and shale. Service life of cutter is
enhanced with hard end and carburized teeth.
Medium to hard formation cutters are most suitable for cherty
formations to hard formations such as dolomite, hard limestone and
chert.
Very hard formation cutters deliver reliable reaming
performance in hard, abrasive and semi-abrasive formations such as
granite and sand.
Bumper Sub:
Bumper subs are currently used in offshore operations to permit a constant weight to be
carried on the bit while drilling, regardless of the vertical motion imparted to the drill pipe by
drilling vessel heave. The vertical motion of the lower end of the drill pipe (the bumper sub
end) may be appreciably greater than the vessel heave.
Therefore, the necessary stroke of bumper subs for successful operation is greater than
thought in the past. In addition, there is an appreciable tendency of the drill pipe to buckle
above the unbalanced type of bumper sub. Thus, more drill collars than previously used
should be carried above unbalanced bumper subs to keep drill pipe straight.
Page 21 of 196
Bent sub:
This is a non-straight sub designated with different bending angles, it is
fitted in the deviating bottom hole assembly above the mud motor to drill
deviated holes. The angle of bending is selected according to the inclination
building rate and the length of the interval to be drilled with this sub
Lift sub:
A Lift Sub enables the safe, efficient handling of straight OD tubulars such
as drill collars, shock tools, jars, directional equipment and other tools by
using the drill pipe elevators. Lifting subs can be either tapered or square
shoulder types and are made from AISI 4145/4140. They are available in all
diameters and lengths.
Lift plugs:
Lift plugs are of heat treated steel alloy. Crown sections
are bored out to reduce weight. They are available in all
sizes with or without lifting bail.
Page 22 of 196
Rock bits:
Roller cone or rock bits have cone-shaped steel devices called cones that are free to
turn as the bit rotates. Bit manufacturers either cut teeth out of the cones or insert very hard
tungsten carbide buttons into the cones. The longer the teeth of the bit, the softer the
formation need to be and vice versa. The teeth can be made of the same material as the
cones (milled teeth) or made of hard (e.g. tungsten carbide) inserts, hence insert bits.
The teeth are responsible for actually cutting or gouging out the formation as the bit is
rotated. All bits have passages drilled through them to permit drilling fluid to exit. Most bits
have nozzles that direct a high-velocity stream or jet of drilling fluid to the sides and bottom
of each cone so that rock cuttings are swept out of the way as the bit drills.
PDC bits:
Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC) bits do not have cones, but they do have
tungsten carbide teeth. Several hundred diamonds are embedded onto the edges of the
teeth. Since diamonds are so hard, diamond bits are especially suited for drilling hard
formations but can also be used very effectively on soft formations. Such bits can stay on
bottom for a long time and drill long distances.
However, on the negative side, PDC bits are extremely sensitive to pyrite in the
formation and metal junk as debris that may come from a cast iron casing shoe. In addition,
their penetration rate in shale is relatively poor and their cost much higher than the cost of
ordinary tricone bits.
Page 23 of 196
Page 24 of 196
Triplex pumps:
Triplex pumps are found now almost universally on new rigs because of their better
performance. The triplex pump has three pump cylinders operating on one crank shaft with
120 degree phase difference. Every cylinder pumps with the forward moving action of the
piston and recharges with the retracting action of the piston.
The cylinder liner and the piston of the mud pump can be changed to provide different
balances between volume and pressure. It is not uncommon to operate the pumps with 7
liner during the upper portion of a hole, where large mud volumes are required and then
change to 6 liner for the deeper portion of the hole, where volume is less important than
pressure.
Page 25 of 196
Duplex pumps:
Duplex pump has two cylinders operating on one crank shaft with 180 degrees. Each
cylinder has two suction and two discharge valves. As the piston moves through the cylinder
it is discharging mud in front at the same time as mud is filling the cylinder behind.
Similar to triplex pump the cylinder liner and the piston of the mud pump can be changed
to provide different balances between volume and pressure. It is not uncommon to operate
the pumps with 7 liner during the upper portion of a hole, where large mud volumes are
required and then change to 6 liner for the deeper portion of the hole, where volume is less
important than pressure.
Page 26 of 196
Page 27 of 196
Page 28 of 196
Page 29 of 196
BOP stacks:
As with all drilling rigs, the offshore
rigs are equipped with BOP stacks. The
mobile rigs will have the stack mounted
on the sea floor below the marine riser.
Drilling platforms and jackup rigs will have
the BOP stack located in the substructure
below the rig floor.
The subsea blowout preventers must
not only control high pressure formation
fluids. They must also be able to close the
top of the borehole at the sea floor;
disconnect, hang off or cut the drill pipe;
and disconnect and reconnect the marine
riser system to the wellhead.
Modern rigs use single stacks consisting of two annular and four ram-type BOPs in one
stack. The total stack may have an 18 -inch bore and 10000-psi or higher working
pressure. One ram will contain shear/blind ram blocks for cutting the drill string in case of
emergency.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
Page 30 of 196
Page 31 of 196
RIG PERSONNEL
Whatever job you perform for PetroServices, you will need to know how the drilling
process is managed, supervised and completed. Who is in charge? Who can authorize the
stopping of drilling? Who can authorize you to visit the rig floor?
The chain of command is usually filled with personnel of varying degrees of experience.
Those at the top have generally had experience in all phases of rig operations. Those with
the least experience are usually found performing specific duties requiring limited training.
The drilling bid proposal will contain many important specifications. These will usually
include the starting date, depth to be drilled (TD), formations to be penetrated, hole sizes,
casing sizes, drilling mud program, logging program, casing program, cementing, testing
and well completion. A company representative represents the operating company on the rig
site.
Page 32 of 196
Page 33 of 196
Page 34 of 196
Page 35 of 196
If the make up water requires treatment, always treat it prior to addition of the bentonite
clay.
Use a jet hopper mixer to disperse the bentonite clay.
Bentonite clay (Super Gel-X) should be mixed slowly through the jet hopper at a rate of
one 50 lb. bag every 10 to 20 minutes.
Volume of mud pit should be three times the volume of the proposed hole. Figuring
volume of pit length (ft.) x width (ft.) x depth (ft.) x 7.5 = volume (gal).
The mud pit should be of such design that the drilling mud, during flow, changes
direction and slows, allowing for cuttings to drop out.
The addition of viscosifying polymers should be made after the bentonite clay mud is
thoroughly mixed in fresh water.
Viscosity and density tests should be run on the drilling mud following mixing. Periodic
tests should be made during drilling and changes noted. Sand content tests should be
run on the mud once drilling starts.
Page 36 of 196
Procedure:
1. Fill the cup with the mud to be weighed.
2. Place the lid on the cup and seat it firmly but slowly with a twisting motion. Be sure some
mud runs out of the hole in the cap.
3. With the hole in the cap covered with a finger, wash or wipe all mud from the outside of
the cup and arm.
4. Set the knife on the fulcrum and move the sliding weight along the graduated arm until the
cup and arm are balanced.
5. Read the density of the mud at the left-hand edge of the sliding weight.
6. Report the result to the nearest scale division in lb/gal, lb/cu ft, S.G., or psi/1000 ft of
depth.
7. Wash the mud from the cup immediately after each use. It is essential that all parts of the
mud balance be kept clean if accurate results are to be obtained.
8. Refer to Table 1 for conversion data if not available on balance.
Calibration:
The mud balance should be calibrated frequently with fresh water. Fresh water at 70 F
will give a reading of 8.33 lb/gal or 62.3 lbs/cu ft. To adjust the mud balance to the proper
reading, add or remove lead shot from end of balance arm or adjust set screw at the end of
the balance arm.
Page 37 of 196
Funnel viscosity:
The Marsh Funnel Viscosity is the ratio of the speed of the mud as it passes through the
outlet tube (the Shear Rate) to the amount of force - the weight of the mud itself - that is
causing the mud to flow (the Shear Stress). Marsh Funnel Viscosity is reported as the
number of seconds required for one quart of mud to flow out of a full Marsh Funnel.
Procedures:
1. Collect a fresh mud sample.
2. Hold the funnel erect with a finger over the outlet tube, and pour the mud into the funnel
through the screen until the mud level reaches the bottom of the screen (The screen will
filter out the larger particles that could clog the outlet tube).
3. Quickly remove the finger from the outlet tube, and at the same time, begin timing the
mud outflow.
4. Allow one quart (946 cc) of mud to drain from the Marsh Funnel into a graduated
container.
5. Record the number of seconds it takes for the quart of mud to flow out of the funnel, and
report this value as the Marsh Funnel Viscosity. Also, record the temperature of the mud
sample in degrees F or C.
Care of the funnel:
Follow these suggestions to care for
the Marsh Funnel:
1. Clean and dry the funnel thoroughly
after each use.
2. Take special care not to bend or flatten
the brass outlet tube at the bottom of
the funnel. The Marsh Funnel Viscosity
readings are computed using the exact
diameter of this outlet and if the outlet
is distorted the readings will be
inaccurate.
Calibration check:
Periodically check the calibration of the Marsh Funnel by measuring the viscosity of
fresh water. The funnel is dimensioned so that the outflow of one quart (946 cc) of fresh
water at a temperature of 705F (213C) is 260.5 seconds.
If the Marsh Funnel checks out of calibration, it should be cleaned again, using a pipe
cleaner, to make sure that there is nothing obstructing the outlet. If the Marsh Funnel
continues to give an incorrect reading for fresh water after cleaning then the outlet tube
probably has been bent out of shape and the funnel should be replaced.
Page 38 of 196
Rotational viscometers
Yield point:
The yield point is physically the measurement of the electrochemical forces within the
mud under flowing conditions. These electrochemical forces are due to the charges on the
surface of reactive particles, the charges on the sub-micron size particles, and the presence
of the electrolytes in water phase.
The yield value is the dominant factor that affects the circulating friction losses, the
equivalent circulating density, the transition point into turbulent flow, and the carrying
capacity of a drilling fluid.
Yield point is defined as the 300-RPM shear stress reading minus the plastic viscosity.
Yield point is a measure of the attractive forces between active clay particles in the mud
under flowing conditions. When the mud is at rest, the solid particles tend to arrange
themselves in such a manner that these attractive and repulsive forces are best satisfies. It
is also a measure of the hole cleaning capabilities of a mud.
Page 39 of 196
4. Filtration:
Filtration test is a relative measure of liquid filtered into a permeable formation and of the
cake left on the formation. The condition of the mud and type of solids in the mud influence
filtration. There are two standard filtration tests. One is at ambient temperature and 100 psi
and the other at 300F and 500 psi. The high temperature high pressure test should
preferably be run under actual bottom hole temperatures and differential pressures existing
in the well bore.
Filtration is dependent upon the amount and physical state of the colloidal material in the
mud. It has been shown repeatedly in the field that when the mud of sufficient colloidal
content is used, drilling difficulties are minimized. In contrast, a mud low in colloids and high
inert solids, deposit a thick filter cake on the walls of the hole. A thick filter cake restricts the
passage of tools and allows an excessive amount of filtrate to pass into the formation, thus
providing a potential cause of caving. Lack of proper walling properties may result in further
trouble such as difficulty in running casing, creating a swabbing effect, which may cause the
formation to cave or swab reservoir contents into the hole, and difficulty in securing a water
shutoff because of channelling of cement.
5. Fluid loss:
The fluid loss properties of a drilling fluid have a direct bearing on the penetration rate,
hole problems in areas of sloughing shales, formation damage in sensitive reservoirs, and
differential sticking problems in permeable zones. Since the drilling fluid in a borehole can
either be in a dynamic state (while drilling) or in a static state (while tripping), the fluid loss
into formation occurs under both dynamic and static conditions.
Static fluid loss is by definition the steady state fluid loss into a permeable formation
through a filter medium (mud cake). This static fluid loss rate is described and governed by
Darcys law of fluid flow through porous medium, modified to include the effects of filtration
through the mud cake.
The dynamic fluid loss will differ according to the flow regime (laminar or turbulent) in
existence. Under laminar flow conditions across a permeable zone, the dynamic fluid loss
will behave essentially similar to the static fluid loss but will be slightly higher since the
buildup of the mud cake will be somewhat retarded. If the flow regime is in turbulent flow, the
mud cake will be simultaneously eroded as it is being deposited at a rate, which cannot be
predicted precisely. Whether the flow regime is laminar or turbulent, predicting the dynamic
fluid loss is further complicated by the action of the drill string eroding and plastering the
mud cake in the wellbore.
Page 40 of 196
Page 41 of 196
Digital pH meter
pH measuring principle
8. Alkalinity:
A dictionary description of alkalinity is water soluble chemicals that can neutralize acids.
There are three tests for alkalinity, which are Pm, Pf, and Mf. Pf and Mf is the alkalinity of
the filtrate. Pf is the amount in milliliters of N50 sulfuric acid required to reduce the pH of one
ml of filtrate to 8.3 Mf is equal to the Pf and ml of N50 sulfuric acid required to reduce the pH
from 8.3 to 4.3. With the use of these tests, one can determine the type contaminate present
in the mud.
Page 42 of 196
Na2CO3
(Soda Ash)
Na2SO4
(Soluble)
CaCO3
(Precipitated)
If the calcium ions are due to cement contamination, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
should be instead of soda ash to treat out cement contamination, especially in non
dispersed systems where acids cannot be utilized. The chemical reaction is shown below:
Ca(OH)2
(Cement)
NaHCO3
(Bicarbonate)
H2O
(Water)
CaCO3
(Precipitated)
The magnesium ions are precipitated by the use of caustic soda in the same
concentration as soda ash in treating calcium. The chemical reaction is shown below:
MgSO4
(Epsom Salt)
2 NaOH
(Costic Soda)
Na2SO4
(Soluble)
Mg(OH)2
(Precipitated)
Page 43 of 196
DRILLING PROCESS
Drilling for oil and gas seems, on the surface, to be a relatively simple process of drilling
a subsurface hole (wellbore) until it penetrates an oil or gas-bearing formation. However, in
reality, drilling for oil or gas is a highly sophisticated process requiring an effective
organization; a vast knowledge base, large amounts of capital, expensive equipment and
machines, and dedicated, highly trained and committed personnel. In order to begin to
understand the process, it is important to become familiar with a number of generalizations
that can be made about drilling an oil or gas well.
The drilling process includes different operation that takes place on the rig site such as
drilling, tripping, casing run, cementing, wireline logging and perforating in addition to some
drilling problems that might arises such as stuck pipe and loss of circulation.
1. Drilling:
The well is created by drilling a hole 5 to 36 inches (127.0 mm to 914.4 mm) diameter
into the earth with a drilling rig which rotates a drill string with a bit attached. After the hole is
drilled, sections of steel pipe (casing), slightly smaller in diameter than the borehole, are
placed in the hole. Cement may be placed between the outside of the casing and the
borehole. The casing provides structural integrity to the newly drilled wellbore in addition to
isolating potentially dangerous high pressure zones from each other and from the surface.
Vertical drilling:
First about 20 to 100 feet has to be drilled and lined with conductor pipe. The diameter of
the conductor pipe varies according to hole size. Conductor or surface pipe can be
hammered driven or a borehole made to lower the conductor into and cement the pipe in
place. A casing head is fixed to the top of the conductor at the surface.
A bit with smaller size than the internal diameter of the conductor pipe is to be chosen.
The selected bit is then made up on the end of the first drill collar and both bit and drill
collars are lowered into the conductor hole. Enough collars and drill pipe are made up and
lowered in until the bit is almost to bottom.
The kelly is then picked up out of the rat hole where it has
been stored and is made up on the topmost joint of drill pipe
sticking up out of the rotary table. This joint of pipe is suspended
in the rotary table by the slips. With the kelly made up, the pump
started to begin circulating drilling mud and the kelly bushing in
the rotary table and rotation begins.
Next, the driller gradually releases the draw works brake and
the rotating bit touches bottom and begins making hole. Using
an instrument called the weight indicator, the driller monitors the
amount on weight put on the bit, since the kelly is about 40 feet
long, after 40 feet of hole is made the driller stops the rotary,
stops the pumps and raises the kelly exposing the top of the
previously connected joint.
The drilling crew prepares to make the first connection. They set the slips around the
joint of pipe and latch a big set of wrenches - called tongs - around the base of the kelly.
Tongs pull line - a length of a strong wire rope - runs from the end of the tongs over to the
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
Page 44 of 196
Directional drilling:
Usually but not always, the crew tries to drill the hole
as straight as possible, but at times it is desirable to
deflect the hole from vertical. The most dramatic
example of this is the offshore platform. Many wells may
be drilled from a single platform without having to move
the rig. The technique used is called directional drilling.
Only the first hole drilled into the reservoir tray be
vertical; each subsequent well may be drilled vertically
to a certain depth then kicked-off (deflected)
directionally so that the bottoms of the hole ends up
away from its starting point on the surface.
By using directional drilling, as many as twenty or
more wells may be drilled into the reservoir from one
platform. Thus, directional drilling has become a routine
development operation throughout the world.
The intentional deviation of a wellbore from the path it would naturally take. This is
accomplished through the use of whipstocks, bottomhole assembly (BHA) configurations,
instruments to measure the path of the wellbore in three-dimensional space, data links to
communicate measurements taken downhole to the surface, mud motors and special BHA
components and drill bits.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
Page 45 of 196
Increasing the exposed section length through the reservoir by drilling through the
reservoir at an angle.
Drilling into the reservoir where vertical access is difficult or not possible. For instance an
oilfield under a town, under a lake, or underneath a difficult to drill formation.
Allowing more wellheads to be grouped together on one surface location can allow fewer
rig moves, less surface area disturbance, and make it easier and cheaper to complete
and produce the wells. For instance, on an oil platform or jacket offshore, up to about 40
wells can be grouped together. The wells will fan out from the platform into the reservoir
below. This concept is being applied to land wells, allowing multiple subsurface locations
to be reached from one pad, reducing environmental impact.
Drilling "relief wells" to relieve the pressure of a well producing without restraint (a "blow
out"). In this scenario, another well could be drilled starting at a safe distance away from
the blow out, but intersecting the troubled wellbore. Then, heavy fluid (kill fluid) is
pumped into the relief wellbore to suppress the high pressure in the original wellbore
causing the blowout.
2. Coring:
A core sample is a cylindrical section of a naturally occurring medium consistent enough
to hold a layered structure. Using a special core bit, a solid cylinder of rock, approximately
4 5 in diameter and in 30 ft increments, is extracted from a well. Conventional core
sampling is generally available over short reservoir sections and is helpful when needing
analysis on a detailed scale. The wealth of information available from a conventional core
makes it the most accurate fundamental tool available in understanding oil and gas
reservoirs.
Core samples
Page 46 of 196
Sidewall coring:
A core taken from the side of the borehole, usually by a wireline tool. Sidewall cores may
be taken using percussion or mechanical drilling. Percussion cores are taken by firing hollow
bullets into the formation. The bullets are attached to the tool by fasteners, and are
retrieved, along with the core inside, by pulling up the tool and the fasteners. Percussion
coring tools typically hold 20 to 30 bullets, but two or three tools can be combined on one
run in the hole. Mechanical tools use hollow rotary drills to cut and then pull out core plugs.
Up to 75 plugs can be recovered on one run. With full recovery, cores from typical
percussion tools are 1 in. [2.5 cm] in diameter by 1 3/4 in. [4.4 cm] long, while those from
mechanical tools are 0.91 in. [2.3 cm] in diameter by 2 in. [5 cm] long. The latter are also
known as rotary sidewall cores.
Sidewall coring
Page 47 of 196
Fill the hole with mud as the pipes are being removed from the drill stem.
Monitor any increase or decrease in the mud volume removed from the hole or added to
the hole.
If there is any extra drag (friction to the wall) which is not normal, start circulation and the
hole in that section will be cleaned.
If there is any discrepancy in the depth, measure and record all of the stands to verify
the correct depth.
The drill pipe is suspended in the hole and the kelly is disconnected. (Using slips and
tongs).
The kelly is swung across the rig floor and lowered into the rat hole, and then the swivel
is unlatched from the travelling block hook. The rat hole is a tube rather like the mousehole. It provides a storage receptacle for the kelly, kelly bushings and swivel when they
are not in use during the round trip.
One of the rig crew - the derrick man, climbs to the monkey board high in the derrick. He
secures himself at this working platform using a safety harness. It is his job to handle the
top of the stand during the round trip.
Elevators are latched around the drill pipe just below the tool joint. The elevators are a
set of hinged clamps, which are part of the hook and travelling block assembly. They are
connected to links which themselves are attached to the eyes of the hook.
The driller can now start to pull the drill string out of the hole. As he starts to raise the
string, the slips are removed by the roughnecks on the rig floor. The string is then lifted
until the third tool joint is clear of the rotary table and the slips are re-set. Now we have a
stand of drill pipe up in the derrick being held by the elevators, while the rest of the string
is in the hole suspended from the slips.
The next job for the roughnecks is to disconnect the stand from the drill string. This is
done using the tongs and pipe spinner. The lower end of the stand is then swung to one
side of the rig floor and stood down.
The derrick man job now is to unlatch the elevators having first secured the top of the
stand with a rope. With the stand now clear, he can pull the top of the stand into the
fingers of the monkey board. The stand is now racked (stored) in the derrick.
The driller now lowers the travelling assembly, allowing the roughnecks to latch the
elevators round the next tool joint ready to pull another stand.
The procedure, which was just described, is repeated until all the pipes are out of the
hole. Depending on the depth of the hole, this could take an entire day to complete.
The drill collars and bit are the last items to come out of the hole. To
unscrew the bit from the bit sub, a device called a bit breaker is placed
in the rotary table. This piece of equipment holds the bit while the tongs
are used to break the connection. We have now seen one-half of a
round trip, tripping out. The second half of a round trip is called tripping
in and is just the reverse procedure.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
Page 48 of 196
Derrick man
Page 49 of 196
Page 50 of 196
Casing accessories:
Guide shoes: As the name suggests, a guide shoe is
attached to the first joint of casing to be lowered into
the hole. It is aluminum with a hole in the center and
rounded, to guide the casing into the borehole, around
obstructions.
Float collars: These devices permit the casing to
literally float into the borehole, by virtue of being
partially empty. It is a back pressure valve, which is
closed by the outside fluid column, thereby preventing
entry of the fluid as the casing is lowered into the hole.
It also serves as a check-valve in the casing string, to
prevent back flow of cement after being pumped
outside the string. This is important because the
density of the cement slurry is always greater than
drilling mud. This back pressure valve serves to
prevent a blowout through the casing, if a kick should
occur during casing operations.
A float collar also serves as a stop for the two plugs
when cement is displaced. This action allows a
quantity of slurry to stay inside the casing at the casing
shoe, so that the operator has reasonable assurance
of there being adequate cement outside the casing at
that point.
Page 51 of 196
Scratcher
Wiper plugs: Wiper plugs are made of molded rubber and cast aluminum or plastic.
They are designed for the following reasons:
Wipe the casing free of mud.
Separate mud from cement inside the casing.
The top, or follow, plug follows cement slurry, or
other fluids, down the CT string and serves as a
wiper and means to separate the cement and the
displacement fluid pumped behind the slurry. The
top plug will seat on the top of the bottom plug
when completely displaced.
The bottom, or lead, plug is a device to lead the
cement slurry, or other fluids, down the CT string.
It also separates the fluid inside the coiled tubing
and the cement slurry. Upon seating, the pins in
the plug will shear at the selected pressure and
allow the cement slurry to pass through the plug.
The lead plug provides the seal area for the follow
plug.
Cementing head: This provides the union for connecting the
cementing lines from the cementing pump to the casing. This
type of head makes it possible to circulate the mud in a
normal manner, release the bottom plug, mix and pump the
cement and pump it down, release the top plug, and displaces
the cement without making or breaking any connections.
Cementing heads are available in sizes from 4 1/2 to 20,
for working pressure of 2,000 to 10,000 psi. Cementing head
sizes & working pressures are inversely related. Generally for
smaller sizes mare working pressure and far larger sizes less
working pressure are the requirements. Cementing heads
could be of single plug or double plug types. Caps are Acme
threaded or quick lack type and fitted with swivel chain
assembly.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
Page 52 of 196
Page 53 of 196
Cementing operation
Page 54 of 196
Page 55 of 196
Fishing tools:
Many of the tools used to recover equipment are specially designed for the particular
job. However, due to the similarity of equipment used in most drilling operations, certain
standard fishing tools have been developed. A broad classification of fishing tools is:
Tools used to recover miscellaneous equipment (junk)
Tools used to recover pipe (fish)
Fishing for junk:
When a relatively small piece of equipment is lost in the borehole, it may be retrieved
using one of the following tools:
Junk or boot sub: This is run immediately above the bit to catch small junk thrown up
by turbulence. It is normally run before running a diamond bit so that no fragments can
damage the bit.
Finger-type or Poor boy junk basket: This cuts a small core, after which weight is
applied to bend the beveled fingers inward to trap the junk inside. This can be made onthe-spot from casing.
Core-type junk basket: This is essentially a mill shoe basket, which cuts a small core to
trap the junk, and has catchers (fingers) which grip the junk on the trip out.
Fishing magnet: This is used for picking up steel fragments.
Jet bottom hole cutter: This is used when the junk is so large or oddly shaped that it
cannot be readily retrieved with regular junk baskets. It breaks the junk up into smaller
pieces by use of an explosive charge.
Grapple or rope spear: This is used to retrieve wireline cable in the hole.
The next figure illustrates the different tools used in fishing for junk operations.
Page 56 of 196
Page 57 of 196
Page 58 of 196
Page 59 of 196
Wireline log
Wireline tools
Page 60 of 196
Wellhead:
A production wellhead is the assembly of specialized equipment that is located at the
surface of a drilled wellbore, which seals the casing and tubing previously run into the well,
permitting a controlled flow of produced fluids. This assembly of valves is commonly referred
to as a Christmas Tree. The wellhead is installed during drilling operations and then
modified as required if the well is to be produced. The wellhead consists of three basic
components:
1. The casing head:
The casing head is a steel fitting (called a wellhead casing flange) that is connected to
the top of the surface casing string at the wellhead. It supports the casing string until
cemented into place.
2. The tubing head:
The tubing head is similar to the casing head but is smaller, and sits atop the casing
head where it supports the tubing string.
3. The christmas tree:
The christmas tree is an assembly of fittings, valves, and chokes which control the rate
of oil and gas flow from the well. It usually contains a pumping tee and gauge(s) and may
contain a BOP preventer.
As indicated, a well completion will vary depending on the well and reservoir
characteristics, as well as its economic potential. A variety of completion methods and
procedures has been developed. Basically, completions can be divided into two categories:
Single zone or multiple zones.
However, regardless of the type, the production casing or oil string must be set, the
tubing arrangement determined, the packers must be properly placed and a decision must
be made about the type of bottom-hole completion that will be used on the well.
Page 61 of 196
Christmas tree
Page 62 of 196
Completion diagram
Page 63 of 196
Page 64 of 196
Acidization:
In the early 1930s, acid stimulation for limestone and dolomite formations became
commercially available within the oil service industry. The first treatments were with
hydrochloric acid; though by 1940 mud acid (hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids) mixtures
were being used. Acidizing jobs are usually broken down into three categories:
HCl pumped into carbonates to create new openings or channels (worm holes).
HCl pumped into carbonates with borehole damage to create openings which by-pass the
damaged portion.
Mud acid pumped into non-carbonates to dissolve and remove damaged portions or
soluble clays.
One of the most common methods of
pumping acid into the well has been by
bullheading. The major drawback of this
method is that all the solids and fluids that
have flowed into the well/tubing are forced
back into the formation, which can cause
more damage. A more effective method of
pumping acid and introducing acid into
formations is using coiled tubing (CT).
Acid treatments can be used to clean
the wellbore (acid washes), where the acid
is pumped to the formation/perforations,
then the pumping is stopped allowing the
acid to enter the formation under
hydrostatic pressure. These are usually
short duration and when the well returns to
production, the acid and by-products are
removed at the surface. Another acid
treatment is known as matrix acidizing,
where the acid is used to dissolve away
the formation to create new openings. The
acid is pumped under pressure (below
fracture pressure) into the formation,
allowing the acid to dissolve near wellbore
damage and create worm holes
anywhere from several inches to several
feet into the formation.
Page 65 of 196
Acid damage
Acidization can be very useful in increasing the productive life of a well, if done correctly.
This means proper planning with site-designed operations. If operations are carried out
incorrectly, several damaging effects include:
Corrosion: Acids will dissolve tubing and casing. This is generally minimized by adding
corrosion inhibitors. However, since these inhibitors are not soluble in acids, they can
potentially damage the formation.
Iron precipitates: Iron from the tubing/casing will dissolve when the acid is pumped. Once
the pH of the spent acid rises, the iron will precipitate out in the formation. The best
practice to reduce this problem is to pickle the tubing (pump HCl down the tubing, then
reverse circulate the acid out).
Fluid incompatibilities: If the formation contains oil or an oil-based mud was used, the
acid and oil can form an emulsion (which is accelerated by the dissolved iron). Surfactants
can be used with the acid, but they also can react with formation fluids.
Fines mobilization: Acids will affect the clays in the formation. Mud acids will react with
clays leaching out the aluminum ions, causing silica to fall out. In addition, the pH shock of
acidizing can disperse clays throughout the formation, causing them to block pore throats.
Cement bond destruction: HCL and HF will dissolve cement and break it down,
especially if channels in the cement exist.
Hydraulic fracturing
In 1949, hydraulic fracturing was developed as a commercial oil field stimulation
process. The procedure is to pump a viscous fluid down the well at rates and pressures to
break down (fracture) the formation. The pressure is slowly increased while pumping a
mixture of polymer gel and sand into the induced fractures to hold open the fissures after the
hydraulic pressure had been released.
The fractures created in this way are generally planar, with openings between 0.25 to
0.5 inch (though the length may several hundred feet). As with any fracturing, the openings
will propagate along the lines of least resistance, so the subsurface stresses (overburden,
folding, faulting, and inclined bedding) will determine whether the fracture is vertical, inclined
or horizontal. Hydraulic fracturing can be used in any competent formation (sandstones,
limestones, dolomites, etc.) and should be avoided in soft and plastic formations.
Page 66 of 196
Page 67 of 196
Page 68 of 196
Pressure engineer:
Predicts and interprets pore pressure, which is used for drilling safely and casing seat
selection. Usually has at least two years experience as a data engineer. The individual also
must have completed the abnormal formation pressure training class and has shown
competence in formation pressure evaluation.
The pore pressure engineer will be required to determine and advise the drilling and
exploration teams on a real time basis of estimated formation pore pressures and
recommended mud weights for the safe drilling of exploration /appraisal wells using
acceptable industry tool. The duties and responsibilities of the pressure engineer are as
follow:
1. Overpressure zones prediction reference to recorded drilling and mud data based on
calculated drilling exponent or sigma log.
2. Preparation of daily pore pressure evaluation report that contains well hydraulic
calculations and mud properties recommendations.
3. Check for proper operation of the well, detection of abnormal situations and optimization
of the proper rheology for drilling.
4. Lithologic analysis of cuttings, samples and core chips under microscope including
visual determination of approximate porosity.
5. Producing deviation and survey record on a print table of the true vertical depth, bottom
hole position in relation to the well head, the calculations of N-S and E-W displacement
and doglegs.
6. Depth horizontal distance plot of the horizontal map or vertical cross section in a given
azimuth.
7. Preparation of pressure evaluation log that contains drilling rate, d-exponent, Lithology,
depth, mud weight, pore pressure, shale density, gas in air, bit data and drilling data.
8. Preparation and update temperature data log utilizing mud temperature parameters.
9. Produce a weekly report detailing the drilling operation and any condition of interest
relating to abnormal formation pressure evaluation.
10. Preparation of different types of logs and statistical cross plots (pressure evaluation log,
temperature log, .etc).
11. Preparation of final well report including all drilling events and formation pressure
calculations.
12. A basic working knowledge of conversational English and be fluent in the native tongue
of the country in which the work is performed.
13. The pressure engineer will, at all times, maintain a professional and responsible attitude
and appearance in relations with the customer and rig personnel.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
Page 69 of 196
Page 70 of 196
Page 71 of 196
Page 72 of 196
Page 73 of 196
Page 74 of 196
Multiply the drill string capacity by the length of the drill string to obtain the total number of
barrels.
0.0177 11,000 = 195.4 barrels
3. To obtain the number of strokes for the down pipe factor you will have to calculate the
pump output in barrels. The formula is as follows:
bbl/stk = 0.000243 (liner ID)2 L
ID = liner size in inches
L = stroke length of the pump
The output of a 61/2-inch 11-inch PZ-11 triplex is:
bbl/stk = 0.000243 (6.5)2 11 = .1129 bbl/stk at 100% efficiency
Since the pumps are, only 95% efficient multiply by .95
0.1129 0 .95 = 0.1073 efficiency corrected barrels per stroke
To obtain the down pipe factor in strokes, divide the volume (in barrels) by the pump output:
195.4 .1073 = 1821 strokes
Note: The previous calculations did not take into account the fact that the bottom hole
assembly normally has a smaller ID than the drill pipe.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
Page 75 of 196
Page 76 of 196
Note:
When logging, it will be observed that the calculated lag will invariably be less than that
obtained by using the tracer method. Reasons for this are:
Lag tracer materials or cutting will tend to slip behind the velocity of the mud with respect
to their relative densities and the particular mud's carrying capabilities.
Enlargement of the hole, due to erosion by the mud, is not accounted for when making the
lag calculation.
Mud flows are sometimes turbulent which results in a tendency for the cuttings and tracer
materials to rotate up the annulus rather than rising uniformly.
Due to the characteristics of drilling mud in laminar flow, the center annulus flow rate
tends to be faster than that near the walls; thus, cuttings in the center annulus region tend to
be moved over into the slower flow areas and subsequently are again moved back into the
faster region. This is a similar effect to the previous paragraph although the rotational effects
are much less harsh.
Page 77 of 196
Page 78 of 196
Page 79 of 196
Wet sample
Spot sample
Page 80 of 196
Page 81 of 196
Page 82 of 196
The samples are laid out in a stack of five-cell trays with the depths marked on the trays.
The cuttings should just cover the bottoms of the trays.
It is desirable to separate the obvious cavings by sieving the samples.
Attention should generally be focused on the smaller cuttings with angular shapes and
fresh appearance.
The technique of scanning samples before logging them in detail has many advantages.
In addition to helping the surface data logger pick tops and lithologic changes it may also aid
him in determining the extent of porous and hydrocarbon bearing intervals. However, the
principle advantage of this technique is that it provides the surface data logger the
opportunity to observe and interpret depositional sequences. When sample intervals are laid
out in sequence subtle changes in texture, mineralogy, color and facies often become
apparent even before microscopic examination. Thus, the surface data logger is alerted to
look for these changes when making the detailed sample examination. This method of
examining samples encourages surface data logger to observe and log lithologic rather than
sample interval units. It is still important that the surface data logger do a complete and
thorough description of each sample.
Textures in carbonate rocks can be clearly observed with the aid of wetting agents such
as mineral oil, glycerin, clove oil, etc. A further improvement of this technique is the use of
transmitted light as described below.
Page 83 of 196
Page 84 of 196
Page 85 of 196
Page 86 of 196
Page 87 of 196
Page 88 of 196
Page 89 of 196
Page 90 of 196
Page 91 of 196
Page 92 of 196
Page 93 of 196
Sorting
Sorting is a measure of the size frequency distribution of grains in a sediment or rock. It
involves shape, roundness, specific gravity, and mineral composition as well as size. A
classification given by Payne (1942) that can be applied to these factors is:
Good: 90% in one or two size classes
Fair: 90% in three or our size classes
Poor: 90% in five or more size classes
Values that are more precise may be
determined by direct comparison with
sorting comparators.
Page 94 of 196
The order of precipitation of cement depends on the type of solution, number of ions in
solution and the general geochemical environment. Several different cements, or
generations of cement, may occur in a given rock, separately or overgrown on or replacing
one another. Chemical cement is uncommon in sandstone which has a clay matrix. The
most common cementing materials are silica and calcite.
Silica cement is common in nearly all quartz sandstones. This cement generally occurs
as secondary crystal overgrowths deposited in optical continuity with detrital quartz grains.
Opal, chalcedony, and chert are other forms of siliceous cement. Dolomite and calcite are
deposited as crystals in the pore spaces and as aggregates in the voids. Dolomite and
calcite may be indigenous to the sandstone, the sands having been a mixture of quartz and
dolomite or calcite grains, or the carbonate may have been precipitated as a coating around
the sand grains before they were lithified. Calcite in the form of clear spar may be present as
vug, or other void filling in carbonate rocks. Anhydrite and gypsum cements, are more
commonly associated with dolomite and silica than with calcite. Additional cementing
materials, usually of minor importance, include pyrite, generally as small crystals, siderite,
hematite, limonite, zeolites, and phosphatic material.
Silt acts as a matrix, hastening cementation by filling the pore spaces, thus decreasing
the size of interstitial spaces. Clay is a common matrix material, which may cause loss of
porosity either by compaction or by swelling when water is introduced into the formation.
Argillaceous material can be evenly distributed in siliciclastic or carbonate rocks, or have
laminated, lenticular detrital or nodular form.
Compaction and the presence of varying amounts of secondary quartz, secondary
carbonate, and interstitial clay are the main factors affecting pore space in siliciclastic rocks.
While there is a general reduction of porosity with depth due to secondary cementation and
compaction, ranges of porosity vary considerably due primarily to extreme variations in
amounts of secondary cement. For instance, coarse-grained sandstones have greater
permeability than finer ones when the same amount of cementing material is available to
both. However, the same thickness of cement will form around the grains regardless of their
size, therefore the smaller pore spaces, which occur in finer grained sandstones, will be
cemented earliest.
Page 95 of 196
Page 96 of 196
Page 97 of 196
1. Odor
Odor may range from heavy, characteristic of low gravity oil, to light and penetrating, as
for condensate. Some dry gases have no odor. Strength of odor depends on several factors,
including the size of the sample. Describe as oil odor or condensate odor. Depending on the
strength of odor detected, report as good, fair, or faint, in the remarks column. Faint odors
may be detected more easily on a freshly broken surface or after confining the sample in a
bottle for 15 to 20 minutes.
Page 98 of 196
4. Fluorescence
Examination of mud, drill cuttings and cores for hydrocarbon fluorescence under
ultraviolet light often indicates oil in small amounts, or oil of light color, which might not be
detected by other means. All samples should be so examined. Color of fluorescence of
crudes range from brown through green, gold, blue, yellow to white; in most instances, the
heavier oils have darker fluorescence. Distribution may be even, spotted, or mottled, as for
stain. The intensity range is bright dull, pale, and faint. Pinpoint fluorescence is associated
with individual sand grains and may indicate condensate or gas. Mineral fluorescence,
especially from shell fragments, may be mistaken for oil fluorescence, and is distinguished
by adding a few drops of a solvent. Hydrocarbon fluorescence will appear to flow and diffuse
in the solvent as the oil dissolves, whereas mineral fluorescence will remain undisturbed.
When using the Sperry-Sun API gravity chart to determine the API gravity from the
fluorescence, it must be taken from the unwashed cuttings mixed with water. By washing the
drilled cuttings, some of the oil is washed from the cuttings, resulting in brighter and lighter
color fluorescence than the actual formation. With sidewall cores and conventional cores,
this problem is not as pronounced.
Page 99 of 196
6. Wettability
Failure of samples to wet, or their tendency to float on water when immersed, is often an
indication of the presence of oil. Under the microscope, a light-colored stain which cannot be
definitely identified as an oil stain may be tested by letting one or two drops of water fall on
the surface of the stained rock fragment. In the presence of oil, the water will not soak into
the cutting or flow off its surface, but will stand on it or roll off it as spherical beads. Dry spots
may appear on the sample when the water is poured off. This, however, is not useful in
powdered (air drilled) samples, which, because of the particle size and surface tension
effects, will not wet.
Pyrolysis test
When well samples of kerogen-rich rock are pyrolyzed in a thick walled test tube placed
over a propane torch, oily material may be generated and condensed as a brown residue
around the walls of the tube. This simple technique may be used to identify source rocks
capable of generating liquid oil. However, the pyrolysis technique cannot distinguish
between oil source rocks and those sediments rich in humic matter (carbonaceous shales
and coals) which are considered to be dominantly sources for gas. This test is also not
responsive to post mature source rocks. The artificial test-tube generating process is
believed to be similar to that associated with natural time-temperature dependent processes
accompanying rock burial in depositional basins.
Hydrocarbons in organic rich sediments may be determined semi-quantitatively with a
Turner fluorometer. One hundred milligrams of rock is pyrolyzed as above and the resulting
condensation is diluted with 3 milliliters of chlorothene. The fluorescence of the solution thus
produced is recorded in fluorometer units.
Solid hydrocarbons and dead oil
There has been much confusion, inconsistency and misunderstanding about the usage
and meanings of these two terms. They are not synonymous.
Solid hydrocarbons refer to hydrocarbons that are in a solid state at surface conditions,
usually brittle, and often shiny and glossy in appearance. There are a wide variety of
substances called solid hydrocarbons with variable chemical and physical properties. The
most significant of these variations is that of maturity. Some solid hydrocarbons, like
Gilsonite, are immature or barely mature oils, while others like anthraxolite represent the
carbonaceous residue left after hydrocarbons have been overheated and thermally cracked.
Anthraxolite is considered thermally dead oil. Gilsonite, on the other hand, is certainly not
dead oil. It is a substance from which high-quality gasoline, industrial fuel oils and an
endless list of other products are produced.
DAQ TVR60-8A supports up to 60 analog input channels, 8 digital input channels and
one up/down counter for draw work.
Analog to digital conversion of slowly changing positive current signals on 60 current
channels.
Measuring of angular move of two-phase draw works revolutions sensor (DL 100A or
analogues) and conversion of the obtained values into current or voltage.
Measuring of frequency on eight channels (pulse/sec) with further conversion of the
obtained values into current or voltage.
Definition of conditions on eight channels.
Closing/unclosing of normally open dry contacts on eight channels.
Power supply to sensors (barriers) + 24V.
Digital data transfer to the unit computer (Com 3) via RS-422/485 interface in
conformity with the exchange protocol.
Digital data transfer to the unit computer (Com 4) via RS-422/485 interface and power
supply to Rig Monitor + 24V.
Manual entry of traveling block position.
Manual entry of calibration parameters for traveling block.
Manual entry of type of outgoing analog signal (current or voltage).
Manual entry of digital output channels.
Manual entry of output values of analog channels.
Monitoring of traveling block position.
Monitoring of frequency values on channels.
Monitoring of conditions values on channels.
Monitoring of digital (out) channels.
Monitoring of output values in analog channels.
All the inputs are connected to PCB via 3 flat cables 1 for digital inputs and 2 for analog
inputs
The PCB is connected to computer by a USB cable male/male and transmits all data to
computer using the software included with DAQ.
The output from the PCB also includes:
Analog output {0-5V} for all frequency channels to be connected to a chart recorder or
any analog input control system
Analog output {0-5V} for all up/down counters to be connected to a chart recorder or
any analog input control system
Technical specifications:
Supply voltage DC
Power Consumption
Interface between PCB and computer
Max. Input frequency Freq. channels
Operation temperature
GAS SYSTEM
As the drill bit breaks loose the formation, cuttings and gas in the formation are
transferred to and entrained in the drilling mud and transported to the surface. With this in
mind, the surface data logger hypothesizes the existence of a direct relationship between
the kind and amount of gas and/or oil in the drilling mud arriving at the surface, and the gas
and/or oil that was in place in the formation being drilled at the time that particular mud was
passing by the bit at the bottom of the hole. The gas system is one of the most important
systems in oil and gas drilling operations as accurate and fast gas readings can be used as
a good tool for reservoir evaluations. The main components of the gas system are:
The gas trap, which is the device for removing gases from the drilling mud.
Flow control panel that controls the flow of the gases come into the mud logging unit and
those pumped out of the mud logging unit.
The gas detectors proper (Total gas detector and gas chromatograph). These detectors
are the flame ionization detectors (FID).
H2S and CO2 detectors.
Before we discuss the different parts of the gas system it is good to know the different
types of gasses that might exists during the different drilling operations, which are classified
as follow:
Background gas:
Under normal drilling conditions, it is quite common for a relatively small amount of gas
to be continuously in evidence. This background gas can originate from a previously drilled
section, which contained a show and which bleeds a small amount of gas into the mud.
Normally, gas can be contained in the formation being drilled of very low proportions,
i.e., shales are often found to contain gas but due to their extremely low porosity and
permeability characteristics. Background gas is often methane only with little or no heavy
gases. However, continuously high levels of background gas often indicate that the well is
being drilled very close to balance and may indicate that a higher mud weight is required.
Connection gas:
Also involved when the bit is raised off bottom is the gas due to swabbing even with
short distances such as those encountered when making a connection and due to the
lowering of the hydrostatic pressure from the loss of ECD (equivalent circulating density)
when the mud pumps are shut down for a connection or check for flow. Therefore, this
connection gas is used as a helpful guide towards determining how near the hydrostatic
pressure is to a balance condition.
Connection gas can be identified by the occurrence of gas peaks observed on the
recorders. These bumps in the recorder trace will be separated by the time between each
connection and will arrive on the surface near lagged depth of the connection depth. When
connection gases are in evidence a similar phenomenon may be observed whenever the
drill string is pulled off bottom and the pumps are shut down. This method may also be used
to simulate a connection gas peak to help in determining the balance condition. As with
background gas and trip gas, connection gas is a strong indicator of a balanced drilling
condition.
Trip gas:
It is normal for an increase in the gas readings to occur after a trip has been made. This
occurrence is commonly referred to as trip gas. To understand the presence of trip gas, it
is necessary to visualize what happens as the old bit is pulled out of the hole, for it is during
this operation that the gas which is subsequently labeled trip gas gains entry into the mud
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
1. Gas trap:
The gas readings from the drilling mud as related to
fluids and gases in-place in the formation must be
interpreted with the following consideration in mind:
The extraction of this gas from the drilling mud must be
done in a manner that is independent of variables such as
density, viscosity and gel strength of the mud; in a manner
independent of the flow rate of the mud through the whole
mud system; in a manner so that all the gases as
completely possible may be extracted even from a high gel
strength mud, and in a manner which would be considered
reliable around drilling rig conditions which tend to be
destructive of sensitive equipment.
PetroServices currently uses two types of gas traps.
These are air powered and electrically powered. In
operation, the bottom of the trap lies submerged about two
inches under the surface of the returning mud stream. The
mud, tending to seek its own level, flows in the inlet in the
bottom of the trap canister. Rotation of the motor-driven
impeller blade causes this mud to whirled around rapidly.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
It now becomes apparent that a reliable gas detecting technique demands that the
number of influencing variables be kept in control. Ideally, only the amount of gas in the mud
and its corresponding reading should be variable. For this reason, it is important that the trap
consistently pump a constant volume of mud, that the amount of air drawn through the trap
be maintained at a constant, that there be no leaks or restrictions in the flow system.
With Petroservices flow control panel the undesired variables that might affect gas
readings are minimized to very negligible values that add more accuracy to hydrocarbon gas
evaluations.
Hydrogen generator
RIG SENSORS
1. Draw work sensor:
An optical shaft encoder is attached to the draw
works drum shaft. The encoder provides better than
0.25 degrees resolution of the rotation of the drawworks, which in the worst case scenario gives a 1cm
resolution of the block position. The depth processing
unit (Motrona) determines the absolute position of the
hook taking into account the number of wrap turns on
the drum and the cable position. The sensor is used to
detect the kelly position and the direction of the Kelly
(up or down), Petroservices fabricates draw work
inductive sensors using two inductive proximity
switches to detect the moving of the iron gear which is
installed directly on the draw work shaft.
The draw work gear has a specific numbers of teeth
and the inductive proximity switches detect the gear
movement in which direction and how many teeth
moved from the previous position. Draw work sensor is
a four wires sensor; every two wires are supplied by
8VDC and send the detection as pulses to the depth
processing unit to process the signal of the two
proximity switches.
In Motrona depth processing unit the counting inputs A and B are designed for input
frequencies up to 100 kHz (with all counter modes) and up to 25 kHz (with all other
operating modes). The minimum pulse duration on the Reset input must be 500 sec.
(maximum frequency 1 kHz) All inputs are designed to receive impulses from an electronic
impulse source. Where exceptionally you need to use mechanical contacts, please connect
an external capacitor between GND (-) and the corresponding input (+). With a capacity of
10 F, the maximum input frequency will reduce to 20 Hz and miscounting due to contact
bouncing will be eliminated.
A voltage output is available, operating in a range of 0~+10 V or 10 V~+10 V according
to setting. At the same time, a current output 0/4 20 mA is available. Both outputs refer to
the GND potential and the signal polarity changes with the sign in the display. The outputs
provide a 14 bits resolution and the response time to changes of the measuring value is
approximately 0.7 msec.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
3. Pressure sensor:
The PTX 661 hammer union pressure transmitter has been designed for use in
extremely harsh environments in both on-shore and offshore oil drilling operations where
high shock and vibration is likely to be encountered. The transmitter is available in both the
1502 and 2202 WECO wing union configurations, both of which are NACE sour gas
compatible.
The PTX 661 differs from other hammer union pressure transmitters in that it has a
replaceable pressure transmitter insert, which substantially reduces the high cost of
transmitter replacement. With a 2 kHz response time, the device is suitable for measuring
static and dynamic mud pressure.
The PTX 661 incorporates Druck's proprietary high-accuracy silicon sensor with up to
2.5 times better accuracy than many competitive devices. The low volume oil fill technology
allows response times of faster than 2 kHz. The field-proven 4 to 20 mA electronics,
packaged in a rugged enclosure, provide power supply regulation, reverse polarity,
overvoltage and EMC protection. The fully encapsulated design provides exceptional
reliability in high shock and vibration environments.
2 wires
9350/10 STAHL
5 15 VDC
1 10% (5% typical)
8.2 VDC
-/< 2 ms
Available
Available
Available
-25'c to +70'c (-13'f to +158t)
meets NEMA 1. 3, 4, 6. 13 and IEC ip67
10 mm = 0.157 (nominal)
up to 500 Hz
-/< 2% of nominal sensing range
Frequency converter:
The two wires rotary speed sensor is connected to
Pepperl+Fuchs KFU8-FSSP-1.D frequency converter
unit. The frequency voltage/current converter KFU8FSSP-1.D is a device for indication and monitoring of
periodical signals which occur in almost all areas of
process automation, i. e. from frequencies in general
and speeds in specific.
The input signal sequence is evaluated and
converted into a frequency by a -controller in
accordance with the cycle method. The -controller
calculates a voltage or current proportional to the input
frequency and produces it with a digital analog
converter in respect to the selected measurement
ranges limit value. The following analogue signals can
be selected: (0 V ~ 10 V, 2 V ~ 10 V, 0 mA ~ 20 mA,
4 mA ~ 20 mA).
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
4 wires
15VDC
0 to 1000 A AC&DC
70 c
LGC-KSR1D-12AN-Ex
15~24 VDC
0-0.4 bar
4 wires sensor
Analog
4-20 mA
2 wires sensor
Analog
4-20 mA
15-24 VDC
2 % over entire range
+ 24 VDC
4 to 20 mA
200 micro s / cm - 1000 ms/cm
120 C
295 psig
20 ft (6.1 m)
1.2 kg/ 2 kg without holder
EEX IB IIC T4
GEOLOGICAL EQUIPMENTS
1. Binocular microscope:
The optical microscope, often referred to as the "light microscope", is a type of
microscope, which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small
samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest and simplest of the microscopes. Digital
microscopes are now available which use a digital camera to examine a sample, and the
image is shown directly on a computer screen without the need for optics such as
eyepieces. All optical microscopes share the same basic components:
The eyepiece - A cylinder containing two or more lenses to bring the image to focus for
the eye. The eyepiece is inserted into the top end of the body tube. Eyepieces are
interchangeable and many different eyepieces can be inserted with different degrees of
magnification. Typical magnification values for eyepieces include 5x, 10x and 20x.
The objective lens - a cylinder containing one or more lenses typically made of glass, to
collect light from the sample. At the lower end of the microscope tube, one or more
objective lenses are screwed into a circular nose piece, which may be rotated to select
the required objective lens. Typical magnification values of objective lenses are 4x, 5x,
10x, 20x, 40x, 50x and 100x. Some high performance objective lenses may require
matched eyepieces to deliver the best optical performance.
The stage - a platform below the objective which supports the specimen being viewed
The stage usually has arms to hold slides (rectangular glass plates with typical
dimensions of 25 mm by 75 mm, on which the specimen is mounted).
The illumination source - below the stage, light is provided and controlled in a variety of
ways. At its simplest, daylight is directed via a mirror. Most microscopes, however, have
their own controllable light source that is focused through an optical device called a
condenser, with diaphragms and filters available to manage the quality and intensity of
the light.
The whole of the optical assembly is attached to a rigid arm, which in turn is attached to
a robust U shaped foot to provide the necessary rigidity. The arm is usually able to pivot on
its joint with the foot to allow the viewing angle to be adjusted. Mounted on the arm are
controls for focusing, typically a large knurled wheel to adjust coarse focus, together with a
smaller knurled wheel to control fine focus.
Stereo microscope:
The stereo or dissecting microscope is designed differently from the diagrams above,
and serves a different purpose. It uses two separate optical paths with two objectives and
two eyepieces to provide slightly different viewing angles to the left and right eyes. In this
way, it produces a three-dimensional visualization of the sample being examined.
Digital microscope:
Low power microscopy is also possible with digital microscopes, with a camera attached
directly to the USB port of a computer, so that the images are shown directly on the monitor.
Often called "USB" microscopes, they offer high magnifications (up to about 200) without
the need to use eyepieces, and at very low cost. The precise magnification is determined by
the working distance between the camera and the object, and good supports are needed to
control the image. The images can be recorded and stored in the normal way on the
computer. The camera is usually fitted with a light source, although extra sources (such as a
fiber-optic light) can be used to highlight features of interest in the object.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
Digital microscope
2. UV-box:
UV-box is a tool used by well site geologists to examine different cutting samples under
ultraviolet light for the existence of oil in these samples. Fluorescence is the emission of
electromagnetic radiation light by a substance that has absorbed radiation of a different
wavelength. In most cases, absorption of light of a certain wavelength induces the emission
of light with a larger wavelength (and lower energy). The most striking examples of this
phenomenon occur when the absorbed photon is in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum,
and is thus invisible, and the emitted light is in the visible region. Practical applications of this
effect are found in the UV-box.
A simple chemical test may be carried out to determine
whether fluorescence in drill cuttings is a result of oil or some
fluorescing mineral. This is easily and quickly established by
immersing some of the drill cuttings in a petroleum solvent
(chlorothene, trichlorothene, ether, or acetone). If the
fluorescence is derived from mineral sources, the minerals
will not dissolve in the solvent and the solvent will remain
colorless under ultraviolet light. However, if hydrocarbons
are present in the rock, they will disseminate into the solvent,
giving the entire solvent a distinctive color under ultraviolet
light. This sheen under UV light is called cut and the color of
the cut indicates the quality of the oil. Pale blue-white is high
gravity (light) oil, yellow is medium gravity, and orange brown
for low gravity (heavy) oil.
CN-6 UV cabinet
4. Calcigraph:
Calcigraph is used to determine the amount of calcium
carbonate and magnesium carbonate in a sample of alkaline
earth carbonates such as oil well cores or drilled cuttings.
Calcite builds up in drilling fluids and in water, treatment
processes causes scaling problems. Data from the Calcigraph
can help determine the proper chemical treatment.
In calcigraph, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate
are reacted with 10 percent hydrochloric acid in a sealed
reaction cell to form CO2. As the CO2 is released, the pressure
build up is measured using either a pressure gauge or a
pressure recorder. During the calibration process, a calibration
curve is created by reacting HCl with pure, reagent grade
CaCO3. By using a known weight of CaCO3 reagent, you can
determine the relationship between the amount of pressure
released and the weight of CaCO3 in the sample. Since all
reaction cells are slightly different, this relationship will be
different for each cell. Therefore, a calibration curve is required
to obtain accurate results.
GLOSSARY
A
Abandon v: to cease producing oil and gas from a well when it becomes unprofitable. A
wildcat well may be abandoned after it has proven nonproductive. Several steps are
involved in abandoning a well: part of the casing is removed and salvaged; one or more
cement plugs are placed in the borehole to prevent migration of fluids between the different
formations penetrated by the borehole; and the well is abandoned. In many states, it is
necessary to secure permission from official agencies before a well may be abandoned.
Absolute permeability n: a measure of the ability of a single fluid (as water, gas, or oil) to
flow through a rock formation when the formation is totally filled (saturated) with the single
fluid. The permeability measure of a rock filled with a single fluid is different from the
permeability measure of the same rock filled with two or more fluids.
Acid fracture v: to part or open fractures in productive, hard-limestone formations by using
a combination of oil and acid or water and acid under high pressure.
Acidize v: to treat oil-bearing limestone or other formations, using a chemical reaction with
acid, to increase production. Hydrochloric or other acid is injected into the formation under
pressure. The acid etches the rock, enlarging the pore spaces and passages through which
the reservoir fluids flow. The acid is held under pressure for a period of time and then
pumped out, and the well is swabbed and put back into production. Chemical inhibitors
combined with the acid prevent corrosion of the pipe.
Adjustable choke n: a choke in which a conical needle and seat vary the rate of flow.
Air actuated adj.: powered by compressed air, as the clutch and brake system in drilling
equipment.
Air drilling n: a method of rotary drilling that uses compressed air as the circulation
medium. The conventional method of removing cuttings from the wellbore is to use a flow of
water or drilling mud. Compressed air removes the cuttings with equal or greater efficiency.
The rate of penetration is usually increased considerably when air drilling is used. However,
a principal problem in air drilling is the penetration of formations containing water, since the
entry of water into the system reduces the ability of the air to remove the cuttings.
American Petroleum Institute n: 1. founded in 1920, this national oil trade organization is
the leading standardizing organization on oil field drilling and producing equipment. It
maintains departments of transportation, refining, and marketing in Washington, D.C., and a
department of production in Dallas. 2. (slang) indicative of a job being properly or thoroughly
done (as, His work is strictly API). 3. degrees API, used to designate API gravity.
Angle of deflection n: in directional drilling, the angle, expressed in degrees, at which a
well is deflected from the vertical by a whip stock or other deflecting tool.
Annular blowout preventer n: a large valve, usually installed above the ram preventers,
that forms a seal in the annular space between the pipe and wellbore or, if no pipe is
present, on the wellbore itself.
Annular space n: 1. the space surrounding a cylindrical object within a cylinder. 2. the
space around a pipe in a wellbore, the outer wall of which may be the wall of either the
borehole or the casing; sometimes termed the annulus.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
B
Back off v: to unscrew one threaded piece (as a section of pipe) from another.
Back up v: to hold one section of an object (as pipe) while another is being screwed into or
out of it.
Bail n: a cylindrical steel bar (similar to the handle or bail of a bucket, only much larger) that
supports the swivel and connects it to the hook. Sometimes, the two cylindrical bars that
support the elevators and attach them to the hook are called bails. v: to recover bottom hole
fluids, samples, or drill cuttings by lowering a cylindrical vessel called a bailer to the bottom
of a well, filling it and retrieving it.
Bailer n: a long cylindrical container, fitted with a valve at its lower end, used to remove
water, sand, mud or oil from a well.
Bailing line n: cable attached to the bailer, passed over a sheave at the top of the derrick,
and spooled on a reel.
Barge n: any one of many types of flat-decked, shallow draft vessels, usually towed by a
boat. A complete drilling rig may be assembled on a drilling barge, which usually is
submersible; that is, it has a submersible hull or base that is flooded with water at the drilling
site. Drilling equipment, crew quarters, and so forth are mounted on a superstructure above
the water level.
Barite n: barium sulfate BaSO4; a mineral used to increase the weight of drilling mud. Its
specific gravity is 4.2 (i.e., it is 4.2 times heavier than water).
Barium sulfate n: 1. a chemical combination of barium, sulfur, and oxygen. Also called
barite. 2. a tenacious scale that is very difficult to remove.
Barrel n: a measure of volume for petroleum products. One barrel is the equivalent of 42
U.S. gallons or 0.15899 cubic meters. One cubic meter equals 6.2897 barrels.
Basket sub n: a fishing accessory run above a bit or mill to recover small pieces of metal or
junk in a well.
Bed n: a specific layer of earth or rock in contrast to other layers of different material lying
above, below, or adjacent to it.
Belt n: a flexible band or cord connecting and passing about each of two or more pulleys to
transmit power or impart motion.
C
Cable n: a rope of wire, hemp, or other strong fibers.
Cable tool drilling n: a drilling method in which the hole is drilled by dropping a sharply
pointed bit on the bottom of the hole. The bit is attached to a cable, and the cable is picked
up and dropped, picked up and dropped, repeatedly, as the hole is drilled.
Cap rock n: 1. impermeable rock overlying an oil or gas reservoir that tends to prevent
migration of oil or gas out of the reservoir. 2. the porous and permeable strata overlying salt
domes that may serve as the reservoir rock.
Cased adj: pertaining to a wellbore in which casing is run and cemented.
Cased hole n: a wellbore in which casing has been run.
Casing n: steel pipe placed in an oil or gas well as drilling progresses to prevent the wall of
the hole from caving in during drilling and to provide means of extracting petroleum if the
well is productive.
D
Daylight tour n: (pronounced tower) the shift of duty on a drilling rigs that starts at or
about daylight; also called morning tour.
Deadline n: the drill line from the crown block sheave to the anchor, so called because it
does not move.
Deadline tie-down anchor n: a device to which the deadline is attached securely fastened
to the mast or derrick substructure.
Degasser n: the equipment used to remove unwanted gas from a liquid, especially from a
drilling fluid.
Density n: the mass or weight of a substance; often expressed in weight per unit volume.
For instance, the density of a drilling mud may be 10 pounds per gallon (ppg), 74.8 pounds
per cubic foot (lb/ft3), or 1,198.2 kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). Specific gravity and API
gravity are other units of density.
E
Effective permeability n: a measure of the ability of a single fluid to flow through a rock
when the pore spaces of the rock are not completely filled or saturated with the fluid.
Electric well log n: a record of certain electrical characteristics of formation traversed by the
borehole, made to identify the formation, determines the nature and amount of fluids they
contain, and estimate their depth. Also called an electric log or electric survey.
Electrodynamic brake n: a device mounted on the end of the draw works shaft of a drilling
rig. The electrodynamic brake (sometimes called a magnetic brake) serves as an auxiliary to
the mechanical brake when pipe is lowered into a well. The braking effect in an
electrodynamic brake is achieved by means of the interaction of electric currents with
magnets, with other currents, or with themselves.
Elevator n: a set of clamps that grips a stand or column of casing, tubing, or drill pipe so
that the stand can be raised or lowered into the hole.
Evening tour n: (pronounced tower) the shift of duty on a drilling rigs that starts in the
afternoon and runs through the evening.
Exploitation well n: a well drilled to permit more effective extraction of oil from a reservoir. It
is sometimes called a development well.
Exploration well n: a wildcat well.
F
Fast line n: the end of the drill line that is affixed to the drum or reel of the draw works, so
called because it travels with greater velocity than any other portion of the line.
Fault n: a break in subsurface strata. Often strata on one side of the fault line have been
displaced (upward, downward, or laterally) relative to its original positions.
Field n: a geographical area in which a number of oil and gas wells produce from a
continuous reservoir. A field may refer to surface area only or to underground productive
formations as well. In a single field, there may be several separate reservoirs at varying
depths.
Fill the hole v: to pump drilling fluid into the wellbore while the pipe is being withdrawn in
order to ensure that the wellbore remains full of fluid even though the pipe is withdrawn.
Filling the hole lessens the danger of blowout or of caving of the wall of the wellbore.
Filter cake n: 1. compacted solid or semisolid material remaining on a filter after pressure
filtration of mud with the standard filter press. Thickness of the cake is reported in thirty
seconds of an inch or in millimeters. 2. the layer of concentrated solids from the drilling mud
that forms on the walls of the borehole opposite permeable formations; also called wall cake
or mud cake.
Fingerboard n: a rack that supports the tops of the stands of pipe being stacked in the
derrick or mast. It has several steel finger-like projections that form a series of slots into
which the derrick man can set a stand of drill pipe as it is pulled out of the hole.
Fish n: an object left in the wellbore during drilling operations that must be recovered or
drilled around before work can proceed. It can be anything from a piece of scrap metal to a
part of the drill string. v: 1. to recover from a well any equipment left there during drilling
operations, such as a lost bit or drill collar or part of the drill string. 2. to remove from an
older well certain pieces of equipment, such as packers, liners, or screen pipe, to allow
reconditioning of the well.
Fishing tool n: a tool designed to recover equipment lost in the well.
Float collar n: a special coupling device, inserted one or two joints above the bottom of the
casing string, that contains a check valve to permit fluid to pass downward but not upward
through the casing. The float collar prevents drilling mud from entering the casing while it is
being lowered, allowing the casing to float during its descent, which decreases the load on
the derrick. The float collar also prevents a back flow of cement during the cementing
operation.
Floor man n: a drilling crew member whose workstation is on the derrick floor. On rotary
drilling rigs, there are at least two and usually three or more floor men on each crew. Also
called rotary helper and roughneck.
Fluid n: a substance that flows and yields to any force tending to change it shape. Liquids
and gases are fluids.
Formation n: a bed or deposit composed throughout of substantially the same kinds of rock;
a lithologic unit. Each different formation is given a name, frequently as a result of the study
of the formation outcrop at the surface and sometimes based on fossils found in the
formation.
G
Gas cut mud n: a drilling mud that has entrained formation gas giving the mud a
characteristically fluffy texture. When entrained gas is not released before the fluid returns to
the well, the weight or density of the fluid column is reduced. Because a large amount of gas
in mud lowers its density, gas-cut mud must be treated to lessen the chance of a blowout.
Gas sand n: a stratum of sand or porous sandstone from which natural gas is obtained.
Gas show n: the gas that appears in drilling fluid returns, indicating the presence of a gas
zone.
Geologist n: a scientist who gathers and interprets data pertaining to the strata of the
earths crust.
Geology n: the science that relates to the study of the structure, origin, history, and
development of the earth and its inhabitants as revealed in the study of rocks, formations,
and fossils.
H
Hoist n: an arrangement of pulleys and wire rope or chain used for lifting heavy objects; a
winch or similar device; the draw works.
Hoisting drum n: the large, flanged spooled in the draw works on which the hoisting cable
is wound.
Hook n: a large hook-shaped device from which the swivel is suspended. It is designed to
carry maximum loads ranging from 100 to 650 tons and turns on bearings in its supporting
housing. A strong spring within the assembly cushions the weight of a stand (90 feet) of drill
pipe, thus permitting the pipe to be made up and broken out with less damage to the tool
joint threads. Smaller hooks without the spring are used for handling tubing and sucker rods.
Hopper n: a large funnel- or cone-shaped device into which dry components (as powdered
clay or cement) can be poured in order to uniformly mix the components with water (or other
liquids). The liquid is injected through a nozzle at the bottom of the hopper. The resulting
mixture of dry material and liquid may be drilling mud to be used as the circulating fluid in a
rotary drilling operation or may be cement slurry used to bond casing to the borehole.
Hydraulic fracturing n: an operation in which a specially blended liquid is pumped down a
well and into a formation under pressure high enough to cause the formation to crack open.
The resulting cracks or fractures serve as passages through which oil can flow into the
wellbore.
Hydrocarbons n: organic compounds of hydrogen and carbon, whose densities, boiling
points, and freezing points increase as their molecular weights increase. Although
composed only of two elements, hydrocarbons exist in a variety of compounds, because of
I
Impermeable adj: preventing the passage of fluid. A formation may be porous yet
impermeable if there is an absence of connecting passages between the voids within it.
Inland barge rig n: a drilling structure consisting of a barge upon which the drilling
equipment is constructed. When moved from one location to another, the barge floats, but
when stationed on the drill site, the barge is submerged to rest on the bottom. Typically,
inland barge rigs are used to drill wells in marshes, shallow inland bays, and in areas where
the water covering the drill site is not too deep.
Instrumentation n: a device or assembly of devices designed for one or more of the
following functions: to measure operating variables (as pressure, temperature, rate of flow,
speed of rotation, etc.); to indicate these phenomena with visible or audible signals; to
record them, to control them within a predetermined range; and to stop operations if the
control fails. Simple instrumentation might consist of an indicating pressure gauge only. In a
completely automatic system, the desired range of pressure, temperature, and so on is
predetermined and preset.
Intermediate casing string n: the string of casing set in a well after the surface casing, but
before the production casing, to keep the hole from caving and to seal off troublesome
formations. The string is sometimes called protection casing.
J
Jackup drilling rig n: an offshore drilling structure with tubular or derrick legs that support
the deck and hull. When positioned over the drilling site, the bottoms of the legs rest on the
seafloor. A jackup rig is towed or propelled to a location with its legs up. Once the legs are
firmly positioned on the bottom, the deck and hull height are adjusted and leveled.
Jet bit n: a drilling bit having replaceable nozzles though which the drilling fluid is directed in
a high-velocity stream to the bottom of the hole to improve efficiency of the bit.
Jet gun n: an assembly, including a carrier and shaped charges that is used in jet
perforating.
Jet-perforate v: to create a hole through the casing with a shaped charge of high explosives
instead of a gun that fires projectiles. The loaded charge is lowered into the hole to the
desired depth. Once detonated, the charges emit short, penetrating jets of high-velocity
gases that cut holes in the casing and cement and some distance into the formation.
Formation fluids then flow into the wellbore through these perforations.
Joint n: a single length (about 30 feet) of drill pipe or of drill collar, casing, or tubing that has
threaded connections at both ends. Several joints screwed together constitute a stand of
pipe.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
K
Kelly n: the heavy steel member, four- or six-sided, suspended from the swivel through the
rotary table and connected to the topmost joint of drill pipe to turn the drill string as the rotary
table turns. It has a bored passageway that permits fluid to be circulated into the drill string
and up the annulus, or vice versa.
Kelly bushing n: a special device that, when fitted into the master bushing transmits torque
to the kelly and simultaneously permits vertical movement of the kelly to make hole. It may
be shaped to fit the rotary opening or have pins for transmitting torque. Also called the drive
bushing.
Kelly spinner n: a pneumatically operated device mounted on top of the kelly that, when
actuated, causes the kelly to turn or spin. It is useful when the kelly or a joint of pipe
attached to it must be spun up; that is, rotated rapidly in order to make it up.
Kick n: an entry of water, gas, oil, or other formation fluid into the wellbore. It occurs
because the pressure exerted by the column of drilling fluid is not great enough to overcome
the pressure exerted by the fluids in the formation drilled. If prompt action is not taken to
control the kick or kill the well, a blowout will occur.
L
LACT unit n: an automated system for measuring and transferring oil from a lease gathering
system into a pipeline.
Latch on v: to attach elevators to a section of pipe to pull it out of or run it into the hole.
Lead tongs n: (pronounced leed) the pipe tongs suspended in the derrick or mast and
operated by a wireline connected to the breakout cat-head. Also called breakout tongs.
Lease n: 1. a legal document executed between a land owner, as lessor, and a company or
individual, as lessee, that grants the right to exploit the premises for minerals or other
products. 2. the area where production wells, stock tanks, separators, and other production
equipment are located.
Lease automatic custody transfer n: the measurement and transfer of oil from the
producers tanks to the connected pipeline on an automatic basis without a representative of
either having to be present.
Location n: the place where a well is drilled.
Log n: a systematic recording of data, as from the drillers log, mud log, electrical well log, or
radioactivity log. Many different logs are run in wells being produced or drilled to obtain
various characteristics of downhole formations.
M
Magnetic brake n: also called an electrodynamic brake.
PetroServices GmbH Training Center
N
Natural gas n: a highly compressible, highly expandable mixture of hydrocarbons having a
low specific gravity and occurring naturally in a gaseous form. Besides hydrocarbon gases,
natural gas may contain appreciable quantities of nitrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, and
contaminants (as hydrogen sulfide and water vapor). Although gaseous at normal
temperatures and pressures, certain of the gases comprising the mixture that is natural gas
are variable in form and may be found either as gases or as liquids under suitable conditions
of temperature and pressure.
Needle valve n: a globe valve that incorporates a needle point disk to produce extremely
fine regulation of flow.
Nipple n: a tubular pipe fitting threaded on both ends and less than 12 inches long.
Nipple up v: in drilling, to assemble the blowout-preventer stack on the wellhead at the
surface.
Normal circulation n: the smooth, uninterrupted circulation of drilling fluid down the drill
stem, out the bit, up the annular space between the pipe and the hole, and back to the
surface.
O
Offshore drilling n: drilling for oil in an ocean, gulf, or sea, usually on the continental shelf.
A drilling unit for offshore operations may be a mobile floating vessel with a ship or barge
hull, a semi-submersible or submersible base, a self-propelled or towed structure with
jacking legs (jackup drilling rig), or a permanent structure used as a production platform
when drilling is completed. In general, wildcat wells are drilled from mobile floating vessels
(as semi-submersible rigs and drill ships) or from jackups, while development wells are
drilled from platforms.
Oil field n: the surface area overlying an oil reservoir or reservoirs. Commonly, the term
includes not only the surface area, but may include the reservoir, the wells, and production
equipment as well.
Oil sand n: 1. sandstone that yields oil. 2. (by extension) any reservoir that yields oil,
whether or not it is sandstone.
Oil zone n: a formation or horizon of a well from which oil may be produced. The oil zone is
usually immediately under the gas zone and on top of the water zone if all three fluids are
present and segregated.
Open adj: 1. of a wellbore, having no casing. 2. of a hole, having no drill pipe or tubing
suspended in it.
Open hole n: 1. any wellbore in which casing has not been set. 2. open or cased hole in
which no drill pipe or tubing is suspended.
Operator n: the person or company, either proprietor or lessee, actually operating an oil well
or lease.
Overshot n: a fishing tool that is attached to tubing or drill pipe and lowered over the outside
wall of pipe lost or stuck in the wellbore.
A friction device in the overshot, usually either a
P
P&A abbr: plug and abandon.
Pay sand n: the producing formation, often one that is not even sandstone. It is also called
pay, pay zone, and producing zone.
Perforate v: to pierce the casing wall and cement to provide holes through which formation
fluids may enter or to provide holes in the casing so that materials may be introduced into
the annulus between the casing and the wall of the borehole. Perforating is accomplished by
lowering into the well a perforating gun, or perforator that fires electrically detonated bullets
or shaped charges from the surface.
Perforating gun n: a device fitted with shaped charges or bullets that is lowered to the
desired depth in a well and fired to create penetrating holes in casing, cement and
formation.
Permeability n: 1. a measure of the ability of fluids to flow through a porous rock. 2. Fluid
conductivity of a porous medium. 3. the ability of a fluid to flow within the interconnected
pore network of a porous medium.
Petroleum n: oil or gas obtained from the rocks of the earth.
Pin n: the male section of the tool joint.
Pipe rams n: a sealing component for a blowout preventer that closes the annular space
between the pipe and the blowout preventer or wellhead.
Platform n: an immobile, offshore structure constructed on pilings from which wells are
drilled, produced, or both.
Plug and abandon v: to place a cement plug into a dry hole and abandon it.
Pore n: an opening or space within a rock or mass of rocks, usually small and often filled
with some fluid (as water, oil, gas, or all three).
Porosity n: the condition of something that contains pores (as a rock formation).
Positive choke n: a choke in which the orifice size must be changed to change the rate of
flow through the choke.
Pressure n: the force that a fluid (liquid or gas) exerts when it is in some way confined
within a vessel, pipe, hole in the ground, and so forth, such as that exerted against the inner
wall of a tank or that exerted on the bottom of the wellbore by drilling mud. Pressure is often
expressed in terms of force per unit of area, as pounds per square inch (psi).
Pressure gauge n: an instrument for measuring fluid pressure that usually registers the
difference between atmospheric pressure and the pressure of the fluid by indicating the
effect of such pressures on a measuring element (as a column of liquid, a weighted piston, a
diaphragm, or other pressure-sensitive device).
R
Radioactivity well logging n: the recording of the natural or induced radioactive
characteristics of subsurface formations. A radioactivity log, also known as a radiation log,
normally consists of two recorded curves: a gamma ray curve and a neutron curve. Both
indicate the types of rock in the formation and the types of fluids contained in the rocks. The
two logs may be run simultaneously in conjunction with a collar locator in a cased or
uncased hole.
Ram n: the closing and sealing component on a blowout preventer. One of three types blind, pipe, or shear - may be installed in several preventers mounted in a stack on top of
the wellbore. Blind rams, when closed, form a seal on a hole that has no drill pipe in it; pipe
rams, when closed, seal around the pipe; shear rams cut through drill pipe and then form a
seal.
Ram blowout preventer n: a blowout preventer that uses rams to seal off pressure on a
hole that is with or without pipe. It is also called a ram preventer.
S
Samples n pl: 1. the well cuttings obtained at designated footage intervals during drilling.
From an examination of these cuttings, the geologist determines the type of rock and
formation being drilled and estimates oil and gas content. 2. small quantities of well fluids
obtained for analysis.
Sand n: 1. an abrasive material composed of small quartz grains formed from the
disintegration of preexisting rocks. Sand consists of particles less than 2 millimeters and
greater than 1/16 of a millimeter in diameter. 2. sandstone.
Scratcher n: a device fastened to the outside of casing that removes the mud cake from the
wall of the hole to condition the hole for cementing. By rotating or moving the casing string
up and down as it is being run into the hole, the scratcher, formed of stiff wire, removes the
cake so that the cement can bond solidly to the formation.
Secondary cementing n: any cementing operation after the primary cementing operation.
Secondary cementing includes a plug-back job, in which a plug of cement is positioned at a
specific point in the well and allowed to set. Wells are plugged to shut off bottom water or to
reduce the depth of the well for other reasons.
Seismograph n: a device that detects reflections of vibrations in the earth, used in
prospecting for probable oil-bearing structures. Vibrations are created by discharging
explosives in shallow boreholes, by striking the surface with a heavy blow, or by generating
T
TD abbr: total depth.
Thread protector n: a device that is screwed onto or into pipe threads to protect the threads
from damage when the pipe is not in use. Protectors may be metal or plastic.
Thribble n: a stand of pipe made up of three joints and handled as a unit.
Thribble board n: the name used for the working platform of the derrick man, or monkey
board, when it is located at a height in the derrick equal to three lengths of pipe joined
together.
Throw the chain n: to flip the spinning chain up from a tool joint box so that the chain wraps
around the tool joint pin after it is stabbed into the box. The stand or joint of drill pipe is
turned or spun by a pull on the spinning chain from the cat-head or draw works.
Tight formation n: a petroleum- or water-bearing formation of relatively low porosity and
permeability.
Tight hole n: a well about which information is restricted and passed only to those
authorized for security or competitive reasons.
Tongs n pl: the large wrenches used for turning when making up or breaking out drill pipe,
casing, tubing, or other pipe; variously called casing tongs and rotary tongs according to the
U
Unit operator n: the oil company in charge of development and producing in an oil field in
which several companies have joined together to produce the field.
V
Valve n: a device used to control the rate of flow in a line, to open or shut off a line
completely, or to serve as an automatic or semiautomatic safety device. Those with
extensive usage include the gate valve, plug valve, globe valve, needle valve, check valve,
and pressure relief valve.
V-belt n: a belt with a trapezoidal cross-section that is made to run in sheaves or pulleys,
with grooves of corresponding shape.
Vug n: a cavity in a rock.
W
Waiting on cement adj: pertaining to or during the time when drilling or completion
operations are suspended so the cement in a well can harden sufficiently.
Wall cake n: also called filter cake and mud cake.
Weevil n: shortened form of boll weevil.
Weight indicator n: an instrument near the drillers position on a drilling rig. It shows both
the weight of the drill stem that is hanging from the hook (hook load) and the weight that is
placed on the bit by the drill collars (weight on bit).
Weighting material n: a material that has high specific gravity and is used to increase the
density of drilling fluids or cement slurries.
Wellbore n: a borehole; the hole drilled by the bit. A wellbore may have casing in it or may
be open (i.e., uncased), or a portion of it may be cased and a portion of it may be open. Also
called borehole or hole.
Well completion n: the activities and methods necessary to prepare a well for the
production of oil and gas; the method by which a flow line for hydrocarbons is established
between the reservoir and the surface. The method of well completion used by the operator
depends on the individual characteristics of the producing formation or formations. These
techniques include open-hole completions, sand exclusion completions, tubingless
completions, multiple completions, and miniaturized completions.
Wellhead n: the equipment installed at the surface of the wellbore. A wellhead includes
such equipment as the casing head and tubing head. adj pertaining to the wellhead (as
wellhead pressure).
Well logging n: the recording of information about subsurface geologic formations. Logging
methods include records kept by the driller, mud and cutting analyses, core analysis, drill
stem tests, and electric and radioactivity procedures.
Well stimulation n: any of several operations used to increase the production of a well.
Appendix A
Appendix A
Appendix A
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix B
Casing data
Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix D
Appendix D
Appendix D
Appendix D
Appendix E
Buoyancy factors