Contents Preface to the Second Edi mn / xv Excerpts from Preface to the FirstEdi- tion / xvii Mathematical Conventions / xix 1, Introduction /1 Reference / 5 2. Gravity Methods /6 21. Introduction / 6 General /6 History of Gravity Exploration /6 22. Principles of Gravity / 7 2.2.1. Newton's Law of Gravitation /7 2.2.2. Acceleration of Gravity /7 2.2.3. Gravitational Potential /7 2 Potential-Field Equations /9 2.2.5. _, Derivatives of the Potential /9 23. Gravity of the Earth/ 10 2.3.1. Figure of the Earth /10 23.2. Gravity Reduction / 11 2.3.3. Densities of Rocks and Minerals / 15 23.4. Density Estimates from Field Results / 18 24. Gravity instruments / 19 241. General /19 242. Absolute Measurement of Gravity /20 2.43, Relative Measurement of Gravity /20 25. Field Operations / 23 25.1, Land Surveys /23 Drift Correction / 24 Marine Surveys / 24 Airborne Gravity / 26 26. Gravity Data Processing / 26 2.6.1. Noise, Regionals, and Residuals / 26 Graphical Residualizing /27 Surface-Fitting Residualizing Methods /27 Empirical Gridding Methods / 27 Second Vertical Derivative Methods /32 Wavelength Filtering / 32 Field Continuation /32 2.6.6, 26.7. 27. Gravity Interpretation / 34 27.1. General /34 2.7.2.» Gravity Effect of a Sphere /35 ca Gravity Effect of a Horizontal Rod /36 2.7.4, Gravity Effect of a Vertical Cylinder /37 2.7.5. Gravity Effect of a Thin Dipping Sheet /39 2.7.6. *Gravity Effect of Horizontal Sheets, Slabs, Dikes, and Faults /40 2.7.7. Applying Simple Models to Actual Anomalies / 44 2.7.8. Gravity Effects of Complex Shapes / 44 2.7.9. The Direct and Inverse‘ Problems of Interpretation / 46 2.7.10. Excess Mass / 47 2.7.11. Overburden Effects / 48 2.7.12. Maximum-Depth Rules / 48 28. Field Examples / 48 29. Problems / 52 References / 60 3. Magnetic Methods / 62 3.1, Introduction / 62 General / 62 History of Magnetic Methods / 62 3.2 Principles and Elementary Theory / 63 3.2.1. Classical versus Electromagnetic Concepts / 63 3.22, » BH Relations: The Hysteresis Loop / 64 3.2.3, Magnetostatic Potential for a Dipole Field / 65 324. The General Magnetic ‘Anomaly / 66 3.25, « Poisson's Relation / 67 3.3. Magnetism of the Earth / 67 3.3.1, Nature of the Geomagnetic Field /67 The Main Field /68 ‘The External Magnetic Field /72 Local Magnetic Anomalies /72 Magnetism of Rocks and Minerals / 72 Remanent Magnetism /73 Magnetic Susceptibilities of Rocks and Minerals /73 3.38. Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements /73 3.4, Field Instruments for Magnetic Measurements / 75 General /75 ‘» Flux-gate Magnetometer / 75 » Proton-Precession Magnetometer /77 3.44.» Optically Pumped Magnetometer / 78 Contents 345. — Gradiometers / 80 3.4.6. Instrument Recording / 80 3.4.7. Calibration of Magnetometers / 80 3.5. Field Operations / 80 35.1. General /80 3.5.2. Airborne Magnetic Surveys / 81 3.5.3. Shipborne Magnetic Surveys / 83 35.4. — Ground Magnetic Surveys /83 3.5.5. Gradiometer Surveys / 84 3.6. Magnetic Effects of Simple Shapes / 84 3.6.1. General /84 3.6.2. The Isolated Pole (Monopole) / 85 3.6.3, The Dipole /87 3.6.4. Two-Dimensional Features /88 3.6.5. Dipping Dike (Prism) /92 3.6.6. Dipping Sheet /97 3.6.7. Horizontal Sheet (Plate) / 100 3.6.8. Semiinfinite Horizontal Sheet: Fault Approximation / 100 3.6.9. Contact between Beds of Different 3.6.10. 3.7. Processing and Interpretation / 106 3.7.1. General / 106 3.7.2. Crude Interpretation and Structural Aspects / 106 3.7.3. Data Processing Operations: The Fourier Transform / 107 3.7.4. Derivatives / 107 3.7.5. Continuation / 107 3.7.6. Spectral Analysis / 108 3.7.7. Reduction to the Pole / 109 3.7.8. Use of Master Curves for Dikes of Great Depth Extent / 109 3.79. Matched Filtering / 112 3.7.10. Werner Deconvolution / 112 3.7.11. Depth Estimates / 113 3.8. Field Examples / 114 38.1, Ground Surveys / 114 3.82. Airborne Surveys / 117 Demagnetization / 104 3.9, Problems / 124 References / 134Contents 4, Seismic Methods / 136 41. Introduction / 136 4.1.1, Importance of Seismic Work / 136 41.2. History of Seismic Exploration / 137 4.1.3, Outline of the Seismic Reflection Method / 139 42. Seismic Theory / 140 42.1. — Theory of Elasticity / 140 4.2.2. © Wave Equation and Its Solutions / 143 423, Body Waves: P and S Waves / 147 Surface Waves / 149 Energy of Waves / 149 Wave Motion / 151 Partitioning of Energy at an Interface / 185 Seismic Velocity / 158 4.2.8. 43. Geometry of Seismic Wavepaths / 162 43.1. Reflection Paths in a Constant Velocity Layer / 162 Velocity Gradient and Raypath Curvature / 167 Geometry of Refraction Paths / 169 432. 433. 44. Characteristics of Seismic Events / 175 441. Distinguishing Features of Events / 175 Reflections and Refractions / 175 Diffractions / 176 Multiples / 178 Surface Waves / 182 Effects of Reflector Curvature / 182 Types of Seismic Noise / 184 Attenuation of Noise / 185 45. Reflection Field Methods and Equipment / 186 45.1. Field Methods for Land Surveys / 186 452, — Field Layouts / 187 45.3. Field Equipment for Land Surveys / 192 45.4, Marine aquipment and Methods / 202 45.5. Measurement of Velocity /207 4.6. Refraction Field Methods and Equipment / 209 e 46.1. Comparison of Refraction and Reflection Methods / 209 46.2. In-Line Refraction / 209 46.3. Broadside Refraction and Fan Shooting / 210 4.6.4. Engineering Surveys on Land /211 465. Marine Refraction Work /212 4.6.6. Refraction Data Reduction /212 4.7. Data Processing / 214 41.1, Data Reduction / 214 47.2. ® Introduction to Digital Processing: Fourier Transforms / 216 47.3. © Convolution / 217 414, ‘Correlation /222 4.1.5. Phase Considerations / 226 4.16. Frequency Filtering /226 41,7, Velocity Analysis /229 47.8, Common-Midpoint Stacking / 229 4.7.9. , Apparent-Velocity (Apparent- Dip) Filtering /229 4.7.10. » The p-r Transform / 230 47.11, — Relative-Amplitude Processing / 230 47.12. Migration or Imaging / 230 4.7.13. Measures of Coherence /232 4.1.14, Other Types of Processing / 233 48, Basic Geological Concepts in Petroleum Exploration / 233 Basic Concepts / 233 Objectives of Interpretation / 235 48.1. 48.2. 49. Refraction Interpretation / 235 49.1, Interpretation of Refraction Records / 235 49.2. Refraction Interpretation Methods / 237 4.9.3. Delay-Time Methods /237 49.4. Wavefront Methods / 240 495. — Engineering Applications / 2424.10. Reflection Interpretation / 243 4.10.1. Interpretation Techniques / 243 4.10.2, Modeling: Synthetic Seismograms / 245 Evidences of Faulting / 248 Fold and Flow Structures / 250 Reefs /257 Unconformities and Seismic Facies Patterns / 262 4.10.7, Use of Velocity Information / 262 4.10.8. Hydrocarbon Indicators / 262 4.11. Specialized Methods / 264 411.1. Profiling / 264 4112. Three-Dimensional Methods / 267 4.13. Use of Channel Waves / 270 4.11.4, Vertical Seismic Profiling /270 4113. Shear Waves i _ Exploration /271 4.11.6. Variation of Amplitude with Offset /271 4.11.7. Cross-Hole Methods /271 412, Problems / 273 References / 280 5. Electrical Properties of Rocks and Minerals /283 5.1. Classification of Electrical Methods / 283 5.2. Electrical Properties of Rocks and Minerals / 283 * Electrical Potentials / 283 Electrical Conductivities / 284 Magnetic Permeability / 287 Polarization Potentials / 287 S21. 5.2.2. $23. 524, 5.3, Measurement of Electrical Properties of Rocks and Minerals / 288 Laboratory Measurement of Resistivity / 288 Measurement of Dielectric Constant /288 5.3.1. 5.3.2. Contents 5.4, Typical Values of Electrical Constants ‘of Rocks and Minerals / 289 5.41. — Resistivities of Rocks and Minerals / 289 5.42, Dielectric Constants of Rocks and Minerals /291 5.43, Magnetic Permeability of Minerals / 292 References / 292 6. Methods Employing Natural Electrical Sources / 293 6.1. Self-Potential Method / 293 6.1.1. Origin of Potentials / 293 6.1.2. Self-Potential Field Equipment / 296 6.13, Field Procedure / 296 6.14. Interpretation of Self-Potential Data / 297 6.2. Telluric and Magnetotelluric Methods / 302 62.1. Origin and Characteristics of Magnetotelluric Fields and Telluric Currents /302 62.2, Elementary Electromagnetic Theory / 306 6.2.3. Attenuation of EM Fields /307 62.4. Boundary Conditions /309 6.2.5. Magnetotelfuric Fields / 309 6.2.6. Field Equipment and Operations / 311 6.2.7. Interpretation of Telluric Data /314 6.2.8, Interpretation of Magnetotelluric Data / 317 63. Field Examples / 327 6.3.1. Self-Potential /327 6.3.2. Tellurics and Magnetotellurics / 327 64, Problems / 335 References / 342Contents 7. Electromagnetic Methods / 343 7.1. Introduction and Historical Background / 343 7.2, Electromagnetic Theory / 343 721. Vector and Scalar Potentials / 343 72.2. Description of EM Fields; Biot-Savart Law /344 7.2.3. Field in the Frequency Domain /348 7.2.4. Combination of FD Fields /350 7.25, — Mutual Inductance / 353 7.2.6, Fields in the Time Domain / 355 7.3. EM Equipment / 361 731. General /361 7.3.2. Power Sources / 361 73.3. Transmitter Loops /362 73.4, — Receiver Coils / 362 7.35. — Receiver Amplifiers / 362 136. Indicators / 363 7.3.7. Compensating Networks / 363 7.4, EM Field Systems for Ground Surveys / 364 7A. General /364 27.42. — Frequency-Domain Systems; Dip-Angle Measurements / 364 7.4.3. FD Systems for Phase- ‘Component Measurements / 370 7.44, Time-Domain EM Ground Systems / 372 745. Measurement of H /376 7.46. Assessment of EM Ground Methods /377 7.5, Airborne EM Systems / 377 General /377 Quadrature Method /377 Turair System /377 Airborne VLF /378 Phase-Component Measurements / 378 Transient (Input) Method / 379 Cryogenic EM System /383 Assessment of Airborne EM /383 7.6. EM Field Procedures / 383 7.7. Int 173. 114. 175. 176. 111, 778. 77. 7.7.10, 7741. 7742, 78 Fiel ferpretation / 383 Introduction / 383 General Interpretation Procedure / 385 Ground Systems; FDEM over Dipping Sheet / 385 Ground Systems; TDEM over Dipping Sheet / 409 The Sphere Model in FD and TD Ground Systems / 436 Layered Structure: EM Depth Sounding / 441 Interpretation of Airborne EM Data / 450 Turair /454 Airborne VLF / 454 ). Phase-Component AEM / 456 |. Resistivity Mapping / 460 . Input AEM / 464 Id Examples / 477 7.9. Problems / 504 References / 519 8. Resistivity Methods / 522 81. Introduction / 522 82. Elementary Theory / 522 8.2.1, Potentials in Homogeneous Media / 522 8.2.2. Single Current Electrode at Depth /523 8.2.3. Single Current Electrode at Surface / 523 8.2.4.» Two Current Electrodes at Surface / 524 8.2.5, Current Distribution / 525 83. Effect of Inhomogeneous Ground / 527 83.1. Introduction /527 83.2. Distortion of Current Flow at a Plane Interface /527 8.3.3. Distortion of Potential at a Plane Interface / 527 8.3.4. Surface Potential due to Horizontal Beds / 52983.5. Potential Due to Buried Sphere / 530 83.6. Effect of Anisotropic Ground / 531 8.3.7. Effect of Topography / 532 84. Equipment for Resistivity Field Work / 532 84.1. Power Sources / 532 842, Meters /534 843. Electrodes and Wire / 535 85, Electrode Layouts and Field Procedure / 535 85.1. General /535 85.2.» Apparent Resistivity / 535 85.3. Electrode Arrays (Spreads) / 535 85.4. Resistivity Field Procedures / 538 86. Interpretation / 539 86.1. Introduction /539 86.2. Resistivity Modeling /539 863. Vertical Sounding; Two Horizontal Beds / 539 8.6.4,» Vertical Sounding; Multiple Horizontal Beds / 544 86.5. Lateral Mapping; Vertical Contact / 554 8.66, The Vertical Dike /559 86.7. Mapping Three-Dimensional ‘Anomalies / 561 86.8, Measuring Overburden Depth and Resistivity / 562 87. Field Examples / 565 88 Problems / 570 References / 577 9, Induced Polarization /578 9.1. Introduction / $78 9.2. Sources of the Induced Polarization Effects / 578 General /578 «Membrane Polarization /579 Electrode Polarization /579 Equivalent Electrical Circuits / 581 Contents 9.3. Induced Polarization Measurements / 581 93.1. General /581 a Time-Domain Measurements / $81 9.3.3. Frequency-Domain Measurements / 582 9.3.4. Relative Phase Shift and Phase Components / 582 9.3.5. Magnetic Induced Polarization (MIP) Measurements / 583 Relation between Time- and Frequency-Domain IP ‘Measurements / 583 93.7. IP Response Examples / 583 9.4, IP Field Operations / $84 9. 9.41, General /584 9 Field Equipment / 584 9 Field Procedures / 588 9.44, Noise Sources / $89 95. Interpretation / 591 95.1. Plotting Methods /591 9.5.2, General Interpretation / $95 9.5.3. Theoretical and Model Work / 596 96. Field Examples / 602 9.7. Problems / 604 References / 609 10. Radioactivity Method /611 10.1, Introduction / 611 10.2. Principles of Radioactivity / 611 10.2.1. Constituents of the Nucleus /611 10.2.2. Nuclear Disintegrations / 612 10.2.3, Radioactive Decay Processes / 614 10.2.4, Radioactive Equilibrium / 617 10.25. Units /618 10.2.6. Radioactivity of Rocks and Minerals /619 10.2.7. Age Determination Using Radioisotopes / 619 10.3. Instruments / 620 103.1. Introduction / 620 10.3.2. Geiger-Miller Counter / 620Contents Scintillation Meter / 621 Gamma-Ray Spectrometer / 622 Miscellaneous Instruments / 627 Calibration of Instruments / 628 Field Operations / 628 Interpretation / 629 Field Examples / 634 107. Problems / 637 References / 644 11. Geophysical Well Logging / 645 11.1. Introduction / 645 111.1. Uses of Well Logging / 645 11.1.2. History of Well Logging / 645 11.1.3. General Aspects of Well Logging / 646 11.1.4. Rock Property Measurements / 647 11.2, Resistivity Methods / 648 11.2.1. Introduction to Resistivity Logging / 648 11.22. Normal Resistivity Logging / 649 11.23. Lateral Arrangement / 650 11.24, — Microlog / 650 14.25. Focused-Current Logs / 651 11.2.6. Induction Log / 652 11.2.7. Resistivity Logging in Mineral Search / 654 11.3, Self-Potential (SP) Logging / 654 11.3.1, Sources of SP / 654 11.3.2. Instrumentation / 655 11.3.3. Uses of SP Curves in Oil-Well Logging / 656 11.3.4, Uses of SP Curves in Mineral Logging / 658 11.35. Geological Interpretation of SP / 658 11.4. The Dipmeter / 659 11.5. Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Method / 663 11.6. Induced Polarization Logging / 665 11.7. Elastic-Wave (Acoustic) Methods / 665 11.7.1. _ Elastic Waves in Boreholes / 665 11.7.2. ® Sonic Log /667 11.7.3. Amplitude and Full-Waveform Logs / 670 11.7.4, Borehole Televiewer / 672 11.8. Nuclear Methods / 673 11.8.1. Nuclear Processes / 673 11.8.2, Gamma-Ray Logging / 675 11.83, Density Log / 676 11.84, Neutron Logging / 677 11.9. Gravity, Magnetic, and Thermal Methods / 681 Gravity and Magnetic Field Logging / 681 Susceptibility Log / 681 Nuclear Magnetic-Resonance Log / 682 Thermal Logging / 683 11.9.1. 11.9.2. 11.9.3. 11.9.4, 11.10. Well-Log Interpretation / 683 11.101. General / 683 11.102, Combining Measurements from Several Logs / 683 11.11. Field Examples / 684 1.11.1. Analysis of an Oil Sand /684 1111.2. Analysis of Carbonate Section / 684 Coal Identification / 684 Evaporites / 685 Sulfur / 687 Slate and Chert / 687 Mineral Exploration / 687 Borehole Methods in the USSR / 689 11.12, Problems / 690 11.113, 11114, 11.115, 11.116. 1111.7. 11.118. References / 698 12. Integrated Geophysical Problems /700 121. Introduction / 700 12.2, Examples and Problems / 701Appendix A. Mathematical Background /727 A.1. Determinants / 727 A2. Matrices / 728 3. Vector Analysis / 729 A3.1. Basic Theory /729 Vector Products /730 The Vector Operator ¥ /731 Vector Theorems /731 AA. Curvilinear Coordinates / 733 5.» Taylor's Series; Maclaurin’s Series / 735 6. Binomial Expansion / 736 AZ. Complex Numbers / 736 A8.® Method of Least Squares / 737 ‘A9. Fourier Series and Transforms / 738 AL. — Fourier Series /738 92. Fourier Integral; Fourier Transforms / 738 A93. Digital Functions; © 2 Transforms /740 A.10.8 Convolution / 740 A111. Correlation / 741 A.1L1. Cross-Correlation /741 A.11.2. Autocorrelation /741 Contents A.12.® Laplace Transforms / 741 Basic Theory /741 Calculation of Laplace Transforms /742 A123, Transforms of the Error Function and its Derivatives / 742 A.13. Linear Systems / 743 References / 744 Appendix B. Location Determination /745 B.1. Direction Determination / 745 B.2 Distance Measurement / 745 B.3. Elevation Measurement / 745 8.4, Angle Measurement / 746 8.5. Doppler Measurement of Velocity / 746 8.6. Radionavigation / 746 8.7, Acoustic and Inertial Positioning / 748 B.8, Satellite Positioning / 749 Reference / 750 Index /751